Experiment 1
Difference Amplifier And Instrumentation Amplifier
Aim: To design and setup a difference amplifier and instrumentation amplifier using
opamp.
Components required: Op-amp, resistors, capacitors, breadboard, CRO, function generator
power supplies.
Theory: The difference amplifier circuit is very useful in detecting very small differences in
the signal. since the gain is RF/R1 can be selected to be very large. The output VO=
-RF/R1(V2-V1).If all the external resistors are of equal value, the gain of the amplifier
becomes one. Thus the output is V2-V1. Hence the name subtractor.
Instrumentation amplifiers are widely used in data acquisition systems, remote sensing
applications and instrumentation systems to measure temperature, humidity, light
intensity and weight etc. Most of the instrumentation systems use a transducer in a bridge
circuit. Instrumentation amplifiers facilitate the amplification of potential differences that
take place due to the imbalance of the bridge circuit proportional to a change in physical
quantity. The main features of instrumentation amplifiers are high gain, high input
resistance, high CMRR etc.
Design:
Difference amplifier:
Let R=10K
V0=𝑉1 2 ⁄ (1 +𝑅/ 𝑅)−𝑉2(𝑅/ 𝑅) =𝑉1−𝑉2
Instrumentation amplifier
We have, V0=(V1-V2)[1+2R/RAmax]
Given, 1+2R/RAmax=3 Take R and RA max=10K. Use 10K pot in series with 470Ω
Circuit Diagram: Difference Amplifier
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Instrumentation Amplifier
Output Waveform & Observation
When Rg =Rgmin
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Procedure:
• Open LTspice, start a new schematic, and set up the workspace.
• Go to the component library to add necessary components (e.g., resistors, capacitors,
voltage sources) and place them on the schematic.
• Label key nodes by right-clicking on wires and naming points (e.g., N001, N002) for
clarity.
• Set component values by right-clicking on each component and entering its value (e.g.,
resistance, capacitance, voltage).
• Use the wire tool to connect components according to the circuit diagram.
• Right-click on the schematic background, and enter the simulation command for the
desired analysis type.
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• Click the Run button to begin the simulation, opening the waveform viewer to display
results.
• Place probes by clicking on specific nodes or components to observe voltage or current at
those points.
• Record readings and observations, noting peak values, response times, and steady-state
values.
• Compare observed results with theoretical values, calculating key parameters as required.
Result: Designed the difference and instrumentation amplifier.
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Experiment 2
Triangular, square wave and sawtooth generators using Op- Amps
Aim: To set up and study a saw-tooth and triangular wave form generator using Op-Amp
for 1KHz frequency.
Components required: Op-amp, resistors, capacitors, breadboard, CRO, function generator
and power supplies.
Theory:
Triangular wave generator:
This circuit uses two op-amps. One functions as a comparator and other as an integrator.
Comparator compares the voltage at point P continuously with respect to the point voltage
at the inverting input which is at zero volt. When voltage at P goes slightly above zero, the
output of A will switch to negative saturation. Suppose the output of A is at positive
saturation +Vsat, since this voltage is at the input of the integrator, the output of A2 will be
a negative going ramp. Thus one end of voltage divider R1 and R2 is at +Vsat and the other
end is at negative going ramp. At the time t=t1, when the negative going ramp attains the
value of -Vramp, the effective voltage at P becomes slightly less than zero volt. This
switches output of A1 from +Vsat to –Vsat level. The output of A2 increases in the positive
direction. At the instant t=t2 , voltage at P becomes just above zero volt thereby switching
the output of A from –Vsat to + Vsat . The cycle repeats and generates a triangular
waveform. Frequency of triangular waveform f = (R1/4R2R3C) .Peak to peak amplitude of
ramp voltage is 2(R2/R1) Vsat.
Sawtooth waveform generator:
In a sawtooth waveform generator the rise time is much higher than its fall time or vice
versa. The triangular waveform generator can be converted into a Sawtooth waveform
generator by including a variable dc voltage into the non-inverting terminal of the
integrator.This can be done by using a port. When the wiper of the port is at the centre ,the
output will be a triangular wave since the duty cycle is 50%.If the wiper moves towards
negative ,the rise time of Sawtooth becomes larger than fall time. If the wiper moves
towards positive ,the fall time becomes larger than rise time. The Sawtooth waveform
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generators have wide applications in time base generators and pulse width modulation
circuits.
Circuit Diagram:
Triangular wave generator
Sawtooth wave generator
Procedure:
• Open LTspice, start a new schematic, and set up the workspace.
• Go to the component library to add necessary components (e.g., resistors, capacitors,
voltage sources) and place them on the schematic.
• Label key nodes by right-clicking on wires and naming points (e.g., N001, N002) for
clarity.
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• Set component values by right-clicking on each component and entering its value (e.g.,
resistance, capacitance, voltage).
• Use the wire tool to connect components according to the circuit diagram.
• Right-click on the schematic background, and enter the simulation command for the
desired analysis type.
• Click the Run button to begin the simulation, opening the waveform viewer to display
results.
• Place probes by clicking on specific nodes or components to observe voltage or current at
those points.
• Record readings and observations, noting peak values, response times, and steady-state
values.
• Compare observed results with theoretical values, calculating key parameters as required.
Output waveforms and Observations:
Triangular wave
Sawtooth wave
Results: Designed and studied the saw tooth and triangular wave generator in LtSpice.
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Experiment 3
Active second order filters using Op-Amp (LPF, HPF, BPF and BSF).
Aim: To design and set up the active second order filters using op amp.
Components required: Op-amp, resistors, capacitors, breadboard, CRO, function generator
and power supplies.
Theory : A stop band having a 40 db/decade roll off is obtained with the second order
filters. They are important because higher order filters can be realized using them. The gain
of the second order filters can be fixed by R1 & RF, while the cutoff frequency can be
obtained from R2, R3, C2, and C3 as f=1/(2π√(R2 R3 C2C3)) and voltage gain AV= 20
log(V0/Vin). For a second order low pass filter, the voltage gain magnitude
is│V0/Vi│=AF/√(1+(f/fH)4) For a second order high pass filter, the voltage gain magnitude
is│V0/Vi│=AF/√(1+(fL/f)^4) For a second order band pass filter, the voltage gain
magnitude is │V0/Vi│=AF (f/fL)/√{[1+(f/fL)^2][1+(f/fH)^2]} A band pass filter of -40
dB/decade fall off rate can be formed by cascading a second order HPF and LPF. A band
reject filter is obtained by cascading a LPF, HPF and a summer circuit.
Circuit Diagram:
Low pass filter
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High pass filter
Band pass filter
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Band stop filter
Output waveforms and Observations:
Low pass filter
High pass filter
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Band pass filter
Band stop filter
Results: Designed the second order filters using op amp .
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Experiment 4
A/D converters- counter ramp and flash type.
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Aim: To design and setup a counter ramp and flash type ADC.
Components required: Op-amp, diode, resistors, capacitors, comparator LM311,IC’s
7408,7493,741, breadboard, CRO, function generator and power supplies.
Theory:
Counter ramp ADC:
It displays the digital equivalent of input analog signal. Basically, a comparator opens a gate
for a period of time and a counter counts the number of pulses flowing through the gate.
Comparator keeps the gate open until the analog equivalent of the digital output of the
counter equals the input voltage that is to be digitized. A four bit binary counter 7493 is
used to count the pulses. An op amp with R-2R ladder network is used as a digital to analog
converter. Comparator output provides high output as long as Vin > Va. Vin is the input to
be digitized and Va. analog equivalent of the instantaneous digital output. When Vin < Va ,
gate closes and pulses stop to flow to the binary counter. Digital output remains standstill
at its value.
2-bit flash ADC:
If the analog signal exceeds the reference signal to any comparator, that comparator turns
on. If all comparators are off, analog input will be between 0 and +V/4.If C1 is high and C2
and C3 are low, input will be between +V/4 and +V/2.If C1 andC2 are high and C3 is low
input will be between +V/2 and +3V/4. If all comparators are high , analog input will be
between +3V/4 and +V. the outputs of three comparators are then fed to a coding network
to provide 2 bits which are equivalent to the input analog voltage.
Procedure:
Procedure for LTspice Simulation Experiment
• Open LTspice, start a new schematic, and set up the workspace.
• Go to the component library to add necessary components (e.g., resistors, capacitors,
voltage sources) and place them on the schematic.
• Label key nodes by right-clicking on wires and naming points (e.g., N001, N002) for
clarity.
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• Set component values by right-clicking on each component and entering its value (e.g.,
resistance, capacitance, voltage).
• Use the wire tool to connect components according to the circuit diagram.
• Right-click on the schematic background, and enter the simulation command for the
desired analysis type.
• Click the Run button to begin the simulation, opening the waveform viewer to display
results.
• Place probes by clicking on specific nodes or components to observe voltage or current at
those points.
• Record readings and observations, noting peak values, response times, and steady-state
values.
• Compare observed results with theoretical values, calculating key parameters as required.
Circuit Diagrams:
Counter ramp ADC
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Flash ADC
Output waveforms and Observations:
Flash ADC
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Counter ramp ADC
Result: Designed and setup the ADC circuits
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