7. Discuss the theories related to family process and show their applicability in your society.

Answers

Introduction

Family process refers to the dynamic interactions, patterns, and communication styles within a
family. It encompasses the various ways family members relate to one another, resolve conflicts,
make decisions, and fulfill their roles and responsibilities. Family process is a crucial concept in
understanding the functioning of a family unit, and it plays a significant role in the assessment,
intervention, and support provided by social workers and professionals in family services.

A theory is a set of interrelated concepts used to describe, explain, and predict how society and
its parts are related to each other.

Theories related to family processes provide frameworks for comprehending the intricate
dynamics, interactions, and functioning within families. These theories guide practitioners in
assessing, intervening, and supporting families in various contexts. In this discussion, we'll delve
into some prominent theories related to family processes, highlighting their key concepts and
offering relevant examples to illustrate their application.

FAMILY DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY

Family Developmental Theory dates back to the 1930s and has been influenced by sociologists,
demographers, and family and consumer scientists, as well as others. It is used to explain
patterns of change, the dynamic nature of families, and how change occurs within the family life
cycle. Family Developmental Theory was originally focused on stages of the family life cycle.
According to Evelyn Duvall the stages are as follows.

Stage 1: Married Couples without Children.

Stage 2: Childbearing Families which starts at the birth of the first child and continues until the
oldest child is 2½ years old.

Stage 3: Families with Pre-School Children where the oldest child is 2½ -6 years old.

Stage 4: Families with Schoolchildren where the oldest child is 6-13 years old.
Stage 5: Families with Teenagers where the oldest child is 13-20 years old.

Stage 6: Families as Launching Centers. This starts when the first child leaves home and
continues until the last child leaves home.

Stage 7: Middle-Age Parents which continues until retirement. Stage 8: Aging Families which
continues until the death of one spouse.6

Theorists found over time that many families did not fit this model. For example many children
who had launched had returned to the family home, often with children of their own. Newer
models of this theory focused more on the roles and relationships within the family. The theory
still focuses on developmental tasks which are the growth responsibilities that arise at certain
stages in the life of the family. To be successful, family members need to adapt to changing
needs and demands and to attend to tasks that are necessary to ensure family survival.

The major assumptions of this theory include the importance of individual development but
stress that the development of the group of interacting individuals is most important.
Developmental processes are inevitable and important in understanding families. Growth from
one stage to another is going to happen. Families and individuals change over a period of time–
they progress through a series of similar developmental stages and face similar transition points
and developmental tasks.

To understand the family we must consider the challenges they face in each stage, how well they
resolve them, and how well they transition to the next stage. The success or difficulty of
achieving the developmental tasks in each stage leads to readiness for the next stage. The major
criticism of this theory is its lack of ability to account for different family forms, and gender,
ethnic, and cultural differences. It isn’t culturally relevant or sensitive to other life style choices
(e.g., childless families).

THE LIFE COURSE PERSPECTIVE

The life course perspective is prominent within the fields of family sociology and aging. It is a
lens with which to view the age-related transitions that are socially created and are recognized
and shared by members of a society. It aids in our understanding of change among individuals
and populations over time by looking at the interrelation between individual biography and
historical social structures.8

The life course perspective is a theoretical framework that focuses on the timing of events that
occur in an individual’s lifetime. A life course view of marriage is of an ongoing career that
occurs within the context of other life course events. 9 The essential elements of the life course
perspective include five themes: 1.) multiple time clocks, 2.) social context of development, 3.)
dynamic view of process and change, 4.) heterogeneity in structures and processes, and 5.) a
multidisciplinary view.

The first element is a focus on multiple time clocks or events that impact the individual. These
multiple time clocks include ontogenetic, or individual, time which is comprised of personal
events, generational time which consists of family transitions or events, and historical time
which refers to social events. It is crucial to recognize the importance of the interactions of these
time frames, since for instance historical events will impact individual’s life trajectories, such as
the events of war or economic depression. Changes over historical time, such as the advent of
no-fault divorce interact with generational time to increase the number of children whose parents
divorce, which in turn interacts with individual time and may bring about a personal choice to
divorce.

Second, the social context of development is also a focus of this perspective. One’s location
within the broader social structure, the social creation of meanings, cultural context and change,
and the interplay of macro- and micro-levels of development play an important role in the life
course perspective.

Third, the life course perspective has a dynamic view of process and change. It focuses on the
dialectic of continuity and change in human development. Age, period, and cohort effects are
linked by their interaction with one another link microlevel and macrolevel phenomena. This
perspective allows the researcher to disentangle the effects of age, period, and cohort to obtain a
more accurate picture of family dynamics. Age effects are an artifact of maturation of individuals
while period effects influence the life courses of individuals across birth cohorts. Cohort effects
cause a differentiation in life patterns of consecutive birth cohorts.10
The fourth theme of the life course perspective looks at heterogeneity in structures and
processes. It acknowledges diversity across the range of patterns–increasing diversity over time
with age at the cohort and individual level, and diversity over time with social change.

The fifth theme emphasizes the utility of multidisciplinary perspectives on development.

Development is biological, psychological, and social and all of these perspectives must be
considered when studying human development.11

The life course perspective is not merely a variation of developmental theories since the latter
emphasizes a normative sequence of stages in one’s life. The life course perspective
acknowledges the variance in the possible sequence of events, as well as, the omission of some
events, such as not having children. This perspective also acknowledges the effect of social and
historical events on the individual’s life course (e.g., war). Life course scholars also are aware of
the intra-cohort differences that are influenced by these social and historical events. The life
course perspective views marriage as the uniting of two separate life histories which have been
influenced by social events of the past and will be influenced by social events of the future.

SYSTEMS THEORY

Systems theory views the family as an interconnected system where changes in one part affect
the whole. It emphasizes the importance of examining the family as a unit with interdependent
components. For example, If a family member experiences a significant life event, such as job
loss, it can influence the entire family system. The stress and changes resulting from the job loss
may impact communication patterns, roles within the family, and overall dynamics.

Assumptions: Systems Theory, within the context of family processes, operates on several key
assumptions:

 Interconnectedness: It assumes that family members are interconnected and that their
actions and behaviors influence each other. Changes in one part of the system have ripple
effects throughout the entire family.

 Holism: The family is viewed as a whole entity, more than just the sum of its individual
members. Understanding the family as a system requires looking at the interactions,
relationships, and dynamics within the unit.
 Equifinality: This principle suggests that there can be multiple paths to achieving the same
outcome. Families may display different patterns of behavior but still achieve a balanced and
functional state.

 Feedback: Systems receive feedback from their environment, and families, similarly, receive
feedback about their functioning. This feedback loop is essential for the family to adapt and
respond to changes.

Limitations: Despite its usefulness, Systems Theory does have limitations:

 Complexity: While the theory simplifies the understanding of complex family dynamics, it
might oversimplify the intricate nature of human relationships within a family.

 Cultural sensitivity: The theory may not adequately account for cultural variations in family
structures and dynamics, requiring additional considerations in cross-cultural applications.

Applicability of System theory in of Uganda

Extended family structures: in Uganda, where extended family systems are common, Systems
Theory can help in understanding the interconnectedness of various generations and branches
within the extended family.

Rural-urban dynamics: Given the diversity between rural and urban settings in Uganda,
Systems Theory can be applied to analyze how changes in one part of the family system (e.g.,
migration to urban areas) impact the entire family structure.

Cultural practices: Systems Theory can help in examining the influence of cultural practices,
rituals, and norms on family dynamics in Uganda, recognizing that these elements are
interconnected and contribute to the overall functioning of the family.

Educational opportunities: Examining how educational opportunities within a family impact

the entire system, considering that one individual's education may have cascading effects on the
family's socio-economic status and dynamics.
Healthcare access: Understanding the family as a system is crucial in addressing healthcare
disparities. Systems Theory can be applied to explore how access to healthcare resources or
information influences the overall health and well-being of the family.

Gender roles: Systems Theory can help analyze the interconnectedness of gender roles within
Ugandan families, considering how changes in the roles of men and women may affect family
dynamics and relationships.

Social support networks: Systems Theory can be applied to assess how social support networks
within the community contribute to or hinder the functioning of families in Uganda, recognizing
the importance of external influences.

Economic influences: Examining the interconnectedness of economic factors within the family
system, including income sources, livelihoods, and financial decision-making, can be facilitated
by the application of Systems Theory.

In summary, Systems Theory provides a valuable lens for understanding family processes in
Uganda, particularly in the context of its extended family structures, cultural diversity, and socio-
economic dynamics. However, it is essential to apply the theory with sensitivity to cultural
nuances and recognize its limitations in capturing the full complexity of family life in diverse
contexts.

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM

This theory posits that families serve specific functions in society, and each family member has
roles contributing to the overall stability and functionality of the family unit. For example, in a
traditional nuclear family, the father may be seen as the breadwinner (economic provider), while
the mother assumes responsibilities related to caregiving and nurturing. Each role contributes to
the family's overall functionality.

Assumptions

Structural Functionalism, in the realm of family processes, operates on certain assumptions:

 Social order: Assumes that society is a system with interconnected parts, and each part
contributes to the overall stability and order.
 Functional roles: Views families as having specific functions or roles that contribute to the
well-being of both the family and society.

 Interdependence: Emphasizes the interdependence of family members and the idea that
each member has a role contributing to the overall stability of the family unit.

Limitations

While Structural Functionalism provides a useful framework, it has limitations:

 Ignores conflict: Tends to overlook conflict and tension within families, focusing more on
the harmonious aspects. In reality, families may experience conflicts that are crucial to
understanding their dynamics.

 Assumption of stability: Assumes that societies and families are stable entities, which might
not always reflect the dynamic and changing nature of social structures.

Applicability in Uganda

Role of elders: In Ugandan families, especially in rural areas, elders play crucial roles in
decision-making and guidance. Applying Structural Functionalism can help analyze how these
roles contribute to the stability and order of the family.

Rural agricultural functions: Given the prevalence of agrarian societies in Uganda, Structural
Functionalism can be applied to understand how different family members contribute to
agricultural activities, ensuring the family's sustenance and economic stability.

Gender roles: The theory can be applied to analyze traditional gender roles within Ugandan
families, examining how these roles contribute to the overall functioning and stability of the
family unit.

Educational functions: Structural Functionalism can help analyze the roles of education within
Ugandan families, understanding how educational attainment contributes to the overall stability
of the family and its position in society.
Religious functions: Given the significance of religious practices in many Ugandan families, the
theory can be applied to understand how religious roles contribute to the family's moral and
ethical stability.

Extended family support: In Uganda, where extended family structures are common, Structural
Functionalism can help analyze how different family members contribute to the support and
well-being of the entire family system.

Community cohesion: Examining how families contribute to the cohesion of the wider
community and how the community, in turn, supports individual families aligns with the
principles of Structural Functionalism.

Ceremonial functions: The theory can be applied to understand the ceremonial functions within
Ugandan families, such as rites of passage, weddings, and funerals, and how these events
contribute to social order and cohesion.

The Structural Functionalism provides a lens for understanding the roles and functions within
Ugandan families, particularly in the context of traditional roles, agrarian lifestyles, and extended
family structures. However, it's important to approach its application with an awareness of its
limitations and the need for a nuanced understanding of the complexities of family life in diverse
cultural contexts.

SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY

Social Exchange Theory views relationships, including family relationships, as transactions

where individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs. It emphasizes reciprocity and
mutual benefit. For example, in a family context, one member might take on additional
responsibilities if they believe it leads to positive outcomes, such as increased support or
appreciation from other family members.

Assumptions

Social Exchange Theory, within the context of family processes, operates on certain
assumptions:
 Rational decision-making: Assumes individuals are rational actors who make decisions
based on maximizing rewards and minimizing costs in their relationships.

 Reciprocity: Emphasizes the principle of reciprocity, where individuals expect a return for
what they invest in a relationship. This reciprocity is seen as essential for the stability of
relationships.

 Comparison level: Individuals have a comparison level that represents their expectations
about what they deserve in a relationship. This influences their satisfaction and commitment
to the relationship.

Limitations

Despite its usefulness, Social Exchange Theory has limitations:

 Emotion and altruism: The theory may oversimplify complex human emotions and
altruistic behaviors, as it primarily focuses on rational decision-making and self-interest.
 Cultural variations: It may not fully account for cultural variations in how individuals
perceive and engage in social exchange, as cultural norms and values can significantly
influence relationship dynamics.

Applicability in Uganda

Resource sharing: Social Exchange Theory can be applied to understand how family members
in Uganda engage in resource-sharing practices, such as labor, finances, and caregiving, based on
the expectation of reciprocal benefits.

Arranged marriages: In some Ugandan communities, where arranged marriages are still
prevalent, the theory can help analyze how individuals and families weigh the costs and benefits
of such arrangements.

Economic contributions: Examining how different family members contribute economically to

the household aligns with the principles of Social Exchange Theory, as individuals contribute
resources with the expectation of receiving benefits in return.
Caretaking responsibilities: The theory can be applied to understand how caregiving
responsibilities are distributed within families in Uganda, and how individuals assess the costs
and benefits of providing care.

Educational investments: Analyzing decisions related to investing in the education of family

members aligns with the theory's focus on the exchange of resources with the expectation of
future returns.

Inheritance practices: Social Exchange Theory can be applied to understand inheritance

practices within Ugandan families, where decisions about the distribution of assets are often
influenced by expectations of reciprocal benefits.

Social support networks: Examining how social support is exchanged within extended families
and communities in Uganda aligns with the theory's emphasis on the reciprocity of social
exchanges.

Decision-making processes: The theory can be applied to analyze family decision-making

processes, such as those related to financial investments, where individuals assess costs and
benefits before making commitments.

The Social Exchange Theory provides insights into the rational decision-making processes and
the exchange of resources within Ugandan families. Applying this theory helps to understand the
dynamics of resource-sharing, decision-making, and reciprocity within the cultural context of
Uganda. However, its limitations should be kept in mind, and the theory should be used in
conjunction with other frameworks for a comprehensive understanding of family processes.

CONFLICT THEORY

Conflict Theory posits that societal structures and institutions, including families, are
characterized by power imbalances and struggles. It examines how conflicts arise and are
resolved within families. For example, a power struggle between parents over decision-making
may result in conflicts within the family. Understanding power dynamics helps in addressing
issues related to control and decision authority.

Assumptions
Conflict Theory, in the context of family processes, operates on several assumptions:

 Power imbalances: Assumes that society and social structures, including families, are
characterized by power imbalances. These power imbalances can lead to conflicts as
individuals and groups pursue their interests.

 Inequality: Emphasizes the existence of social inequality and how it contributes to tension
and conflict within families. This inequality can be based on factors such as socio-economic
status, gender, or other forms of privilege.

 Change through conflict: Views conflict as a catalyst for social change. It suggests that
addressing conflicts can lead to the restructuring of social systems and the pursuit of greater
equality.

Limitations: While Conflict Theory provides valuable insights, it has limitations:

 Overemphasis on conflict: The theory may be criticized for its overemphasis on conflict,
potentially neglecting aspects of cooperation, consensus, and shared values within families.

 Lack of attention to stability: The focus on conflict might overshadow the stability and
order that also exist within families. Not all family dynamics are characterized solely by
tension and struggle.

Applicability in Uganda

Gender inequality: Applying Conflict Theory in Ugandan families involves examining how
gender inequality contributes to conflicts, particularly in decision-making, resource distribution,
and access to opportunities.

Generational conflicts: In societies with strong cultural traditions like Uganda, Conflict Theory
can be applied to analyze conflicts between different generations, especially when traditional
values clash with modern expectations.

Land and property disputes: Given the importance of land in Ugandan culture, conflicts
related to land and property distribution can be analyzed through Conflict Theory, focusing on
power struggles and inequality.
Access to education: Examining how conflicts arise within families over decisions related to
education, especially if there are disparities in access based on gender or socio-economic status.

Polygamous relationships: In contexts where polygamous relationships are prevalent, Conflict

Theory can be applied to analyze power dynamics and conflicts that may arise among co-wives
and their children.

Intra-family power struggles: Analyzing power struggles within nuclear and extended families,
particularly concerning decision-making authority, economic control, and resource allocation.

Marital conflicts: Conflict Theory can be applied to understand the sources of marital conflicts
in Uganda, such as economic disparities, differing expectations, or external pressures.

Cultural shifts: As Uganda undergoes cultural shifts and modernization, Conflict Theory can
help analyze tensions arising from changing values, beliefs, and expectations within families.

In summary, Conflict Theory offers insights into power dynamics, inequality, and sources of
conflict within Ugandan families. Applying this theory helps to understand the social tensions
and struggles that may shape family relationships, especially in the context of cultural traditions
and socio-economic dynamics. However, it's crucial to balance the perspective by considering
aspects of cooperation and stability within families as well.

ATTACHMENT THEORY

Attachment Theory focuses on the emotional bonds between family members, particularly
parent-child relationships. It explores how these bonds influence emotional and social
development. For example, a child securely attached to a parent is likely to feel more confident
exploring the world. In contrast, an insecurely attached child might exhibit anxiety and difficulty
forming relationships.

Assumptions

Attachment Theory, within the context of family processes, operates on several key assumptions:

 Formation of emotional bonds: Assumes that early experiences, especially in the parent-
child relationship, significantly influence the formation of emotional bonds and attachments.
 Impact on development: Posits that the quality of early attachments can impact an
individual's emotional and social development throughout their lifespan.

 Secure base: Emphasizes the importance of a primary caregiver as a "secure base" from
which individuals can explore the world and develop a sense of security.

Limitations: While Attachment Theory provides valuable insights, it has limitations:

 Cultural variations: The theory's emphasis on the mother-child relationship and its
applicability across diverse cultural contexts might not fully account for cultural variations in
caregiving practices and family structures.

 Later attachments: While the theory primarily focuses on early childhood attachments, it
may not fully capture the complexity of attachment processes in later stages of life, such as
adolescence and adulthood.

Applicability in Uganda

Parent-child relationships: Applying Attachment Theory in Ugandan families involves

examining the quality of parent-child relationships and how early attachments influence
children's emotional well-being and development.

Impact of separation: Given the societal challenges in Uganda, such as migration for work or
internal displacement, Attachment Theory can be applied to understand the impact of separations
on children and their emotional attachments.

Caretaking practices: Examining how caregiving practices, including breastfeeding and

physical closeness, contribute to the formation of secure attachments and emotional bonds in
Ugandan families.

Extended family attachments: In Uganda, where extended family structures are common,
Attachment Theory can be applied to analyze how children form attachments with various family
members and the impact of these attachments on their emotional development.
Effects of trauma: Considering the history of conflicts and displacement in Uganda, Attachment
Theory can be used to understand how traumatic experiences impact attachment patterns within
families and communities.

Influence on intergenerational relationships: Examining how attachment patterns established

in childhood influence intergenerational relationships, including the relationships between
grandparents, parents, and grandchildren.

Impact on marital relationships: Attachment Theory can be applied to understand how early
attachment experiences influence individuals' patterns of attachment in marital relationships,
affecting communication and emotional intimacy.

Caregiver transitions: In cases where caregiving responsibilities shift between family members,
such as due to illness or migration, Attachment Theory can help analyze how these transitions
impact the emotional well-being of individuals, especially children.

Attachment Theory provides insights into the emotional bonds and relationships within Ugandan
families. It helps understand how early attachments shape individuals' emotional development
and the dynamics of attachment in different family structures. However, it's essential to consider
the cultural context and the influence of factors such as extended family relationships and
societal challenges on attachment processes.

Conclusion

These theories provide valuable frameworks for comprehending the complexities of family
processes. Social workers and professionals in family services can draw on these theories to
inform their practice, tailoring interventions to address specific family dynamics and enhance
overall well-being. By applying these theories, practitioners can foster healthier family processes
and contribute to the development of resilient and supportive family systems. In essence, the
application of these theories to Ugandan families showcases the richness and diversity of family
life. A nuanced approach, considering the strengths and limitations of each theory, allows for a
more comprehensive understanding of the intricate web of relationships, roles, and dynamics that
characterize families in Uganda and beyond.

ECOLOGICAL THEORY
The major assumptions of Ecological Theory are that humans are interdependent with the
environment; the whole system and its parts are interdependent and operate in relation to each
other; a change in any part of the system affects the system as a whole and also the other parts of
the system; all humans are interdependent with the resources of the world; the family is the
foremost setting in which development occurs; the family interacts with more than one
environment; interactions are regulated by the laws of nature and human-derived rules. Figure 5
shows the model with its systems. It is depicted as concentric circles with the person of interest
in the center. Each larger circle is a system that is less directly connected to the individual in the
center although it does have some influence over the person.

The microsystem is the immediate social settings which an individual is involved in. There is
focus on face-to-face interactions. Family, school, work, church, and peer groups are typically
within the microsystem. The mesosystem links two microsystems together, direct or indirectly.
For example, a 10-year old child is at the center of the model so his family is one of his
microsystems and his classroom at school is another microsystem; the interaction is these two is
one of his mesosystems. An example of this interaction is a parent-teacher conference

The exosystem are settings in which the person does not actively participate but in which
significant decisions are made affecting other individuals who do interact directly with the
person. Examples of a child’s exosystem would be neighborhood/community structures or
parents work environment. The macrosystem is the “blueprints” for defining and organizing the
institutional life of the society, including overarching patterns of culture, politics, economy, etc.
The chronosystem encompasses change or consistency over time in the characteristics of the
person and the environment in which the person lives (e.g., changes in family structure, SES,
place of residence and community, society, cultural, and historical changes).25

An example of how we might view a child of divorce with the Ecological Theory would be that
his family configuration has changed (microsystem); one parent doesn’t come to parent-teacher
conferences anymore (mesosystem); his mom has to get a full time job and work more hours and
be away from him for more hours per day (exosystem); society’s views of divorce may make it
easy or difficult for him to deal with the divorce (macrosystem); and his SES may have declined,
his family structure has changed, his place of residence may have changed. An Ecological
Theorist would start his research by investigating these areas of the child’s life.
FEMINIST FAMILY THEORY

Feminist theory is a theoretical perspective that is couched primarily in Conflict Theory

assumptions, but has added the dimension of sex or gender to the study of society. Feminist
theorists focus on the inequality of power between men and women in society and in family life.
The feminist perspective is about choice and about equally valuing the choices individuals
make.26 Feminist theories are a group of theories which focus on four important themes:
recognition of women’s oppression; an examination of what contributes to the maintenance of
that oppression; a commitment to ending the unjust subordination; a futuristic vision of
equality.27

Women’s subordination appears in works of Plato, who believed that men were more virtuous by
nature, and others who believed men had more intellectual and reasoning capabilities. Following
the industrial revolution, the women’s movement emerged in the 19th century. Elizabeth Cady

Stanton established the National Organization of Women (NOW). Susan B. Anthony was chosen
to represent the Suffragists (women who worked for the vote for women) because of her less
radical views. By the 1880s there was widespread support for obtaining the vote. Many believed
women deserved the vote due to their maternal virtues while others believed women and men
were equal in endowments. Women won the right to vote in 1920. In the 1960s there was a
resurgence of the feminist movement which grew from the movement for the rights of African
Americans. This wave of the feminist movement focused on equal pay for equal work,
dissatisfaction and depression among American housewives, and power as central to the social
construction of gender.28

The major assumptions of feminist theories are that women are oppressed; a focus on the
centrality, normality, and importance of women’s experience; gender is socially constructed; the
analyses of gender should include the larger socio-cultural context; and the term “family”
supports women’s oppression because it contains class, cultural, and heterosexual biases.29

Liberal feminists believe gender should not be a barrier since men and women are endowed with
the same rational and spiritual capacities. They are committed to social and legal reforms that
will create equal opportunities for women, ending sex discrimination, and challenging sex
stereotyping.30 Social feminists believe women are oppressed by capitalism. Their focus is on
redefining capitalism in relation to women’s work. Radical feminist theories insist the oppression
of women is fundamental. Radical feminists believe the current patriarchal system must be
eliminated. Attention is directed towards issues of the body such as men’s control over women’s
sexuality and reproduction, and men’s use of rape and violence to violate women.31

The strengths of feminist theories are that they can be applied to a broad range of issues and they
provide valuable critique of other theories and perspectives that lack a focus on gender and
power. These theories are limited in that research and practice are often emotionally charged and
there can be an overemphasis on gender and power.
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4. Dahrendorf, R. (1959). Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Society. Stanford University
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5. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and Loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. Basic Books.

6. Kirst-Ashman, K. K., & Hull, G. H. (2017). Understanding Generalist Practice. Cengage

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Function to Competence. Routledge.