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 Basic
Statistics
 Basic
Statistics

Seemon Thomas

α
Alpha Science International Ltd.
Oxford, U.K.
Basic Statistics
178 pgs. | 30 figs. | 12 tbls.

Seemon Thomas
Department of Statistics
St. Thomas College
Arunapuram, Kerala

Copyright © 2014
ALPHA SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL LTD.
7200 The Quorum, Oxford Business Park North
Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2JZ, U.K.

www.alphasci.com

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written
permission of the publisher.

Printed from the camera-ready copy provided by the Author.

ISBN 978-1-84265-849-9
E-ISBN 978-1-78332-030-1
Printed in India
 PREFACE

The purpose of this book is to introduce the basic concepts and methods in statistics.
It assumes only the knowledge of plus-two mathematics. The book aims to introduce
a number of simple but important statistical techniques and is intended for
undergraduate students as well as others who want a mathematical introduction to
probability and statistics. It is designed for one semester course at the college
level.
I feel that the text provides an excellent balance between theory and
applications. Each topic discussed is illustrated with worked-out examples, many
of which are taken from real life situations. A large number of applied and theoretical
exercises are included at the end of each chapter.
Many teachers find teaching Statistics a challenge, and most of us are looking
for computer-based resources to enliven our classrooms. In preparing this book I
was guided by the thought that now-a-days the study of statistics is impossible
without resorting to computers. The computational steps are explained using MS
Excel for those problems which require computations. Students are encouraged to
use computers to perform calculations. The Internet offers a huge array of teaching
resources for statistics and some of them are listed in this book.
I wish to express deep gratitude to Professor A.M. Mathai, Emeritus Professor
of McGill University, Canada for the careful reading of the original manuscript and
making necessary corrections.
I am grateful to the Management of St. Thomas College Pala and my colleagues
in the Department of Statistics for providing me with the much needed moral
support and facilities.
I hope that students will find this book interesting and informative.
Seemon Thomas
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 WHAT IS MEANT BY STATISTICS? ...................................................... 1
1.2 STATISTICS FOR HUMAN WELFARE ................................................... 2
1.3 A HISTORICAL NOTE .............................................................................. 4
1.4 STATISTICS IN INDIA ............................................................................. 5
1.4.1 Census in India .............................................................................. 6
1.5 JOB CHARACTERISTICS OF A STATISTICIAN ................................... 8

2. ORGANIZATION OF DATA ...................................................................... 9

2.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 9
2.2 POPULATION AND SAMPLE .................................................................. 9
2.3 CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY .......................................................... 10
2.3.1 Types of Sampling ....................................................................... 11
2.4 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA .................................................... 13
2.5 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA ...................................................... 14
2.6 TYPES OF VARIABLES .......................................................................... 16
2.6.1 Qualitative Variables .................................................................... 16
2.6.2 Quantitative Variables ................................................................. 17
2.7 EXERCISES .............................................................................................. 18

3. PRESENTATION OF DATA ...................................................................... 21

3.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 21
3.2 TABULAR PRESENTATION .................................................................. 21
3.2.1 Frequency Table .......................................................................... 22
3.3 GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS OF DATA ................................................ 25
3.3.1 Stem and Leaf Plot ....................................................................... 31
3.3.2 Graphic Presentation of Grouped Frequencies ............................ 32
3.4 EXERCISES .............................................................................................. 39

4. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY ................................................. 43

4.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 43
4.2 THE ARITHMETIC MEAN ..................................................................... 43
viii CONTENTS

4.3 THE MEDIAN .......................................................................................... 51

4.4 THE MODE .............................................................................................. 53
4.5 THE GEOMETRIC MEAN ...................................................................... 55
4.6 THE HARMONIC MEAN ....................................................................... 57
4.7 PERCENTILES, DECILES AND QUARTILES ........................................ 58
4.8 EXERCISES .............................................................................................. 60

5. MEASURES OF DISPERSION AND SKEWNESS ................................. 67

5.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 67
5.2 THE RANGE ............................................................................................ 68
5.3 THE MEAN DEVIATION ........................................................................ 68
5.4 THE VARIANCE AND THE STANDARD DEVIATION ........................ 70
5.5 THE INTERQUARTILE RANGE ............................................................. 77
5.6 SKEWNESS IN THE DATA .................................................................... 77
5.7 BOX PLOT ............................................................................................... 80
5.8 HOW DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS CAN BE MISUSED? ...................... 82
5.9 EXERCISES .............................................................................................. 83

6. INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY THEORY .................................. 91

6.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 91
6.2 RANDOM EXPERIMENT ....................................................................... 94
6.2.1 Algebra of Events ....................................................................... 96
6.3 PROBABILITY ......................................................................................... 98
6.3.1 Mathematical or Classical or ‘a priori’ Definition of Probability .. 98
6.3.2 Empirical or Statistical or Relative Frequency Definition of
Probability ................................................................................... 99
6.3.3 Axiomatic Definition of Probability ............................................ 100
6.3.4 Theorems of Probability .............................................................101
6.4 PROBABILITY PROBLEMS ................................................................. 106
6.4.1 Probability for Uncountable Outcomes ...................................... 115
6.4.2 Odds Ratio ................................................................................. 116
6.5 SUBJECTIVE PROBABILITY ............................................................... 117
6.6 EXERCISES ............................................................................................ 119

7. CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY AND BAYES’ THEOREM .............. 127

7.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 127
7.2 CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY ........................................................... 129
7.2.1 Independent Events ...................................................................131
7.2.2 Independent Trials ..................................................................... 136
CONTENTS ix

7.3 THEOREM OF TOTAL PROBABILITY AND BAYES’ FORMULA .... 139

7.4 EXERCISES ............................................................................................ 145

8. INDEX NUMBERS .................................................................................. 151

8.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 151
8.2 SIMPLEST TYPES OF INDEX NUMBERS .......................................... 153
8.3 CONSTRUCTION OF INDEX NUMBERS ............................................ 154
8.3.1 Consumer Price Index ................................................................. 158
8.3.2 Wholesale Price Index ................................................................160
8.3.3 Changing the Base Period or Splicing ........................................162
8.3.4 Tests of Index Numbers .............................................................. 163
8.4 USES OF INDEX NUMBERS ................................................................ 164
8.5 EXERCISES ............................................................................................ 166
1.2. STATISTICS FOR HUMAN WELFARE 3

Industry
The future of industries depends on improvement in the quality of goods and services
and the efficiency with which they are produced and delivered. Improvement should
be based on data, rather than guesswork. More companies are installing elaborate
systems to collect and act on data to better serve their customers.

Market research
Are viewer tastes in television programs changing? Which are the promising locations
for a new retail outlet? What is the ideal time for releasing a new film? Market re-
searchers conduct their own surveys to answer questions such as these. Statisticians
design surveys that gather data to answer these type of questions.

Sports
Everybody is heard of the Duckworth-Lewis method in cricket. This method was de-
vised by two British statisticians, Frank Duckworth and Tony Lewis. It is a mathematical
formulation designed to calculate the target score for the team batting second in a one-
day cricket match interrupted by weather or other circumstance. In this method the
scoring potential of the team is expressed as a function of wickets and overs. The
performance of an athlete or a player is always ranked using statistical tools.

Government surveys
How much is the production of food grains this year? What do we export to China, and
what do we import? Are rates of violent crime against women increasing in Kerala? The
government wants data on issues such as these to guide policy, and statistics agencies
of the government provide them data by conducting various surveys. The Organisation
for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) now provides a comprehensive
range of governmental, social, and economic data for developed nations. For devel-
oping nations, the World Bank’s development of poverty indicators and measures of
business and economic conditions have contributed greatly to public debate and anal-
ysis of national and international policies affecting poor people across the world.

The role of Statistics in shaping governmental policies has now expanded. Social
reforms are usually initiated as a result of statistical analyses of factors such as crime
rates and poverty levels. In today’s world the exercise of effective citizenship increas-
ingly requires a public that is competent to evaluate arguments grounded in numerical
evidence. To the extent the public lacks the skills to critically evaluate the statistical
analyses that shape public policy, more crucial decisions that affect our daily lives will
be made by administrators who have these statistical skills or by those who would use
their mastery of these skills to serve their own supporters or special interest ends.
As educated and responsible members of the society we must sharpen our ability to
recognize distorted data; in addition we must also learn to interpret undistorted data
intelligently. Statistics have powerful and far-reaching effects on everyone, yet most
people are unaware of their connection-from the foods they eat to the medicines they
take-and how statistics improve their lives.

The impact of Statistics has led to the development of new disciplines like econo-
metrics, industrial quality control, psychometry and bioinformatics. A statistician can
combine his interest with almost every field of human activity. In this text, we will explore
some aspects of descriptive statistics and elementary probability theory. Apart from
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

job-motivated reasons, the study of Statistics will equip you to analyse any information
more critically so that you are less susceptible to deceptive claims. An understanding
of statistical methods presented in the text will help you to draw right conclusions from
data and make wise decisions.

The first World Statistics Day was celebrated on 20th October 2010 (20.10. 2010).
The three key words chosen to highlight World Statistics Day were Service, Profession-
alism and Integrity. The next World Statistics Day will be celebrated in 2015. 2013 is
the International Year of Statistics, a worldwide event supported by more than 1,700
organizations!

1.3 A HISTORICAL NOTE

Collection of data began as early as when man started keeping records. The data on
population is important to a state or country and it is stated that ancient Babylonians
collected data on population. The word statistics was derived from the latin word ‘sta-
tus’ meaning state. In the Holy Bible, we read about census while narrating the birth of
Jesus Christ. In the first or second century A.D. the magistrates in Rome were asked
to prepare registers of the population and wealth by which the state could determine
the availability of adult males for military service and amount of tax. In Kautilya’s Artha
Shastra, there is reference to collection of such data in ancient India. The sphere of
data collection now encompasses a variety of fields and the word statistics is thus used
today in a much broader context.

At the start of 19th century there occurred a burst of interest in numerical data on
a wide variety of topics. In response, the first statistical society organized by Adolphe
Quetelet and Charles Babbage was formed in February 1834.

Lambert Adolphe Jacques Qutelet (22 February 1796 - 17 February 1874) was a Bel-
gian astronomer, mathematician, statistician and sociologist. He founded and directed
the Brussels Observatory and was influential in introducing statistical methods to the
social sciences. Quetelet also founded several statistical journals and societies, and
was especially interested in creating international cooperation among statisticians.
Charles Babbage, FRS (26 December 1791 - 18 October 1871) was an English
mathematician, philosopher, inventor and mechanical engineer who originated the con-
cept of a programmable computer. Considered a “father of the computer” Babbage is
credited with inventing the first mechanical computer that eventually led to more com-
plex designs.

Modern statistical theory had its origins in a diverse collection of practical and theoreti-
cal problems. These included:

• Games of chance, which gave rise to initial statements of a theory of probability

in the 1650s by Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat;

• Astronomical and geodetic observations, used to calculate the orbits of planets

and comets and determine the shape of the earth, with the practical goal of
enabling accurate navigation at sea.
1.4. STATISTICS IN INDIA 5

1.4 STATISTICS IN INDIA

During the 1920s and until the mid-1930s almost all the statistical work done in In-
dia was done single-handedly by Professor Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis. The early
statistical studies in India included analyses of data on stature of Anglo-Indians, me-
teorological data, rainfall data, data on soil conditions etc. Some of the findings of
these early studies were of great impact in the control of floods, development of agri-
culture, etc., and led to the recognition of Statistics as a key discipline. Mahalanobis’
influence was so persuasive that students of Physics began to take interest in Statis-
tics. Subhendu Sekhar Bose was the most notable of them. Later, several talented
young scholars including J.M. Sengupta, H.C. Sinha, R.C. Bose, S.N. Roy, K.R. Nair,
K. Kishen and C.R. Rao, joined to form an active group of statisticians in India. In
1931, having established a reputation as a consulting statistician, Mahalanobis set up
the Indian Statistical Institute, then one of the few centres in the world to impart formal
instruction in statistical theory and methods to researchers across diverse fields. The-
oretical research in Statistics began to flourish in the Institute. Design and analysis of
agricultural experiments also bloomed and led to some international contacts, notably
with Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher who is known as the father of Statistics. India’s first com-
puter was installed at the Indian statistical institute, Kolkata in 1956. It was not only the
first computer of India but also Asia’s first computer outside Japan.The Indian Statistical
Institute, Kolkota is now one of the leading academic institutions in the world. It has a
long and proud tradition of excellence in training, teaching and research in a number of
academic disciplines including statistics, mathematics, computer science, economics,
biology, geology, physics and social science. What began in 1931 with a solitary human
‘computer’ working part-time, now comprises over 250 faculty members and over 1,000
supporting staff and several modern-day personal computers, workstations, minicom-
puters, supermini computers and mainframe computers!

P.C. Mahalanobis (1893-1972) R.A. Fisher (1890-1962)

National Sample Survey (NSS) was set up in 1950 on the recommendations of

National Income Committee, chaired by late Mahalanobis to fill up large gaps in sta-
tistical data for computation of national income aggregates, especially in respect of
unorganized / household sector of the economy. Initially, statistical work of NSS, except
for fieldwork, used to be carried out by Indian Statistical Institute under the guidance of
Professor Mahalanobis, while NSS Directorate was created and assigned the fieldwork.
NSS was reorganized as National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) in March 1970.
In India and abroad NSSO has become synonymous with reliable estimates on various
aspects of economic and social life in India. The association of Professor Mahalanobis
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

with the then Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru led to the beginning of Five Year Plans in
the country and developed a model in planning known as the ‘Mahalanobis model’. Pro-
fessor Mahalanobis is called the father of Indian Statistics. Mahalanobis also founded
“Sankhya: The Indian Journal of Statistics”. Professor Mahalanobis was born on 29th
June 1893 and June 29 is being celebrated as National Statistics Day every year.

The Central Statistical Organization (CSO) is responsible for coordination of sta-

tistical activities in the country, and evolving and maintaining statistical standards. Its
activities include National Income Accounting; conduct of Annual Survey of Industries,
Economic Censuses and its follow up surveys, compilation of Index of Industrial Pro-
duction, as well as Consumer Price Indices for Urban Non-manual Employees, Human
Development Statistics, Gender Statistics, imparting training in Official Statistics, Five
Year Plan work relating to development of Statistics in the States and Union Territories;
dissemination of statistical information, work relating to trade, energy, construction, and
environment statistics, revision of National Industrial Classification, etc. The responsi-
bility to equip the country’s large set of statistical personnel with newer practices in the
official statistics and data management has been entrusted to the National Academy of
Statistical Administration (NASA) which is functioning under the overall guidance of the
CSO. The CSO is located in New Delhi.

On realizing the importance of official statistics Government of India has set up

the Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI) for coordinating the
statistical activities in the country. It consists of the National Statistical Organization
(NSO) and the Programme Implementation Wing, and is headed by Minister of State
(Independent Charge). At the executive level, it is headed by Secretary to Government
of India, who is also the Chief Statistician of India.

CSO and NSSO come under NSO. The Programme Implementation Wing of the
Ministry, headed by the Principal Advisor, consists of three divisions, namely, Mem-
ber of Parliament Local Area Development Division (MPLAD Division), Infrastructure
and Project Monitoring Division (IPMD), and Twenty Point Programme Division (TPP
Division).

1.4.1 Census in India

A population census is the process of collecting, compiling, analyzing and dissemi-
nating demographic, social, cultural and economic data relating to all persons in the
country, at a particular time in ten years interval. Conducting population census in a
country like India, with great diversity of physical features, is undisputedly the biggest
administrative exercise. The wealth of information collected through census on houses,
amenities available to the households, socio-economic and cultural characteristics of
the population makes Indian census the richest and the only source for planners, re-
search scholars, administrators and other data users. The planning and execution of
Indian census is challenging and fascinating. The ministry of Home Affairs is responsi-
ble for coordination of census activities in India.

India is one of the very few countries in the World, which has a proud history of
holding census after every ten years. The Indian census has a very long history behind
1.4. STATISTICS IN INDIA 7

it. The earliest literature ‘Rig Veda’ reveals that some kind of population count was
maintained during 800-600 B.C. Kautilya’s Arthasastra, written around 321-296 B.C.,
laid stress on census taking as a measure of State policy for purpose of taxation. Dur-
ing the regime of Mughal King Akbar the Great, the administrative report ‘Ain-e- Akbari’
included comprehensive data pertaining to population, industry, wealth and many other
characteristics. In ancient Rome, too, census was conducted for purpose of taxation.
The census of 1881 which was undertaken on 17th February, 1881 by W.C. Plowden,
Census Commissioner of India, was a great step towards a modern synchronous cen-
sus. Since then, censuses have been undertaken uninterruptedly once in every ten
years.

The last census of India was conducted in 2011. The first phase of the census
called Houselisting and Housing Census was conducted between April to June, 2010.
A Schedule was canvassed during this phase to collect information on housing and
amenities available to the households. The major departure of the recent census from
earlier censuses was canvassing a National Population Register (NPR) at the time of
Houselisting and Housing Census. The NPR would be a register of usual residents of
the country. It will be a comprehensive identity database that would help in providing
the benefits and services under the Government programmes to improve planning and
help to strengthen security of the country. The information collected through NPR will
be used for providing a Unique Identity Number after a detailed procedure. The second
phase of Census 2011 was conducted from 9th to 28th February 2011 with 5 days re-
vision round from 1st to 5th March, 2011 so that the population figures with reference
to reference date, that is, 00.00 hours of 1st March, 2011 was obtained. During the
second phase, Household Schedule containing 29 questions was canvassed.

The Indian census has not been a mere statistical operation and the data collected
is not only properly scrutinized at different levels but also presented with cross classifi-
cation of various parameters for interpretation and analysis in an interesting manner. It
may be seen from the history of Indian census that how the changes have taken place
from one census to other depending upon the need of the time, country and also de-
mand of the data users and development of technology. The Indian census is well rec-
ognized for the data it reveals. Problems relating to political, social and cultural reasons
also makes it challenging. The Indian census is the most credible source of information
on Demography (Population characterstics), Economic Activity, Literacy and Education,
Housing and Household Amenities, Urbanisation, Disability, Fertility and Mortality etc.
India’s population in 1901 was about 238.4 million, which has increased by more than
four times in 110 years to reach a population of 1,210 million in 2011.

The delimitation/reservation of constituencies- Parliamentary/ Assembly/ Panchay-

ats and other Local Bodies is also done on the basis of the demographic data thrown
up by the Census. Census is the basis for reviewing the country’s progress in the past
decade, monitoring the ongoing schemes of the Government and most importantly,
plan for the future. That is why the slogan: “Our Census-Our Future”.
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.5 JOB CHARACTERISTICS OF A STATISTICIAN

Statisticians provide crucial guidance in determining what information is reliable and
which predictions can be trusted. They often help search for clues to the solution of a
scientific mystery and sometimes keep investigators from being misled by false impres-
sions.
A statistician will:

• Use data to solve problems in a wide variety of fields.

• Apply mathematical and statistical knowledge to social, economic, medical, po-

litical, and ecological problems.

• Work individually and/or as part of an interdisciplinary team.

• Travel to consult with other professionals or attend conferences, seminars, and
continuing education activities.

• Advance the frontiers of statistics, mathematics, and probability through educa-

tion and research.

Statistician is the most prevalent title in use, but other titles include:

• Business Analyst
• Professor
• Economist
• Software Engineer

• Mathematician
• Risk Analyst
• Quality Analyst

• Investigator
• Pharmaceutical Engineer
• Researcher
• Data Analyst

• Project Manager.
10 C HAPTER 2. ORGANIZATION OF DATA

A population can be finite or infinite. Sometimes it is economically, physically or for

some other reason, almost impossible to examine each and every item in a population.
In such a situation the only possibility is to examine a subcollection of units from the
population. A subcollection of items drawn from the population constitutes a sample.
The number of units included in the sample is called the sample size. For example,
suppose one wants to test the quality of match sticks in a match box containing 50
match sticks. It would not be practical to test all the sticks because the sticks that are
tested are not suitable for re-use. So we might pick two of these sticks and test them.
The 50 sticks constitute the population and the two sticks the sample.

2.3 CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY

In a statistical survey we gather data or information by interviewing people or by in-
specting items or in many other different ways. If in a study or survey each and every
item of the population is examined, then it is called a census survey; otherwise it is
called a sample survey.

The public opinion survey is very common in ad-

vanced countries, especially in the USA. The various po-
litical parties which are contesting the elections would be
interested in knowing how the voters would cast their votes
on the day of polling. A sample survey of voters belonging
to different regions, religions, social status or other group-
ings is conducted. Such a sample survey is called a Gallup
poll which is named after the American statistician George
Gallup who first introduced this kind of public opinion sur-
vey in the USA.
George Gallup (1901-1984)

In 1936, his new organization achieved national recognition by correctly predicting, from
the replies of only 5,000 respondents, the result of that year’s presidential election, in
contradiction to the widely respected Literary Digest magazine whose much more ex-
tensive poll based on over two million returned questionnaires got the result wrong. Not
only did he get the election right, he correctly predicted the results of the Literary Digest
poll as well using a random sample smaller than theirs but chosen to match it.

Census surveys are costly, extend over a long period and require a huge number
of enumerators and supervisory staff. However sample surveys are quick, economi-
cal and can be made sufficiently reliable by giving proper training to a comparatively
smaller group of enumerators. In the case of sample surveys, it may happen that the
sample need not reflect all the characteristics of the population. Hence in sample sur-
veys the results may differ from what would be obtained if the whole population had
been surveyed. It is called sampling error and it can be reduced by increasing sam-
ple size and adopting suitable sampling procedures. But in the case of census survey
one has to deal with massive data, large number of enumerators and various kinds
of errors may creep in at different stages of data handling process. These errors are
2.3. CENSUS AND SAMPLE SURVEY 11

called non-sampling errors. Examples of non-sampling errors include non-response or

wrong response, imperfect measuring instrument or questionnaire, inaccurate record-
ing, clerical errors in copying materials, computational errors in data processing etc. It
is possible to reduce non-sampling errors to a great extent by using better organization
and suitably trained personnel for collection and processing of data. Non-sampling er-
ror is present in sample surveys also but it can be detected and eliminated to a great
extent as the volume of data and the number of persons handling the data are small.
Non-sampling errors tend to increase with the increase in sample size. Hence a sample
survey can give a greater accuracy than a census survey when the population size is
large.

2.3.1 Types of Sampling

Like anything else sampling may be done well or badly, and it is desirable to understand
the theoretical basis of sampling. Since the purpose behind taking a sample is to get
information about the population, the sample must be taken in such a way that it is a
representative of the population. If correct statistical principles are employed it is gen-
erally possible to design samples that will be sufficiently accurate for the purposes at
hand. The nature of any given sampling procedure should depend on the level of accu-
racy required, as well as on the type of population from which the sample is drawn. Any
type of sampling in which the sampling units selected depend on personal discretion or
judgement of the investigator is called judgement or purposive sampling.

Any kind of bias in sampling can be eliminated by using a random mechanism

for selecting units into the sample. To illustrate the bias in sampling let us consider
the opinion surveys conducted by TV channels by inviting SMS. The viewers who send
SMS constitute the sample. This sample is a biased one since some of the viewers
are lethargic or ignorant or not interested in sending SMS. Moreover, some others may
have missed the announcement and thus are unable to send their opinion.

Any type of sampling in which every unit of the population has a definite, pre-
assigned chance of being selected is called probabilistic or random sampling.

Simple Random Sampling

Simple random sampling without replacement (SRSWOR) is a method of selecting n
units out of the N units. The number of possible subsets of n distinct units from a set of
N distict units, with n ≤ N is the number of combinations of N taking n at a time. This
can be shown to be the following:
 
N N(N − 1)(N − 2) . . . (N − n + 1) N!
= =
n n! n!(N − n)!

where
m! = 1 × 2 × . . . × m.
 
For example, 3! = 1 × 2 × 3 = 6 and by convention 0! = 1. Thus there are Nn samples
 
possible. If all these Nn samples have equal chances of being selected then the sam-
pling scheme is called a simple random sampling without replacement. We can prove
that taking one subset of n units, giving equal chances for all subsets to be selected,
12 C HAPTER 2. ORGANIZATION OF DATA

is equivalent to taking item one by one without replacement. Suppose that the units in
the population are numbered from 1 to N . Select n units one by one from N units by
a random mechanism which give an equal chance of selection to any number in the
population not already drawn. For example, suppose we want a simple random sample
of size 2 from a population having 8 units. To do this, prepare 8 identical chits with one
number from 1 to 8, mix them thoroughly and select one chit randomly. Corresponding
unit is selected for the sample. Next, without replacing the first chit, select a second
one so that the remaning seven units have an equal chance of entering the sample.
This method of selection of sample is called lottery method. As the lottery method is
quite tedious, especially when the population size is large, we often select a sample by
using random number tables.

The random number table is a collection of random digits. The term ‘random’
means that these digits are so arranged that each digit has an equal chance of occur-
rence. In this method the members of the population are numbered from 1 to N and n
numbers are selected from one of the tables in any convenient systematic way. When
using the table of random numbers, one may use them as numbers of any desired size
(00 to 99 or 000 to 999 etc.). The starting point is picked arbitrarily and the required
number of digits are obtained by reading across the columns in the random number
table. Random numbers greater than N are ignored and continue until we obtain n ran-
dom numbers. The RAND function in MS Excel can be used for generating required
number of random numbers.

In SRSWOR the unit that has been drawn is removed from the population for all
subsequent draws. At any draw, if the unit selected is replaced into the population
before the next draw, then it is called a simple random sampling with replacement (SR-
SWR). In SRSWR all N members of the population are given an equal chance of being
drawn, no matter how often they have already been drawn.

Stratified Random Sampling

Suppose that the population of size N is heterogeneous and can be divided into ‘k’
different strata of respective sizes N1 , . . . , Nk , ∑ki=1 Ni = N such that the units within
each stratum are more or less homogeneous. Usually the ‘stratifying factor’ may be sex,
age group, education level, economic status, physical dimension, geographical region
and so on. Now simple random samples of sizes ni , i = 1, . . . , k are drawn respectively
from the k distinct strata. Usually the sample size from each strata is proportional to
the stratum size. The resulting sample constitutes a stratified random sample of size
n = ∑ki=1 ni . Stratified sampling helps in precisions as it minimizes non-sampling errors.

Systematic Sampling
Suppose that the N units in the population are numbered 1 to N in some order. To
select a sample of n units, we take a unit at random from the first k units (k is taken
as the integer nearest to Nn ) and every kth unit thereafter. The selection of first unit
determines the whole sample. This type of sampling is called systematic sampling.
Such a sample is sometimes drawn from an alphabetical list of names or from a list
prepared in accordance with a numerical, or other order. The sampling intervals (every
kth unit) must not coincide with constantly recurring characteristics in the listing of the
items.
2.4. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA 13

Cluster Sampling
It is useful in such cases when the complete list of primary units of the population is
not available. For example, if we want to collect data from the primary school students
of Kerala we select a few primary schools first and then the complete enumeration of
students in the school is done. Note that the list of primary school students may not be
available but the list of primary schools in Kerala may be available. The main advantage
of cluster sampling is to reduce costs.
There are other types of sampling such as multistage sampling, sequential sam-
pling, quota sampling etc. Since these topics are outside the purview of this text we are
not discussing them here.

Simple Random Sampling Versus Other Sampling Schemes

When deciding which sampling plan to use, the investigator must consider the efficiency
of the scheme. It has been noted that a stratified sample yields more reliable results
(that is, its sampling error is smaller) than does a random sample of the same size if the
population is non-homogeneous and stratification is properly done. Cluster sampling
may be expected to yield less reliable results than simple random sampling for samples
of the same size. The efficiency of a sampling scheme shall be judged in relation to
both reliability and unit cost. Thus, a geographic cluster sample consisting of, say,
20 locations in a larger state may have a lower cost per sampling unit than a random
sample of the same size with the units scattered here and there about the state. The
difference in unit cost may be so large that the cluster sample may be made enough
larger than the random sample so that the former will yield more reliable results than
the latter for the same expenditure. However, no general statement can be made to the
effect that more reliable or less reliable results may be had from a systematic sample
than from a random sample of the same size. The conditions under which systematic
selection is to be preferred to simple random sampling, or vice versa, are too to be
considered.

2.4 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA

Data can be primary or secondary. Data is termed primary when it is collected by the
investigator himself or his men for the present purpose. If the data already available is
taken from published reports or from other agencies for the present use of the investiga-
tor, then it is termed as secondary as far as the user is concerned. The meteorological
department regularly collects data on different aspects of the weather and climate such
as amount of rainfall, humidity, maximum and minimum temperature of a certain place.
These constitute primary data to the meteorologists. If this data is used by somebody
else for some other purpose then it is a secondary data to them.

Secondary data is economical as it is readily available. Extra care should be

taken when using a secondary data as it may be collected by some other person for
a different purpose at a different time period. It is always recommended to use the
data collected by reliable agencies as secondary data. The main sources of secondary
data are research publications, project reports, summarized census report, monthly
abstracts of statistical organizations, various publications of UN etc.
14 C HAPTER 2. ORGANIZATION OF DATA

2.5 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

Primary data is collected either through census or sample survey. There are four differ-
ent stages in a survey - planning, execution, analysis and preparation of the report. At
the planning stage the investigator must have a clear picture regarding the objective of
the study, sampling frame (that is, a complete list of the sampling units in the popula-
tion), method of sampling, way in which data to be collected. At this stage a pilot survey
is sometimes conducted on a small number of units before the actual commencement
of the original survey in order to understand and rectify the lapses if any.

The usual procedure of collecting information is through a questionnaire or a

schedule. The relevant aspects to be collected are put in the form of questions in a
questionnaire or schedule. A distinction is made between a questionnaire and a sched-
ule. The answers to the questions in a questionnaire are entered by the informant or
respondent himself, whereas in a schedule the answers are recorded by the investiga-
tor or an enumerator on behalf of the respondent.

There are direct and indirect ways of collecting data. Direct personal interview
or observation is the most common way of data collection. With the prevalence of
electronic media, data collection through email and SMS is also very common. Each
method has its own merits and demerits.

The conclusions based on an inadequate data will be misleading. Therefore it

is necessary to ensure that all the relevant aspects related to the phenomenon under
investigation are asked in the questionnaire or schedule. The questions must be un-
ambiguous and they are to be put in a logical order. A self-explanatory title should be
given to a questionnaire or schedule. The instructions and definitions should be con-
cise. The enumerator and informant should never be in doubt as to what information is
desired and what terms or units are to be used. Statisticians having much experience
and wisdom are needed for drafting a good questionnaire or schedule.

Completed questionnaires or schedules are edited by deleting data that are obvi-
ously erroneous. Further steps are data processing, analysis of the data, interpretation
of results and report writing.

Example 2.5.1. Self-help groups are active among women in rural areas of Kerala.
Prepare a questionnaire for assessing the savings pattern of rural women in Kerala.
Questionnaire on Pattern of Savings of Rural Women in Kerala

1.
(a) District . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (e) Date of filling the form . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(b) Panchayat . . . . . . . . . . . . (f) Caste. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(c) Ward No. . . . . . . . . . . . . (g) Name of the respondent. . . . . . . . . . . . .
(d) House No. . . . . . . . . . . . . (h) Age of the respondent. . . . . . . . . . .
2. Source of Income of the respondent
Wages  Salary  Agriculture  Industrial Unit 
Remittance from abroad  From other income earning members in the family
2.5. COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA 15

3. Do you hold any

(a) deposits in Postal Savings Bank? Yes/No.

(b) national Savings Certificates or Treasury Bonds? Yes/No.
(c) insurance policies? Yes/No.
(d) deposits with a private banker or shop-keeper? Yes/No.
(e) membership in Group Credit Deposit Scheme? Yes/No.

4. Total amount of investments in an year:

5. If you do not,

(a) is it because you have no margin for saving? Yes/No;

(b) or because you prefer to hold them in cash? Yes/No;
(c) are you saving the money to buy land? Yes/No;
(d) are you saving the money to purchase or build a house? Yes/No;
(e) do you prefer to purchase gold and jewelry? Yes/No;
If yes, is it your customary practice to purchase gold every year? Yes/No.
(f) do you prefer to lend money? Yes/No;
If yes, what rate of interest do you get? ..........

6. (a) Do you know that there is a Postal Savings Bank? Yes/No.

(b) Do you know the rate of interest given by it? Yes/No.

7. If you do not hold deposits in a Postal Savings Bank, is it because

(a) there are no local facilities? Yes/No;

If yes, will you use facilities, if made available? Yes/No.
(b) of low rate of interest? Yes/No;
If yes, what rate of interest do you expect? ..........

8. If you do not hold any National Savings Certificates, Treasury Bonds etc., is it
because

(a) there are no local facilities? Yes/No;

If yes, will you use facilities, if made available? Yes/No.
(b) you think they are inconvenient for holding? Yes/No;
(c) there are difficulties of encashing? Yes/No;
(d) of low rate of interest? Yes/No;
If yes, what rate of interest do you expect? ..........

9. If you do not hold deposits in Cooperative Banks, is it because

(a) there are no local facilities? Yes/No;

If yes, will you use facilities, if made available? Yes/No.
(b) you do not trust them? Yes/No;
16 C HAPTER 2. ORGANIZATION OF DATA

(c) of low rate of interest? Yes/No;

If yes, what rate of interest do you expect? .........
10. If you have no insurance policies, is it because
(a) of superstition? Yes/No;
(b) there are no local facilities? Yes/No;
(c) it is too complicated? Yes/No;
(d) there are difficulties of paying premia regularly? Yes/No;
(e) the money cannot be readily realized? Yes/No.

2.6 TYPES OF VARIABLES

In a statistical survey we gather information on several characteristics. The values of
these characteristics vary from one unit to another. We call these characteristics as
variables. There are two kinds of variables - qualitative and quantitative.

2.6.1 Qualitative Variables

When the characteristic being studied is nonnumeric, it is called a qualitative variable
or an attribute. Examples of qualitative variables are gender, religious affiliation, eye
colour etc. Although a qualitative variable has no numerical value, it is possible to as-
sign numerical values to a qualitative variable by giving values to each quality. For
example, one’s preference about how pleasant is a perfume to her can be assigned a
number from 0 to 10 with 0 being unpleasant and 10 being highly pleasant; tolerance to
noise pollution can be measured by assigning a number, say from 0 to 100, satisfaction
level can be assigned a number, colours can be assigned various numbers as labels
etc. Qualitative variables are sometimes termed categorical variables or descriptive
variables. A categorical variable which can assume only two values (such as the vari-
able ‘gender’) is known as a dichotomous variable.

There are two sub-groups of categorical variables: nominal and ordinal variables.
Nominal variables are categorical variables which can only be classified and counted.
Examples include gender, religious affiliation, marital status, identification code etc. A
numeric code may be used as a label for representing the observations of a nominal
variable so as to facilitate recording and computer processing of the data. For example,
the data for the type of school can be 1 for boys, 2 for girls and 3 for coed. However, it
is important to remember that the numeric values 1, 2 and 3 are simply labels used to
identify the type of school.

Ordinal variables are categorical variables which have an inherent or explicit or-
dering. For example, the rating of a statistics professor’s lecture by the students can be
obtained under the heads: strongly like, like, indifferent, dislike, strongly dislike. How-
ever we are not able to distinguish the magnitude of the differences between groups. If
we assign 5 for strongly like, and 1 for strongly dislike we cannot conclude that strongly
like is necessarily 5 times as high as strongly dislike. We can conclude only that a rating
of strongly like is better than a rating of strongly dislike. Ordinal measurements describe
2.6. TYPES OF VARIABLES 17

order, but not relative size or degree of difference between the items measured. Unlike
nominal data here the data can be ordered and assign ranks.

Even if the data on qualitative variables are numeric, arithmetic operations such
as addition, subtraction, multiplication and division do not make sense and are inappro-
priate.

2.6.2 Quantitative Variables

A variable is quantitative if it can be reported on a numerical scale where all the basic
operations such as addition, multiplication etc. can be meaningfully interpreted. It
is also called numerical variable. Height of students (in inches), waiting time at the
bus stop (in minutes), family size, the number of accidents in a day are examples of
numerical variables.
We can classify numerical variables further as continuous or discrete. If the vari-
able can assume any numerical value over an interval or different intervals of the real
line or over a continuum of points then it is said to be continuous. Weight, area, time
etc. are examples of continuous variables. The observations on a continuous variable
can be measured to any degree of accuracy on a numerical scale.

A discrete variable can assume either a finite or a countable number of values.

Number of bedrooms in a house, family size and number of telephone calls received
in an hour, score of a multiple choice objective type examination etc. are examples of
discrete variables.

For certain types of data on numeric variables, the ratio of two data values is not
meaningful however their difference is meaningful. Temperature measured in degrees
Fahrenheit or Celsius constitutes an example. We can say that a temperature of 40
degrees is higher than a temperature of 30 degrees, and that an increase from 20 to
40 degrees is twice as much as an increase from 30 to 40 degrees. Ratios between
the values are not meaningful in this case and hence operations such as multiplication
and division cannot be carried out directly. But ratios of differences can be expressed;
for example, one difference can be twice another. If the ratios of data values of a cer-
tain numeric variable is not meaningful however the difference or interval between data
values may be meaningful, then the measurement scale is termed as interval scale. In
addition to the difference of data values, if the ratio of values is also meaningful then
the scale of measurement is known as ratio scale. For example, height, weight, dis-
tance, area, volume and time are ratio scale measurements. A person who weighs 80
kilograms is twice as heavy as a person who weighs 40 kilograms, unless some origin
other than zero is used. Temperature measured in Kelvin scale is a ratio scale. An im-
portant feature of the ratio scale of measurements is that it has an absolute zero point.

Remark 2.6.1. The four measurement scales- nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio-
have been mentioned in the increasing order of refinement. Note that any measurement
in one scale can be transformed to a measurement in the lower scale. For example,
interval data can be converted to ordinal (or even nominal) data. However the reverse
process is not possible. Hence it is important that measurement be made at a level not
lower than that is needed or required for analysis. On the other hand, recording data at
18 C HAPTER 2. ORGANIZATION OF DATA

a scale higher than that needed for analysis is a waste of time, energy and resources.
Thus the investigator must take care of these aspects in the design of the experiment or
study.

The preliminary steps in a statistical study which involves the collection of data may be
designated as follows:

(i) Planning the study.

(ii) Devising the questions and making the schedule.

(iii) Deciding the type of sample, if the enumeration is not to be a complete one.

(iv) Determining the level of measurement of each of the variables.

2.7 EXERCISES
1. Which of the following measures involve nominal scale?
(a) The test score on an exam; (b)The class rank of a student;
(c) The number on an automobile license plate; (d) The weight of a fish.

2. Which of the following measures involve ordinal scale?

(a) The place a person finishes in a competition; (b)The height of a flagpole;
(c) A football player’s uniform number; (d) The family size of a student.

3. As part of an environmental impact study, fish were captured, tagged, and re-
leased. The following information was recorded for each fish:
sex (0=female, 1=male), length (cm), maturation (0=young, 1=adult), weight (gm).
The scale of these variables is:
(a) nominal, ratio, nominal, ratio; (b) nominal, interval, ordinal, ratio;
(c) nominal, ratio, ordinal, ratio; (d) ordinal, ratio, nominal, ratio.

4. Suppose we subdivide the population into at least two sub groups (such as by
marital status) and then draw a random sample from each of the groups. This
type of sampling scheme is called
(a) cluster sampling; (b) stratified sampling;
(c) systematic sampling; (d) none of these.

5. A random sample of 1500 households in New Delhi was selected and several
variables were recorded for each household. Which of the following is not cor-
rect?
2.7. EXERCISES 19

(a) Household total income is a ratio scaled variable;

(b) Household income rounded to the nearest 100 can be treated as a continu-
ous variable even though it is discrete;
(c) Socio-economic status was coded as 1=low income, 2=middle income, 3=high
income and is an interval scaled variable;
(d) The primary language used at home is a nominal scaled variable.

6. Judge whether the following statements are true or false.

(a) A population is the set of all elements of interest in a particular study.

(b) A sample may be larger than the population.
(c) Sample survey is free of non-sampling errors.
(d) Sampling error is present in both census and sample surveys.
(e) Non-sampling error is comparatively low in sample surveys.
(f) The speed of a train measured in miles per hour is ordinal.
(g) Scores of a cricket batsman during the last one year is an example of a
discrete variable.
(h) Quantitative variables must be measurable either in interval scale or in ratio
scale.
(i) Nominal and ordinal data must be numeric data.
(j) The data on cause of death of persons is quantitative.

7. Classify the following variables and indicate the measurement scale that is ap-
propriate for each.

(a) Amount of income tax paid every year for 30 years.

(b) Number of siblings (brothers and sisters) in households in Kerala in 2011.
(c) The time it takes an employee to drive to office.
(d) The occupation type of adult males in Kochi Corporation in 2011.
(e) The annual rainfall in Kerala for 1950 to 2012 period.
(f) The breaking-strength of a certain type of cable in 10 test runs.
(g) The number of rubber trees on an acre of land in a sample of 10 such acres.
(h) Brand of TV in the households in New Delhi.
(i) A person’s nationality enumerated among tourists visiting Kumarakom.
(j) Possible modes of travel for travelling from Kochi to Thiruvananthapuram.
(k) Mode of payment of insurance premium by policy holders (cash, cheque,
credit card).
(l) Annual sales of automobiles by different companies.
(m) Opinion about performance of present Central Government taken from among
the people of Kozhikode Corporation on a particular day.
20 C HAPTER 2. ORGANIZATION OF DATA

8. A Gallup poll investigated whether adults in Mumbai preferred staying at home

or going out as their favourite way of spending time in the evening. Out of the
500 adults the majority of adults (70%) indicated that staying at home was their
favourite evening activity.

(a) What is the population of this study?

(b) What is the variable being used?
(c) Is the variable being studied qualitative or quantitative?
(d) What was the size of the sample used?

9. Students are asked to fill-up a course evaluation questionnaire upon completion

of their course. They have to put numeric codes 1, 2 ,3, 4, 5 against each ques-
tion where 1=Poor, 2=Fair, 3=Good, 4=Very Good and 5=Excellent. Comment
on the nature of variables and scale of measurement used in this study.

10. Draft a suitable questionnaire to study the spending pattern of students studying
in your college.

11. It is required to determine whether extracurricular activities adversely affect the

academic performance of students. Draft a suitable questionnaire for this study.

12. Draft a questionnaire to study the mobile phone and internet usage of students
in your college.

13. Street begging is a disgrace to our country and requires immediate solution for
the problem. Prepare a questionnaire for conducting a socio-economic survey for
investigating the forces which drive people begging and the possible remedies to
abolish begging.

14. Design a survey to compare the yield of different varieties of rubber trees.

15. A manufacturing company has come up with a new motorcycle. The company
claims that it will capture a large share of the young adult market.

(a) What data would the company must see before deciding to invest substantial
funds to introduce new product into the market?
(b) How would you expect the data mentioned in part (a) to be obtained?

16. Suggest a possible source of bias in the following samples:

(a) A basket of lemon is sampled by taking a handful from the top.

(b) A sample of household survey which includes houses having road access.

17. Describe the principal steps in a survey.

 Chapter 3

PRESENTATION OF DATA

“The purpose of statistical methods is to simplify great bodies of numerical data”- A.E.Waugh.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
The process of collection of data was described earlier. The data so collected is known
as raw data. The information contained in the raw data spreads over several sheets.
Nowadays handling of massive raw data is not a problem due to the easy availability
of computers and packages like MS Excel, SPSS, Minitab etc. A reliable data must be
complete, consistent, accurate and homogeneous in respect of unit of measurement.
This has to be ensured while editing the data and before entering the data into the
computer. Tables, graphs and diagrams are useful in the presentation of data. They
give better grasp of the information at a glance.

3.2 TABULAR PRESENTATION

The relative importance of all the variables is not the same and hence it is necessary
to break down the information according to certain salient features or characteristics.
Such a process is called classification and tabulation. The characteristics which form
the bases of classification should be first determined. In respect of data on population
census, the main factors are sex, age-groups, marital status, geographical locations,
literacy etc. Workers in a factory may be classified as male and female, skilled and
unskilled etc. Obviously it would not be possible to include all variables in a single
table. Tabulation is called single, double or manifold according as one, two or many
variables are used for classifying the information.
A good table should have -
title and footnotes;
captions (column heading) and stubs (row heading);
neatness and accuracy;
logical order.
The main objective of tabulation is to present the data in a compact and concise
form which facilitate comparisons and study of relationships between different variables.

21
22 C HAPTER 3. PRESENTATION OF DATA

Table 3.1: Size of households in Kerala

Size of households Total % Rural % Urban %
One member 187,102 2.8 145,100 2.9 4 2,002 2.5
Two members 457,651 6.9 3 44,194 7.0 113,457 6.9
Three members 8 64,207 13.1 6 38,909 12.9 2 25,298 13.6
Four members 1,934,787 29.3 1,439,661 29.1 4 95,126 30.0
Five members 1,389,884 21.1 1,056,917 21.4 3 32,967 20.1
Six to eight members 1,340,833 20.3 1,018,676 20.6 3 22,157 19.5
Nine members and above 4 20,742 6.4 299,093 6.1 121,649 7.4
Total number of households 6,595,206 100 4,942,550 100 1,652,656 100
Source: Table H-5 India : Census of India 2001

Table 3.1 is an example of a table which shows the size of households in Kerala.
Most of the studies contain several numerical variables and tabulation of data naturally
leads to a frequency table.

3.2.1 Frequency Table

Consider a discrete variable that assumes only a few distinct values such as number
of births/deaths in a city in a day and suppose that it is recorded for a large number
of days. Obviously, each value of the variable will repeat a certain number of times. If
the order in which the observations occurred is immaterial then the data can be sum-
marized in a table that shows the number of times each value of the variable occurred.
Such a table is called a frequency table and Table 3.1 is an example of such a table.

When there is a relatively large number of observations on a continuous variable

then partial summarization of data without losing any information of interest is possible.
From a look at the raw data not much inference can be made. For example, suppose
we have a data on cholesterol level (mg/dL) of 250 patients ranging from a low value
of 141 to a high value of 296. We therefore condense the data by forming a frequency
table. This can be done in different stages. Firstly, a set of non-overlapping consecutive
intervals is set up so as to include all the values within its range. The intervals are called
‘class intervals’. The class intervals can be defined arbitrarily by the user. There is no
hard-and-fast rule to determine the number of class intervals. As a general guideline
it is recommended to use 5 to 10 class intervals. For large data sets it may require
more classes. The greater the number of observations, the more classes we may have.
After deciding the number of classes the next step is to determine the class width.
The relationship between the number of classes and the class width can be written as
follows:
Largest data value - Smallest data value
Class width = .
Number of classes
Assume that we want eight class intervals for the above mentioned data on cholesterol
level, then
296 − 141 155
class width = = = 19.375.
8 8
For the sake of convenience, we may take 20 as the class width and the class intervals
as [140, 160), [160, 180),...,[280, 300). Here the notation [140, 160) means that a value
of 140 is included and a value of 160 is excluded from that interval. The class limits
3.2. TABULAR PRESENTATION 23

determine the range of values that are grouped into each class. For the class interval
140-160, the lower limit is 140 and the upper limit is 160. The midpoints of the class
intervals are called class marks. The class mark of the class interval 140-160 is 150.
Secondly, a count is made of the number of values which fall within each of the inter-
vals. The counts are called frequencies. For example, a value of cholesterol level 183
is recorded by a tally mark corresponding to the class interval 180-200. Complete the
process of recording a tally mark for each value in the data against the class interval in
which it falls. The number of tally marks corresponding to each of the class intervals is
then counted to obtain frequencies. The resulting table is now called a frequency table.

If the frequencies are replaced by the proportion of values (obtained by dividing

class frequency by total frequency) falling within each class interval, then a relative
frequency table is obtained. Relative frequencies are always between 0 and 1, and
their sum is always equal to unity.
Example 3.2.1. The following observations give the yield of paddy in kilograms from
50 experimental plots in a research station:
58.3 56.2 62.3 44.2 46.3 47.2 52.5 53.7 51.9 54.7
40.4 37.4 45.5 44.8 35.1 45.1 51.7 48.6 50.8 47.4
39.8 46.3 50.9 43.8 49.8 56.4 61.1 57.8 40.5 46.2
45.5 46.7 41.3 52.7 50.8 59.5 46.1 54.3 56.7 50.1
57.4 58.3 55.9 47.2 36.8 51.3 54.1 50.6 44.4 42.7
If we choose a class width of 5 and take the class intervals as [35, 40), [40, 45), [45,
50), [50, 55), [55, 60), [60, 65), then the frequency table obtained is given in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Frequency table

Class Tally marks Frequency Relative frequency
[35, 40) 4 4
50 = 0.08
[40, 45) 8 8
50 = 0.16
[45, 50) 13 13
50 = 0.26
[50, 55) 14 14
50 = 0.28
[55, 60) 9 9
50 = 0.18
[60, 65) 2 2
50 = 0.04

In grouping the individual observations into different class intervals, the identity of
individual values and the order in which the observations occur will become irrelevant.
In constructing frequency tables, we may lose the accuracy of data. To see how this
accuracy can be lost, consider the first class of 35-40 in Table 3.2. The table indicates
that there are four values in that class, but there is no way to determine from the table
exactly what those original values are. We cannot regain the original list of 50 values
from Table 3.2.

Care must be taken to ensure that all values fall into one and only one class.
For example, suppose we have an integer data and are interested in taking class lim-
26 C HAPTER 3. PRESENTATION OF DATA

Figure 3.2: Pictograph

Cartograms
Statistical data classified according to different geographical regions can be repre-
sented with the help of a suitable map. Such a representation is known as a cartogram.
For example, the data relating to the seats won by two political parties during the last
parliament election of a particular country can be shown in a map of the country by
shading the constituencies won by a particular party with one colour and those of the
other party with a different colour.

Bar Charts
Bar diagrams are the most commonly used pictorial presentation of data involving cat-
egorical variables and discrete quantitative variables. Bar diagrams are of the following
types:

1. Simple bar diagram;

2. Multiple bar diagram;

3. Component or subdivided bar diagram.

A bar chart consists of either horizontal or vertical bars to show comparisons among
categories. One axis of the chart shows the specific categories being compared, and
the other axis represents a discrete value. Bars are of equal width and their heights
are proportional to the frequencies or quantities of the variables. Simple bar charts
are used to exhibit changes in magnitudes of the variable over time (chronological) or
region (geographical).

A bar chart arranged from highest to lowest incidence is called a Pareto chart.

Example 3.3.1. A particular trading company sells fashion apparel for men and women.
Listed below are the net sales of the company from 2004 to 2008.
Year : 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Net sales : 10.6 12.2 17.4 18 16.8
The bar chart depicting the net sales over the time period is shown in Figure 3.3.
To draw the simple bar diagram using MS Excel the menu commands are as fol-
lows:
3.3. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS OF DATA 27

Figure 3.3: Simple bar diagram

Enter the data in the spreadsheet of MS Excel as shown in Figure 3.3. Then click
Insert→ Chart → Select appropriate chart from Chart type and Chart sub-type →
Next → Click in Data Range and then select the cells (drag) from A1 to B6 → Click
at Series in Columns → Series→ Remove ‘Year’ from Series → Click in Name and
select cell B1 to enter the name of the series as ‘Net sales’→ Click in Values and drag
cells from B2 to B6 → Click in Category (X) axis labels and drag cells from A2 to A6
→ Next. Now different chart options will appear and you can include the listed options
as you like. Finally click Finish.

Multiple bar diagrams are used for multidimensional comparison. For comparison
of magnitudes of one variable in multiple aspects, or for comparison of magnitudes of
several variables, a group of bars placed side by side is used. The bars are to be
distinguished by shading or colouring to show the aspects or variables represented. If
you are preparing a multiple bar diagram, remember to present the information in the
same order in each grouping. Figure 3.4 is a multiple bar diagram.

Example 3.3.2. The data on donation of various types of blood by the students in a
college during three consecutive years is shown in Table 3.3. The data represented
using a multiple bar diagram is shown in Figure 3.4.
Table 3.3: Number of blood donors
Year O A B AB
2009 115 55 75 35
2010 120 48 82 40
2011 135 65 87 33
28 C HAPTER 3. PRESENTATION OF DATA

Figure 3.4: Multiple bar chart

Sometimes it is necessary to show the break up of one variable in several com-

ponents so that each bar is subdivided into several components. The heights of bars
represent the aggregate magnitude of the variable. The resulting bar diagram is called
component bar diagram.

Example 3.3.3. The data on the number of tourists from America, Britain, France, and
other countries who visited various tourist centres in India during the last New Year
day is shown in Table 3.4. The data given in Table 3.4 represented using component
bar diagram is shown in Figure 3.5.

Table 3.4: Number of tourists

American English French Others
Agra 50 45 15 30
Delhi 55 47 17 41
Bombay 62 53 27 53
Bangalore 45 36 12 22
Srinagar 30 16 7 17

Instead of taking the magnitudes of the variable and components, the magnitudes
expressed in percentages can be considered and a component bar chart can be drawn.
In this case all bars are drawn with equal heights each representing a total of 100.

The MS Excel commands for drawing multiple and component bar charts are sim-
ilar to that of simple bar chart except a few clicks which do not require any explanation.
To fill the different bars or component of bars of the diagram as shown in Figure 3.4 and
Figure 3.5 one may proceed as follows:
3.3. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS OF DATA 29

Figure 3.5: Component bar diagram

Right click the mouse after placing the cursor at one of the bars of the diagram →
Click Format Data Series→ Select the desired colour from Area→ Click Fill effects→
Pattern.

Now select the desired pattern from the listed patterns in the window and click OK.
Repeat this until all the bars or components are filled with different patterns.

Pie Charts
Pie charts are especially useful for illustrating nominal data. Here the area inside a
circle is partitioned into several sectors such that each sector has an area proportional
to the percentage of the total quantity. Suppose a category accounts for 5% of the total,
then the angle of the sector representing this category is 360 × 0.05=18 degrees. The
calculation of angles is shown in the following example.

Example 3.3.4. Data on responses of 150 viewers of a particular TV program is given

in the first two columns of Table 3.5.
The calculation of angles is shown in the last two columns of Table 3.5 and the corre-
sponding pie diagram is displayed in Figure 3.6..

Table 3.5: Responses of viewers of a TV program

Response Frequency Relative frequency Angle in degrees
Excellent 30 0.20 360×0.20=72
Satisfactory 66 0.44 360×0.44=158.4
Fair 36 0.24 360×0.24=86.4
Poor 18 0.12 360×0.12=43.2
Total 150 1 360

If more than one set of data have to be represented simultaneously using pie
charts then the area of each chart must be proportional to the total quantity of the cor-
32 C HAPTER 3. PRESENTATION OF DATA

19. 2
20. 013
21. 78899
22. 3468
23. 225
Occasionally one or two scores may be far distant from the rest of the data, in
which case it is not realistic to continue the stems all the way down to those values.
These extreme values are shown by listing them on the high side or low side of the
data.

3.3.2 Graphic Presentation of Grouped Frequencies

Histogram
A graphic representation of grouped frequencies is called a histogram. It is a graph in
which the class intervals are marked on the horizontal axis and the frequencies on the
vertical axis. The class frequencies are represented by the heights of bars, and the bars
are drawn adjacent to each other. If we replace frequencies by relative frequencies,
then the height of the bar represents the proportion of observations in each class.

Example 3.3.7. The frequency table formed in Example 3.2.1 can be represented by
the histogram in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8: Histogram

How to use the Histogram tool in Excel?

You can draw a histogram by using the Histogram tool of the Analysis ToolPak in Mi-
crosoft Office Excel. To draw a histogram, you must enter the data into a column of the
Excel worksheet. Then you must give bin numbers in the next column. Bin numbers
3.3. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS OF DATA 33

are the numbers that represent the intervals that you want the Histogram tool to use for
measuring the input data in the data analysis.

When you use the Histogram tool, Excel counts the number of data points in each
data bin. A data point is included in a particular data bin if the number is greater than
the lowest bound and equal to or less than the largest bound for the data bin. If you
omit the bin range, Excel creates a set of evenly distributed bins between the minimum
and maximum values of the input data.

Before you try the Histogram tool, you have to make sure that the Analysis Tool-
Pak is installed in your computer. To make sure that the Analysis ToolPak Add-ins is
installed, follow these steps:

1. Click Excel Add-Ins.

2. In the Add-Ins dialog box, make sure that the Analysis ToolPak check box under
Add-Ins available is selected, and then click OK.

For the Analysis ToolPak Add-ins to be displayed in the Add-Ins dialog box, it must be
installed on your computer. If you do not see Analysis ToolPak in the Add-Ins dialog
box, run Microsoft Excel Setup and add this component to the list of installed items.
To create a frequency table and corresponding histogram, follow these steps:

1. Type in the data into a column, say A1 to A100, of a new worksheet.

2. Type in the bin numbers in column B, say B1 to B7.

3. Do one of the following:

In Excel 2007 and recent versions, on the Data tab, click Data Analysis in the
Analysis group.
For Excel 2003 and earlier versions, click Data Analysis on the Tools menu.

4. In the Data Analysis dialog box, click Histogram, and then click OK.

5. In the Input Range box, type A1 : A100.

6. In the Bin Range box, type B1 : B7.

34 C HAPTER 3. PRESENTATION OF DATA

7. Under Output Options, click New Workbook, select the Chart Output check box,
and then click OK.Excel generates a new workbook with a frequency table and
an embedded chart.
If Analysis ToolPak is not installed in your computer and you are unable to run
Microsoft Excel Setup then also you can draw histogram having bars of equal width by
following the procedure for drawing simple bar chart and making use of the chart option
for setting gaps between the bars to be 0. The only disadvantage of this method is that
we are unable to mark the class limits; but we can display the class intervals or the mid
values of the class intervals as labels. The steps to be followed are given below:
Firstly, prepare the frequency table having class intervals of equal width. For this you
can make use of COUNT function or Sort option of Excel. Please note that Excel
cannot generate frequency table automatically without Analysis ToolPak option. Enter
the class marks or class intervals in one column and corresponding frequencies in the
next column of the MS Excel worksheet. Now follow the steps to draw a simple bar
diagram and obtain the same. Then place the cursor on one of the bars and right click
on the mouse. Then, click Format Data Series → Options→ type 0 in Gap width.
Finally click OK to obtain the required histogram.
The histogram graphically shows the following:
• the center of the data,
• the spread or scatter of the data,
• the skewness in the data.
We shall study the above characteristics of a data in coming chapters.

Frequency Polygon and Frequency Curve

A frequency polygon is another graphical presentation of a grouped frequency table.
It is a line graph where we mark midpoints of class intervals (class marks) along the
horizontal axis and the corresponding frequencies along the vertical axis. Thus we get
one point each in each class interval. Then these points are joined by pieces of straight
lines and the resulting graph is called a frequency polygon. If the points are joined by a
smooth curve then it is called a frequency curve. Figure 3.9 show the frequency poly-
gon corresponding to the frequency table obtained in Example 3.2.1.

To draw the frequency polygon in MS Excel, enter the class marks in one col-
umn and the corresponding frequencies in the next column. Then, make the following
sequence of clicks. Insert→ Chart → select chart type XY (Scatter) → select chart
sub-type ‘Scatter with data points connected by lines’ → Next → fill Data range by
dragging the cells containing the co-ordinate values→ Series in Columns → Next→
Finish. Now the procedure for drawing frequency curve using MS Excel is obvious.

Frequency curve and histogram of a data drawn as a single graph is shown in Fig-
ure 3.10. From the figure notice that the area enclosed by the frequency curve and the
histogram are equal. One of the primary purposes of a histogram or frequency polygon
is to exhibit the symmetry, or its absence, in a data representation. Note that frequency
polygon can be obtained from the histogram by linking the midpoints of the tops of the
rectangles of the histogram.
3.3. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS OF DATA 35

Figure 3.9: Frequency polygon

Figure 3.10: Frequency curve superimposed on a histogram

If the class intervals are of unequal width it is recommended to divide the class
frequencies by the corresponding class widths. This gives the proportional frequencies
of the respective classes. When we draw a histogram of with unequal class widths it is
better to consider proportional frequencies instead of frequencies.

If we divide the relative frequencies by the corresponding class width we obtain

the relative frequency densities. When we draw a histogram with the heights of bars
erected at class intervals correspond to the relative frequency densities then the his-
togram so obtained is a relative frequency density histogram. Thus, in geometric terms,
the area under a relative frequency histogram is always equal to 1.
36 C HAPTER 3. PRESENTATION OF DATA

In some situations the maximum frequency is at one end of the range of observa-
tions. It may also happen that the frequencies may increase on either side of the point
of minimum frequency and the corresponding frequency curve is U-shaped.

Ogives
To draw an ogive one has to obtain the cumulative frequencies first. The cumulative fre-
quencies are obtained by adding actual frequency of the particular class to the previous
cumulative frequency and it is explained in the following example. Since the underly-
ing variable on which observations are made is continuous and assuming continuity in
the data points, a smooth curve can be drawn by representing the upper class bound-
aries along the horizontal axis and the corresponding cumulative frequencies along the
vertical axis. The resulting graph is called an ogive.

Example 3.3.8. The cumulative frequencies of the frequency table in Example 3.2.1
is shown in Table 3.6 and the corresponding ogive is displayed in Figure 3.11.

Table 3.6: Less than cumulative frequency

Yield Cumulative Found by

frequency
less than 35 0
less than 40 4
less than 45 12 ← 4+8
less than 50 25 ← 12+13
less than 55 39 ← 25+14
less than 60 48 ← 39+9
less than 65 50 ← 48+2

Figure 3.11: Less than ogive

3.3. GRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS OF DATA 37

Remark 3.3.1. In the above we have considered ‘less than’ cumulative frequencies
and ogives. It is also possible to form ‘greater than’ or ‘more than’ cumulative fre-
quencies and ogives, which show the number of measurements that exceed particular
values. In this case the lower limits of class intervals are used as abcissae and the
greater than cumulative frequencies as ordinates. The greater than cumulative fre-
quencies based on the frequency table in Example 3.2.1 is given in Table 3.7 and the
corresponding ogive is shown in Figure 3.12.

Table 3.7: Greater than cumulative frequency

Yield Cumulative frequency
greater than 35 50
greater than 40 46
greater than 45 38
greater than 50 25
greater than 55 11
greater than 60 2
greater than 65 0

Figure 3.12: Greater than ogive

When we draw the less than ogive and the greater than ogive as a single graph
the two ogives will intersect at a point whose ordinate corresponds to half of the total
frequency.

If the frequency table formed is based on a discrete variable, the graph drawn
corresponding to cumulative frequencies will look like the graph of a step-function. This
is illustrated in the following example.

Example 3.3.9. The total number of members in the family (family size) of 50 students
in a class is noted and the data is summarized in the first two columns of Table 3.8.
38 C HAPTER 3. PRESENTATION OF DATA

Table 3.8: Cumulative frequencies

Family size Number of Family size Cumulative

students frequency
2 1 less than 2 0
3 4 less than 3 1
4 15 less than 4 5
5 18 less than 5 20
6 6 less than 6 38
7 4 less than 7 44
8 2 less than 8 48
Total 50 less than 9 50

The less than cumulative frequencies corresponding to family sizes is shown in the last
column of Table 3.8 and the corresponding graph is shown in Figure 3.13.

Figure 3.13: Graph of a step function

The main factors to be taken into account in the choice of a chart or graph are:

(i) Aim of the display of data.

(ii) Type of the variable or data.

(iii) Audience for whom a chart or graph is prepared.

(iv) Level of accuracy of facts to be presented.

Good data presentation skills are to data-based analysis what good writing is
to literature. The development of spreadsheet and other statistical packages have
greatly simplified the tasks of tabular and graphical data presentation. The Web site
http://phoenix.phys.clemson.edu/tutorials/excel/ has a discussion of many of the Excel
functions for mathematics and statistics, in particular graphing data. The following sites
3.4. EXERCISES 39

http://lilt.ilstu.edu/gmklass/pos138/datadisplay/sections/ goodcharts.htm and

http://lilt.ilstu.edu/gmklass/pos138/ datadisplay/badchart.htm show how to create mean-
ingful and readable graphs. Both sites also give several examples of poorly constructed
graphs.

3.4 EXERCISES
1. Classification is applicable in case of:
(a) quantitative variables; (b) ordinal variables;
(c) nominal variables; (d) all of these.

2. A series showing the set of all distinct values individually with their frequencies is
known as:
(a) grouped frequency data; (b) simple frequency data;
(c) cumulative frequency data; (d) none of these.

3. Choice of a particular chart depends on :

(a) the purpose of the study; (b) the nature of the data;
(c) the type of audience; (d) all of these.

4. Graphs and charts facilitate:

(a) comparison of values; (b) to know the trend;
(c) to know relationship; (d) all of these.

5. Which is best for categorical variables?

(a) bar chart; (b) ogive; (c) stem and leaf plot; (d) histogram.

6. Which is best for numerical variables?

(a) bar chart; (b) pie chart; (c) stem and leaf plot; (d) pictograph.

7. Pie chart represents the components of a factor by:

(a) angles; (b) percentages; (c) sectors; (d) circles.

8. In an ogive the points are plotted for:

(a) class limits and frequencies;
(b)class limits and cumulative frequencies;
(c) frequencies and cumulative frequencies;
(d) class marks and cumulative frequencies.

9. Collect the data on voter turnout rates by State during the last parliament election
and prepare a stem and leaf plots of the data.

10. Decide which type of table and graphical method you would use on the following
univariate(one variable case) data sets:

(a) The number of seats won by major political parties during the last parliament
election.
(b) The number of deaths due to lightning on each type of land. The land types
are flat, hilly and mountainous.
(c) The fluoride content of the public water supply for 5 cities.
40 C HAPTER 3. PRESENTATION OF DATA

(d) There are 965 male students and 524 female students in a certain college.
Among the males, 785 come from the rural areas, the rest from urban ar-
eas. Among the females, 302 come from rural areas, the rest from urban
areas. Present this data in a suitable table and also draw a suitable chart to
represent it.

11. A recent study reported that the time spent in hours of personal computer usage
per week for a sample of 60 students is given below.

9.3 5.3 6.3 8.8 6.5 0.6 5.2 6.6 4.3 6.3 2.1 2.7
0.4 3.7 3.3 1.1 6.7 6.5 4.3 9.7 7.7 5.2 1.7 8.5
4.2 5.1 5.6 5.4 4.8 2.1 10.1 1.3 5.6 2.4 4.7 1.7
2.0 6.7 1.1 6.7 2.2 2.6 9.8 4.9 5.2 4.5 9.3 7.9
4.6 4.3 4.5 9.2 6.0 8.1 6.2 9.0 3.4 5.5 5.6 7.5

(a) Make a stem and leaf plot of the data.

(b) What type of graph does a stem and leaf plot represent when turned verti-
cally?
(c) For what time interval did most students use computer?

12. Taking the poverty line in Kerala as an annual income of 24000, below poverty
line (BPL) as negative, and above poverty line as positive, for example, an annual
income of 35000 is 11000 above BPL which means + 11000 and an annual
income of 14000 will be 10,000 below poverty line and will be recorded as -
10,000. If a person is in debt by 5000 then the reading will be -24000 - 5000 =
-29000. The following are the income in thousands in a random sample of 99
households.
35 67 375 -10 7 23 850 450 0 94 -3
255 170 3 73 160 745 -2 365 180 100 115
-22 135 20 15 556 230 45 1 6 33 -1
1520 930 75 10 -45 23 80 123 135 250 740
925 330 8 -7 -17 0 18 17 37 246 650
12 47 64 4 523 1 34 169 295 0 4
250 -1 0 65 186 284 -21 26 41 46 91
125 476 276 436 26 1 7 51 101 6 176
-16 0 376 11 158 260 87 5 10 70 -11.
Form a frequency table and draw the histogram.

13. In Simla, the temperature can vary from −200 C to 400 C. Noon temperature read-
ing is done for 100 days. The following is the data:
-16, -18, -19, -20, -16, -15, -14, 0, -5, 5, -1, -3, -8, 0, 12, 14, 16, 18, 21, 15, 14,
10, 11, 12, 10, 8, 5, 0, -1, -3, -7, -10, -5, 0, 5, -6, -8, -12, 0, 1, -2, -8, -3, 0, -2, 1,
2, 6, 8, 12, 1, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 20, 22, 21, 25, 30, 28, 29, 25, 24,
20, 25, 28, 30, 24, 26, 31, 32, 35, 38, 40, 38, 39, 40, 35, 34, 36, 31, 30, 32, 36,
38, 35, 35, 30, 30, 38, 38, 32.
Taking the classes as [-20, -10), [-10, 0), [0, 10), [10, 20), [20, 30), [30, 40] (a)
form the frequency table, (b) draw the histogram, (c) draw the frequency polygon.

14. Draw an ogive based on the frequency table constructed in Exercise 12. Estimate
the percentage of people who uses computer for (a) more than 5 hours; (b) less
than 2 hours.
3.4. EXERCISES 41

15. The following data gives the area of land in a certain country. Describe the data
with a pie chart.

Forest land Farm land Urban Other land

30% 40% 10% 20%

16. Of the 500 students in a college, 160 were of blood type O, 180 of type A, 135 of
type B and 25 of type AB. Construct a pie chart to depict the data.

17. The following table shows the revenue collection of India in crores during the
current year. Represent the data using suitable diagrams.

Direct taxes during 2008-2009 (Rupees in crores)

Corporate tax Income tax Other direct taxes Total
2,08,991 1,17,740 416 3,27,147
Indirect taxes during 2008-2009 (Rupees in crores)
Customs Central Excise Service tax Total
93,893 95,258 49,479 2,38,630

18. A sample data regarding automobiles were collected from 45 persons in a city.
The data is summarized with the following letter codes:

C: Chevrolet F: Ford H: Hyundai M: Mahindra S: Suzuki T: Toyota.

The data set is:

S M S H C M S T H T F S S T H
T M S S F H H T S M S F S C S
C S H S M T F H H F S C S M T

(a) Prepare a frequency table for the above data. Also compute the relative
frequencies.
(b) Represent the data using a suitable chart.

19. What is the difference between a histogram and a bar diagram?

20. Prepare a blank table for presenting the data of students according to religion,
year of study (First/ Second/ Third) and place of residence (home/ hostel/ others).

21. Given the following cumulative frequency table, fill in the missing frequencies:

Class interval Frequency Cumulative frequency

0-10 7 7
10–20 12 19
20-30 24 43
30-40 - -
40-50 14 -
50-60 5 80

22. A partial relative frequency table is given below.

42 C HAPTER 3. PRESENTATION OF DATA

Class A B C D
Relative frequency 0.26 0.40 0.24 -

(a) What is the relative frequency of class D?

(b) The total sample size was 150. Write down the frequencies of each class.

23. There are 1312 male students and 1024 female students in a college in Kerala.
Among the males, 685 come from the southern Kerala, the rest from northern
Kerala. Among the females, 407 come from the southern Kerala, the rest from
the northern Kerala.

(a) Draw a bar chart showing the number of students by sex.

(b) Draw a bar chart showing the number of students by region.

24. Table 3.9 gives the data of annual income of households in a certain municipality
of Kerala. Prepare a frequency table from this data. Also draw an appropriate
graph to represent this data.

Table 3.9: Annual income of households

Income (in Rupees) Cumulative frequency

20,000 or more 35,251
50,000 or more 22,075
1,00,000 or more 13,766
1,50,000 or more 7,341
2,00,000 or more 3,851
3,00,000 or more 1,885
5,00,000 or more 967

25. A fresh fish sales lady who carries fish in a basket and walk to the interior parts of
Kerala has the following situations. On certain days she has profits (total income
from sales - total expenses), on certain days there are loses due to non-sale
of fish and on certain days she breaks even. The following data indicates her
‘profit or loss’ (loss taken as negative profit) she incurred in two months period.
Taking the class intervals as [-200, -100), [-100, 0), [0, 100), [100, 200), [200,
300), [300, 400] (a) form the frequency table, (b) draw histogram and (c) draw
frequency polygon for the data.
390, -50, -150, 45, 86, 269, 340, -160, -180, 270, -20, 360, 290, -70, 350, 265,
-50, -90, 275, -25, 320, 340, 180, -120, 310, -200, 100, -90, 45, 300, 220, 135,
180, 250, -20, 125, -110, 75, 60, 275, 230, 175, 35, 145, 190, 0, 125, 130, 170,
0, 10, -5, 50, 245, 350, 275, 310, 240, 320, 140.

26. For the data given in the above exercise and the same class intervals, (a) form
the table of less than cumulative frequencies, (b) form the table of greater than
cumulative frequencies, (c) draw the graph in (a) as a step function, (d) draw
the graph in (b) as a step function, (e) assuming continuity in the points draw a
smooth curve to obtain less than cumulative curve, (f) assuming continuity in the
points draw a greater than cumulative curve, (g) draw the curve in (e) and (f) in a
single figure and make comments on the findings.
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Wonder of the World, notwithstanding many rude and unskilful
Fellows, will upon this saying, shrink up their Noses, and audaciously
contradict me (and say) that Nitre is not the true and Universal
Dissolvent.
But if Nitre be not that Universal Subject, then let those that prate
against this Judgment or Opinion of mine, produce another and
better Subject; which, yet, in my Opinion they will never be able to
do. If it were not an Universal Subject, how comes it to be so
plentifully found to be in all things. Is it not found in all Vegetables?
Is it not in all living Creatures that live either under the Earth, or in
the Waters, or in the Air, or on the Earth? Is it not met with (or
found) in the inmost Bowels of the Mountains, and even in the most
hard Stones? I will demonstrate it in this small Treatise by most clear
Arguments, and will most evidently evince it.
In the first place, that all Vegetables have it, is already clearly
demonstrated and proved, for I my self (and I am the first, as I
know of) made trial and turned their Juices into natural Salt-petre.
But I will now so evidently shew the truth of this thing, that even
those blind Back-biters and Detracters shall feel it with their hands.
In the first place therefore, I demand, whence the common Nitre
is gotten? Is it not out of the Earth, which is digg’d out of the
Stables where Beasts stand? For it has insinuated it self into (or
joined it self with) this (Earth) passing out of the Excrements of the
Beasts in length of time, and hath coagulated it self therein, out of
which it is at length drawn by pouring on of water, and then is boiled
up into Salt-petre. Who can deny this? I think no body can. So then
if this be granted, that Nitre is found in the Stables where Cattle
stand, the Question is, By what means, and way it came into the
Stables? It is by the help of the Urine and Excrements which the
Beasts have there cast forth. Then again, I ask whether or no those
Beasts have those Excrements from their Meat and Drink, or from
elsewhere? They cannot arise from water, forasmuch as they drink
nothing but Water: So that they must necessarily have their rise
from the food they eat, and that consists of the Vegetables, Grass,
and Herbs. Therefore we affirm, that the Salt-petre was of necessity
in these Herbs, and Grass, afore the Beasts feeding on them. For if it
had not been there it could never have been made in the Beasts
Bodies that which it was not afore. For their Stomachs contribute
nothing to this Operation, save a bare putrefaction. And besides, the
Countreymen do even the same thing, for they gather up Stubble,
the Leaves that fall from the Trees, the Grass, and such like things,
and put a great quantity of them into a Pit together, and there leave
them so long, till by the help of Putrefaction they are all turned into
Dung, and therewith do they afterwards Dung their Ground (in such
wise) as is wont to be done with the Excrements of Beasts.
Therefore, forasmuch as that putrefied Grass and Stubble doth dung
the ground and render it fruitful, (as well) as the Excrements of
Beasts, it must needs be granted, that they have likewise Salt-petre
in them. For it is not the Dung, but the Nitre in the Dung, that is, the
Author of that Dunging Impregnation and Fertility, as I have already
confirmed by Arguments in my Miraculum Mundi, and which will be
sufficiently convincing proofs here in this place.
I would therefore fain see that Man that dares be so bold and
heady as to deny this thing, that the Essential Salt neither is, nor
can be made, Nitre.
And now we come to treat of the Beasts in the Fields, of the Fish
in the Waters, and of the Birds in the Air, that so by a thorough
examination of all these sorts we may see, whether or no they are
enriched with Salt-petre, and whether or no their Essential Salt be
like the Essential Salt of the Vegetables, and can by the same means
pass into Nitre.
In the first place, and above all, this is here to be considered, as a
main principle, (viz.) That all those things which dung the Fields and
Lands, and fatten them, most necessarily contain in them Salt-petre.
For from this only, and alone, comes all the fertility throughout the
whole Earth, which Axiome cannot be gainsayed. But now, that the
Animals, or Beasts, Birds, and Fishes are Partakers of the same
Virtues, I firmly gather from hence.
 First of all, it is not unusual for the Gardiners to put the Horns,
Hoofs, and Bones of Beasts, to the Roots of Trees, and so cover
them over with Earth, and that on this account, because they make
them exceeding fruitful. This now is every where used: Likewise the
Gardiners do every where buy up Hens Feathers, Hens, and
Pidgeons Dung; as also from the Tanners and Curriers the Offals or
Shavings of the Beasts Skins, and their Hairs, and use them to
enrich their Gardens. The Vine-dressers also buy up the shavings of
Horns of the Comb-makers in many places where they can get them,
by which, they fatten their Vines, far better than with Dung, and that
lasts for nine or ten years. The Gardiners do likewise buy up from
the Tailors bits, or pieces of Woollen and Linen to dung their
Gardens when they plant Colworts. If they did not find any Nitre, or
Fertility in them, to what end would they lay out their Money on so
base a Matter? To the Ignorant and Unskilful, these things may seem
wonderful and incredible, because such a kind of dunging Land is
not every where in use. He that is incredulous, let him go to Colen
on the Rhine, and there he’ll find that I have spoken nothing but the
truth. All these things do the Gardiners make use of according to
their ancient custom, for from their Predecessors learned they these
Secrets. Nor know they what other reason to alledge for their doing
this, but only tell you, that they serve exceeding well to enrich their
Fields and Vineyards.
But I do assuredly affirm, that ’tis the Nitre that is hidden in these
things, performs this effect: There is therefore far more abundance
of Salt-petre in the Superfluities (as Nails, Horns, Hair, &c.) than in
their Excrements, or Dung. And I thus prove it.
First, Because they will give you for one Sack full of the Shavings
of Horns, half an Imperial, which is as much as will buy four or five
such sacks full of Cow, or Sheeps dung.
Secondly, They will give the Tanners, or Curriers, above an
Imperial for one Cart-load of the Shavings of the Hides, whereas
with the same Money they may buy three or four Load of dung.
Rags are sold for a quarter of an Imperial. Were they not virtuous or
effectual, why should they be so dear? This here spoken, we have
proved so to be, by the customary practice of the common men only,
as Husbandmen and Gardiners. Were it lawful for me to reveal
somewhat to the purpose, I could teach how to extract out of every
hundred weight of Bones, in Beasts, Birds, and Fishes, ten pound of
Salt-petre. But this is not to be divulged.
Now it remains in the next place, to confirm, that Nitre does not
only lie hidden most plenteously in the Vegetable and Animal
Subjects, but that it may be digged, or gotten out, and prepar’d of
Stones, Rocks, Cliffs, Hollows of Mountains, and out of the plain
Field in a very many other places; and this is undeniable, for ’tis
evidently known, and if need were, I could, for witness sake, make
mention of many such Testimonies. He that is desirous of knowing
more, as touching this salt of the Earth, let him peruse the ancient
Philosophers. But forasmuch, as every one hath not those Books at
hand, and that many Men cannot understand them, I will for
Amplifications sake add yet one demonstration, to shew whence that
Nitre ariseth, which sticks on to, or swells out of those moist and old
Walls of Houses. Comes it not from the Mortar, with which the Bricks
are joined together? Not only all Stones are fit for making Calx, or
Lime of, but also all kinds of Stones, which break, or grow in the
Waters, like Drops, or Pebbles: Likewise, those stony things which
grow in the Sea, as Coral, the Pearl shells, or Mother of Pearl, and
Shell fish of all sorts, which being burnt, moulder in the Air, have in
them plenty of Nitre, and will easily yield it forth to those who have
the way of extracting it disclosed unto them. But this is not the place
to mention it in, because I have determined to treat here, of only
expressing the Juices of the Vegetables, concentrating them, and
making them gainful or profitable.
Forasmuch as we have hitherto understood (or shewn) that Nitre
or Salt-petre may be had from all things, viz. from Herbs, Wood,
fourfooted Beasts and creeping Things, from Birds in the Air, and
Fishes in the Water, yea from the very Elements themselves, as
Earth, Water, Air, and Fire; It must needs follow that it is that so
much spoken of Universal Spirit without which nothing can either be
or live: It is the begetter and destroyer of all things; in which all
things are, as I have demonstrated in my Miraculum Mundi, out of
the most ancient Philosopher Hermes. I therefore hope, that no
body will any more doubt thereof or oppose himself with a perverse
stubbornness against a truth so manifestly known. Were not the
shortness of time an impediment unto me I could most easily
produce more arguments and those too more pregnant. If any one is
minded firmly to cleave to his own stubborn perverseness, even
Hermes himself should he arise from the dead, would lose his
Labour in teaching him; and therefore let them keep their
contumacy to themselves.
We have sufficiently confirmed and that by arguments enough,
that Salt-petre is an universal Subject, and every where to be found.
Hence it may be easily believed that it may also be met with in
woods, and that more strong, more powerful, more corporal,
palpable, and visible than in any other Subject: Upon this account
therefore is it to be also sought for, and drawn forth out of them too.
But forasmuch as such an Extraction cannot be made afore that the
Juices are prest out of the Wood, out of which Juices the Nitre is to
be drawn forth, the whole Art consists in Squeezing out these Juices,
but yet by another kind of way than is done with Herbs. Therefore
the due Presses being fitted ready, I shall be able to shew him who
requesteth it at my hands (so as he does not endamage me) the
way of squeezing them. For to prostrate a work of such great
moment to every ones view, whereby those that are unworthy,
should partake of such great Secrets, and by which a thing of so
much value should be obnoxious to a common Abuse, is not verily,
either necessary, profitable, or laudable. Let not any one therefore
take it amiss, that I have so careful a regard of things so
considerable. Let it suffice, that I have detected the thing, wherein
such great Treasures have hidden themselves, which hitherto are
profitable to no body, but are easily acquirable, or to be had. Do but
look a little upon those most vast Woods of Germany, which are
stored with such mighty abundance of Trees, that wood is of no
account. There hath been none as yet that has converted them unto
their use, save a few, who in some places make Pot-ashes of the
wood they burn; and yet they have but small gains therefrom,
because they can’t have vent sufficient for as much as they could
make by their burning the wood, nor do any use them, but Soap-
boilers, and Dyers.
Besides, I never as yet saw the Man that duly attempted that
Artifice, and so administred it as to get therefrom a greater gain. For
sometimes they gather scarce an hundred weight of Pot-ashes out of
the burning of ten or twenty great Trees, and they can hardly have
above five or six Imperials for it. And now consider but the great
Labour and Sweat in burning so much Wood into Ashes, and of
boiling the Ashes into a black Salt, and then of making this Salt red
hot in peculiar Furnaces, that it may become white, green, or
blueish; all this consider’d, ’twould make a Man admire what ’tis that
could stir up those that follow this work, or order it to be done, to
suffer such a quantity of Trees to be burnt up, for so very little profit.
But what need many words? They have the wood for nothing, and
(as the Proverb runs) The half White of the Egg, is better than the
empty shell. Haply if they knew how to make any thing better, or
more profitable out of their Wood, they would not omit so to do.
How many hundred weight of wood, are they to burn afore they
have one hundred of Pot-ashes? But now if the Juices that are
squeez’d out of them were boiled into Salt-petre, they would get ten
times the profit with far less trouble.
Let us compute the case, and suppose that out of an hundred
pounds of Wood, there are squeezed forth twenty pounds of Juice,
and that from these twenty pounds of Juice, you have some 4 or 5
pounds of Nitre, and that a midling Oak or Beach will load, when
cleft, some ten Carts, and each load hold twenty hundred weight.
Now then, one hundred yielding five pound of Nitre, a load of twenty
hundred, yields an hundred pound of Nitre; the Tree that is about
ten load, yields a thousand weight.
Now we’ll put case that a hundred weight of Nitre yields twenty
Imperials, which being ten times multiplyed, makes two hundred
Imperials for ten loads, or for that one Tree divided into ten loads.
But to wave so accurate a computation, and not to extend it too
far, we will suppose a hundred of Wood to hold only three pound of
Nitre, and a load to be about twenty hundred of Wood; this load will
yield Sixty pounds of Niter, and the Tree ten loads, So there will be
Six hundred pounds of Niter. If now one hundred (of Nitre) will cost
ten Imperials, that Tree will yield sixty Imperials for the six hundred
pounds of Nitre. The smallness of the cost (in making it) makes the
labour the more profitable; nay, if by this invention of mine, the
price of Nitre should fall down, even to ten Imperials (which
notwithstanding, will not so easily come to pass) yet would the gain
thereby be great, yea ten times more than that which comes from
the Pot-ashes. But he that knows how to use this Nitre, for the
concentrating of Metals, (concerning which the three following parts
of this Book shall treat) will not have any cause of fear, that this
Nitre will lie on his hands and yield him no profit.
By what hath been said, the well-minded Reader will easily
perceive what vast treasures are oft-times before his eyes, and
through ignorance lie as yet unknown, and not used to advantage.
What man knows God’s end, in producing to light such great
Mysteries and Secrets of Nature, in this most filthy Dregs of the
World? To give thereof a Reason, we will not tire our understanding,
but give most humble thanks to God for such great mysteries that
he hath revealed for the comfort of many men, and will pray unto
him graciously to bestow on us his fatherly blessing, to the end that
we may well use such great gifts so freely bestowed.
But now if any should be of the mind that it is wholly unnecessary,
that this Art should be made publickly known, because that Gun-
powder is made of Salt-petre, and that by Gun-powder many Cities
and most strong holds are overthrown, and nothing is to be
expected thencefrom, but Slaughters and Destruction: To such, I
answer, That it was not for this end that I disclosed this most great
and most profitable Art, that by its base abuse I might help on these
horrid Calamities; but my aims have been chiefly at this, if haply any
new Foreign Enemies should invade our most dear Country (which is
a danger we seem not far off from) we might be able to receive
them with like Arms or Weapons, and by a just defence drive away
such a Calamity.
And withal, that those most thick and vast Woods being despoiled
of their thickness, may not for the time to come be a shelter for
Thieves and Robbers, as likewise for wild beasts, all which
oftentimes do much mischief.
And farther, That many thousands of Men may get their Food and
Rayment more Commodiously and more easily, and may make good
Gold and Silver from the unprofitable Wood. For by means of this
Art, thousands of moneys may be gotten in our German Countries,
without any hurt to our Neighbour. Nor is it needful to cut down any
great Tree, for the superfluous Branches or Loppings, and the
shrubby briary Underwood which is all about the Trees, and doth
chiefly afford a passage to the Stags, and hiding places to other
hurtful Creatures, will be sufficient for this kind of use or
imployment.
The other Trees that grow up aloft may be preserved to build
Houses withal, which may be employed about Hunting: And besides,
when the Trees are freed from that thickness, and have thereby a
free access of Air, they will the more easily dilate their Boughs, and
grow up taller. And then too, those wild Beasts that are profitable,
will (when such vast deal of underwood or shrubbiness is taken
away) meet with fatter pasture, and with more plenty of Grass, and
escape by having a freer Course from the pursuing Woolves, which
now they are letted from by those most thick Shrubs and Bushes.
But yet if so be that in such places in which is such a deal of Wood,
and to no man useful; a good part even of the great Trees should
likewise be cut down, and used about this Artifice of ours; yet
notwithstanding there would not arise to the Possessors thereof any
loss, but much Profit; and when all’s done, there would be yet
remaining a huge multitude of Trees. Consider I pray those most
spacious Woods the Arduenne, Ottonick, Semane, and Bohemian
Woods, and many others which the Countries in Germany are
cloathed (or environed) with.
Can it be imagined, that they can at all be lessened by the Glass
Furnaces, or the melting of Minerals and Metals.
These places that are one year bared by cutting down the Trees,
you shall see in few years covered over again, by the benefit of
nature, with new Trees; so that it cannot possibly be, that though
even a very great many Presses should be used to press the Juices
out; such a vast immenseness of Woods should be exhausted, and
make any sensible diminution of the Wood.
But now, if any one shall believe these writings of mine, and shall,
after the afore-mentioned way, set about the Concentration of Wine,
or Corn, or Wood; I do faithfully affirm unto him, that I have in this
Book openly proposed the very naked Truth, without any
disimulation, and have not omitted any thing save the revealing of
the Presses, which for certain causes I conceal.
And therefore I certifie every one, that I will not as yet divulge this
most wonderful secret, of thus-boiling Nitre out of the Juices of
Wood, or else I would have described the Press too. Besides, though
a man should even see the Press, and know how to make it, and
were ignorant of the purification and concentration of the Juices, he
would not bring the Art to effect; so that, without my instruction, the
work cannot so easily be made publickly known. And though this
seems to be a thing so mean, yet this squeezing out of the Juices of
Wood, is far beyond (or richer) than the operations on Wine or Corn.
But I doubt not but that many, well considering of this unheard of,
and very gainful Artifice, will begin to think whether or no good Nitre
may not likewise be gotten out of other Subjects easie to come by.
Now then I must methinks needs instruct these.
The common Fossile Salt, and Sea Salt may by the benefit of this
Art, be also turned into Natural Nitre; but I judge it needless to
speak more of this, for as much as that which I have already
mentioned concerning the Wood seems abundantly enough. Breifly,
God doth in all places set before our eyes His Omnipotency, where
he gives not Wood, there vouchsafes He Stones and Bones, out of
which Nitre may as well be extracted, by those that are skill’d in this
Art, as it may out of other things. And where Fire is wanting, there is
Water however. But I know that it is certain, and past all doubt, that
by the certain experience of Art, plenty of good Nitre may be made
out of Sea Water.
Now if any shall object and say; Thou affirmest that Nitre is to be
found in all places of the World, but especially in Wood and Stones;
but yet, that there are many places which have neither Wood or
Stones, & have only a Marshy Moorish Soil, which brings forth Grass
only: By what means can Nitre be there, or in what things, or what
places should it be sought for, thinkest thou there?
I answer; I have already, in what hath been said afore, confirmed,
that Nitre may be drawn in large quantity even out of Grass; but
verily there’s no such need here of so doing, to rob the beasts of
their food, and to use the Grass about Nitre-making: For the Cheese
and Butter that come from the Grass, will easily yield more than the
Nitre that’s made thereof, would; God deals not so unjustly or
unwisely with the Creatures as to give his blessings with a liberal
hand to one, and take the same away from another: No, no; The
Treasure of his Riches is inexhaustible, and he gives his Creatures
largely to partake of them; nor doth that axiome (or maxime) which
is so very usual in this perverse World, prevail at all with him, viz.
The fall of one is the rise of another; but his will is, that all should
have their necessaries abundantly supplyed, that every one should
have enough, and that every thing should come to perfection.
Therefore it is not at all necessary, that Nitre should be extracted out
of the Food which the Beasts live on, because it may easily be
extracted out of other Subjects which bring not any profit to Man or
Beast, and this in great quantity too. For in such plain low Countries
and moist watery grounds, where you shall not meet with either
Mountains or Vallies, or Stones, or Wood: The most gracious God
hath, like a provident and wise housholder provided for the
inhabitants, giving them a certain kind of earth inlaid with many
Roots and Fibers that grow therein, which the Dutch call Torf, we
Turfs, the which they use instead of Woods, to boil with, and about
other necessary uses; so that they may easily be without the wood,
which is yearly brought them in such vast quantity out of other
Countries. Now these same Turfs contain in them the like Essential
Salt as Wood does which Nitre is extracted out of.
As concerning Stones, they do not in those places shew
themselves to sight (as lying deep) if you except such as are burnt
(or Bricks) and which are brought hither to build houses withal, yet
God hath bestowed on them a matter sufficiently apt to make Lime
withal, so that they may be without, even Stones themselves. The
Shell-fishes of all Sorts (serve to this work), and sometimes the
raging of the Sea, drives the Fishes shells ashore by heaps, and like
little hills, the which being carryed by the Inhabitants into the Cities
and Villages, they put them in the Lime-Kilns, and reduce them by a
strong fire into good Lime, and that by means of the Turfy fireing we
mentioned but now; so that I do not see any reason why, in these
Countries that are destitute of Wood and Stones, there should be
found less Salt-petre than in others, in which huge quantities both of
Wood and Stone are found. Nay, rather I affirm, that there is more
there, than is in almost any Country of Europe; for do but compare
the price of Turf and Wood, the Wood is dearer, the other cheaper;
besides the Wood is harder to press out, and this yields its juice
more easily.
So then, from all the foregoing demonstrations I absolutely
conclude, that there is not any place in the whole World, wherein
great quantities of Salt-petre may not be made.
And if I should say, that there is not to be found in the whole
world any places in which Nitre may be easier and plentifullier made
than in the low Countries of Germany, as Brabant, Holland, Zealand,
Flanders, Frieseland, the Groningen Fields, the County of Emdane,
and all those Countries which run as far as the German and Baltick
Sea, in this their moorish kind of ground; verily I should not speak
untruth, but if need were, I could witness it of a certainty.
 But lest my Writings should remain too obscure and unknown to
such as are unskilled, and that such may not overmuch torment their
Brains by unnecessary Pleadings how this may be effected, I judge it
altogether necessary openly to confess the Truth before every one,
and say, That Nitre or Salt-petre, were but its true use known, is
justly and worthily to be accounted of as the greatest Treasure of
the whole world, as being a thing by the help of which, good Health,
Honours, and Riches may be purchased; and this we shall confirm in
the three following parts. If then that this be granted, then this also
will be yielded too, that the Subject-matter out of which it is
extracted, is not to be despised, but to be highly valued; and
therefore ought Wood and Turf to have their due Honour given
them, concerning which, I have by many Arguments affirmed, that
the one of them is every where in the upper Germany in great
plenty, and the other in the low Countries of Germany, (nor doth
these at all come short of the others) and that both may and ought
to yield Nitre. Besides, not only the bare Turf is hereto useful, but
likewise the hitherto thrown-away ashes, which are every where cast
out as unprofitable.
NB. They are not useful in washing, as wood-ashes, with which
the Laundresses make Lyes, and being they are not, they are thrown
away as good for nought. But yet there is in them a great quantity
of a certain salt, which being inverted by Art, passeth into Nitre;
therefore through meer ignorance is there cast away, together with
those Turfy ashes, a vast quantity of unripe Salt-petre, from whence
a mighty profit might redound to those Countries, but being
improvidently thrown away, is meerly lost. But yet I would not have
any imagine, that the Salt which is made of the Lee of Turf-ashes, is
presently Salt-petre; no, for ’tis needful that the subtilty of Art be
first thereto used, afore such a Salt be brought to that pass, as to
burn like Salt-petre: But yet care is to be taken, that that Art become
not common, for then so Noble a thing, and so profitable to our
Countries, will be known by Enemies as well as Friends; which to
prevent, it must be warily handled, and the principal work here
requisite is this, viz. That it may not be published so imprudently, as
to render the ungrateful and unworthy partakers of the same, as
well as the thankful and worthy ones.
By these things here spoken may every one see and gather, that
God is no respecter of Kingdoms and Principalities, and provides for
some better than for other some; all Men are His Creatures and
Heirs of all His Goods, if so be they be but willing, and do not
stubbornly oppose and slight the Divine Grace, and do not wantonly
cast it away and neglect it: Concerning which we shall speak more in
the following part, touching the Concentration of Minerals.
This we must yet farther add, viz. That common Salt-Nitre is in all
Coasts, in all Tracts or Continents, and in all Countries; yea, even in
all those places in which there’s neither Wood, nor Stones, nor
Leaves, nor Grass, nor Earth, nor any bottom of Earth: As for
example; Near Greenland, where the Sea is said to have no bottom,
where the Whales are caught, and which do greatly inrich the
Merchants with their fat or oil: Did they but know, that the
remaining Flesh and Bones were even yet of great use, and knew
they but how to turn them into Salt-petre, they would preferr it far
before their Fat, for the sake of which, so much labour and trouble is
undertaken; for in the flesh of one Whale only (which as it is, is not
at all profitable to any man) I dare say, that there may be found 20,
30, 40, 50, yea, sometimes 100 Centenaries, or hundreds weight of
Salt-petre. And so likewise the Intrails of the dried Stock-fish that are
caught in Island and Norway, should I affirm, that they would even
almost excel the Fish it self in value, I should not be deceived. I find
no difficulty that might hinder me from affirming this to be agreeable
to the Truth.
Do not the Salt-petre-men preferr the Nitrous Earth that’s found in
old burying places (if they can have it) far beyond other Nitrous
Earths? And this among others, that most excellent Examiner of
Metals, Lazarus Ercker, in his Book of examining of Metals, affirms,
and gives this Earth the chiefest place. Nor is it to be wondered at,
that of late in Poland, towards Muscovy, where formerly great
Battels have been, and many thousands of men slain, and by reason
of the multitude of them, have (after the Battel) been thrown into
deep Caverns of Mountains for the easier burying them) there hath
been a great quantity of Salt-petre extracted out of the Earth. Were
there not gain and profit to be gotten, those men that are imployed
in the extracting and boiling it, would not lay out so much Money on
unprofitable Ashes of Carcases.
But to pass this by, let any one make but this Experiment: Fill
some Vessel with Bulls or Ox-blood, and put it in a warm place till it
putrefie and be turned as it were into Earth; then extract a Lye out
of this Earth, and boil it so long, till a little skin appear on the top,
then lay it by in a cold place, to shoot into Crystals, or little Stones,
and these will be true Nitre.
NB. There is another and more compendious way of extracting
Salt-petre out of the blood of Animals, which belongs not to this
place to treat of; let us but compute the account a little. If there are
yearly kill’d in some great City some ten thousand Oxen, besides
Calves, Hogs, Sheep, and Goats, and the blood be cast away as
unprofitable, [now an hundred weight of blood yields some 5, 6, 7,
or 8 pound, or more, of Nitre.] the question is, How many Hundreds
of Salt-petre is lost? That this may be the more clearly evidenced,
viz. That there is much Salt-petre in all Beasts, Fishes, and Birds,
take another Experiment: Let a Beast, Bird, or Fish be laid in some
warm place, where no Rain comes, to putrefie, out of the Carcass
there will come Worms; of these Worms or Maggots take about one
pound, more or less, put them in a Glass with a narrow neck, stop
the glass with Paper only, and set it at the Sun, but not too hot, and
in a few daies the worms or maggots will be turned into water; then
pour out this water into a Copper Vessel tinn’d over, clarify it with
the whites of Eggs, as Vegetable juices are wont to be clarified; then
evaporate the clarified Juice, by little and little, by decoction, till it be
covered over with a skin; as we have taught you in the Vegetable
Juices; then set it by in a cold Cellar, and there will shoot good and
natural Nitre, but especially if that Liquor shall have stood a while
afore in the air.
 The self-same Experiment may any one make with other Vermin
that arise from Flesh or Cheese, and he shall find that even living
Creatures have Salt-petre in them: so then there is nothing to be
found, wherein that Universal salt of the World is not seen to be; but
in some the salt doth sooner put on a Salt-petre nature, and in
others it is already made Salt-petre by Nature.
Let this serve as an example, viz. The Essential or Universal salt of
Vegetables, Animals, & Minerals, is indeed in its own nature nitrous,
but it does not conceive any flame afore it has attracted life and
flame from the Air. Further, one salt attracts that Life sooner and
willinglier than another does, according as it is by Nature framed. By
how much the more volatile and urinous the salts are, so much the
sooner do they change themselves into Nitre; and by how much the
more biting and more corrosive, so much the more difficultly and
slowly do they put on the nature of Salt-petre. But because Nitre is a
salt that partakes of both natures, viz. of a Urinous and Corrosive
Nature, and is compounded as it were of both a Urinous and a
Corrosive Salt, therefore by the help thereof one skill’d in Nature
may easily help the salts, and make of them whatsoever he
pleaseth. Nor is there in the nature of things any salt, but may by
the help of Art be turned into Nitre; but especially those salts which
are sublimed by fire, and are elevated by the force thereof; as
likewise those that are in the Urine and Excrements of all Animals;
yea more, Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals themselves do easily
assume the nature of Nitre: This now is the first degree of salts.
Another degree of salts are those that are somewhat fixer, (as the
Sons of Art call them) and are such as are left in the fire, from
Vegetables, Animals, and Minerals: These do more hardly pass into
the nature of Nitre; but the hardest of all, are those salts which are
in the third degree, as common salt, Sea-salt, Mountain or Fossile
salt, Alume and Vitriol; for by Art are even these brought to that
state, as to pass into true Nitre, but harder than the former, for they
need a longer time for transmutation, than the abovenamed flying,
volatile, and urinous salts. And therefore I would not have any of
you to opinionate, that when I say in my Writings, that this or that
salt may be converted into Salt-petre, assoon as ever it is extracted
out of the Lixivium, or by barely calcining with fire, that (I say) it
should presently be true burning Salt-petre; no, there is a yet farther
time thereto required, whereto it may attract its life and soul out of
the Air, and become burning or inflamable.
Every common Barber and mean-pated fellow, knows that the
most Salt-petre hitherto made, hath been boiled out of a Lee, drawn
out of the Earth taken out of old stables, wherein Sheep and other
beasts have stood. And why, I pray, out of the old standing places of
Sheep, Oxen, and the like Cattel, and not likewise out of the new? It
is on this account, because old Stables do not only in long Process of
time imbibe more salt out of the Excrements and Urine, and
consequently yield more Salt-petre; but also those very salts (that
come from the Excrements of the beasts) and which is the main
thing, have in long process of time received their soul or life from
the air, which new salts have not as yet attained unto: For let any
one boil, and try his conclusions on the fresh Dung and Urine of
Animals, as much as he list, they will never become Nitre, unless
they draw their Life out of the Air. Let any one take some good Salt-
petre, and mix it with Earth, and destil off the Spirit in a Retort,
there will come over into the Receiver such a sharp and corroding
water, as will dissolve Metals, Stones, and all other even the hardest
Mercurial Bodies, and yet the Salt-petre was not corrosive before,
but it hath gotten that degree of corrosivity from the fire’s operation.
Contrariwise, let some good Salt Nitre be taken, and be calcined in a
Crucible, with burning Coals or such-like other matters as will burn
or calcine it: By this operation it will be changed into a very fiery and
fixt Salt, but not so corrosive, and thus it will dissolve all Fat, Oils,
Greases, and sulphureous Bodies, which thing the former corrosive
Spirit will not do; for such bodies as are dissolveable by this fixt and
urinous Salt, the former acid Spirit leaves them untouch’d; and on
the other hand, it will dissolve those bodies which cannot be
dissolved by the fixt Salt, and yet are they both extracted out of one
and the same Subject, by the help of the fire. Hence may it easily be
conjectured, that this is an Hermaphroditical Salt, and partakes of
both natures, seeing it puts on both (or either) of them; for the
Philosophical Maxim witnesseth, that every thing hath its Original out
of that into which it can be changed and resolved.
Now when I pour the acid Spirit that destilled over into the
Receiver on that fixt Salt again, they are both of them divested of
their nature and property; the Spirit loseth his sharpness and acidity,
and the fixt salt puts off its fiery nature, and so they both become
again an Hermaphroditical Salt, but yet not presently, but ’tis
necessary to allow them some time of standing together in the Air,
whereby they may receive that life and that burning nature which
the Fire hath deprived them of. But yet notwithstanding, this comes
sooner to pass in this, than in other contrary subjects, because these
two Contraries have heretofore already been one Salt-petre; for such
as never have been Nitre, but are hereafter to be so, require a
longer abode in the Air. These instructions we give to those that
might haply think that Salts may be animated without the help of the
Air.
And now, that I may perfectly demonstrate that Salts do get their
life out of the air, without any encreasing in weight thereby, and not
from elsewhere, I will give you this following example. Take 1 l. of
Honey or Sugar, and let it be dissolved in ten pounds of Water, and
let this Water be set for some weeks in a warm air, the Honey or
Sugar will be as a magnet to this Water, and will by attracting a life
out of the air turn it into sharp Vinegar, and that without any thing
at all encreasing the weight of the same. By this means Water, by
the addition of Honey, Sugar, Malt, or any other Vegetable Juice, will,
by the operation of the hidden and attracting essential Salt, pass
together with it into excellent Vinegar. But now some or other may
imagine that the Honey, or the juice of the Fruit and Corn, have in
them an hidden acidity, which by the help of the warm
encompassing air, hath revealed it self, and so did not attract its
birth out of the air: But I will shew you the contrary, as follows: Take
a pound of Honey, Sugar, or some other Vegetable Juice, and force it
over in a Retort into a Receiver, and you will find that there will destil
over 10 or 12 lots (or half ounces) of insipid Water, and so many of
acid water; the remainder is a dead ashes, and have nothing in
them; the Vinegar and Phlegm that ascended, will not yield one
pound of Liquor, and the Vinegar it self, with its acidity, will scarce be
so strong in taste as those ten pounds of water that are turned into
Vinegar by the air.
This now demonstrates, that there was not in the Honey any more
acidity than what was thence drawn out by the help of destillation,
for the remaining ashes have not any taste at all. But put case that
the acidity which is driven out of the Retort into the Receiver by the
force of Fire, should be as sharp as Aq. fortis, (when as tho’ it is
scarce as sowre as Vinegar) yet would it hardly make ten pounds of
Water so acid as to be compared with the other which is made by
the essential Salt and the Air; so that it is evident that the acidity (as
being a life) is drawn by the Magnetick Virtue of the Honey out of
the air.
But as touching this Essential Salt of Vegetables, its being a
Magnet, to extract an acetous spirit out of the air, and communicate
it to the dead water. You are here well to observe, that the universal
spirit or soul of the World may be drawn out of the Air many and
sundry waies. In the aforementioned Example of Vinegar is a spirit
extracted, which is fit for the converting of Vegetable Liquors into
Vinegar. In Hermaphroditical salts, the Universal Nitrous spirit
becomes burning, as in Wine, Ale, and Metheglin. All these are so
made by the means of air, without which no Wine or Ale can
ferment, and without fermentation it is impossible for a burning
spirit to be generated; which said spirit is easily afterwards turned
into Vinegar, and this Vinegar into Nitre, and this Nitre again into a
burning Spirit or Vinegar; for every Life is of one and the same
original, and may by the benefit of Art be changed out of one nature
or property into another.
So likewise the same is to be understood in the generation of Salt-
petre, all Salts of Animals, Vegetables, and Minerals are dead, afore
they get themselves a life after a magnetical manner out of the Air,
and be made into Salt-petre; for amongst all salts, none deserve to
be called a Live Salt, but that one of Salt-petre, which by the
Philosophers is called the Watchful Dragon, which likewise at the
beginning was dead, but hath got himself a Life out of the air. By all
which it is most clearly manifest, that the life of all things ariseth out
of the air, and that those Creatures which come not into the air want
Life and that such things as already have life, are choak’d and die if
the air be taken from them. Hence comes the death of all things, by
a suppressing or taking away of air, (in which air the Life of all things
consists) what way soever it be done by, as the aforesaid example of
the Vinegar teacheth; for if Honey or Sugar were not made thin with
Water, there would never have hapned that changing into Vinegar.
So likewise Grapes, Apples, Pears, Barley, Oats, Wheat, were they
not moistened with water, but remained dry, they never would get
the nature and property of Vinegar, and that for this reason, because
the air could never infuse its life into a dry and shut up body.
This they well know who are imployed in making a quantity of
Vinegar; and upon this account do they in Summer time set their
Vessels open to the Sun, and in the Winter, they keep them in warm
stoves near the fire, and both afore and behind, and at the bottom
do they make holes to give the Air entrance, that so they might the
speedilier promote the changing of the Wine, Ale and Metheglin into
Vinegar.
They likewise know this too, that even strong Vinegar if it be a
long time shut and kept from Air, corrupts and dies. The which thing,
seeing it is to be as well understood of other Subjects, as of these
here, viz. Salt-petre and Vinegar, we may affirm thus much, That by
how much the more of warm Air comes to the Wine or Ale, so much
the sooner will they pass into Vinegar. And by how much the more of
warm Air the Salts draw, so much the speedier will they draw a Life
thereout-of, and put on themselves the nature and property of Salt-
petre. This is the reason why the Salt-petre boilers do sometimes
turn or dig up the Earth from whence they have had Salt-petre, and
moisten it with water, that so the Air may the more commodiously
penetrate that Earth by its operation, and infuse Nitre thereinto. But
yet this business goes slowly on, and may be compared with that
where a man presseth out Grapes or Apples a little, and then
exposeth those Reliques of the press’d Grapes or Apples to the Air,
or else grinds Malt somewhat grosly and moistens it with water and
so sets it by that it may be endued with the nature and virtues of
Vinegar: It would indeed come to pass, but yet much slower than if
Wine, Ale, or other Drinks were set by so, without the huskiness or
bran: The same is to be observed in the making of Salt-petre. By
how much the more, the Air toucheth the Salts, so much the
speedier will it reduce them into living Nitre. This may be seen in old
walls that are built in moist places, you see how the Lime sprouts
out and is converted into Salt-petre. We see not the same thing
done in the inside of the wall, where the Air can cannot penetrate
into it. Hence know I of a truth, that it is not the husks of the
Grapes, nor the husks or bran of the Corn grows sour, but it is the
thin Juice or Liquor that is either pressed out of them, or extracted
with water. And I likewise see that ’tis not the Ashes, nor Calx vive,
nor the like calcined things that becomes Nitre, but only the Salt that
is hidden in them. Therefore seeing that all calcined things being
moistned with water and for a long time exposed to the warm Air do
extract a Life and become Salt-petre, and that the Ashes and Calx
are like a dead Earth and never yield Salt-petre, but remain a dead
Earth. Likewise, forasmuch as such Earth doth not at all conferr
ought to the generation and making of Salt-petre, but is rather every
where an hindrance thereunto, whereby the Air cannot associate it
self to the Salt; therefore do I separate the earth, body, shell, and
useless garment, and keep the Salt, and I introvert it by the Air and
turn it into Salt-nitre, but yet not without the addition of Water, in
which the Salt is dissolved and rendred more fit for extracting a Life
out of the Air; for otherwise should the Salt remain dry this
transmutation would be a tedious while a bringing to the desired
end.
If therefore the Salts that are prepared by the fire are dissolved in
water, and the water be together with it kept by peculiar
Instruments in perpetual motion, and some heat be also thereto
adjoined, so that there be not the least Atoms of the Salts to be
found which have not the uncessant penetration of the warm air,
and which are not animated, (because the warm air and motion do
in all places touch and vivify the Salts): Such an operation as this
does more in four Weeks, than if the Salt lay in the heaped up Earth
and open to the air (far longer) wherein it would not in a whole
years time attain to so great a change. But this perpetual agitation
and heating consisteth in a certain wooden Instrument which may of
its own accord by an unceasing motion heat the Salt-water, so as
that every Week a growing alteration may be evidently seen and
perceived. It is not of any great charge, and one may get ready as
many Vessels to be filled with Salt-water to make Salt-petre with (as
he pleaseth) for one Man can manage an hundred of them or more
and conserve them in continual heat and motion, so that a Man may
keep such an Art secret as long as he pleaseth. And as concerning
the ordering the salt by the help of the fire and getting it a
magnetick and attractive faculty afore it be dissolved in water to be
put into the Vessels; and also how the Vessels are to be prepared,
this cannot be conveniently declared in writing, but it is expedient
that as well the manual operations requisite for the endowing of salt
with a magnetick faculty, as the Instruments necessary for the
turning it into Salt-petre be also well lookt into, with all the
appurtenances thereto belonging. Any one will easily comprehend
them all, and be able to imitate them; yea far easier than any gross
or great work, and it may be improved in any subject whatever. It is
not any sordid kind of operation, but pure and clean, it needs not
any making of Lixiviums, nor any decoction, nor any evaporation,
but perfecteth it self without impediment or retarding the work, and
coagulates the Salt into Nitre. Verily it is a most delicate and most
profitable invention, from which many others may have a beginning
and flow.
Thus have we declared and proved that the soul of the World
vivifying dead salts, and turning them into Salt-petre, adds not unto
them either weight or encrease, and yet nevertheless it is of such
abundant efficacy and power as to reduce them all to Life, which Life
is no other thing but the little Bird of Hermes, and easily admits of
being esteemed for the most noble amongst all the Creatures G O D
hath made, set aside but the soul of Man, and may by the help of
Art be again extracted out of the Salt-petre. But that I may mention
the thing more openly and more clearly; I say, that the salts must
(by the help of Fire and Art) first get a magnetick and attractive
power and faculty afore they can draw a Life out of the air. Now
then, after that the universal Life of the World is caught and fettered
as it were by the salts, and hath turned the dead salts into living
nitre, yet that life lies hidden in that Salt-petre invisibly, and can but
a little or scarce any thing at all shew out or display its virtues by
reason of the Gross body of the salt.
NB. If so be that any one shall but know how to draw out this Life
again out of the Nitre, and bring it into a body, and make it visible,
he shall have a thing so admirable that he’ll scarce find the like (as I
believe) in all natural things. For there is such a sweet and red
Liquor, as to sight, thence had, that one only small drop will tinge a
thousand parts of water with a Golden colour: which (said Liquor) I
have not as yet brought to a constant or fixed Medicine, but do
make use of it in Medicine (as it is) and I find in it things wonderful.
But this little Bird (as far as I know) cannot be again extracted out of
the Nitre by any other subject than with a net artificially prepared of
Sheeps-skins.
Such a worthy thing as this is, do I rank in the number of great
secrets and mysteries, and I suppose it to be that work which the
knowledge desiring Jason, being holpen by Medea who was most
skilful in the Chymical Art, took away from the Dragon, and called it
the Golden Fleece: But I would not have any one perswade himself
that I speak here of such a Tincture as is extracted out of fixt Nitre
(and likewise the same is extractable out of Salt of Tartar) by Spirit
of Wine. No, that is no true Tincture, but the Spirit of Wine is
somewhat altered and tinged by the fixt salt. But that Liquor of mine
is the true, occult, and inmost Tincture, Virtue, and Life of the Nitre,
and is of a golden Nature, but plainly flying and volatile, one drop
whereof doth so gild an whole Imperial, as if it were gilt over with
Ducket Gold. This Tincture cannot be changed or altered by any
contrary Menstruum, be it Corrosive or Urinous, no nor by Aqua-
fortis, or Liquor of Salt of Tartar; the like of which is scarce to be
found in all nature.
For if there be a most delicate colour drawn out of the Vegetables,
as Cochenele, Saffron, and such like, by the help of the Spirit of
Wine, and there be dropt therein but one only drop of Aqua-fortis,
the colour will presently turn pale, and if you add more, it will vanish
for altogether. Or else if a drop of the Liquor of Salt of Tartar should
be put therein, it would presently change colour and become
duskyish. But now, this true Tincture of Nitre, or Soul of the World
suffers not any change from either of the contraries. And should one
have even a metallick Tincture, or extract even from Gold it self, yet
would it not stand in this tryal, but would be precipitated either by
the acid or the fixt salt, and separate from the Menstruums. But ours
doth constantly abide in every trial, and resists both the contraries.
I do therefore repeat what I have often said, that there is more
lies hidden in Nitre than many thousands of Men can perswade
themselves of. But because it is so vile and abject a thing, no body
thinks that there lies hidden any thing of good therein. But do but
read the chiefest of the Philosophers, and you shall therein find that
they do enigmatically point at Nitre, and do call it the Dragon which
is to be slain by its Brother or Sister afore it parts with its Treasure;
But enough of this.
The things hitherto mentioned, have I produced for this end, that
my Neighbour may be the better certified concerning them. All the
Philosophers Books are full of this thing, amongst whom, Hermes,
and Basil Valentine excel, who have written most clearly. Paracelsus
saith openly, Alchimy hath found it in Nitre. The late Philosopher
Nuisment, hath published a Treatise of the Salt and Spirit of the
World, and is verily most worthy the reading, which (said Book) I
commend to the Reader that studies these things. Therefore do I
here again repeat what I have so oft reiterated, viz. That Salt-petre
is the most admirable, the most excellent, and the most powerful
Subject of the whole World, whose wonderful properties cannot be
enough search’d into. But because it hath its rise from dung and
putrid rotten things the greatest company of foolish ones do despise
it, but the small company of Philosophers and Wise-men (who are
those that know what admirable virtues it has) do most highly
esteem it, and set thereon a great value. The well disposed Reader
will clearly find more as to its virtue and efficacy, in the three
following parts.
O thou the original of all good things, and Treasure of all
Treasures, vouchsafe that we may well and rightly improve this
earthly and fading Treasure, and may so search after, and use it unto
the end, that we lose not the chiefest good, but may rather find and
keep thee for ever.

An Admonition, adjoined as an Over-plus.

I n the first Chapter of this first part of the concentration of things,

have I plenarily manifested, by what means, new Wines and
Musts are (by the help of an Artificial condensation) to be brought
into a narrow compass, that so they might be carried into far remote
places wherein there are no Wines, and may there be sold to great
profit. But yet I forgot to shew, by what means the savour which the
winy Juices contracted in their concentration, is wholly to be taken
away in the fermentation when they are again dissolved in water,
that so the Wines made of those Juices may not have any untoward
and unpleasant taste. ’Tis an Artifice without which no man can
easily, quit himself in this Art of making Wine. But that I may certify
every one hereabouts, the Medium (or Basis) necessary about the
precipitation in this work is no other thing but common Sulphur
excellently well purified, a little portion whereof (according to the
nature and property or disposition of the Juices) is to be hereto
added, which must boil up (or ferment) with the Wine, that so it
may draw to it self all the filths, and all the strange odour, and
savour or taste in the fermentation and by precipitation cast them
down to the bottom, which being done the Wines become sweet,
clear, and get a good savour. Furthermore it is to be known by what
means (seeing that there are many fæces and defilements that will
separate themselves out of those kinds of Wines as well as out of
others, and settle to the bottom) even they are to be put to some
use, that so there may not be any loss, but that the gain may be by
so much the greater. Divers ways are there of making profit from
them; as for instance, The remaining Wines may by pressed out in
bags, or else they may be turned into Vinegar, or a spirit may be
thence destilled, and the remaining gross matter be boiled in water,
and the Tartar therein dissolved, and prest out in bags, that it may
so shoot into Tartar. But as touching this expression I have taken
care to have a peculiar Book published at Norimberg, (viz. The
Treatise of the Lees of Wine.) So that it is wholly needless to make
any mention of the same, in this place. The Courteous Reader may
use it to his occasions, as being such a Book, in which he will find
the said pressing out the Wine and Tartar, and also the making of
Vinegar, clearly described, with all the circumstances thereabouts,
and without all question if he rightly understands me, and sets about
the work, he will do himself a great deal of good.
NB. But if so be that any shall know the Art of turning the Tartar
of those Fæces into Salt-petre, (and such a thing may be done and
that in a very short time) he will get twice the profit, that is to be
gotten by making Tartar of them; forasmuch as he need not put
himself to the inconveniency of pressing them.
In the second Chapter of this first part where mention is made of
the concentration of Corn, there it has been alleadged that the
remaining husks or branny parts which remain after the extraction of
the Juices, may be made to yield as much yea more Moneys than
will pay the costs about the Corn. But it is well known, that those
reliques that are left in your boiling up of Ale, are improved to fatten
Beasts with. If now a Medimnus (a measure of about some 6
bushels) of Corn doth cost half, nay even a whole Imperial, those
reliques (that are left of it in working) can scarce cost less than one
eighth part of that Imperial. And now out of such a Medimnus or
measure of such reliques, they would very hardly when turned in the
Beasts, into nutriment, have made in them two pounds growth of
flesh, the price of which (said two pounds) would not amount to the
eighth part of the said Imperial: Whereas now, if those reliques were
handled after the afore-mentioned way of reducing Wood into
Juices, they would easily yield as much, or more Salt-petre than the
price of the Corn was at the beginning. So that here’s an enriching
Treasure offers it self to the pious and diligent Housholder, whereby
he may do good to those in need.
In the third Chapter of the first part, is mention made only of the
Concentration of Wood, of the pressing the Juices out of the Wood,
and of the making Nitre; But because there is not every where such
great quantity of Wood, as to imploy it to the making of Salt-petre
without omitting the more necessary use of it, yet notwithstanding
the case may be so ordered as that a great quantity of Salt-nitre
may be made of the Leaves of the Trees and the Grass that grows
under the Trees, and there’s no need to cut down the Trees, if a Man
has no mind so to do. Besides too, in such places where there’s but
little Wood and much Corn, even the very stubble or straw (of the
Corn) is fit enough to be made into Salt-petre. So that there is no
place where there is not matter found for the making of Salt-petre.
And therefore I cannot forbear but must needs teach all pious
Housholders (whether they have their Houses in Cities or in Villages)
a certain easie Artifice, by the help of which they may gather a
Treasure for their Children, without any labour and costs, and such a
one as Thieves can never rob them of.
And now, seeing I have revealed in this small Book, for the benefit
both of Rich and Poor, high and low, three Artifices or Workmanships
by which, Wine, Corn, and Wood may be made more profitable; but
yet have not brought any assisting help to such as want both Wine,
Corn, and Wood, I have judged it worth the while (that so even they
who have nothing, and yet nevertheless desire to provide for their
Wives and Children in some honest way) to bestow on them a secret
Art, whereby they may seek their advantage or profit. And I hope
the thing will redound to the Honour of God, and to all our Healths.
 Besides, I will shew a way to such as have no inheritance left
them from their Parents, nor have any thing come to them by
Marriage, by what means they may without labour and trouble get a
Treasure for their Children.
First of all, Let such a one take care to have some shade or hovel
made, to join to that side of his dwelling that lies in the middle ’twixt
the North and the East part of Heaven, or some other more
convenient place, so as to admit the Sun and Air to it, but to keep
off the Rain. Under this Pent-house or Hovel, let him dig a large Pit,
and with the Earth he digs out let him make banks round the Pits-
mouth that so it may keep the Rain off of every side. This done, let
him each day in every year, or whensoever he can conveniently carry
and throw into that Pit these following matters, so long till his
necessity forceth him to dig all out again, and to see how much
Treasure he hath gotten, even whilest he slept. Now these matters
are, All sharp and bitter Herbs, growing in by places, amongst
bushes, and in the way sides, and such as the Beasts feed not on, as
Esula, Cicuta or Hemlock, Hen bane, Fumitory, the thick stalks of
Tabaco that are thrown away in those places where it is planted, the
hard stalks of Colwort, which the Beasts eat not of, and likewise all
those things they leave in their Troughs; likewise Firr tops or Apples
if you have them at hand; also the Leaves that fall from the Trees in
Autumn are to be gathered; also Pigeons-dung, and Hens-dung,
Birds and Hens Feathers; all the Ashes which Women usually make
their Lees with, and other Ashes that are not fit for that use, as also
such out of which the Lixivium or Lee is already extracted; the soot
of Chimneys, Hogs hairs, the horns of Oxen and Cows, and the
bones which the Dogs eat not of. All these matters may he throw
into his Pit, and that he may the sooner fill it, he may gather as
much as ever he can from the bordering places, and throw it therein,
that so in one or two years time he may with all those things fill up
his Pit. Mean while he must pour into the Pit the piss gathered in his
House, and that he may have enough he must also get as much as
he can from his Neighbours, so as to keep the things thrown in the
Pit in a continual moisture, whereby they may the sooner putrefy. In
want of Urine, common Water may be taken; if Sea-water or other
Salt-water can be had, it will be the better. Also the Brine of Fishes-
pickle, and the salting or salt-water that Flesh is macerated (or
pickled) in are of good use in this business; likewise the Blood of
Oxen, Cows, Calves, Sheep, which you may easily have at the
Butchers; all these things putrefying together do put on the nature
and property of Salt-petre.
If now, all those matters in your full pit shall have well putrefied,
then cease from pouring on any more moisture, and all the things
are to be left so long till they are dried. And then if you need Money,
let a Salt-petre maker be sought for, and bargain with him about the
price of drawing out your Salt-petre by water, of making it, and
selling it. This done, cast the remaining Earth again into the Pit,
together with the remaining Lixivium that shot not into Nitre, and
there leave it for a year or two, and moisten it sometimes with
Urine, or if you have not this, with common Water. This Earth will
again yield Salt-nitre, but not above half so much as at first.
NB. If you stand not in need of Money, let the matter lie, and as
oft as it dries, so often moisten it again with the aforesaid moisture,
that so the Nitre may more and more grow and increase. By this
means shall such a one gather a secret Treasure, & shall not know
almost how he came by it. If he needs it not himself, his Children will
find it. Thieves & Souldiers will not steal it away. If one Pit be full
then another may be made, that so nothing at all of those matters,
which otherwise are most base, (but in this case most suitable) may
be lost. Now if there were but only one in every Village that were
appointed to exercise this Labour, there would be found out as it
were in a small Country many thousand hundreds of Salt-petre, and
so these matters still serving for the same use, there would never be
any scarcity of Salt-petre. And now, Nitre being present, Gold and
Silver are not far off. Let every one observe this, and esteem it. Men
will sometime or other at last, become thrifty and wise, and will see
what blindness they have been possessed with.
 Give G O D the thanks, and be helpful to thy Neighbour. G O D hath
bestowed on me, I bestow on thee, do thou likewise bestow
somewhat upon thy Neighbour, and it will be well with us all.
 THE SECOND PART
OF

The Prosperity of Germany:

Wherein is shewn,

By what means Minerals may be Concentrated

by Nitre, and turned into
Metalick, and better Bodies.

For the benefit of my Country, and of all such as affectionately

and industriously follow after
Metalick Affairs.

Friendly Reader,

I
have taught in the first part of this Book, by what way the
Vegetables, as Wine, and Ale, are to be concentrated, whereby
they may yield more profit than hitherto they have done, and
also, how Wood is to be reduced into Salt-petre. In this present
Second part, shall be taught, how the Salt-petre is to be used, and
how, by it Minerals may be Concentrated, and wrought into Metalick
Bodies. And as to this Concentration, thus stands the case; that is to
say, forasmuch as a good part of Minerals are of very little use, and
lie neglected as things of no worth, and prove not profitable to any
one, (whereas if there were Men that understood but the Art of it,
there might redound a great benefit to the Lands where they are). It
hath seemed to me worth while to declare it to my Country, nor