Unit 1: ORGANIZATIONS

1.1. Companies
SWOT analysis: Strengths, Weaknesses (internal); Opportunities and Threats (external).

Examples of factors in a SWOT analysis

Strengths (Fortaleses) Weaknesses (Debilitats)
Specialized marketing expertise Lack of marketing expertise
A new innovative product or service Undifferentiated products or services
Good location of business Bad location of business
Quality processes and procedures Poor quality of goods and services
Patents Damaged reputation
Opportunities (Oportunitats) Threats (Amenaces)
A developing market New competitors in domestic market
Mergers and joint ventures Price wars with competitors
New market segments with improved profits Innovative product or service
No trade barriers Trade barriers

1.2. Markets
Emerging markets
Nowadays, the most interesting markets for many companies are the ‘emerging’ or ‘developing’
countries. These countries have undertaken political and economic reforms in order to move from a
closed to an open market economy. The economic growth of the emerging countries has opened up
a market composed of millions of people. Therefore, these countries offer a high potential for the
economies of developed countries.
The map in figure below shows the distribution of the emerging countries and the developed
countries.
One characteristic of these markets is an increase in foreign investment as a result of reforms in the
exchange rate systems of the emerging countries. Foreign investment has positive consequences for
these countries: the unemployment rate goes down, the labour and managerial skills improve and
there is a transfer of technology between the developed countries and the emerging countries.
FiguraEmerging markets (in black) and developed countries (in dark gray)

Investing in emerging countries has many advantages (for example, the lower salaries of their
workforce), but there is also the risk of unexpected political and economical disorders which may
ruin all the expectations.
Digital markets
Nowadays, a new form of market is rapidly emerging. The new communication technologies and
the development of computers have destroyed the barriers and have shortened distances and time.
The globalisation has created business environments which are very different from those in the past.
In order to keep up with the times, companies must substitute their traditional marketing strategies
for a new model based on flexibility and new methods of organisation and they must also adapt
themselves to new technologies and to a changing, heterogeneous market. A good market strategy,
however, must not over-standardise products for the sake of globalisation. To be successful,
companies must take into account the national differences which affect language, cultural tastes or
legal requirements, for example.
This new form of market is called ‘digital market’. The potential consumers are not found in a
particular geographical area, but in a vast territory, the Internet, which covers most of the planet.
The trade which is carried out in the Internet is generally called ‘e-commerce’. The new
technologies offer many advantages. In the Internet, buyers can search for a product or service,
compare sellers, read product reviews and see the opinions of other buyers, and they can do this
quickly, cheaply, at any time of day and night and seven days a week. On the other hand, sellers can
reach large numbers of consumers, extend their businesses to all the world without the need of
opening branch offices and quickly adjust their prices and products to the changes in people’s
demands. They can also eliminate intermediaries and collect information about consumers’ habits
and preferences in order to customise products and provide personalised levels of service.
In spite of the great advantages of e-commerce, there are also some risks which are associated to the
globalisation of the Internet. Viruses, worms, Trojan horses, diallers, spyware, spam and phishing
are some security threats which may interfere in digital transactions. Therefore, the great technical
challenge of the digital markets is to provide solutions related to security and privacy in the
Internet. However, users must also learn to manage the risks and take the necessary precautions
when buying and selling in the digital markets.

1.3. Sales and orders

Buying and selling are the key activities to all commercial transactions. The main goal of a business
is to sell their products or services with the purpose of making as much benefit as possible. For this
reason, it is very important to set up an appropriate sales strategy that guarantees the success of a
business. The sales strategy may be defined as the set of activities destined to sell a product or
service. Such activities include methods of reaching the customers, the planning of the sales process
and the follow-up activities.
Marketing
The first step in a sales strategy is the analysis of the market for the product or service offered by
the company. The main tool for doing so is the SWOT analysis, which helps to determine the
competitive differences with other similar products and to find the strengths and weaknesses of the
company in that particular market. A sales strategy must also establish different methods for
reaching potential customers. Depending on the budget and the market business, companies can
promote their products and services in different ways, as for example, online advertising, newspaper
advertisements, networking, TV and radio commercials, sponsorships, or public presentations. The
set of activities used to introduce and promote a product or service is called ‘marketing’. The
professionals in charge of planning these activities are called ‘marketers’.
The sales process
The sales process can be defined as the set of activities that contribute to close a sale. The process
begins when the customer inquires about a product. The company provides the customer with the
required information. The information usually includes a description of the product and a quotation,
which includes the terms of payment and sometimes a discount or special offer. If the customers
agree with the terms, they place an order for the product. On receiving the order, the company
checks if the product is in stock and, if so, they confirm the order and send a delivery date. Finally,
the supplier packs the goods and sends them to the customers together with the invoice, which is a
bill used when goods are sold as part of a commercial transaction. The invoice is the most common
document required for clearing shipments through customs and it is used to determine the value of
the goods and the tariff classification.
The sales process implies the payment of the Value Added Tax (VAT), which is a tax paid on most
business transactions involving the transfer of products and services. Companies pay an input tax on
their purchases and charge an output tax on their sales.
Customer service
A successful sales strategy does not end when the sales process is finished. Companies do not only
work to gain new customers, but also to retain existing ones. Companies do so through their
customer service.
The customer service may also contribute to the planning of the sales strategies as it is a very useful
tool to identify the customers’ needs and requirements. Companies usually pay a lot of attention to
providing a good customer service because it helps to improve the company’s image and to increase
the satisfaction and loyalty of the customers, which results in increased sales and survival in terms
of competition.
If the customers are not satisfied with the commercial service offered by a company, they can
contact the customer service and raise a complaint. In the world of commerce, a complaint is a
formal legal document that sets out the basic facts and reasons to support a claim against an
individual or a company in order to request compensation, usually a change of the product or a
rebate.

Unit 2: ARRANGEMENTS
2.1 Events
Here are some guidelines for organizing a trade fair.
Before the trade fair:
In the planning stage of the trade fair, the organisers must identify the tasks to be carried out and
select the speakers in case speeches have been planned. They must also draw up a detailed budget,
including such items as advertising, staff recruitment, space rental, design and construction of
stands, dismantling, furniture rental, decoration within the stand, telecommunications and
networking, travel, accommodations, electrical fitting, stand cleaning, telephone installation,
mailing, security, reception, public relations, transportation, food services, first-aid emergency, and
giveaway items.
Hotel bookings for the visitors must be placed well in advance to ensure availability. Planners
should negotiate special convention rates and types of rooms, special meals (religious and disease
diets) and registration deadlines. Other issues to consider are the existence and cost of parking
facilities, nearby restaurants and points of interest and available transportation to and from the hotel.
Planning a special promotional program for the trade fair is also necessary. When the visitors are
well identified, the most common means of advertising the event is by means of invitation letters.
To attract the public in general, the organisers should consider publication on the local radio,
newspapers and television, depending on the importance of the event.
During the trade fair:
The registration of the exhibitors on the opening day is an important and necessary event at any
trade fair. In order to gain productivity during the whole presence at the trade fair, the exhibitors
must pay attention to the promotion and presentation of their company to ensure that potential
customers seek their stand in particular.
Most trade fairs also include activities pursued directly within the fairgrounds or outside their
boundaries. These activities represent a value added to the participation at the fair. The company’s
representatives can participate in presentations or press conferences and can hold lectures at fair-
related events. An ideal opportunity for addressing important clients may also be an evening party,
as an informal meeting is often more successful for making business contacts than an official meal
or an official reception.

After the trade fair:

When the fair is finished, it is time for the participants to evaluate the results of the fair and draw
conclusions about the objectives reached.
The organisers should:
•Register items to be returned to the respective companies.
•Remove the exhibits from the racks.
•Dismantle the stands safely and without destroying the stand materials.
•Hold a reception on the closing day to facilitate contacts between exhibitors and potential
customers.
•Send out press releases as a promotional activity to state the positive results of the participation.
•Draw up a follow-up plan to determine the benefits and help in the organisation of future events.
On the other hand, exhibitors should:
•Compare invitations with the guest list at the stand.
•Forward a list of post-fair customer appointments to the sales department.
•Write letters to the new contacts.
•Analyse the coverage of the fair in the media.
•Send press releases and feedback questionnaires quickly to the new contacts.
•Set goals for future events.

2.2 Travel
There is a clear distinction between a business trip and a leisure trip. A business trip does not only
mean to book tickets and hotel rooms; it also means to do business. Therefore, organising a business
trip requires careful planning.
If you are in charge of organising an international business trip, it is your responsibility to ensure
that every traveller is covered by a travel insurance that includes the most essential types of
coverage. Corporate insurances are usually cheaper than personal insurances.
On the other hand, if a passport is required, you should also make sure that everyone in the party
has an up-to-date passport in advance of departure. Some countries require a passport with a
validity of at least six months before its expiration date, so it is a good idea to check with the
embassy or consulate of the country of destination for details. Also, check if a visa is required.

Nowadays, the quickest and most comfortable way of buying a plane ticket is through online sale.
You can buy it directly from the airline website or from any general travel websites, which also
offer hotel booking and car rental services. Online booking also allows you to choose your seats and
print your boarding passes. This may help you save time at the airport, where you may avoid
queuing up at the check-in desk to pick up your boarding pass provided you are only carrying hand
luggage. If you are carrying big suitcases, you will need to check them in at the check-in desk.
After these initial procedures, you must go on to security control, where your ticket, boarding pass,
passport, visa and hand luggage will be carefully checked by the security officials. Next, you may
proceed to the departure gate and wait there for your flight departure. Do not forget to check the
information displayed on the screens for any changes on your flight, like delays or cancellations.
Business travellers need to get to their destinations on time and with as little trouble as possible.
They also need to focus their attention on business; they cannot waste their time on the trip details.
For this reason, it is very important to choose the hotel carefully. In general, the best option is a
large hotel with a business centre. It is better if the hotel belongs to a hotel chain because these
hotels usually offer good and efficient customer service and excellent facilities to meet the business
needs, like meeting rooms, conference rooms or catering service.
Business travellers, who are often short of time, also appreciate hotels located near the airport, but if
a hotel does not meet this requirement, it generally offers a shuttle service between the airport and
the hotel.
Booking a hotel is nowadays quick and easy, as all the bookings are mostly done online. Like plane
tickets, you can book rooms from the hotel own website or from a general travel website. In your
booking you must specify the days of arrival and departure, the number and type of rooms and any
special requirements you may need, like parking facilities, quiet rooms, wifi connections, etc.

2.3 A business meal

Organising a formal business meal

The organisation implies the sending of invitation letters to the potential guests, the choice of a
restaurant and often the choice of a menu. Depending on the formality of the meal, you may also
need to consider the setting of the table, which must also follow certain rules of protocol.
The elements that compose a table are called with the generic term ‘tableware’, a term that includes
plates, cutlery and different types of glasses. ‘Cutlery’ is another generic term that includes any
hand utensils used in preparing, serving and especially eating food, although in the U.S. ‘cutlery’
refers only to knives and other cutting utensils, whereas the other elements are known as
‘silverware’. The three major utensils for eating in the Western world are the knife, the spoon and
the fork.
The basic elements of a dinner service include the plate or plates (one on top of the other), napkin,
spoons, knives, forks and glasses.
The cutlery is placed in order of use. The pieces that are used first go on the outside position and
those used last are placed nearest the plate. The napkin is carefully folded and usually placed to the
left of the cover or on the plate.
The figure below shows the proper setting of a table for a formal meal.

FiguraThe proper setting of a table for a formal meal

Attending a formal business meal
When attending a formal meal, you must show a distant, but polite attitude. This will give an overall
positive impression. You should greet other people by using polite formulas like: Mr Smith, how do
you do?. Always shake hands. Do not use informal gestures like patting a person’s back, for
example, although they may seem more friendly. Do not forget to turn off your mobile phone before
you go into the restaurant.

You should think that the greatest part of communication is expressed through body language, so
behaviour is very important on these occasions. You should wait until everyone is seated at the table
and then place your napkin on your lap. If your napkin happens to fall to the floor, you should ask
the waiter for a new one. If you are the guest, you should be careful not to order the most expensive
items on the menu or to order more than two courses unless your host specifically asks you so or the
menu is fixed beforehand.
Once you are sitting at the table, you will be faced with a multi-course meal with lots of different
utensils. There is also a protocol that establishes the use of such utensils. You should start with the
knife, fork or spoon which is the farthest from your plate and work your way in, using one utensil
for each course. There are two ways to use a knife and fork to cut and eat your food: the American
style and the European or Continental style. Either style is considered appropriate.
In the American style, food is cut by holding the knife in the right hand and the fork in the left hand
with the fork tines piercing the food to secure it on the plate. Once the food has been cut, you have
to change your fork from your left to your right hand to eat, with the fork tines facing up.
The European or Continental style is the same as the American style in that you cut your meat by
holding your knife in your right hand while securing your food with your fork in your left hand. The
difference is that your fork remains in your left hand, the tines facing down, and the knife in your
right hand.
After the meal, the correct way of showing that you have finished is to place the knife and fork on
your plate in a 4 o’clock position and the napkin on the right-hand side of your table setting.
After the formal business meal
After a formal meal, it is customary to have some sort of follow-up. It is proper business etiquette to
send a thank-you letter where you express your gratitude for the meal. It is good way to appreciate
the host and it is also an excellent way to reinforce your interest in a particular business
relationship.
These letters do not need to be much time consuming or very formal. A few lines focusing on what
you value or appreciate about the other person’s effort is all you need. A thank-you letter should be
sent as soon as possible after the event.
These letters should ideally include the following information:
•First paragraph: thank the interviewer for taking the time to meet with you (mention the date).
•Second paragraph: restate your interest in the organisation. Mention something you learned from
the meeting or comment on something of importance that you discussed. Again, emphasise your
strengths, experiences and skills.
•Third paragraph: thank the host for his/her time and consideration. You may want to finish your
message with a suggestion for further action and you can also mention that you will provide your
phone number and the hours you can best be reach.
 Unit 3: PEOPLE
3.1 Communication
Non verbal communication

3.2 International relationships

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES

3.3 Conflict resolution

When a conflict at work arises, it is important to recognize and understand the possible causes,
characteristics and solutions in order to solve the problem. To do so, it is advisable to follow these
steps:
•Identify the problem.
•Talk it out until everyone agrees that there is a problem.
•Allow every person involved to clarify their perspectives and opinions about the problem.
•Identify the ideal end result from each party’s point of view.
•Figure out what can realistically be done to discover newer and deeper levels of understanding.
•Find an area of compromise or try to identify long-term goals which mean something to everyone.

Unit 4: WORK
4.1 Looking for a job
A curriculum vitae (CV): this is the way of providing employers with written evidence of your
qualifications and skills. The main purpose of a CV (which is called résumé in the US) is to get an
interview.
A cover letter: it accompanies your CV and its purpose is to introduce you to the employer and
highlight your most relevant skills for the job. A cover letter should be written in formal language
and include the following information:
•Name and address of the person the letter is addressed to
•Reason for your interest in the company or position
•Your qualifications for the position
•Request for an interview
•Your home and telephone numbers
•Your e-mail
The interview: the job interview is the most decisive moment in the process of applying for a job.
It is the time when you meet the employer so he/she can find out more about you. It is also a chance
of learning if the job is right for you. You will be asked about your experience and qualifications
and you will also need to show the skills that you have related to the job that you are applying to.
For certain positions, job interviews are often carried out in English in order to check the applicant’s
knowledge of the language. These interviews are generally face-to-face, but nowadays telephone
interviews or video-conferences are also common. You should also think about the importance of
the non-verbal communication. Interviews are often carried out by experts on body language, and
they will probably scrutinise you to the smallest details. The way you look will tell them a lot about
your character, so try to look tidy and dress appropriately. Your tone, your gestures, your attitude in
general, should not contradict, but reinforce, your message.

4.2 Job recruitment

We could distinguish several methods of recruitment:
•Internal recruitment: the existing employees are given the opportunity of applying for a vacancy.
The greatest advantage of this type of recruitment is that it does not only reward employees, but it
also retains the organization’s investment in that employee. At the same time, it reduces the amount
of time necessary to train the person for the new position as well as the costs of recruitment.
•Employee referrals: the current employees are required to suggest a person for the vacancy
because employees mostly recommend people who would be a good match for the position and for
the company. The main advantage of this type of recruitment is that the applicants are usually
familiar with the work of the organization.
•Print advertisements: the job vacancy is posted in a newspaper or professional journal. The
advantage of this method is that it attracts a large number of applicants from very different
backgrounds so there is a great variety of people to choose from. The main disadvantage is that the
employer must go through all the stages of the recruitment process, so it can take a long time to find
the right person. With this method there’s also a greater possibility of making mistakes in the
selection.
•Internet recruitment: the job is posted on the company’s own website or on general job websites.
This method attracts even more applicants than the print advertisements because the Internet is the
most popular means of looking for a job and moreover it is available 24 hours a day and seven days
a week. On the other hand, this method makes the whole process even longer because the employer
must select the applicants very carefully and go through a great number of job interviews.
•Recruitment agencies: the employer sends the job specifications to a recruitment agency, which is
specialised in finding candidates for a job. This might be a good option for non-qualified and
seasonal jobs. The agency just puts the candidate and the employer in contact, and then the
recruitment process must continue. The main advantage of this method is that the applicants have
been pre-selected by the agency and they are sure to fit in the post.

4.3 Working abroad

In a changing world like the present one, we do not know what the future holds in store for us. Our
society is characterised by an economic model that implies a fierce competition to get the few jobs
available. If you are lucky enough to have a job, however, you will notice that the working
conditions are getting worse and worse, with lower salaries and long working hours, and it may also
happen that you are overqualified for the job that you are doing, what might generate a deep feeling
of frustration. For many qualified people, especially for young people or people with no family ties,
the only way out of this situation might be to go and work in another country, a process usually
called ‘brain drain’.
People look for jobs in another country because they cannot find a job in their own country or
simply because they want to live a new experience. If you are one of these people and you have
thought of going out, you will need to know where you can look for job opportunities in other
countries and how to apply for a job.
If you have any doubts, think that working abroad can be very helpful to promote yourself in your
career and expand your horizons. Companies favour applicants who have initiative and show
motivation and self-reliance. Apart from this, working with people from other countries and
different cultural backgrounds will give you new points of view and a new perspective.
Here is some advice in case you decide to take the step.
Think about the climate and the culture of the countries where you would like to live and work and
decide if you would feel comfortable there. You must consider the cultural differences at work and
see what type of jobs are available in those countries.
In order to find job opportunities in other countries, it is necessary to do a lot of research. You can
ask your friends, relatives and workmates to help you by giving you ideas. There are organizations
who work online and who help candidates to find jobs in other countries and arrange such needs as
accomodation, visas, work permits and health insurances. You can also look for companies who
offer internships and contact them directly. You can also consider the possibility of volunteering in a
developing country so you can gain valuable skills and a lot of experience.
Finding a job and going through all the necessary procedures can take months, so you must be well-
organized and very patient. Think about what you hope to learn from your experience. You should
find out as much as you can about the country that you are expecting to visit. Nowadays, the
internet makes research extremely easy. Websites can give you a lot of cultural information about
other countries and some websites even have a specific section for all those who intend to find a job
abroad. These websites generally include information about the legal requirements to work in the
country. You should also do some research on the company before choosing a job to prevent any
disagreeable surprises later on.
Whatever the country you decide to move in, you will most probably need to have a good
knowledge of English because this is the international language for business. Knowing English will
be even more important than a knowledge of the local language. However, it is also higly
recommended to have a certain level of the native language of the country, but this will depend on
the type of job, the employer and the country. However, even an elementary knowledge will show
your interest in their culture and will help you get on with people.
Coming back home after a long staying in another country might be more difficult than you think.
You may experience a culture shock. People usually change when they work abroad and things will
change at home, too, luckily for the best. However, it can take time to adapt back to your own
environment.