OSI Model

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The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model, created in 1984 by ISO,
is a reference framework that explains the process of transmitting data
between computers.
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It is divided into seven layers that work together to carry out specialised
network functions, allowing for a more systematic approach to
networking.
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The OSI model provides a theoretical foundation for understanding
network communication.
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However, it is usually not directly implemented in its entirety in real-
world networking hardware or software. Instead, specific protocols and
technologies are often designed based on the principles outlined in the
OSI model to facilitate efficient data transmission and networking
operations.
OSI Model
 OSI Model
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Each layer adds specific
information to ensure the
data reaches its
destination correctly, and
these steps are reversed
upon arrival.
 Physical Layer – Layer 1
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Functions of the Physical Layer
– Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the
bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at the bit level.
– Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the
number of bits sent per second.
– Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes
are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
– Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are
Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.
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Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
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Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower
Layers or Hardware Layers .
 Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
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It is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the
message.
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The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
– Logical Link Control (LLC)
– Media Access Control (MAC)
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Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network
Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
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Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
 Data Link Layer (DLL) – Layer 2
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Functions of the Data Link Layer:
– Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
– Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (
MAC addresses ) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
– Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it
detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
– Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before
receiving an acknowledgment.
– Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices,
the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control
over the channel at a given time.
 Network Layer – Layer 3
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The network layer works for the transmission of data
from one host to the other located in different networks.
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It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the
shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of
routes available.
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The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the
header by the network layer.
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Network layer is implemented by networking devices
such as routers and switches.
 Network Layer – Layer 3
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Functions of the Network Layer:
– Routing: The network layer protocols determine which
route is suitable from source to destination. This function
of the network layer is known as routing.
– Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-
network uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses
are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an
address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.
 Transport Layer – Layer 4
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The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes
services from the network layer.
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The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
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It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message.
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The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and re-transmits the data if an error is found.
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Data in the Transport Layer is called Segments.
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Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS
and communicates with the Application Layer by making system calls.
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The transport layer is called as Heart of the OSI model.
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Device or Protocol Use : TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP
 Transport Layer – Layer 4
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Functions of the Transport Layer:
– Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from
the (session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at
the destination station reassembles the message.
– Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process,
the transport layer header includes a type of address called service point
address or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport
layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process.
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Services Provided by Transport Layer
– Connection-Oriented Service
– Connectionless Service
 Session Layer – Layer 5
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Functions of the Session Layer
– Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The
layer allows the two processes to establish, use, and terminate a
connection.
– Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints
that are considered synchronization points in the data. These
synchronization points help to identify the error so that the data is
re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
– Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Presentation Layer – Layer 6
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Functions of the Presentation Layer
– Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC .
– Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the
data into another form or code. The encrypted data is
known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known
as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as
decrypting data.
– Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be
transmitted on the network.
 Application Layer – Layer 7
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Functions of the Application Layer:
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Network Virtual Terminal (NVT): It allows a user to log on to a
remote host.
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File Transfer Access and Management (FTAM): This application
allows a user to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a
remote host, and manage or control files from a remote computer.
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Mail Services: Provide email service.
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Directory Services: This application provides distributed database
sources and access for global information about various objects and
services.
 TCP/IP Model
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TCP/IP protocol ( Transfer Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) was created by U.S. Department of
Defense’s Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) in 1970s.
OSI vs TCP/IP
 OSI vs TCP/IP
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TCP/IP model consists of 4 layers but OSI model has 7 layers. Layers
5,6,7 of the OSI model are combined into the Application Layer of
TCP/IP model and OSI layers 1 and 2 are combined into Network
Access Layers of TCP/IP protocol.
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The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model, hence it is a
foundational protocol that defines how should data be transferred
online.
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Compared to the OSI model, the TCP/IP model has less strict layer
boundaries.
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All layers of the TCP/IP model are needed for data transmission but in
the OSI model, some applications can skip certain layers. Only layers
1,2 and 3 of the OSI model are necessary for data transmission.
 Pros and Cons of OSI Model
● Advantages of OSI Model
It divides network communication into 7 layers which makes it easier to understand and troubleshoot.
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It standardizes network communications, as each layer has fixed functions and protocols.
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Diagnosing network problems is easier with the OSI model .
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It is easier to improve with advancements as each layer can get updates separately.
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● Disadvantages of OSI Model
Complexity: The OSI Model has seven layers, which can be complicated and hard to understand for
– beginners.
Not Practical: In real-life networking, most systems use a simpler model called the Internet protocol suite
– (TCP/IP), so the OSI Model isn’t always directly applicable.
Slow Adoption: When it was introduced, the OSI Model was not quickly adopted by the industry, which
– preferred the simpler and already-established TCP/IP model.
Overhead: Each layer in the OSI Model adds its own set of rules and operations, which can make the
– process more time-consuming and less efficient.
Theoretical: The OSI Model is more of a theoretical framework, meaning it’s great for understanding
– concepts but not always practical for implementation.
 Pros and Cons of TCP/IP Model
● Advantages of TCP/IP Model
– Interoperability: The TCP/IP model allows different types of computers and
networks to communicate with each other, promoting compatibility and
cooperation among diverse systems.
– Scalability: TCP/IP is highly scalable, making it suitable for both small and
large networks, from local area networks (LANs) to wide area networks
(WANs) like the internet.
– Standardization: It is based on open standards and protocols, ensuring that
different devices and software can work together without compatibility issues.
– Flexibility: The model supports various routing protocols, data types, and
communication methods, making it adaptable to different networking needs.
– Reliability: TCP/IP includes error-checking and retransmission features that
ensure reliable data transfer, even over long distances and through various
network conditions.
 Pros and Cons of TCP/IP Model
● Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model
Complex Configuration: Setting up and managing a TCP/IP network can be complex,
– especially for large networks with many devices. This complexity can lead to
configuration errors.
Security Concerns: TCP/IP was not originally designed with security in mind. While
– there are now many security protocols available (such as SSL/TLS), they have been
added on top of the basic TCP/IP model, which can lead to vulnerabilities.
Inefficiency for Small Networks: For very small networks, the overhead and complexity
– of the TCP/IP model may be unnecessary and inefficient compared to simpler networking
protocols.
Limited by Address Space: Although IPv6 addresses this issue, the older IPv4 system
– has a limited address space, which can lead to issues with address exhaustion in larger
networks.
Data Overhead: TCP, the transport protocol, includes a significant amount of overhead to
– ensure reliable transmission. This can reduce efficiency, especially for small data packets
or in networks where speed is crucial.
 Network Devices
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Hubs,
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Repeaters,
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Cables,
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Modems,
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Routers,
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Switches,
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Gateways
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Firewalls and
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Access Points
 Repeaters & Hubs

A repeater is a network interconnection device with two interfaces that regenerates

signals coming in one interface onto the other.

Repeaters:
• Use no logic in regenerating signals, thus data and noise are both regenerated
by the repeater.
• Can be used to extend the range of a single LAN.
• Operate at Layer 1 (Physical Layer) of the TCP/IP Stack.
 Repeaters & Hubs (Cont’d)

A hub is a network interconnection device with multiple interfaces that accepts an

incoming signal from an interface and repeats it onto all other interfaces.

Physically, hubs are:

• Small electronic devices.
• Have connections for several computers (e.g., 4, 8, or 20).

Logically, hubs:
• Operate only on signals.
• Propagate each incoming signal to all connections.
• Are similar to connecting segments with repeaters.
• Do not understand frames (Layer 2 packets) so cannot filter them.

Hubs have extremely low cost and are becoming obsolete.

 Modem

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Modem stands for Modulator/Demodulator.
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The modem is defined as a networking device that is used to connect devices
connected in the network to the internet.
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The main function of a modem is to convert the analog signals that come from
telephone wire into a digital form.
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The modem can perform both the task of modulation and demodulation
simultaneously.
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The modem is also known as a signal translator as it translates one signal into
another signal by modulating the digital signal into an analog signal for transmission
and then demodulates receiving analog signals into digital signals.
 Cables
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Coaxial Cables
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Twisted Pair Cables
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Fiber optic Cables
 Twisted Pair Cable
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A twisted pair is a copper wire cable in which two
insulated copper wires are twisted around each other
to reduce interference or crosstalk.
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It uses 10BASE-T, 100BASE-T, and some other
newer ethernet variants.
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It uses RJ-45 connectors.
 Coaxial Cables
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A coaxial cable is used to carry high-frequency
electrical signals with low losses.
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Its maximum transmission speed is 10 Mbps. It is
usually used in telephone systems, cable TV, etc.
 Fiber Optic Cable
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Fiber optic cables use optical fibers which are made of glass cores
surrounded by several layers of covering material generally made of PVC or
Teflon.
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It transmits data in the form of light signals due to which there are no
interference issues in fiber optics.
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Fiber optics can transmit signals over a very long distance as compared to
twisted pairs or coaxial cables.
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Types of Fiber Optics Cable:
– Single-Mode Fiber: It uses one single ray of light to transmit data. It is used for
long-distance transmission.
– Multi-Mode Fiber: It uses multiple light rays to transmit data. It is
comparatively less expensive.
Fiber Optic Cable
 Bridges & Switches

A bridge is a network interconnection device (with only two interfaces) that forwards
frames coming in from an interface to the outgoing interface corresponding to the
MAC destination address in the frame.

A bridge:

• Is a hardware device.
• Connects two LAN segments.
• Forwards frames.
• Does not forward noise or collisions from the incoming connection.
• Learns addresses and filters frames based on those addresses.

A bridge is used to connect two local-area

networks (LANs) of the same type.
 Bridges & Switches (Cont’d)

A switch is a network interconnection device (with multiple interfaces) that accepts

a frame from an interface and forwards the frame to the interface corresponding to
the MAC destination address in the frame.
A switch:
• Is physically similar to a hub.
• Is logically similar to a bridge.
• Operates on frames.
• Understands MAC addresses.
• Only forwards frames when necessary.

 Switches allow separate pairs of computers to communicate at the same time.

 Switches can be used in heavily loaded networks to isolate data flow and
improve performance.
 Switches are the Layer 2 Ethernet device of choice.
Bridges & Switches (Cont’d)
 Routers

A router is a network interconnection device that accepts an IP datagram from an

incoming port and forwards the datagram to the outgoing link that corresponds to
the IP destination address in the frame.
A router:
• Forwards data depending on IP
addresses, not Hardware (MAC)
addresses.
• Isolates each LAN into a separate
subnet, with separate IP addresses.
• Can route between different LAN
technologies.

A Home Router
Routers (Cont’d)
TCP/IP PROTOCOL STACK & INTERCONNECTION DEVICE SUMMARY
 Gateway
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A network gateway is a device that connects different networks by translating
messages from one protocol into another protocol.
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The gateway monitors and controls all the incoming and outgoing network traffic.
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Gateways are also known as protocol converters because they play an important role
in converting protocols supported by traffic on different networks.
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A gateway is situated at a network’s edge and manages all data that enters or exits
the network.
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A gateway is distinct from other network devices in that it can operate at any layer
of the OSI model.
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Gateways made the transmission more feasible as it queued up all the data and
divided it into small packets of data rather than sending it bulk.
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Gateways provide security within the network.
 Firewall
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A firewall is a network security device, either hardware or
software-based, which monitors all incoming and outgoing traffic
and based on a defined set of security rules accepts, rejects, or
drops that specific traffic.
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Types of Firewall:
– Packet Filtering Firewall
– Stateful Inspection Firewall
– Software Firewall
– Hardware Firewall
– Application Layer Firewall
– Proxy Service Firewall
 Access Point
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A wireless access point (WAP) is a networking
device that allows wireless-capable devices to
connect to a wired network.
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It is simpler and easier to install WAPs to connect all
the computers or devices in your network than to use
wires and cables.