HUMAN EVOLUTION

The origin of our

species
 Humans are
culture-bearing primates classified in the
What is a human? genus Homo, especially the species Homo
sapiens. They are anatomically similar and
related to the
great apes (orangutans, chimpanzees, bonobo
s, and gorillas) but are distinguished by a
more highly developed brain that allows for
the capacity for articulate speech and
abstract reasoning. Humans display a marked
erectness of body carriage that frees
the hands for use as manipulative members.
Apart from our species,: Homo habilis, Homo rudolfensis, Homo erectus, Homo antecessor, Homo
heidelbergensis, Homo floresiensis (nicknamed 'the hobbit'), Homo neanderthalensis (the Neanderthals)
and the recently discovered Homo naledi. The mysterious Denisovans, who may or may not turn out to be
a distinct species, also make an appearance.
•Scientists use ancient bones, stone tools, genetic
studies, and environmental reconstructions to
understand human evolution.
•Evidence suggests that Homo sapiens originated in
Africa, but not necessarily in a single time and place.
•Diverse groups of human ancestors lived in different
regions of Africa, evolving physically and culturally in
isolation.
•Climate-driven changes to African landscapes led to
migrations and gene flow among different
populations.
•This process eventually gave rise to the unique
genetic makeup of modern humans.
•East Africa played a significant role in the mixing of
genes from migrating populations across the
continent.
•New discoveries continually contribute to our
understanding of human evolution.
•The timeline of Homo sapiens' evolution is shaped
by evidence from various fields, including
archaeology, genetics, and paleoclimate studies.
550,000 to 750,000 Years Ago: The
Beginning of the Homo sapiens Lineage
•Oldest-recovered DNA of an early human relative comes from Sima
de los Huesos in Spain's Atapuerca Mountains.
•Thousands of teeth and bones from 28 individuals were found in the
Pit of Bones.
•In 2016, scientists extracted a partial genome from these
430,000-year-old remains, revealing them as the oldest known
Neanderthals.
•Molecular clock estimates suggest a common ancestor between
Neanderthals and modern humans lived between 550,000 and
750,000 years ago.
•Genetic analyses provide imprecise dating, with a margin of error of
around 200,000 years.
•Genetics offer more accurate divergence dates compared to fossil
evidence alone.
•Homo heidelbergensis is a possible common ancestor of modern
humans, Neanderthals, and Denisovans.
•Ancient DNA from Africa, where human evolution likely occurred
between 800,000 and 300,000 years ago, is scarce due to
unfavorable preservation conditions.
•Few ancient African human genomes have been sequenced,
hindering a clearer understanding of human evolution during this
crucial timeframe.
300,000 Years Ago: Fossils Found of
Oldest Homo sapiens
•Fossils provide valuable insight into ancient human
populations but require interpretation due to a wide range
of morphological features.
•Human remains often exhibit a mixture of modern and
primitive features, with anatomical evolution occurring in
separate clusters over time and place.
•Scientists cannot definitively classify remains as Homo
sapiens or other human relatives solely based on
morphology.
•Early evidence for Homo sapiens primarily comes from
South Africa and East Africa, rather than Morocco.
•Jebel Irhoud in Morocco has yielded fossils dating back
300,000 years, including skulls, jaws, teeth, and other
remains.
•These fossils exhibit a mix of modern and archaic traits,
with some features resembling modern humans and
others resembling more archaic humans.
•The presence of Homo sapiens remains in Jebel Irhoud
does not indicate the origin point of our species but
∙ Other ancient fossils classified as early Homo sapiens include
those from Florisbad, South Africa (around 260,000 years old), and
the Kibish Formation along Ethiopia’s Omo River (around 195,000
years old).
∙ The 160,000-year-old skulls from Herto, Ethiopia, were classified
as the subspecies Homo sapiens idaltu due to slight morphological
differences, such as larger size.
∙ Some argue that the Herto fossils are so similar to modern
humans that they should not be considered a subspecies.
∙ A skull from Ngaloba, Tanzania, dating back 120,000 years, exhibits
a mix of archaic and modern traits, including smaller facial
features and a further reduced brow.
∙ There is ongoing debate among experts about which fossil remains
represent modern humans, given the disparities in morphology.
∙ Some experts advocate for simplifying the characterization by
considering these fossils as part of a single, diverse group of early
Homo sapiens.
∙ Older fossils typically exhibit combinations of archaic and modern
features, making it challenging to definitively classify them as
belonging to our lineage or as evolutionary dead ends.
∙ The best model currently suggests that these fossils are all early
Homo sapiens, based on both morphological characteristics and
material culture evidence.
300,000 Years Ago: Artifacts Show a
Revolution in Tools
•Our ancestors began using stone tools as early as 3.3 million
years ago.
•By 1.75 million years ago, they had adopted the Acheulean
culture, characterized by chunky handaxes and cutting
implements, which remained in use for nearly 1.5 million years.
•Thrusting spears, used for hunting large prey, were developed
around 400,000 years ago in what is now Germany.
•However, these spears had limitations, particularly in close
combat situations.
•As human anatomy evolved, so did the ways our ancestors lived
and the tools they created.
•The Middle Stone Age, which began around 300,000 years ago,
marked a significant advancement in tool technology.
•Finely crafted tools with flaked points were attached to handles
and spear shafts, greatly improving hunting prowess.
•Projectile points, such as those dated to 298,000 to 320,000
years old in southern Kenya, revolutionized hunting by enabling
the killing of elusive or dangerous prey.
•This innovation not only changed how early Homo sapiens
interacted with their ecosystems but also influenced their
interactions with other people.
100,000 to 210,000 Years Ago: Fossils
Show Homo sapiens Lived Outside of Africa
•Genetic analyses confirm that Homo sapiens originated in Africa, but
evidence suggests early humans had a tendency to migrate earlier than
previously thought.
•A jawbone found in Misliya Cave, Israel, dates back 177,000 to 194,000
years ago and shows clear similarities to modern humans. The discovery
was accompanied by sophisticated handaxes and flint tools.
•Human remains found at Qafzeh, Israel, dating from 100,000 to 130,000
years ago, suggest a long human presence in the region. The site includes
evidence of intentional human burial.
•In southern China, evidence dating from 80,000 to 120,000 years ago
suggests Homo sapiens groups were living far from Africa. Discoveries
include a 100,000-year-old jawbone from Zhirendong and ancient teeth
from Daoxian.
•Some believe there is evidence of human migration to Europe as early as
210,000 years ago, although this remains debated. The Apidima skull
fragment from southern Greece, possibly over 200,000 years old, is
controversial, with some suggesting it resembles Neanderthals more than
modern humans.
•While various human groups lived outside of Africa during this era, they do
not contribute to the modern human evolutionary story.
•Genetic studies indicate that these early human groups did not contribute
ancestry to present-day individuals.
•The possibility of multiple out-of-Africa dispersals exists, but they did not
leave genetic contributions to present-day human populations.
50,000 to 60,000 Years Ago: Genes and
Climate Reconstructions Show a Migration
Out of Africa ∙ Genetic studies indicate that all living non-Africans,
including Europeans and Australia's Aboriginal people, can
trace most of their ancestry to a migration out of Africa
around 50,000 to 60,000 years ago.
∙ Lower sea levels during this period created advantageous
opportunities for humans to leave Africa for the Arabian
Peninsula and the Middle East, with one such period
occurring approximately 55,000 years ago.
∙ Genetic analysis of present-day individuals has provided
valuable insights into human history, revealing that a group
dispersed out of Africa around 50 to 60 thousand years ago.
∙ This group eventually traveled around the world and
populated all habitable regions.
∙ While earlier African migrants to the Middle East or China
may have interbred with archaic hominids living at the time,
their lineage appears to have faded out or been
overwhelmed by later migrations.
15,000 to 40,000 Years Ago: Genetics and
Fossils Show Homo sapiens Became the Only
Surviving Human Species
•Throughout much of human history, Homo sapiens
coexisted with other human species and frequently
interbred with them.
•Genetic evidence suggests that Homo sapiens interbred
with various hominin species, some of which have not yet
been identified.
•Over time, these other human species disappeared,
leaving Homo sapiens as the sole representatives of
humanity.
•Some of these species vanished relatively recently on an
evolutionary timescale.
•Fossils found on the Indonesian island of Flores provide
evidence of a diminutive human species known as Homo
floresiensis, often referred to as "hobbits."
•Homo floresiensis may have lived until around 50,000
years ago, but their fate remains a mystery.
•Despite living in the same region, Homo floresiensis does
not appear to have any close relation to modern humans,
•Neanderthals once inhabited a vast region stretching across
Eurasia, from Portugal and the British Isles to Siberia.
•As Homo sapiens became more prevalent in these areas,
Neanderthals gradually faded from existence, largely
disappearing from the fossil record by around 40,000 years ago.
•Some evidence suggests that a few Neanderthals may have
survived in isolated enclaves, such as Gibraltar, until as recently
as 29,000 years ago.
•Modern humans carry traces of Neanderthal DNA in their
genome, indicating interbreeding between the two species.
•Denisovans, our more mysterious cousins, left behind few
identifiable fossils, making it uncertain what they looked like or
whether they comprised multiple species.
•Recent genetic studies in Papua New Guinea suggest that
humans may have lived with and interbred with Denisovans there
as recently as 15,000 years ago, although this claim is
controversial.
•Despite their sparse fossil record, many living Asian people inherit
3 to 5 percent of their DNA from Denisovans, confirming their
genetic legacy.
•Despite contributing genetic ancestry to modern humans, all of
our close relatives eventually died out, leaving Homo sapiens as
the sole surviving human species.
•The question of why Homo sapiens was the only human species
to survive remains intriguing and possibly unanswerable, adding
complexity to the story of human evolution.