EXPERIMENT NO: 1
TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
Aim:
To verify the switching characteristics of a Bipolar Junction transistor.
Components & Equipment Required:
S.No Device Range/Rating Quantity
in No.
Circuit Diagram
Theory
Bipolar Transistors are current regulating devices that control the amount of current flowing
through them in proportion to the amount of biasing voltage applied to their base terminal. In
a transistor, the base current directly controls the collector current. In the cut off region of a
transistor the base voltage is less than 0.7 V. The base current is negligible. So the collector
current Ic is also negligible. But the collector to emitter voltage VCE is maximum which creates
a large depletion region and no current flows through the transistor. Hence this region is called
as cut off region. When the transistor is in Saturation region, the maximum base current is
applied that results with high collector current and lower collector to emitter voltage. And this
results a lower depletion region layer. By this large amount of current can flow through the
transistor. When the base bias voltage is lower than 0.7 V the transistor operated in the cut off
region. But when the base bias voltage increases from 0.7 V the base saturates the collector and
the current starts to flow. In this state the transistor acts as a closed switch. The base resistor is
not connected to the Vcc in the off state of the transistor. For an NPN transistor, a positive
voltage at the base will drive the transistor to the saturation region.
Procedure:
1. Set up the circuit after testing all the components and probes. Set RB= 470Ω, RC = 4.7KΩ
2. Connect the Function generator to the base resistor by setting the square waveform of
amplitude 5 V p-p.
3. Observe the status of the LED and the output voltage waveforms in CRO.
Observation:
Result:
Components Marks
Exp(10)
Result(5)
Record(5)
Viva(10)
Total(30)
EXPERIMENT NO: 2
CHARACTERISTICS OF BJT
Aim:
To study the input and output characteristics of a transistor. (Common Emitter Configuration)
Components & Equipment Required:
S. No Component Name Specification Quantity
Theory:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output)
power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal.
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Bipolar Junction Transistors are transistors, which are made up of 3 regions, the base, the
collector, and the emitter. A small current entering in the base region of the transistor causes a
much larger current flow from the emitter to the collector region. Bipolar junction transistors
come in two main types, npn and pnp. A npn transistor is one in which the majority current
carrier are electrons. Electron flowing from the emitter to the collector forms the base of the
majority of current flow through the transistor. The other type of charge, holes, are a minority.
pnp transistors are the opposite. In pnp transistors, the majority current carriers are holes.
Circuit diagram:
Transistor characteristics:
1) Input characteristics
Keeping the collector- emitter (VCE) voltage constant, the base- emitter (VBE) voltage is
increased from 0 and the corresponding base current (IB) values are noted. This is repeated for
increasing values of VCE. The family of curve obtained by plotting IB against VBE for each VCE
value is called input characteristics.
Observation:
Model Graph
2) Output Characteristics
By keeping the base current (IB) constant, collector- emitter (VCE) voltage is varied and the
corresponding IC values are obtained. This is repeated for increasing values of IB. The family
of curves obtained by plotting IC against VCE for each value of IB is called output characteristics.
Observation:
Model graph
Result:
Components Marks
Exp(10)
Result(5)
Record(5)
Viva(10)
Total(30)
EXPERIMENT NO: 4
IMPLEMENTATION OF INVERTING AND NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
USING OP-AMP
To study the following linear applications of op-amp:
1. Inverting amplifier
2. Non – inverting amplifier
Components & Equipment Required:
S. No Component Name Specification Quantity
Theory:
Inverting Amplifier:
This is the most widely used of all the Op-amp circuits. The output Vout is fed back to the
inverting input through the Rf – Ri network as shown in figure where Rf is the feedback resistor.
The input signal Vin is applied to the inverting input terminal through Ri and noninverting input
terminal of Op-amp is grounded.The output V0 is given by
Vout = Vin *(- Rf / Ri)
where, the gain of amplifier is (-Rf / Ri).
The negative sign indicates a phase-shift of 180 degrees between Vin and Vout. The effective
input impedance is Ri. An inverting amplifier uses negative feedback to invert and amplify a
voltage. The Ri, Rf resistor network allows some of the output signal to be returned to the input.
Since the output is 180° out of phase, this amount is effectively subtracted from the input,
thereby reducing the input into the operational amplifier. This reduces the overall gain of the
amplifier and is dubbed negative feedback.
Fig 1. Inverting Configuration
Model graph:
Observation:
Non-Inverting Amplifier:
The circuit diagram of non-inverting amplifier is as shown in Fig 2. Here the input goes to the
non-inverting input and a voltage divider returns a fraction of the output voltage to the inverting
input. Pick the same resistors that you used inverting configuration, and construct the circuit.
Measure Vin and Vout, determine the gain and compare to the theoretical value for the gain of
this circuit,
Vout / Vin = 1+(Rf / Rin)
Fig 2. Non-Inverting Configuration
Model graph:
Observation:
Result:
Components Marks
Exp(10)
Result(5)
Record(5)
Viva(10)
Total(30)
EXPERIMENT NO: 1
SOLDERING PRACTICE
Aim
Soldering of electronics component on PCB
Components & Equipment Required:
S. No Component Name Specification Quantity
Theory:
A soldering iron
o A soldering iron is used to heat the connections to be soldered.
o For electronic circuits, you should use a 25- to 40-watt (W) soldering iron.
o Higher wattage soldering irons are not necessarily hotter; they are just able to heat larger
components. A 40-W soldering iron makes joints faster than a 25-W soldering iron does.
o A soldering iron can be purchased at hardware stores and at most large department stores.
Rosin core solder
o Solder has a lower melting point than the metals that are being connected do. The solder melts
when it is heated by the soldering iron, but the metals being joined will not melt.
o The rosin core acts as a flux. It prevents oxidation of the metals that are being connected, and
enhances the ability of the solder to "wet" the surfaces that are being joined.
o Solder that is used to join copper pipes has an acid core, which is appropriate for pipes, but will
corrode electronic connections. Use solder that has a rosin core.
o For most electronics work, a solder with a diameter of 0.75 millimeters (mm) to 1.0 mm is
best. Thicker solder might make soldering small joints difficult and also increases the chances
of creating solder bridges between copper pads that are not meant to be connected.
o An alloy of 60/40 (60% tin, 40% lead) is used for most electronics work, but lead-free solders
are available as well.
o Stand on which to hold the hot soldering iron
o There are a variety of stands available. It is important to always keep the hot iron in its stand
when not in use.
Sponge
o The damp sponge is used to clean the tip of the iron.
Precautions: -
1. Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron. It is very hot (about 400°C) and will burn
2. Hold wires to be heated with tweezers, pliers or clamps to avoid receiving burns from objects that are
heated.
3. Turn unit off or unplug the iron when not in use.
4. Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use. Never put it down on your workbench.
Circuit Diagram:
Result:
Components Marks
Exp(10)
Result(5)
Record(5)
Viva(10)
Total(30)
