Unit 18: D.
C Circuits
*
Unit 18.1: Series Circuits
Learning Outcomes
In this section, you’ll be able to:
• State that for a series circuit
• current at every point is the same
• sum of the p.d. across each component is
equal to the p.d. across the whole circuit
• Apply these principles to solve problems
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Unit 18.1: Series Circuits
Current in a series circuit
Figure 18.1 Two bulbs connected in series
In a series circuit, the components are connected
one after another in a single loop. A series circuit
has only one path through which electric current
can flow.
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Unit 18.1: Series Circuits
Current in a series circuit
Figure 18.2 A simple circuit with two ammeters A1 and A2.
What does the ammeters A1 and A2 record?
Yes, A1 and A2 record the same current reading.
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Unit 18.1: Series Circuits
Current in a series circuit
Figure 18.3 When resistors are connected this way, we say that they
are connected in series. What would A1, A2 and A3 show?
What is observed in ammeters A1, A2 and A3?
Ammeters A1, A2 and A3 show the same current
value. The same current flows through the two
resistors connected in series.
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Unit 18.1: Series Circuits
Current in a series circuit
How do these
currents in Figure
18.3 compare
with Figure 18.2?
Figure 18.3
The current in Fig. 18.3 is smaller than that in Fig. 18.2.
Why is this so?
When similar resistors are connected in series, the
combined resistance is larger than the individual
resistance of a single resistor.
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Unit 18.1: Series Circuits
Potential difference across a series circuit
• In a series circuit, the sum of the potential differences
across each component is equal to the potential difference
across the circuit.
Figure 18.4 The potential
difference Vε is the sum of
V1 and V2.
Vε = V1 + V2
If the cell has negligible internal resistance, its e.m.f. would
be equal to Vε.
ε = Vε = V1 +
V2
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Unit 18.1: Series Circuits
Resistance in a series circuit
V3 = V1 + V2
V3 = IR1 + IR2
= I(R1 + R2)
Therefore, V3⁄I = R1 + R2
Figure 18.5(a) Two series
resistors R1 and R2. Since the combined resistor R has
p.d. V3 across it and current I
flowing through it,
V3⁄I = R
Hence,
R = R1 + R2
The combined resistance R of
resistors in series is the sum of the
Figure 18.5(b) Combined two resistances R1 and R2.
resistance R
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Unit 18.1: Series Circuits
Resistance in a series circuit
For N resistors in series, the combined
resistance R is the sum of all the
resistances.
R = R1 + R2 + . . . + R N
Note: The combined resistance is always greater
than the largest of the individual resistance.
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Unit 18.1: Series Circuits
Worked Example 18.1
Figure 18.6 shows three resistors of values 2 Ω, 4 Ω
and 6 Ω connected in series to a 6 V dry cell of
negligible internal resistance.
(a) What is the combined resistance of the three
resistors?
(b) What is the current recorded by (i) ammeter A1
and (ii) ammeter A2?
(c) Calculate the potential difference across each
resistor.
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Unit 18.1: Series Circuits
• Solution
(a) Combined resistance R = R1 +R2 +R3
(b) (i) Since V = 6 V, combined resistance R = 12 Ω,
I = V/R = 6/12 = 0.5 A
The ammeter shows 0.5 A.
(ii) Since it is a series circuit, the ammeter A2 also
shows 0.5 A.
(c) Let V1 be p.d. across R1 (2 Ω resistor), then
V1 = IR1 = 0.5 × 2 = 1 V
Similarly, V2 = IR2 = 0.5 × 4 = 2 V
And V3 = IR3 = 0.5 × 6 = 3 V
Note that V1 + V2 + V3 = 6 V = e.m.f. of the cell
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Learning Outcomes
In this section, you’ll be able to:
• State that for a parallel circuit
• current from the source is the sum of
currents in each branch
• p.d.s across each branch are the same
• Apply these principles to solve problems
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Figure 18.7 Two bulbs connected in parallel
In a parallel arrangement, there is more than one
path through which current can flow.
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Current in a parallel circuit
Ammeters A1 and A2 show smaller current
readings compared to ammeter A. Why?
The current I splits into I1and I2 at
junction a and recombine into I at
junction b. The sum of the currents
measured by ammeters A1 and A2 is
equal to the current measured by
ammeter A.
Thus, I = I1 + I2
Figure 18.8 The current In a parallel circuit, the sum of the
I is the sum of I1 and I2.
individual currents in each of the parallel
branches is equal to the main current
flowing into and out of the parallel
branches.
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Potential difference across a parallel circuit
• All the voltmeters have the same
reading.
• The potential difference across
each of the two resistors in parallel
is the same as the potential
difference across the entire circuit,
V ε.
Vε = V1 = V2
Figure 18.9 The • If the cell ε has negligible internal
potential differences
measured across resistance, the p.d across each
resistors connected in resistor would be equivalent to ε.
parallel are the same.
ε = Vε = V1 = V2
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Resistance in a parallel circuit
In Fig. 18.11(a),
current I1 = V⁄R1 and
current I2 = V⁄R2
In Fig. 18.11(b),
Figure 18.11(a) Two current I = V⁄R
resistors in parallel
We also know that
I = I1 + I2
V⁄R = V⁄R1 + V⁄R2
Hence, 1⁄R = 1⁄R1 + 1⁄R2
Figure 18.11(b)
Combined resistance R
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Resistance in a parallel circuit
In general, for N resistors in parallel, the
combined resistance R is given by
Figure 18.13 N number
Note: The combined resistance R is of resistors connected in
smaller than the smallest individual parallel. The more
resistance. resistors connected in
parallel, the larger the
total current I.
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Worked Example 18.2
Find the combined resistance of the
following resistor arrangement.
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2
1/R = 1/10 + 1/10
1/R = 0.2
R=5Ω
Combined resistance R
=5Ω
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Find the combined resistance of the
following resistor arrangement.
1/R = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
1/R = 1/2 + 1/4 + 1/6
1/R = 0.917
R = 1.1 Ω
Combined resistance R = 1.1 Ω
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Parallel circuits and the water-flow model
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Connecting light bulbs in series or parallel
In a series connection,
• a current Is flowing through the bulbs
• the p.d. across the bulbs is V
• the combined resistance is
RT =R + R = 2R.
The current Is is given by
Is= V⁄RT= V⁄2R
where V is the e.m.f. of the dry cell. Figure 18.15 Light
bulbs in series with a
dry cell
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Connecting light bulbs in series or parallel
In a parallel connection,
• a current Ip is flowing through
the bulbs
• the p.d. across each bulb is V
Ip= V⁄R
Figure 18.16 Light
bulbs in parallel with a
dry cell
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Connecting light bulbs in series or parallel
Comparing Is with Ip,
Figure 18.15 Light bulbs in
series with a dry cell
From the above, IP is twice that
of IS.
This means that bulbs connect
in parallel will glow more
brightly than those connected in
series.
Figure 18.16 Light bulbs in parallel
with a dry cell
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Connecting light bulbs in series or parallel
Another advantage of connecting bulbs in parallel:
• When one of the light bulbs blows, the other light
bulb will continue to glow.
• This occurs because there is still a complete
circuit through the other parallel branch for the
current to flow.
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Worked Example 18.3
The circuit shows a 10 Ω resistor and a
20 Ω resistor connected in parallel to a
6 V cell of negligible internal resistance.
Calculate the currents I1, I2 and I3.
Solution:
The p.d. across each resistor is 6 V.
Therefore, I 1= V/R1 = 6/10 = 0.6 A
I2 = V/R2 = 6/20 = 0.3 A
I3 = I1 + I2 = 0.6 A + 0.3 A = 0.9 A
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Test Yourself 18.1 – 18.2
1. A 5 V cell of negligible internal resistance is connected
to two resistors in parallel. The current flowing through
resistor R is 0.2 A. Calculate (a) the resistance of
resistor R, (b) the currents I1 and I2.
Answer:
(a) R = V⁄I
= 5⁄0.2
= 25 Ω
(b) I1= V/R1 = 5⁄50
= 0.10 A
I2 = 0.10 + 0.20
= 0.30 A
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Unit 18.2: Parallel Circuits
Test Yourself 18.1 – 18.2
2. State one major advantage of connecting
light bulbs in parallel.
Answer:
When one of the bulbs blow, the rest of the
bulbs will continue to be lit.
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Unit 18.3: Resistors in Series and Parallel
Learning Outcomes
In this section, you’ll be able to:
• State the relevant relationships for current,
potential difference and resistance in series
and parallel circuits
• Apply these principles to solve problems
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Unit 18.3: Resistors in Series and Parallel
Worked Example 18.4
Find the combined resistance of the
following arrangement.
Solution:
(a) Since the 3 Ω and 6 Ω resistors are in
parallel, then
1/R = 1/3 + 1/6 = ½
R=2Ω
The circuit becomes two resistors in series.
Hence the combined resistance RT is given by
RT = 2Ω + 4Ω = 6Ω
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Unit 18.3: Resistors in Series and Parallel
Worked Example 18.4
Find the combined resistance of the
following arrangement.
Solution:
(b) In this case, the 3 Ω and 4 Ω resistors are in
series and their combined resistance is given
by
R=3+4=7Ω
The circuit becomes 7 Ω and 6 Ω resistors in
parallel.
Hence the combined resistance RT is
1/RT = 1/7 + 1/6 = 0.3
R = 1/0.31 = 3.2 Ω
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Unit 18.4: Potential Divider
Learning Outcome
In this section, you’ll be able to:
• Describe the action of a variable potential
divider
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Unit 18.4: Potential Divider
What is a potential divider?
• It is a circuit with
resistors arranged in
series.
• With it, we can
divide a main voltage
into two voltages.
Figure 18.22 A simple
potential divider circuit
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Unit 18.4: Potential Divider
What is a potential divider?
The current through the
resistors R1 and R2 by:
I=V⁄(R1+R2)
Hence, the p.d Vout across R2
is given by
Vout=IR2=[V⁄(R1+R2)]×R2
Figure 18.22 A simple This can be rewritten as
potential divider circuit
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Unit 18.4: Potential Divider
Worked Example 18.6
A potential divider is constructed with resistors
of values 10 Ω and 20 Ω , as shown. What is the
output voltage across the 20 Ω resistor?
Solution:
Given V = 6 V, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω,
then V out
is given by
V out
= R2/(R1+R2) × V
= 20/(10+20) × 6
=4V
Hence the output voltage Vout = 4 V.
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Unit 18.4: Potential Divider
Using a variable resistor to vary Vout
If R1 is a variable resistor
and
since Vout=[R2⁄(R1+R2)]×V,
when the resistance of R1
increases, the output
voltage Vout decreases and
vice versa.
Figure 18.25(a) A
variable potential divider
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Unit 18.4: Potential Divider
Using a variable resistor to vary Vout
• The position of sliding
contact C determines the
ratio of the resistance
since R ∝ l for a fixed
cross-sectional area.
• To obtain a larger output
voltage, the slider contact
C is moved towards B.
Figure 18.25(b) A
potentiometer is used as another
variable potential divider.
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Unit 18.4: Potential Divider
Worked Example 18.7
A 6 V battery of negligible internal resistance is
connected to a potentiometer with a maximum
resistance of 100 Ω. Calculate the output
voltage Vout when the slider contact is at
(a) A,
(b) the midpoint between A and B, and
(c) B.
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Unit 18.4: Potential Divider
Solution:
(a) When the contact is at A, the resistance across
AC is zero. Hence the output voltage Vout = 0.
(b) When C is midpoint between AB, the resistance
RAC = 50 Ω and RBC = 50 Ω. Hence the output
voltage Vout is given by
Vout = RAC/(RAC + RBC) × V
= 50/(50 + 50) × 6
=3V
(c) When C is at B, the resistance RAC = 100 Ω while
RBC = 0. Hence, output voltage V out = input
voltage = 6 V.
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Unit 18.4: Potential Divider
Key Ideas
1. Resistors in series — combined resistance is
larger than the largest of the individual
resistances.
2. Resistors in parallel — combined resistance is
smaller than the smallest of the individual
resistances.
3. A potential divider divides an input voltage
into two to produce an output voltage to drive
another part of the circuit.
4. The larger the ratio of the resistances in a
potential divider, the greater the output
voltage.
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Unit 18.4: Potential Divider
Test Yourself 18.3 – 18.4
1. The circuit shows a 9 V battery connected in series
with a variable resistor R1 and a 50 Ω resistor R2. The
resistance of the variable resistor R1 can vary from 0
to 100 Ω. What are the maximum and minimum
output voltages?
Answer:
Maximum Vout occurs when
R1 is set to 0 Ω. Then
Maximum Vout= 9 V
Minimum Vout occurs when
R1 is set to 100 Ω. Then
Minimum Vout = [R2/(R2+R1)] ×V
= [50/(50+100)]×9
=3V Fig. 18.28 pp 363
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Unit 18.5: Transducers
Learning Outcome
In this section, you’ll be able to:
• Describe how thermistors and light-dependent
resistors (LDRs) work and solve problems
involving them
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Unit 18.5: Transducers
What are transducers?
• Transducers are electrical or electronic devices
that convert energy from one form to another.
• They respond to physical quantities like
temperature and light and act as the interface
between the environment and an electronic
system.
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Unit 18.5: Transducers
Input and output transducers
• Transducers that convert non-electrical energy
to electrical energy are called input
transducers.
• Examples: microphones, thermistors,
thermocouples, light-dependent resistors.
• Transducers that convert electrical energy to
other forms of energy are called output
transducers.
• Examples: loudspeakers, light emitting diodes,
voltmeters, ammeters.
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Unit 18.5: Transducers
Input and output transducers
Thermistors
• Its resistance decreases with increasing temperature.
• It can be used in circuits for temperature control and
temperature measurement.
When the temperature
increases, the resistance RTH
decreases and using the
equation
Vout will increase.
Figure 18.31 A thermistor used
in a potential divider circuit
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Unit 18.5: Transducers
Input and output transducers
Light-dependent resistors (LDRs)
• Its resistance varies with the
amount of light shining on it.
• As the light intensity increases,
the resistance of the LDR
decreases and vice versa
• This application of the LDR can be
used to measure light intensity.
Figure 18.34 LDR in a
potential divider circuit
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Unit 18.5: Transducers
Worked Example 18.8
An LDR is used in a potential divider circuit with a
fixed resistor R of 10 k. The cell has an e.m.f. of 9
V. The resistance R LDR of the LDR depends on the
light intensity and its characteristics are given in
the table below.
Light intensity Resistance of LDR, RLDR/ kΩ
Dark 100
Bright 5
Calculate the output voltage Vout across the fixed
resistor R when the LDR is placed under dark and
bright conditions.
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Unit 18.5: Transducers
Solution:
Since Figure 18.34 is a potential divider circuit, the output
voltage Vout across resistor R is given by
Vout = [R/(R+RLDR)] ×V
Under dark conditions, RLDR = 100 kΩ . Then
Vout = [R/(R+RLDR)] ×V
= [10/(10+100)]×9
= 0.81 V
Under bright conditions, RLDR = 5 kΩ . Then
Vout = [R/(R+RLDR)] ×V
= [10/(10+5)]×9
= 6.0 V
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Unit 18.5: Transducers
Key Ideas
1. Input transducers convert non-electrical energy to
electrical energy (e.g. thermistors and
light-dependent resistors (LDRs)).
2. Thermistors have a decreasing resistance as
temperature increases.
3. LDRs have a decreasing resistance as the amount
of light incident on them increases.
4. When the thermistor or LDR is used in a potential
divider, the output voltage will increase as the
resistance of the transducer decreases.
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Unit 18.5: Transducers
Test Yourself 18.5
1. Figure 18.36 shows a potential divider with a thermistor
and a fixed resistor R of 100 Ω connected to a 6 V battery.
The table below gives the resistance RTH of the thermistor
at temperatures of 0°C and 100°C. Calculate the
voltmeter readings at these two temperatures.
Temperature/°C RTH/Ω
0 500
100 50
Figure 18.36 Potential
divider with thermistor
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Unit 18.5: Transducers
Answer:
Using the equation
At 0°C: Vout =(100⁄600)×6
= 1.0 V
At 100°C: Vout =(100⁄150)×6
= 4.0 V
Figure 18.36 Potential
divider with thermistor
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Unit 18: D.C. Circuits
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