LITERARY TERMS

SHORT NOTES BY
YOGESH TIWARI

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 LITERARY TERMS
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1. Theatre of the Absurd

The Theatre of the Absurd refers to a post-World War II literary
movement in drama characterized by existential themes, absurd
situations, and illogical dialogues. It reflects the meaninglessness of
human existence and the lack of purpose in life, often inspired by
existentialist philosophy, particularly that of Albert Camus and Jean-
Paul Sartre.
Key Features: Circular plots, nonsensical language, and bleak humor.
Major Works:

Waiting for Godot by Samuel Beckett (1953) — Two characters wait

endlessly for someone named Godot, symbolizing life's futility.

The Bald Soprano by Eugène Ionesco (1950) — Demonstrates the

absurdity of everyday conversations.

2. Aesthetic
Aesthetic pertains to the principles of beauty, art, and taste, emphasizing
sensory experience and emotional impact. In literature, aesthetics focus
on the artistic quality and emotional depth of a work rather than its
utilitarian or moral purpose.
Example in Literature:

Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats — Explores the eternal beauty of

art through the lines, "Beauty is truth, truth beauty."

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3. Aesthetic Criticism

Aesthetic criticism evaluates a literary work based on its artistic beauty,

form, and emotional resonance rather than its moral or utilitarian
content. It emerged prominently in the 19th century, led by figures such
as Walter Pater.
Example in Literature:

Walter Pater's Studies in the History of the Renaissance (1873)

advocates for "art for art's sake," focusing on the sensory and emotional
experience of art rather than didacticism.

4. Aestheticism

Aestheticism is a late 19th-century movement that champions the idea of

"art for art's sake," prioritizing beauty over moral, political, or practical
functions. It arose as a reaction to Victorian utilitarianism.
Major Works:

Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890) — Explores the

pursuit of beauty at the expense of morality.

Algernon Charles Swinburne’s poetry — Celebrates sensuality and

beauty, often detached from moral constraints.

5. Affective Fallacy

Coined by W.K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley, affective fallacy is a

term from New Criticism that critiques judging a work based on its
emotional impact on the reader. It argues that a work's meaning resides
within the text itself and not in the reader's subjective response.
Example in Criticism:

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William Shakespeare's Macbeth may evoke fear and pity, but affective
fallacy insists these emotions should not dominate literary analysis; the
focus should be on the structure and language.

6. African-American Literature
African-American literature encompasses the body of work created by
African-American writers that explores themes of racial identity, social
injustice, resilience, and cultural heritage. Emerging prominently in the
18th century with figures like Phillis Wheatley, it gained momentum
during the Harlem Renaissance and the Civil Rights Movement.
Key Features: Focus on slavery, freedom, race, and the Black experience
in America.
Major Works:

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845) by Frederick

Douglass — An autobiography detailing the horrors of slavery and the
quest for freedom.

Their Eyes Were Watching God (1937) by Zora Neale Hurston —

Explores the life of an African-American woman seeking identity and
independence.

Beloved (1987) by Toni Morrison — A haunting tale of slavery and its

psychological effects.

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7. Age of Johnson in English Literature
The Age of Johnson (1745–1784) refers to the period in English
literature dominated by the works and influence of Samuel Johnson.
This era is marked by moral essays, neoclassicism, and the rise of
literary criticism.
Key Features: Rationality, didacticism, and a transition from Augustan
ideals to Romantic sensibilities.
Major Works:

Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755) — A

landmark in lexicography and literary scholarship.

James Boswell's The Life of Samuel Johnson (1791) — A biographical

masterpiece capturing Johnson’s intellect and character.

Oliver Goldsmith's The Vicar of Wakefield (1766) — A sentimental

novel reflecting human virtues and follies.

8. Age of Reason
The Age of Reason, or the Enlightenment (late 17th to 18th century),
emphasized rationality, scientific thought, and intellectual discourse.
Literature of this period often challenged traditional authority and
promoted ideals of liberty, progress, and tolerance.
Key Features: Satire, essays, and philosophical treatises questioning
dogma.
Major Works:

Voltaire's Candide (1759) — A satirical critique of optimism and

organized religion.

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Alexander Pope's An Essay on Man (1734) — Explores humanity’s
place in the universe using rational thought.

Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726) — Satirizes human nature and

societal institutions.
9. Age of the Romantic Movement in England
The Romantic Movement (late 18th to early 19th century) in England
was characterized by an emphasis on emotion, individualism, nature,
and imagination. It emerged as a reaction against the industrial
revolution and neoclassicism.
Key Features: Celebration of nature, focus on the sublime, and
exploration of the human spirit.
Major Works:

William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s Lyrical Ballads

(1798) — Marked the beginning of English Romanticism, celebrating
ordinary life and nature.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) — Explores human ambition and its

consequences through Gothic elements.

Lord Byron’s Don Juan (1819–1824) — A satirical epic poem.

10. Age of Sensibility

The Age of Sensibility (mid-18th century) was a literary period

emphasizing emotion, empathy, and sentimentality. It bridged the gap
between neoclassicism and Romanticism. Writers of this age focused on
human emotions and the moral values of sympathy and virtue.
Key Features: Sentimentality, pre-Romantic themes, and a focus on the
sublime and pastoral.
Major Works:
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Laurence Sterne’s A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy
(1768) — Explores human emotions and relationships through the lens
of sentimentality.

Thomas Gray’s Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751) — A

reflective meditation on mortality and rural life.

Edmund Burke’s A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas

of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757) — An influential work analyzing
aesthetic experience.

11. Anagnorisis
Anagnorisis is a moment of critical discovery or recognition in a literary
work, particularly in tragedy. It occurs when a character realizes their
true identity, another character's identity, or the true nature of their
situation, often leading to the resolution of the plot.
Key Features: Sudden realization, reversal of fortune, and heightened
emotional impact.
Examples:

Sophocles' Oedipus Rex — Oedipus discovers he has unknowingly

killed his father and married his mother. This recognition leads to his
downfall.

Shakespeare's King Lear — Lear realizes Cordelia’s true love for him
too late, resulting in tragic consequences.

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12. Anticlimax
Anticlimax refers to a sudden transition from a significant or intense
situation to a trivial or disappointing conclusion, often used for comic or
satirical effect.
Key Features: A letdown in expectations, deliberate undercutting of
tension, and sometimes irony.
Examples:

Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock — In this mock-epic, the

climactic moment revolves around a stolen lock of hair rather than a
heroic deed.

George Orwell’s Animal Farm — The anticlimactic conclusion where

the animals find the pigs indistinguishable from humans highlights the
futility of their rebellion.

13. Agnosticism
Agnosticism is the philosophical belief that the existence of God or the
divine is unknown or unknowable. It questions religious dogma and
emphasizes the limits of human understanding.
Key Features: Skepticism, open-mindedness, and a focus on empirical
knowledge.
Examples in Literature:

Tennyson’s In Memoriam A.H.H. — The poet grapples with doubt and

faith after the death of a friend, reflecting an agnostic approach.

Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the D’Urbervilles — Hardy portrays a

deterministic and indifferent universe, aligning with agnostic thought.

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14. Agitprop
Agitprop, a blend of "agitation" and "propaganda," refers to political
propaganda in art, literature, or drama intended to inspire activism or
support a cause. Originating in Soviet Russia, it is used to communicate
ideologies and mobilize masses.
Key Features: Direct message, simplicity, and emotional appeal.
Examples:

Bertolt Brecht’s The Threepenny Opera — A Marxist critique of

capitalism and social inequality, blending entertainment with political
messaging.

Clifford Odets’ Waiting for Lefty — A play advocating for labor rights
and unionization, serving as agitprop for the working class.

15. Alexandrine

An Alexandrine is a poetic line consisting of twelve syllables, often used

in French poetry and classical epics. In English literature, it occasionally
appears as the final line in a Spenserian stanza.
Key Features: Formal structure, regular rhythm, and use in heroic or
serious themes.
Examples:

Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene — The Spenserian stanza ends

with an Alexandrine, such as in:
"But on his brest a bloudie Crosse he bore, / The deare remembrance of
his dying Lord."

Jean Racine’s Phèdre — A classical French tragedy written entirely in

Alexandrines, showcasing the elegance of this form.

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16. Allegory
An allegory is a narrative or work in which characters, events, and
settings symbolically represent abstract ideas, moral qualities, or
political or religious concepts. It operates on two levels: the literal and
the symbolic.
Key Features:

Extended metaphor.

Moral, political, or philosophical undertones.

Often didactic in nature.

Examples:

John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress — A Christian allegory where the

protagonist, Christian, represents the journey of the soul towards
salvation.

George Orwell’s Animal Farm — A political allegory critiquing the

Russian Revolution and totalitarianism, where animals symbolize
historical figures and ideologies.

17. Anagram
An anagram is a literary device where the letters of a word or phrase are
rearranged to form a new word or phrase. Often used for wit, wordplay,
or concealment of themes.
Key Features:

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Rearrangement of letters.

May reveal hidden meanings or insights.

Examples:

Vladimir Nabokov’s Lolita — The pseudonym “Vivian Darkbloom” is

an anagram of the author’s name, reflecting his playful style.

Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass — Tweedledee and

Tweedledum are near-anagrams, emphasizing their mirrored yet
opposing nature.

18. Antagonist

The antagonist is the character, group, or force that opposes the

protagonist, creating conflict within the narrative.
Key Features:

Opposes the main character’s goals.

Can be a person, society, nature, or inner conflict.

Examples:

Shakespeare’s Othello — Iago is the antagonist, manipulating others to

bring about Othello’s downfall.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein — Victor Frankenstein’s creation, the

Creature, serves as an antagonist by seeking revenge for his suffering.

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19. Antithesis
Antithesis is a rhetorical device that contrasts opposing ideas in parallel
structures to highlight their differences or create a balanced effect.
Key Features:

Use of juxtaposition.

Often enhances themes or arguments.

Examples:

Alexander Pope’s An Essay on Criticism — "To err is human; to

forgive, divine."

Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities — The opening lines: "It was the
best of times, it was the worst of times..." reflect stark contrasts in
society.

20. Aporia
Aporia is a rhetorical device where a speaker expresses doubt or
confusion, either genuine or feigned, to engage the audience or explore a
topic deeply. It is often used in philosophy and literature.
Key Features:

Raises questions without providing answers.

Invites critical thinking or highlights contradictions.

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Examples:

William Shakespeare’s Hamlet — Hamlet’s soliloquy: "To be or not to

be, that is the question." reflects his existential doubt.

Plato’s Republic — Socratic dialogues often employ aporia, questioning

definitions of justice and other abstract concepts to provoke deeper
thought.

21. Aphorism
An aphorism is a concise and witty statement that expresses a general
truth, principle, or observation about life. It is often memorable and
universally applicable.
Key Features:

Brevity and clarity.

Contains wisdom or a moral lesson.

Often philosophical or reflective.

Examples:

Francis Bacon’s Essays: "Knowledge is power."

Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray: "The only way to get rid of a
temptation is to yield to it."

Benjamin Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanack: "Time is money."

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22. Apocalyptic Movement
The Apocalyptic Movement refers to literary and artistic works focusing
on the end of the world or apocalyptic themes, often exploring
destruction, divine judgment, and renewal. It has religious,
philosophical, and social dimensions.
Key Features:

Depicts catastrophic events or eschatological visions.

Reflects on human morality and fate.

Often symbolic or allegorical.

Examples:

The Book of Revelation (Bible): A foundational apocalyptic text

describing the end times and the final judgment.

William Butler Yeats’ The Second Coming: “Things fall apart; the
centre cannot hold.” — A poetic vision of chaos and societal collapse.

Margaret Atwood’s Oryx and Crake: A dystopian novel envisioning the

collapse of human civilization through genetic experimentation.

23. Archetype
An archetype is a universal symbol, character, or theme found across
cultures and literature, reflecting collective unconscious patterns as
theorized by Carl Jung.
Key Features:

Recurs in myths, stories, and folklore.

Represents universal experiences or human nature.

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Examples:

Hero Archetype: Odysseus in Homer’s The Odyssey, or Harry Potter in

J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series.

Mentor Archetype: Gandalf in J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings.

Journey Archetype: The quest for self-discovery in Paulo Coelho’s The

Alchemist.

24. Aside

An aside is a dramatic device where a character speaks directly to the

audience, revealing inner thoughts or commentary, unheard by other
characters on stage.
Key Features:

Breaks the fourth wall.

Offers insight into character motivations or hidden truths.

Examples:

William Shakespeare’s Hamlet: “A little more than kin, and less than
kind.” — Hamlet shares his disdain for Claudius with the audience.

Shakespeare’s Macbeth: Macbeth’s asides reveal his inner conflict and

ambition, such as in “The Prince of Cumberland! That is a step…”

Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman: Willy Loman frequently speaks in

asides to reflect his struggles and hallucinations.

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25. Avant-Garde

Avant-garde refers to innovative, experimental, and unconventional

works of art and literature that challenge traditional norms and
conventions. It seeks to explore new forms of expression and provoke
thought.
Key Features:

Radically experimental or nonconformist.

Often controversial or shocking.

Influences modernist and postmodernist movements.

Examples:

James Joyce’s Ulysses: A groundbreaking modernist novel using

stream-of-consciousness narration.

T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land: Experimental in structure and language,

symbolizing modern disillusionment.

Futurist Manifesto by F.T. Marinetti: A key text promoting avant-garde

ideas in art and literature.

26. Ballad

A ballad is a narrative poem or song, traditionally passed down orally,

that tells a story, often with a dramatic, tragic, or romantic theme.
Key Features:

Simple and direct language.

Repeated refrains and a regular rhyme scheme.

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Focuses on themes of love, betrayal, or heroic deeds.

Examples:

The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge: A

literary ballad about a sailor cursed for killing an albatross.

Barbara Allen: A traditional folk ballad about unrequited love and death.

La Belle Dame sans Merci by John Keats: A literary ballad about a

knight bewitched by a mysterious lady.

27. Bathos

Bathos is a literary device that involves an abrupt transition from the

lofty or serious to the trivial or ridiculous, often creating a comedic or
ironic effect.
Key Features:

Unintentional or deliberate anticlimax.

Often used for humor or satire.

Examples:

Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock: Pope satirizes epic grandeur by
describing a trivial event, such as a lock of hair being cut, in the style of
epic poetry.

Henry Fielding’s Tom Jones: Frequently uses bathos to mock the

exaggerated emotions of melodrama.

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Modern example: Monty Python and the Holy Grail, where lofty quests
are undercut by absurd situations.

28. Belles-Lettres
Belles-lettres refers to literature considered an art form, focusing on
aesthetics, style, and beauty rather than practicality or instruction. It
typically includes poetry, essays, fiction, and drama with artistic intent.
Key Features:

Emphasis on artistic elegance and expression.

Often excludes technical, scientific, or utilitarian texts.

Examples:

Michel de Montaigne’s Essays: Philosophical reflections written in a

highly personal and artistic style.

Charles Lamb’s Essays of Elia: Beautifully crafted prose essays about

everyday life.

Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest: A play known for its
wit and elegance in style.

29. Bildungsroman
A Bildungsroman is a coming-of-age novel that focuses on the
psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from youth to
adulthood.
Key Features:

Protagonist matures through experiences and conflicts.

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Themes of self-discovery, education, and identity.

Examples:

Charles Dickens’ David Copperfield: Chronicles David’s journey from a

troubled childhood to a successful adult.

Charlotte Brontë’s Jane Eyre: Follows Jane’s development from an

orphaned girl to an independent woman.

J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye: Explores Holden Caulfield’s

struggles with identity and adolescence.

30. Black Death

The Black Death refers to the bubonic plague that swept through Europe
in the 14th century, killing an estimated one-third of the population. It
had a profound impact on society, religion, and culture.
Key Features:

Spread by fleas on rats and characterized by high mortality.

Led to labor shortages, social upheaval, and shifts in art and literature.

Examples in Literature:

The Decameron by Giovanni Boccaccio: A collection of stories told by

ten individuals who flee Florence to escape the plague.

Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales: Though not explicitly about

the Black Death, it reflects the societal changes following the pandemic.

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Albert Camus’ The Plague: A 20th-century novel that uses a plague in a
fictional Algerian town as a metaphor for human suffering and
resilience.

31. Blank Verse

Blank verse is unrhymed poetry written in iambic pentameter. It closely
resembles the natural rhythms of English speech, making it a popular
choice for dramatic and narrative works.
Key Features:

No rhyme scheme.

Regular meter (iambic pentameter: ten syllables per line with alternating
unstressed and stressed syllables).
Examples:

William Shakespeare’s plays, such as Hamlet: "To be, or not to be: that
is the question."

John Milton’s Paradise Lost: "Of Man's first disobedience, and the fruit /
Of that forbidden tree..."

Alfred Lord Tennyson’s Ulysses: "It little profits that an idle king..."

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32. Black Mountain Poets
The Black Mountain Poets were a group of mid-20th-century American
poets associated with Black Mountain College in North Carolina. They
emphasized experimental forms, open verse, and the concept of
"projective verse," as introduced by Charles Olson.
Key Features:

Open form and spontaneous composition.

Focus on breath and rhythm in poetry.

Key Figures and Examples:

Charles Olson’s The Maximus Poems: An epic, experimental work

blending history and personal reflection.

Robert Creeley’s For Love: Minimalist and emotional poetry.

Denise Levertov’s The Sorrow Dance: Reflects her attention to natural

imagery and political themes.

33. Bloomsbury Group

The Bloomsbury Group was an early 20th-century intellectual and

artistic circle based in Bloomsbury, London. Its members were known
for their modernist approaches in art, literature, and criticism, as well as
their progressive social values.
Key Features:

Focus on aesthetics and intellectualism.

Challenged Victorian norms of morality and art.

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Key Figures and Examples:

Virginia Woolf: To the Lighthouse, a masterpiece of stream-of-

consciousness narration.

E.M. Forster: A Passage to India, exploring themes of colonialism and

friendship.

John Maynard Keynes: Revolutionized economic theory in The General

Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money.
34. Bombast
Bombast refers to overly inflated or pompous language, often used to
impress but lacking in substance. It is commonly seen in works that aim
to exaggerate emotions or ideas.
Key Features:

Excessively ornate or grandiose language.

Often perceived as insincere or comical.

Examples:

Shakespeare’s The Merry Wives of Windsor: Sir John Falstaff often

uses bombastic language to describe himself.

Thomas Shadwell’s The Sullen Lovers: Critiques the use of bombast in

Restoration comedies.

Modern examples can be found in political speeches that use inflated

rhetoric without much depth.

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35. Bourgeois Drama
Bourgeois drama emerged in 18th-century Europe as a reaction to
aristocratic and classical drama. It depicted the lives, struggles, and
moral dilemmas of the middle class (bourgeoisie), emphasizing realism
and domestic themes.
Key Features:

Focus on middle-class values and struggles.

Themes of morality, family, and social mobility.

Examples:

George Lillo’s The London Merchant (1731): A tragedy that highlights

the moral downfall of a merchant’s apprentice.

Denis Diderot’s The Father of the Family: Advocates for middle-class

virtues and moral instruction.

Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House (1879): A later example of bourgeois

drama, exposing societal norms and gender roles within middle-class
families.

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36. Bucolic

Bucolic refers to a literary or artistic work that idealizes rural life, often
presenting shepherds and country settings as peaceful and harmonious,
typically contrasted with the corruptions of urban life. The term comes
from the Greek word "boukolikos," meaning "pastoral."
Key Features:

Focus on rural, idyllic settings.

Depicts shepherds or rural workers in harmony with nature.

Often idealizes simplicity and innocence of country life.

Examples:

Theocritus’ Idylls (3rd century BCE): One of the first examples of

bucolic poetry, celebrating the peaceful life of shepherds.

Virgil’s Eclogues: A set of pastoral poems that explore love, nature, and
the simplicity of rural life.

Christopher Marlowe’s The Passionate Shepherd to His Love: A classic

example of bucolic poetry, inviting a woman to live a simple, pastoral
life.

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37. Burlesque
Burlesque is a form of comedy that exaggerates or mocks a serious
subject, often through satire, parody, or grotesque imitation. It uses
exaggerated language, situations, or characters to ridicule or entertain.
Key Features:

A comedic form that often mocks high culture or serious subjects.

Exaggerated or absurd situations, actions, or language.

Often includes slapstick humor or absurd characters.

Examples:

Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock: A satirical mock-epic that

humorously exaggerates a trivial event (the cutting of a lock of hair) as a
heroic action.

Richard Sheridan’s The Critic: A satirical play that mocks the world of
theater and critics.

Modern examples include Saturday Night Live sketches, where political

or cultural figures are humorously exaggerated.

38. Byronic Hero

A Byronic hero is a type of protagonist popularized by the works of
Lord Byron, characterized by rebellion, intense emotions, self-doubt,
and a troubled past. This figure often rejects societal norms and
embodies a dark, brooding nature.
Key Features:

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Charismatic yet flawed.

Introspective and melancholic.

Often rebellious or anti-social, yet attractive and compelling.

Examples:

Byron’s Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage: The protagonist, Childe Harold,

exhibits the traits of a Byronic hero, with his inner torment and
dissatisfaction with society.

Emily Brontë’s Heathcliff in Wuthering Heights: A classic example of a

Byronic hero, with his obsession, isolation, and moral ambiguity.

Victor Frankenstein in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein: His obsessive

pursuit of knowledge and his isolation mirror the qualities of a Byronic
hero.

39. Cadence
Cadence refers to the rhythmic flow or pattern of sounds in speech or
writing, particularly the natural rise and fall of the voice. It can also refer
to the way a line of poetry or a sentence concludes. Cadence contributes
to the musicality and emotional tone of a work.
Key Features:

The natural rhythm of speech or poetry.

The final resolution or suspension of a phrase or sentence.

Adds emotional depth or emphasis through sound patterns.

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Examples:

In Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass: Whitman uses cadence to give his

free verse poems a musical quality, with a rhythm that mimics the
natural flow of thought.

Shakespeare’s Hamlet: “To be, or not to be, that is the question” has a
cadence that emphasizes the existential theme.

Robert Frost’s Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening: The final lines

of the poem create a calming, reflective cadence: "And miles to go
before I sleep."

40. Caesura
Caesura is a pause or break in a line of poetry, typically in the middle
but sometimes near the beginning or end. It creates a rhythmic
disruption and emphasizes particular words or ideas within the line.
Key Features:

A pause within a line of poetry, often signaled by punctuation or a

natural pause in speech.

Can influence the pacing and mood of the poem.

Creates a dramatic or reflective effect.

Examples:

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In Beowulf: “So Grendel waged his lonely war, / ...” The pause after
"war" heightens the tension in the line.

Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock: "Here thou, great Anna! whom
three realms obey, / Dost sometimes counsel take—and sometimes tea."
The caesura after "obey" creates a pause for emphasis.

In Shakespeare’s Macbeth: “Out, out, brief candle! Life’s but a walking

shadow.” The caesura after “Out” creates a reflective pause that
highlights the futility of life.

41. Canto
A canto is a division or chapter of a long poem, especially in epic
poetry. The term comes from the Italian word meaning "song," and it is
used to organize longer poems into sections. Each canto typically
focuses on a specific part of the narrative or theme.
Key Features:

A division or section of a lengthy poem, especially epic or narrative

poetry.

Often used to separate thematic or narrative shifts within the poem.

Each canto may consist of several stanzas or lines, contributing to the

structure of the overall poem.

Examples:

Dante Alighieri’s Divine Comedy: The poem is divided into three

sections (Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso), each containing multiple
cantos that narrate the journey through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven.

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Lord Byron’s Don Juan: Byron’s epic poem is organized into cantos,
each offering a new chapter of the protagonist’s adventures.

Ezra Pound’s Cantos: A collection of poems that blend modernist

themes, historical references, and fragmented ideas, divided into cantos.

42. Caricature
A caricature is a humorous or exaggerated portrayal of a person, event,
or thing, focusing on prominent features or characteristics. It is often
used to make a political or social statement by exaggerating flaws or
eccentricities.
Key Features:

Exaggeration or distortion of characteristics.

Used for comic effect or social critique.

Can be a visual or written form.

Examples:

Charles Dickens’ Pickwick Papers: The character of Mr. Pickwick is

often portrayed in a caricatured way, highlighting his naïveté and
eccentricity.

The works of satirical cartoonists such as Thomas Nast, who caricatured

political figures of the 19th century, including his famous depictions of
figures like Boss Tweed.

In modern media, TV shows like The Simpsons often use caricatures of

family members, politicians, and celebrities for comic and satirical
purposes.

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43. Carol

A carol is a festive song, often associated with Christmas, that expresses

joy and celebration. Originally, the term referred to a song of praise or
joy that could be secular or religious. Over time, it became specifically
associated with Christmas carols.
Key Features:

A song of joy, often related to celebrations or religious festivals.

Originally secular but later became associated with Christmas.

Simple, rhythmic, and typically meant to be sung by a group or choir.

Examples:

"The First Noel" and "Hark! The Herald Angels Sing" are classic
examples of Christmas carols.

In A Christmas Carol by Charles Dickens, the character of Ebenezer

Scrooge is visited by Christmas carols that contribute to the theme of
redemption.

"Good King Wenceslas" is a medieval carol that celebrates the

generosity of a king, often sung during the holiday season.

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44. Catharsis

Catharsis is a concept from Aristotle's Poetics, referring to the emotional

release or purification that an audience experiences after watching a
tragedy. Through feelings of pity and fear, the audience is meant to
achieve a sense of emotional cleansing.
Key Features:

The emotional release or purification in response to art, particularly in

tragic drama.

The audience experiences feelings of fear and pity, which are eventually
resolved.

Creates an emotional connection to the narrative, enhancing the impact

of the work.

Examples:

In Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, the audience experiences catharsis as they

witness Oedipus’ downfall and the tragic realization of his fate.

William Shakespeare’s Hamlet provides catharsis through Hamlet’s

tragic journey, evoking pity and fear in the audience.

In modern films like Schindler’s List, the audience may experience

catharsis through the emotional impact of the story and its themes of loss
and redemption.

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45. Catastrophe
In literature, the term "catastrophe" refers to the final event in a tragedy,
where the protagonist's downfall or the resolution of the conflict leads to
a tragic outcome. It is the concluding action in a narrative that often
results in death or disaster, especially in classical tragedies.
Key Features:

The final tragic event or conclusion in a drama, particularly in tragedies.

Often results in death, loss, or irreversible change.

Creates a dramatic conclusion, especially following the rising action and

climax.

Examples:

In Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex, the catastrophe occurs when Oedipus

realizes he has unwittingly killed his father and married his mother,
leading to his tragic self-inflicted blindness and exile.

In Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, the catastrophe is the double suicide

of the lovers, which resolves the feud between their families but at a
great cost.

In modern tragedy, Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman ends with Willy

Loman’s suicide, which he sees as his only way to resolve his despair
and fulfill his distorted view of success.

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46. Campus Novel
A campus novel is a genre of literature that focuses on the lives and
experiences of students and faculty within a university or academic
setting. These novels often explore intellectual debates, social dynamics,
and personal growth, while also examining the relationships and
conflicts that arise in an academic environment. The genre can also
reflect on themes of education, authority, and the clash between personal
and academic life.
Key Features:

Set in a university or academic institution.

Explores the lives of students, faculty, and staff.

Can address themes like intellectualism, academia, youth, and rebellion.

Often includes elements of humor, satire, or critique of the educational

system.

Examples:

"Lucky Jim" by Kingsley Amis: A satirical novel about a young

academic named Jim Dixon, who struggles with both his academic
career and personal life, satirizing the British educational system and its
pretensions.

"The Secret History" by Donna Tartt: This novel is set in a small liberal
arts college and follows a group of students who become involved in a
murder. It explores themes of elitism, intellectualism, and the darker
sides of academia.

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"The Campus Novel" by David Lodge: A comedic take on university
life, with a focus on the relationships and social interactions of academic
staff and students.

47. Caroline Period

The Caroline period refers to the time during the reign of King Charles I
of England (1625–1649), which is a key period in the early modern
history of English literature. This era was marked by the flourishing of
both poetry and drama, as well as a growing sense of tension between
monarchy and parliament, which would culminate in the English Civil
War.
Key Features:

Lasted during the reign of King Charles I (1625–1649).

Known for its contribution to the development of English drama and

poetry.

The period was marked by political and religious unrest, ultimately

leading to the English Civil War.

The works of this time reflect a combination of Renaissance humanism,

courtly refinement, and the early stirrings of the Enlightenment.

Examples:

Ben Jonson's later works: Jonson, a leading playwright of the period,

continued to produce his best works, including The Staple of News and
The New Inn, showcasing his sharp social commentary and influence on
Caroline drama.

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John Milton's "Comus": Written in 1634, this masque was a part of the
courtly entertainment and showcases the neoclassical influences of the
Caroline period.

Thomas Carew's poetry: Carew, a leading Cavalier poet, wrote during

this period, and his works reflect the tone and themes of courtly love and
sensuality that were prominent at the time.

48. Cavalier Poets

The Cavalier Poets were a group of 17th-century English poets who
supported King Charles I during the English Civil War. Their poetry was
characterized by its light-hearted, often witty, and celebratory tone,
focusing on themes such as love, beauty, and the pleasures of life. They
were in contrast to the more serious and politically charged poetry of the
Metaphysical Poets.
Key Features:

Supporters of King Charles I during the English Civil War.

Known for their smooth, elegant verse and themes of love, loyalty, and
pleasure.

They emphasized the transient nature of life, often with an emphasis on

enjoying the moment.

Examples:

Robert Herrick's "To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time": A

quintessential Cavalier poem urging young women to enjoy life while
they can, echoing the theme of carpe diem (seize the day).

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Richard Lovelace's "To Althea, from Prison": A poem celebrating love
and freedom, even in the face of imprisonment, demonstrating the
Cavalier poets’ focus on personal liberty and the joys of life.

Sir John Suckling’s "Why So Pale and Wan, Fond Lover?": A playful
and witty poem, embodying the Cavalier style of light, sophisticated
verse with a touch of humor.

49. Cavalier Drama

Cavalier drama refers to the dramatic works written during the Caroline
period (the reign of Charles I), especially by playwrights who were
aligned with the royalist cause. This genre of drama was characterized
by a focus on spectacle, wit, and entertainment, often favoring light
romantic themes over the more serious, politically charged dramas of the
time.
Key Features:

Associated with the supporters of King Charles I during the English

Civil War.

Emphasis on elegance, wit, and courtly behavior.

Often romantic and light-hearted in nature.

Contrasted with the more intense, moral, or religious drama of the

Puritans.

Examples:

James Shirley's The Gamester: A play that combines elements of

romance, comedy, and moral lessons, reflecting the elegance and
frivolity of Cavalier drama.

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Sir William Davenant's The Tempest (adaptation): A lavish and
spectacular version of Shakespeare’s play, performed at the king's court.
Davenant's adaptation features grand sets and music, indicative of the
Cavalier approach to drama.

Richard Brome's The Northern Lass: A comedy filled with wit and
social critique, exemplifying the light and often humorous tone of
Cavalier drama.

50. Chicago Critics

The Chicago Critics, also known as the "New Criticism" group, were a
group of mid-20th-century literary scholars associated with the
University of Chicago. They sought to provide a more scientific
approach to literary criticism, emphasizing close reading and the
analysis of the text itself, independent of historical or biographical
context.
Key Features:

Focused on close reading and formal analysis of the text.

Emphasized structural elements, such as symbolism, imagery, and form.

Rejected extrinsic factors (like author intent or historical context) in

favor of examining the work itself.

Stressed the unity and coherence of the work as a whole.

Examples:

Cleanth Brooks' The Well Wrought Urn: A foundational text of New

Criticism, focusing on the analysis of poetry and the unity of the poem
as an organic whole.

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R.P. Blackmur's The Lion and the Honeycomb: An example of Chicago
Criticism's focus on close reading and the formal structure of literature.

John Crowe Ransom's essays: Ransom was a leading figure in the

Chicago Critics group, and his essays often examined the structural
elements of poetry, stressing the importance of form and language over
historical or biographical readings.

51. Chorus
In literature and drama, a chorus refers to a group of characters who
comment on or narrate the events of the story, often providing insights,
reflections, or moral perspectives on the plot. It is especially common in
ancient Greek theater, where the chorus was used to represent the voice
of society, comment on the action, and guide the audience’s emotional
response. In modern literature, a chorus may be used symbolically or
functionally to create a sense of collective voice or communal
experience.
Key Features:

A group of characters or voices that offer commentary on the action.

Common in Greek tragedy and classical drama.

Often reflects moral, social, or philosophical insights about the events of

the story.

Examples:

Sophocles' Oedipus Rex: The chorus in Oedipus Rex comments on the

tragic events unfolding, offering reflections on fate, morality, and the
gods’ role in human suffering.

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Chorus in Antigone by Sophocles: The chorus reflects on themes of law,
justice, and familial loyalty, often commenting on the actions of the
characters.

T.S. Eliot's The Cocktail Party: This modern play incorporates a chorus-
like structure, where various characters provide commentary on the
psychological and social dynamics of the play.

52. Chronicle

A chronicle is a historical account or narrative that presents events in

chronological order, often focusing on significant events or moments in
history. In literature, a chronicle may be used to tell the story of a nation,
a ruler, or a period, often with a focus on factual accuracy. Chronicles
can serve as both historical documentation and literary works that
provide insight into the past.
Key Features:

A historical narrative or record.

Events are often presented in chronological order.

Can be both factual and fictionalized.

Examples:

Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales: Although more of a

collection of stories, The Canterbury Tales functions as a chronicle of
the lives and social classes of 14th-century England.

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H.G. Wells’ The Outline of History: A historical chronicle that provides
a broad overview of human history from ancient times to the early 20th
century, blending fact and interpretation.

Shakespeare's Chronicle Plays: Works like Richard II and Henry V are

examples of historical chronicles dramatized on the stage, recounting the
history of English monarchs.

53. Chronicle Play

A chronicle play is a type of drama that dramatizes historical events and
figures, particularly from British history, through a combination of
narrative and dialogue. These plays often focus on the actions of
monarchs, battles, and political intrigue, and they aim to provide both
entertainment and moral lessons for the audience by highlighting the
consequences of political decisions and human behavior.
Key Features:

Based on historical events, particularly focusing on kings and political

issues.

Written in verse or prose, often emphasizing the grandeur or tragedy of

historical moments.

Frequently focuses on the complexities of power, politics, and

leadership.

Examples:

Shakespeare’s Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry V: These plays focus on the
reigns of Henry IV and Henry V, highlighting key moments in English

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history like the Battle of Agincourt. They explore the nature of kingship,
rebellion, and the impact of war.

Christopher Marlowe's Edward II: A chronicle play based on the life of

King Edward II, exploring his reign and the political machinations that
led to his downfall.

John Bale’s Kynge Johan: A chronicle play that dramatizes the reign of
King John of England, emphasizing themes of leadership and the
tensions between church and monarchy.

54. Chronotope
A chronotope is a term introduced by Russian literary theorist Mikhail
Bakhtin to describe the way time and space are represented in literature.
It refers to the interconnectedness of time and space in a narrative and
how these elements shape the structure of a literary work. A chronotope
allows readers to understand how the passage of time and the setting
affect characters, plot, and themes.
Key Features:

The interconnectedness of time and space in narrative.

Helps to reveal social, cultural, and psychological contexts in literature.

Can shape the narrative's structure and the development of characters.

Examples:

The Bildungsroman genre: In novels like Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's

Apprenticeship, the chronotope is used to depict the passage of time as
the protagonist matures, with a focus on his internal development and
external journey.

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Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations: The chronotope in this novel is
central to understanding how time (the passage of years) and the
physical spaces (London, Satis House) contribute to Pip’s personal
growth and social mobility.

Franz Kafka’s The Trial: In Kafka's novel, the chronotope creates a

sense of timelessness and surrealism, where time seems to stretch or
collapse as the protagonist navigates a bureaucratic nightmare.

55. Cliché
A cliché refers to an overused phrase, idea, or expression that has lost its
original impact due to excessive repetition. In literature, a cliché can be
a narrative trope, phrase, or character type that has become predictable
and lacks originality. It can undermine the quality of writing by reducing
the novelty or emotional resonance of the work.
Key Features:

An overused phrase, idea, or theme.

Lacks originality and has become predictable.

Often used unintentionally to fill space or avoid deep creativity.

Examples:

"And they lived happily ever after": A classic cliché in fairy tales, used
to end stories with an idealized vision of eternal happiness, which has
become trite due to overuse.
"The calm before the storm": A well-known phrase used in many
contexts to refer to a period of peace before something disruptive occurs.
Its frequent use in literature has reduced its impact.

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Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet: While not clichéd in itself, many of the
phrases and ideas in the play, such as the idea of "star-crossed lovers,"
have become clichés in later interpretations and adaptations.

56. Climax
In literature, a climax refers to the point of highest tension, conflict, or
drama in a narrative. It is the turning point of the story, where the central
conflict reaches its peak, and the outcome begins to unfold. The climax
is typically followed by the resolution or denouement, where the
consequences of the climax are revealed. This moment is crucial for
character development and for advancing the plot towards its
conclusion.
Key Features:

The turning point in the narrative.

The point of highest emotional intensity.

Leads to the resolution of the central conflict.

Examples:

William Shakespeare’s Macbeth: The climax occurs when Macbeth

realizes the consequences of his actions after the murder of King
Duncan, leading to his ultimate downfall.

Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice: The climax is when Elizabeth Bennet
and Mr. Darcy finally have their confrontation and misunderstandings
are cleared, leading to their eventual marriage.

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Homer’s The Iliad: The climax occurs when Achilles decides to re-enter
the battle to avenge the death of his close friend, Patroclus, ultimately
leading to the death of Hector.

57. Closet Drama

A closet drama is a type of play written primarily for private reading,
rather than public performance. These works are often intended to be
read aloud in intimate settings and may include detailed stage directions,
dialogue, and complex themes. Closet dramas were particularly popular
in the 18th and 19th centuries, where certain writers preferred to focus
on the textual and thematic elements of drama, rather than the
theatricality of a public performance.
Key Features:

Meant for private reading, not public performance.

Often focused on complex themes or philosophical ideas.

Sometimes characterized by a lack of stage directions or set designs.

Examples:

John Milton’s Samson Agonistes: A closet drama written by Milton that

tells the story of Samson’s downfall and his final moments, exploring
themes of strength, betrayal, and redemption.

George Bernard Shaw’s Man and Superman: Though not entirely a

closet drama, Shaw’s work has elements of the genre, with its
philosophical discussions and focus on dialogue over spectacle.
Lord Byron’s Cain: This closet drama presents a reimagining of the
biblical story of Cain and Abel, exploring themes of rebellion and
existential questioning.

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58. Cockney School of Poetry
The Cockney School of Poetry refers to a group of 19th-century English
poets who were characterized by their use of a distinctive form of
working-class dialect, known as Cockney, and their focus on popular,
accessible themes. They were often critiqued for being overly
sentimental and lacking in traditional poetic refinement. The term was
coined by their critics, but the poets associated with the movement
sought to challenge traditional literary forms and bring poetry closer to
everyday life.
Key Features:

Use of Cockney dialect and working-class themes.

Rejection of traditional poetic conventions.

Often seen as "vulgar" or "unrefined" by their critics, but celebrated for

their creativity and social commentary.

Examples:

John Keats’ early work: Although not strictly part of the Cockney
School, Keats’ early poems, like Endymion, were admired by members
of the movement for their focus on beauty and imagination, though
critics like Lord Byron and others criticized Keats for his youthful
idealism.

P. B. Shelley’s The Revolt of Islam: A poem that critiques the

establishment and champions radical social and political ideas, aligning
with the reformist elements of the Cockney School.

Leigh Hunt’s The Story of Rimini: Known for his links with the
Cockney School, Hunt’s work blends personal emotions with a social
critique of the established order.

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59. Comedy of Intrigue
A comedy of intrigue is a subgenre of comedy that revolves around
complicated plots filled with misunderstandings, mistaken identities,
secret relationships, and deceptive schemes. Often set in a world of
complex social structures or in high society, the characters in such plays
attempt to achieve personal or social goals by using trickery,
manipulation, or wit. These comedies focus on the eventual unmasking
of these intrigues, resulting in humor, confusion, and eventual
resolution.
Key Features:

Complex plots with many twists and turns.

Mistaken identities, disguises, and schemes.

Focuses on witty dialogue and comedic misunderstandings.

Examples:

William Congreve’s The Way of the World: A quintessential example of

the comedy of intrigue, where characters engage in various schemes and
deceptions to secure wealth, love, and status.

Molière’s Tartuffe: In this play, the comedy centers on the deceptions of

the hypocrite Tartuffe, whose intrigue threatens to disrupt the lives of a
wealthy family.

Beaumarchais’ The Marriage of Figaro: This play features a series of

deceptions, hidden identities, and social intrigues as the protagonist
Figaro outsmarts the Count Almaviva in his pursuit of love and justice.

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60. Commedia dell'arte
Commedia dell'arte is an early form of professional theater that
originated in Italy during the 16th century. It is known for its
improvisational style, masked characters, and physical comedy.
Performances often involved stock characters such as Harlequin,
Columbina, Pantalone, and others who represented social types and
engaged in comical situations. The use of masks allowed actors to
portray exaggerated personalities, and the performances were often
interactive, engaging the audience in the action.
Key Features:

Use of stock characters and improvisation.

Physical comedy and slapstick humor.

Performance typically involved themes of love, trickery, and mistaken

identities.

Examples:

Harlequin: A classic character from Commedia dell'arte, Harlequin is a

clever servant who uses wit and physical agility to navigate social
situations.

Goldoni’s The Servant of Two Masters: Although written later, this play
is influenced by Commedia dell'arte traditions, with its slapstick humor
and mistaken identities.

Shakespeare’s The Taming of the Shrew: Elements of Commedia

dell'arte can be seen in this play, especially in the physical comedy and
the humorous interactions between the characters, though it is not
strictly a Commedia dell'arte work.

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61. Comedy of Manners

A comedy of manners is a type of comedy that satirizes the social

customs, behavior, and attitudes of a particular group, often focusing on
the upper classes and their complex codes of conduct. These plays
typically emphasize wit, sophisticated dialogue, and the hypocrisy or
absurdity of societal norms. The characters often engage in witty
repartee and disguise their true feelings to navigate the social
expectations of their time.
Key Features:

Focuses on social behavior and norms, particularly among the upper

class.

Features witty dialogue and clever wordplay.

Often mocks societal hypocrisy and conventions.

Examples:

William Congreve’s The Way of the World: A prime example of a

comedy of manners, Congreve’s play examines the romantic and social
intrigues of the upper class, filled with wit and satirical commentary on
marriage, love, and money.

Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest: Wilde’s comedy of

manners focuses on the absurdity of social conventions, particularly in
relation to marriage and identity, showcasing his signature wit and
satire.

George Bernard Shaw’s Arms and the Man: Shaw critiques the idealized
notions of love, war, and heroism, using satire and wit to expose the
superficiality of society’s norms.

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62. Comedy of Menace
A comedy of menace is a genre that blends humor with an underlying
sense of threat or danger. The humor often arises from absurd or
exaggerated situations, but there is always an unsettling or ominous
undercurrent. The characters may find themselves in situations where
the danger is not explicitly acknowledged, creating tension between
comedic elements and the potential for menace.
Key Features:

A mix of humor and underlying menace.

The threat is often unspoken or subtly implied.

Tension arises from the juxtaposition of comedy and danger.

Examples:

Harold Pinter’s The Birthday Party: This play features humor that
slowly turns into a psychological thriller, where the menace of the
characters' intentions becomes increasingly apparent, yet the dialogue
remains witty and absurd.

Edward Albee’s The Zoo Story: Albee blends humor with a sense of
unease, as two men engage in seemingly trivial conversation that
evolves into something much darker.

Joe Orton’s Entertaining Mr. Sloane: Orton uses dark humor and menace
as the characters’ actions become increasingly violent and bizarre, yet
there is an unsettling comedy throughout.

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63. Comic Relief
Comic relief refers to a humorous scene, character, or dialogue in the
middle of a serious or tragic moment, intended to lighten the mood and
provide relief for the audience. It is commonly used in plays, especially
tragedies, to balance intense or dramatic situations with humor, offering
the audience a brief escape before returning to the main conflict.
Key Features:

Lightens the emotional tone during a tense or serious moment.

Often provided by secondary characters or funny situations.

A brief break from the main narrative to provide emotional contrast.

Examples:

William Shakespeare’s Hamlet: The gravedigger scene provides comic

relief, as Hamlet engages in a darkly humorous dialogue while
contemplating death, before the play returns to the tragic unfolding of
events.

Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet: The character of the Nurse provides

comic relief, with her bawdy humor and physical antics contrasting with
the tragic love story.

Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities: The character of Jerry Cruncher,

with his humorous and absurd behavior, offers brief moments of comic
relief amidst the novel's serious exploration of revolution and violence.

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64. Conceit

In literature, a conceit refers to an extended metaphor or a far-fetched,

elaborate comparison between two seemingly unrelated things. The
conceit often stretches the imagination and can involve intricate and
surprising connections, making it a hallmark of certain types of poetry,
especially metaphysical poetry. It often serves to create an intellectual or
emotional impact through its wit and complexity.
Key Features:

An elaborate and extended metaphor.

Often used in metaphysical poetry.

Links two unrelated ideas in surprising or intellectual ways.

Examples:

John Donne’s A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning: Donne uses a

conceit in comparing the separation of lovers to the movement of a
compass, suggesting that their love remains constant despite distance.

Andrew Marvell’s To His Coy Mistress: Marvell uses a conceit when he

compares his love for his mistress to the vast expanses of time and
space, creating an intellectual and elaborate argument for why they
should seize the moment.

Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18: Shakespeare uses the conceit of comparing the

beloved to a summer's day to explore themes of beauty, love, and
immortality.

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65. Convention
In literary terms, a convention refers to a traditional or commonly
accepted practice, style, or technique that is expected in a specific genre
or literary form. Conventions help shape the reader's expectations and
often govern how a story or poem is structured. These conventions may
evolve over time but are generally recognized and followed by authors
within a specific literary tradition.
Key Features:

Accepted practices or techniques within a genre.

Shape the structure and content of a work.

Help set audience expectations.

Examples:

Epic poetry conventions: The use of elevated language, invocation to the

muse, and supernatural elements are conventions seen in epics like
Homer’s The Iliad* and Virgil’s Aeneid*.

Shakespearean tragedy conventions: In works like Macbeth or King

Lear, the convention of a tragic hero’s downfall, the use of soliloquies,
and the presence of a fatal flaw are traditional elements of the genre.

Romantic poetry conventions: The emphasis on nature, individualism,

and emotion in works by poets like William Wordsworth’s Lines
Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey and Samuel Taylor
Coleridge’s Kubla Khan.

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66. Crisis
A crisis in literature refers to a pivotal moment of change or conflict
within a narrative, often marking a turning point in the plot or a
character's development. It is the point where a significant problem or
decision must be confronted, often leading to a climax or resolution. The
crisis often tests the protagonist’s character or decisions and drives the
story toward its conclusion.

Key Features:

A decisive moment or turning point in the narrative.

Often presents a problem or challenge that needs to be addressed.

Leads to the climax or resolution of the story.

Examples:

Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex: Oedipus’s realization of his true identity and

the consequences of his actions constitutes the crisis, leading to his
downfall.

William Shakespeare’s Macbeth: The crisis occurs when Macbeth,

driven by his ambition, decides to murder King Duncan, setting off a
chain of events that ultimately leads to his demise.

F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby: The crisis in the novel occurs
when Gatsby confronts Tom Buchanan over Daisy, resulting in tragic
consequences.

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67. Cubism
Cubism is an avant-garde art movement that originated in the early 20th
century, challenging traditional perspectives by using fragmented shapes
and multiple viewpoints to depict subjects. While it is primarily known
in visual art (especially in works by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque),
cubism also influenced literature by encouraging fragmented narratives,
nonlinear structures, and the presentation of multiple perspectives.

Key Features:

Fragmentation and abstraction of subjects.

Multiple viewpoints or angles presented simultaneously.

Nonlinear structures, challenging traditional narrative forms.

Examples:

Pablo Picasso’s paintings: Les Demoiselles d'Avignon and Guernica are

iconic examples of Cubism, showing multiple angles and perspectives of
the same subjects.

Guillaume Apollinaire’s poetry: His Calligrammes are works that

incorporate visual art with text, reflecting Cubist ideas by visually
manipulating the structure of the poem to mirror the subject matter.

James Joyce’s Ulysses: Joyce’s modernist novel reflects Cubist

influences through its fragmented narrative and the simultaneous
presentation of multiple perspectives.

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68. Dadaism

Dadaism was a cultural and artistic movement that emerged in the early
20th century as a reaction to the horrors of World War I. It rejected
conventional aesthetic standards and embraced absurdity, chaos, and
irrationality. Dadaists often used humor, randomness, and nonsensical
elements to critique societal norms, rationalism, and the concept of art
itself. Dadaism also influenced literature, where poets and writers
employed techniques like collage, nonsensical language, and absurd
narratives.

Key Features:

Anti-establishment and anti-rationality.

Emphasis on absurdity, randomness, and chaos.

Rejection of traditional aesthetic values.

Examples:

Tristan Tzara’s The Gas Heart: This play is a key example of Dadaism
in literature, using nonsensical language and absurd scenarios to
challenge conventional theater.

Marcel Duchamp’s Fountain: Though an art piece, Duchamp’s

readymade sculpture (a urinal signed with a pseudonym) encapsulates
Dadaist critique by questioning the very definition of art.

Kurt Schwitters’ Ursonate: A Dada sound poem that uses invented

words and non-sense syllables to break away from traditional linguistic
structures.

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69. Dark Comedy
Dark comedy, also known as black comedy, refers to humor that is
derived from subjects typically considered serious, tragic, or taboo, such
as death, illness, or suffering. It often involves a cynical or satirical
approach to these issues, highlighting the absurdity of life or human
existence in the face of darkness or adversity.

Key Features:

Humor that deals with tragic, taboo, or uncomfortable topics.

Often involves a cynical or nihilistic tone.

Challenges traditional boundaries of comedy by addressing serious or

grim subjects.

Examples:

Joseph Heller’s Catch-22: The novel is a classic example of dark

comedy, using absurd and ironic humor to explore the horrors of war,
bureaucracy, and the human condition.

Martin McDonagh’s The Lieutenant of Inishmore: This play mixes dark

humor with violence and absurdity, where the death of a cat becomes a
catalyst for absurd revenge and philosophical musings.

Stanley Kubrick’s Dr. Strangelove (film): The film satirizes nuclear war,
using dark comedy to expose the absurdity and dangers of political and
military decisions that could lead to global destruction.

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70. Decadents
The Decadents were a group of writers, poets, and artists in the late 19th
century who embraced an aesthetic of excess, artificiality, and moral
decay. The movement was characterized by a rejection of conventional
morality and embraced a world of sensuality, pessimism, and decay.
Decadent literature often explored themes of corruption, decline, and the
exploration of taboo subjects, questioning traditional values and norms.

Key Features:

A focus on aestheticism, excess, and decay.

Rejection of conventional morality.

Exploration of sensuality, corruption, and taboo subjects.

Examples:

Joris-Karl Huysmans’ À Rebours (Against Nature): This novel is often

considered the quintessential work of the Decadent movement, featuring
a protagonist who withdraws from society into a world of extreme
sensory experiences and philosophical musings about decay and
corruption.

Oscar Wilde’s The Picture of Dorian Gray: Wilde's novel explores the
themes of hedonism, moral corruption, and the pursuit of beauty at the
expense of the soul, reflecting the Decadent movement's focus on
aestheticism and excess.

Charles Baudelaire’s Les Fleurs du mal (The Flowers of Evil):

Baudelaire’s poetry is a cornerstone of Decadent literature, focusing on
themes of sin, beauty, and the corrupting nature of urban life.

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71. Deus Ex Machina
Deus ex machina is a literary device where an unexpected or improbable
event, character, or object appears to resolve a seemingly unsolvable
conflict or problem in the narrative. The term literally means "god from
the machine," originating from ancient Greek theater, where gods were
often lowered onto the stage by a crane (machine) to intervene and
resolve the plot.

Key Features:

Sudden and often improbable intervention.

Used to resolve seemingly insurmountable problems.

Can sometimes be seen as an artificial or contrived solution.

Examples:

Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex: The oracle’s prophecy (which comes true

despite Oedipus’ efforts to avoid it) is often considered a form of deus
ex machina, where fate intervenes to resolve the plot.

William Shakespeare’s The Tempest: Prospero’s use of magic to bring

about reconciliation among the characters could be seen as a form of
deus ex machina, resolving the conflicts without logical or natural
development.

J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings (particularly The Return of the
King): The eagles’ timely rescue of Frodo and Sam from Mount Doom
can be viewed as a deus ex machina, though it is often debated whether
Tolkien intended it to be a legitimate plot device.

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72. Denouement

The denouement is the final part of a story, following the climax, where
the plot’s loose ends are tied up, and the story reaches its resolution. It
typically explains the outcomes of the central conflict and shows how
the characters’ lives continue after the main events. The term comes
from the French word dénouer meaning "to untie."

Key Features:

The conclusion or resolution of the story.

Ties up loose ends and clarifies what happens after the climax.

Can provide closure or suggest the future for the characters.

Examples:

Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities: The denouement occurs after

the main conflict resolves, where we learn about the fates of the main
characters (e.g., Charles Darnay, Lucie Manette, and Dr. Manette).

Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice: After the climax, the denouement
provides the resolution of Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy’s
relationship, showing their marriage and future happiness.

George Orwell’s Animal Farm: The denouement shows the complete

transformation of the pigs into the very tyrants they once overthrew,
symbolizing the collapse of revolutionary ideals.

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73. Descriptive Criticism
Descriptive criticism is an approach in literary analysis where the critic’s
primary goal is to describe and explain the content, form, and structure
of a work without making evaluative judgments. It involves closely
analyzing the text as it is, without offering opinions about its merits or
faults.

Key Features:

Focuses on describing the text’s content, structure, and style.

Avoids personal judgments or subjective evaluations.

Emphasizes objective analysis of the work.

Examples:

A critic providing a detailed analysis of the structure of William

Wordsworth’s Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey,
describing its use of blank verse, imagery, and reflection.

A description of the characters, settings, and themes in Homer’s The

Odyssey, outlining how the journey is structured without offering a
critique of the hero’s actions or moral lessons.

A textual analysis of Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway, describing the

narrative style, use of stream-of-consciousness, and depiction of time.

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74. Diaries

A diary is a personal, often private, record of a person's thoughts,

feelings, and experiences, typically written on a daily or regular basis.
Diaries can be a literary genre in themselves when they are published
and provide insight into the writer’s personal life, as well as broader
social and historical contexts. They can offer authentic reflections and
are sometimes used in literature to reveal character, plot, or themes.

Key Features:

Personal and introspective.

Often written in the first person.

May serve as a record of events, but also reflects the writer’s thoughts
and emotions.

Examples:

Anne Frank’s The Diary of a Young Girl: A famous diary that

documents the author’s life in hiding during the Holocaust, offering
personal insights into the historical events.

Samuel Pepys’ The Diary of Samuel Pepys: A detailed and vivid record
of life in 17th-century England, giving a firsthand account of historical
events such as the Great Fire of London.

Virginia Woolf’s The Diary of Virginia Woolf: Offers personal

reflections from Woolf, shedding light on her thoughts about her work,
her mental health, and societal pressures during the early 20th century.

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75. Didactic Literature
Didactic literature is a genre of writing that aims to instruct, educate, or
inform the reader, often with a moral or philosophical message. The
primary goal of didactic works is to teach a lesson or principle, rather
than simply entertain. It often emphasizes virtues, ethics, and proper
conduct.

Key Features:

Focuses on instruction and moral lessons.

Aims to educate the reader.

Often written with a clear, purposeful message or ideology.

Examples:

John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress: A didactic allegory that teaches

Christian virtues and the journey toward salvation through the
protagonist’s adventures.

Aesop’s Fables: Short stories that convey moral lessons, such as the
fable of “The Tortoise and the Hare,” which teaches the value of
persistence and humility.

Matthew Arnold’s Culture and Anarchy: An essay that functions as

didactic literature, arguing for the improvement of society through
culture, reason, and education.

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75. Didactic Literature
Didactic literature refers to works that are written with the primary
intention of instructing or teaching the reader, often conveying a moral,
philosophical, or educational message. It emphasizes the transmission of
knowledge, values, and life lessons, often with a focus on personal or
societal improvement.

Key Features:

Aimed at instructing or educating.

Often has a moral or philosophical message.

May focus on practical advice or ethical behavior.

Examples:

John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim’s Progress: An allegorical narrative that

teaches Christian virtues and the journey of faith.

Aesop’s Fables: Short stories that offer moral lessons, such as "The Boy
Who Cried Wolf," which teaches the importance of honesty.

Matthew Arnold’s Culture and Anarchy: A series of essays that discuss

how culture can contribute to social and moral improvement.

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76. Différance
Différance is a term coined by philosopher Jacques Derrida, representing
a central concept in his theory of deconstruction. It refers to the idea that
meaning in language is not fixed, but rather arises from the differences
between words, and that meaning is always deferred, or delayed, as
words reference other words. Différance challenges traditional notions
of fixed meaning and emphasizes the instability of language.

Key Features:

Describes the process by which meaning is created through differences

between words.

Emphasizes that meaning is always deferred and never fully present.

Central to Derrida’s theory of deconstruction.

Example:

Derrida uses différance to demonstrate how language creates meaning

through the difference between words and their contexts. For example,
the word "cat" has meaning because it is different from words like "dog"
or "rat," but this meaning is never fixed and can change in different
contexts.

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77. Difference
In literary and philosophical contexts, difference refers to the concept
that meaning in language, identity, and culture arises through contrasts
and oppositions. It plays a central role in deconstruction and
structuralism, where the understanding of a concept is shaped by what it
is not.

Key Features:

Meaning is shaped by differences, not inherent qualities.

Central to structuralist and poststructuralist theory.

Often contrasts with identity, which refers to sameness or similarity.

Example:

In Ferdinand de Saussure’s theory of linguistics, the meaning of words

comes from their difference from other words. For example, the word
"man" derives its meaning not by its own qualities, but by how it
contrasts with "woman" or "child."

78. Dime Novel

A dime novel is a type of cheap, mass-market fiction that became
popular in the United States during the 19th century. These novels were
typically sold for a dime, hence the name, and were often
sensationalized tales of adventure, romance, and crime. They were a
precursor to modern pulp fiction.

Key Features:

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Cheap, mass-produced books.
Often sensational, formulaic, and adventurous.

Popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Examples:

Edward L. Wheeler’s Deadwood Dick series: A popular dime novel

series featuring Wild West adventures, with the character of Deadwood
Dick becoming a symbol of frontier justice.

Horatio Alger’s Ragged Dick (1868): A moral tale of a poor boy’s rise
to success, showcasing themes of perseverance and virtue.

79. Dirge

A dirge is a type of mournful song or poem, often associated with

funerals or lamenting the death of someone. It is a form of poetic
expression that is somber and reflective, offering an elegiac tone and
often reflecting on themes of mortality.

Key Features:

Mournful, reflective, and sorrowful tone.

Typically associated with death and mourning.

May be written in verse or sung.

Examples:

Percy Bysshe Shelley’s A Dirge: A short, mournful poem that reflects

on the transience of life and death.

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W.H. Auden’s Funeral Blues: A well-known modern dirge that mourns
the loss of a loved one with poignant and emotional imagery.

William Shakespeare’s Dirge in Cymbeline: A traditional funeral dirge

that reflects on death and the inevitability of time.

80. Distich
A distich is a pair of lines of verse, usually composed of two lines that
rhyme or form a complete thought. The term is often used in classical
and Renaissance poetry to describe couplets or two-line verses that work
together as a unified unit.

Key Features:

Composed of two lines of verse.

Can be rhymed or unrhymed.

Often used in classical or didactic poetry to present a concise idea or

message.

Examples:

Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock: "What dire offence from
amorous causes springs, / What mighty contests rise from trivial things!"
These lines work as a distich, with each pair of lines advancing the
satirical tone of the work.

Horace’s Epistles: Many of Horace’s famous distichs are philosophical

in nature, offering moral advice or reflections, such as "Carpe Diem"
(Seize the day).

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81. Dissociation of Sensibility
Dissociation of sensibility is a term coined by T.S. Eliot in his essay
"The Metaphysical Poets". It refers to a separation between thought and
feeling in poetry, where intellectual reasoning is disconnected from
emotional or sensory experience. Eliot argued that earlier poets, like
John Donne and the Metaphysical Poets, managed to combine
intellectual concepts with intense emotions, whereas later poets,
particularly in the 17th century and beyond, tended to separate these
elements, leading to more abstract or disjointed poetry.

Key Features:

The intellectual and emotional aspects of poetry are separated.

The idea that modern poetry lacks the harmony between thought and
feeling that earlier poetry had.

Often seen as a characteristic of the modernist period, reflecting

fragmentation and disconnection.

Example:

T.S. Eliot’s own work, such as The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,
demonstrates the dissociation of sensibility. The poem’s speaker is torn
between intellectual analysis and the inability to act emotionally,
reflecting the disconnect Eliot describes.

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82. Dithyramb
A dithyramb is a form of ancient Greek lyric poetry, originally
performed in honor of the god Dionysus. It typically consisted of a
choral song accompanied by dancing, celebrating themes of nature,
fertility, and the divine. Over time, the term came to refer to any
energetic or enthusiastic poetic expression.

Key Features:

Originally a choral hymn in honor of Dionysus.

Often characterized by heightened emotional expression.

Influenced the development of Greek drama and tragedy.

Example:

The dithyrambs of Pindar, such as The Dithyramb of the Nemean

Games, celebrated athletic victories, displaying the grandeur and
celebratory style typical of this form.

Aristophanes also references dithyrambic poetry in his comedic works,

using it to parody excessive enthusiasm.

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83. Doggerel
Doggerel refers to verse or poetry that is often crude, poorly constructed,
and lacking in artistic merit. It is frequently characterized by irregular
meter, forced rhyme, and overly simplistic or trivial subject matter.
While doggerel is often humorous or satirical, it is considered lowbrow
or amateurish in quality.

Key Features:

Rhyming verse with irregular meter.

Often trivial or humorous, but lacks poetic sophistication.

Can be used for parody or satire.

Example:

The works of Edward Lear often contain doggerel, as seen in his

Nonsense Poems, such as "The Owl and the Pussycat," where the playful
and exaggerated rhyme schemes provide an example of doggerel
intended for lighthearted amusement.

Doggerel can also be found in political satire, such as Thomas

Hoccleve’s Regement of Princes, which has occasional verses that mock
the conventions of serious poetry.

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84. Dramatic Monologue
A dramatic monologue is a type of poem or speech in which a speaker
addresses a silent listener or audience, revealing aspects of their
character and emotions. It allows the speaker to speak at length about a
specific subject or event, often in a way that uncovers their inner
conflicts, desires, or motivations.

Key Features:

Delivered by a single speaker, who may not be the poet themselves.

The speaker reveals personal thoughts, feelings, or situations.

Often used to expose psychological depth or moral ambiguity.

Example:

Robert Browning’s My Last Duchess is a quintessential dramatic

monologue in which the speaker, a Duke, reveals his possessive and
controlling nature through his recounting of his former wife’s behavior.

T.S. Eliot’s The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock can also be considered
a dramatic monologue, where Prufrock speaks to himself (and the
reader), revealing his self-doubt and existential despair.

85. Dramatic Irony

Dramatic irony occurs when the audience or reader knows something

that the characters in a story do not. This creates tension or humor, as the
audience anticipates the characters' reactions to events they are unaware
of, leading to a deeper engagement with the narrative.

Key Features:

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The audience has knowledge that the characters lack.

It creates tension, suspense, or humor.

Frequently used in tragedy and comedy to heighten the emotional

impact.

Example:

Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex is a classic example of dramatic irony. The

audience knows that Oedipus is the cause of the plague and the murderer
he seeks, but Oedipus himself is unaware, which creates tragic tension.

In William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, the audience knows that

Juliet is not truly dead, but Romeo does not, which leads to the tragic
conclusion where he takes his own life.

86. Dramatis Personae

Dramatis Personae is a Latin term meaning "persons of the drama." It

refers to the list of characters in a play, often presented at the beginning
of the text. The dramatis personae provides the names and roles of the
characters, helping readers or the audience understand who is involved
in the story.

Key Features:

A list of characters in a play.

Often includes brief descriptions of the roles or relationships between

characters.

Helps the audience or reader track who is who in complex narratives.

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Example:

In William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the dramatis personae lists characters

such as Hamlet, Claudius, Gertrude, Ophelia, and Polonius, each with
brief roles such as "Prince of Denmark" or "King of Denmark," helping
the audience navigate the relationships and conflicts within the play.

T.S. Eliot’s Murder in the Cathedral also includes a dramatis personae,

listing characters like Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, and
the Knights, with roles central to the drama’s theme of martyrdom.

87. Dub Poetry

Dub poetry is a genre of poetry that emerged from the reggae music
culture of Jamaica, characterized by its rhythmic style and use of the
spoken word. It is often accompanied by dub music, a genre of reggae
that emphasizes rhythm and bass. Dub poetry is known for its social,
political, and cultural themes, addressing issues such as poverty,
oppression, and identity.

Key Features:

Spoken word poetry set to music, often reggae or dub.

Focuses on social and political themes.

Highly rhythmic, with attention to sound and performance.

Example:

Linton Kwesi Johnson is one of the most prominent dub poets. His
works like "Di Great Insohreckshan" address issues of racial inequality

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and social justice, with the music often enhancing the emotional impact
of the poetry.

Another example is Muta Baruka, known for his poem "Dis Poem",
which critiques political systems and societal issues in Jamaica with a
rhythmic, spoken style.

88. Early Tudor Age

The Early Tudor Age refers to the period in English history and
literature from 1485 to the early 16th century, during the reigns of Henry
VII, Henry VIII, and the early part of Edward VI’s reign. This era is
marked by the consolidation of the Tudor dynasty, the end of the Wars
of the Roses, the establishment of the English Reformation, and the
growth of English literature, particularly drama and poetry.

Key Features:

Transition from medieval to early modern England.

The rise of humanism and the spread of Renaissance ideals.

The beginnings of the English Reformation under Henry VIII.

Example:

Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur (1485), completed during the

reign of Edward IV but widely associated with the Tudor period, is a
seminal work of Arthurian legend that encapsulates the ideals of
chivalry and medieval romance.

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The early plays of John Skelton, like Magnificence (1515), exemplify
the shift toward Renaissance drama and reflect Tudor political and social
concerns.

89. Eclogue
An eclogue is a type of pastoral poem, often written in the form of a
dialogue between shepherds or rural figures, celebrating the natural
world, rural life, and the simplicity of the countryside. The eclogue
originated in ancient Greek and Roman literature, particularly in the
works of Theocritus and Virgil, and became a popular form in the
Renaissance and early modern periods.

Key Features:

Pastoral themes: nature, rural life, and idealized simplicity.

Often involves a dialogue between two or more shepherds.

Celebrates harmony with nature and sometimes serves as a critique of

urban or courtly life.

Example:

Virgil’s Eclogues (c. 37-30 BCE), especially Eclogue 1, where two

shepherds discuss the changing political landscape, epitomizes the
classical form.

In the Renaissance, Edmund Spenser’s The Shepheardes Calendar

(1579) is a key work that mirrors the classical eclogue tradition, with 12
pastoral poems that correspond to the months of the year.

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90. Edwardian Era
The Edwardian Era refers to the period in British history during the
reign of King Edward VII, from 1901 to 1910. It was a time of relative
peace and prosperity, often seen as a transition between the Victorian
period and the modern 20th century. The literature of this period reflects
a sense of social change, the rise of new technologies, and a growing
awareness of class struggles.

Key Features:

A period of social, political, and technological change.

Literature explores themes of social class, morality, and the effects of

industrialization.

The age is marked by a certain carefree attitude, but also growing

anxiety about the future, particularly in the face of modernism.

Example:

E.M. Forster’s Howards End (1910) critiques the class system and
explores themes of social mobility and the differences between rural and
urban life.

Henry James’s The Ambassadors (1903) also reflects Edwardian

concerns, delving into the complex relations between America and
Europe, as well as the shifting social landscapes.

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96. Mock Epic or Mock Heroic
A mock epic or mock heroic is a form of satire that takes the
conventions and elevated style of epic poetry and applies them to trivial,
often humorous, subjects. It parodies the grandiose tone and themes
typically found in epic poems, using them to tell stories about ordinary
or absurd topics.

Key Features:

Uses epic conventions, such as formal language, heroic quests, and

grandiose battles, but applies them to trivial or everyday subjects.

Often satirizes or critiques the overblown nature of traditional epic

storytelling.

Highlights the contrast between the epic form and the triviality of the
subject matter.

Example:

Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock (1712) is one of the most
famous mock epics. It humorously tells the story of a young woman’s
lock of hair being cut off in a social dispute, using the elevated style of
classical epic poetry.

John Dryden’s Mac Flecknoe (1682) is another example, satirizing the

poet laureate Thomas Shadwell by portraying him as a dull, unheroic
ruler of a fictional kingdom.

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97. Epic Simile

An epic simile (also called a Homeric simile) is a detailed and extended

comparison used in epic poetry. It typically compares a heroic or divine
action to a natural or everyday event, often with rich descriptive detail.
These similes can span several lines and enhance the grandeur and
vividness of the epic narrative.

Key Features:

Extended, elaborate comparisons.

Often used in epic poetry to elevate the story’s action.

Common in classical epics like Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.

Example:

In Homer’s The Iliad, Book 12, there is a famous epic simile comparing
the sound of a battle to the sound of waves crashing against a shore: "As
when the south wind stirs the mighty sea, and the waves rise to the
shores, so did the people rise in wrath."

John Milton’s Paradise Lost also uses epic similes, such as comparing
Satan’s fallen state to a dark cloud: "As when a cloud... hangs low on the
ground, and o'er the hills the tempest hovers."

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98. Epicedium
An epicedium is a poem or speech of mourning, often a dirge, that
commemorates the death of an individual. It is a type of funeral oration
or elegiac verse that expresses sorrow and respects the deceased.

Key Features:

A poem of mourning or lamentation.

Typically written to honor the dead, expressing sorrow or grief.

Often associated with formal funeral rites or tributes.

Example:

John Milton’s Lycidas (1638), though it is also an elegy, serves as an

epicedium for Milton’s close friend Edward King, whose untimely death
inspires the poet to reflect on mortality, fame, and loss.

William Shakespeare’s The Phoenix and the Turtle (1601) is a symbolic

epicedium, written as a funeral poem for two mythological creatures,
symbolizing the purity and idealism of love.

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99. Epistle
An epistle is a formal letter or communication, often written in poetic
form. In literature, it refers to letters that are addressed to specific
individuals or to a general audience, often carrying moral, philosophical,
or social messages. The epistle can be an important vehicle for the
exploration of ideas in verse.

Key Features:

Written in the form of a letter, often addressing a particular person or

group.

Often carries moral, philosophical, or social commentary.

Can be both personal and public, depending on the intended audience.

Example:

Alexander Pope’s Epistle to Dr. Arbuthnot (1734) is a satirical letter in

verse, addressing the poet's personal grievances with his critics while
simultaneously commenting on the state of English literature and
society.

John Keats’ Epistle to John Hamilton Reynolds (1818) is a personal

letter written in verse, where Keats discusses his thoughts on poetry, life,
and the artistic process.

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100. Epistolary Novel
An epistolary novel is a novel written in the form of letters, diary entries,
or other documents. This narrative technique allows readers to
experience the thoughts, feelings, and perspectives of characters directly
through their correspondence or private writings. The form can also
offer multiple points of view and subjective experiences.

Key Features:

Written in the form of letters, diary entries, or other personal documents.

Often gives insight into the inner thoughts and emotions of characters.

Multiple characters' voices or perspectives may be heard.

Example:

Samuel Richardson’s Pamela (1740) is one of the earliest and most

famous epistolary novels. It tells the story of Pamela, a young woman
who writes letters to her parents, revealing her experiences as she faces
challenges and romantic entanglements.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) is another example, where the story

is told through a series of letters written by Captain Walton to his sister,
framing the narratives of Victor Frankenstein and the monster.

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101. Eulogy

A eulogy is a speech or written tribute that praises and honors a person,

typically given at a funeral. It often reflects on the deceased's life,
accomplishments, virtues, and character, providing comfort to mourners
while celebrating the person's legacy.

Key Features:

Typically delivered at a funeral or memorial service.

Highlights the positive aspects of the deceased’s life and character.

Intended to offer comfort and closure to mourners.

Example:

Winston Churchill’s Eulogy for Neville Chamberlain (1940) is a famous

political eulogy, where Churchill praised the late British Prime Minister
for his efforts in leading Britain before and during the early part of
World War II.

In Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar (1599), Mark Antony’s speech at

Caesar’s funeral serves as a type of eulogy, where he praises Caesar and
sways the crowd, using irony to turn public opinion against the
conspirators.

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102. Epithalamion
An epithalamion is a poem written in celebration of a wedding, often in
the form of a hymn or song. It praises the bride and groom and
celebrates their union, often invoking blessings for the couple’s future.

Key Features:

A poem or song composed for a wedding.

Celebrates the marriage of a couple, focusing on their love and joy.

Often written in a formal or celebratory style.

Example:

Edmund Spenser’s Epithalamion (1595) is one of the most famous

examples of this form. It celebrates the poet’s marriage to his second
wife, Elizabeth Boyle, with rich imagery and a joyful tone.

John Milton’s L'Allegro and Il Penseroso (1631), while not specifically

epithalamions, feature elements of wedding poetry in their celebration of
love and the happiness it brings, providing a similar celebratory tone.

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103. Euphemism
A euphemism is a figure of speech in which a mild or less direct term is
substituted for one that might be considered harsh, blunt, or
uncomfortable. It is often used to soften the impact of difficult or taboo
subjects like death, illness, or other sensitive matters.

Key Features:

A way to soften or sugarcoat unpleasant or harsh subjects.

Used in both speech and writing.

Often employed to avoid offense or discomfort.

Example:

Instead of saying “he died,” people might say “he passed away,” using a
euphemism to soften the harshness of death.

In George Orwell’s 1984 (1949), the government uses euphemisms like

“Ministry of Truth” for an agency that manipulates information,
demonstrating how euphemisms can mask the reality of oppressive
systems.

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104. Existentialism
Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual
freedom, choice, and the inherent meaninglessness of life. Existentialists
argue that people must create their own meaning and values in a
universe that does not inherently provide them. The movement is
concerned with personal responsibility, anxiety, alienation, and the
search for authenticity.

Key Features:

Focus on individual existence and freedom.

Concern with the absurdity and meaninglessness of life.

Emphasizes personal responsibility and choice.

Example:

Jean-Paul Sartre’s Being and Nothingness (1943) is one of the key

philosophical texts of existentialism, exploring themes of consciousness,
freedom, and bad faith.

Albert Camus’ The Stranger (1942) is a literary example of

existentialism. The protagonist, Meursault, lives in a world that appears
indifferent to human suffering and struggles to find meaning in life,
representing existential themes of absurdity and alienation.

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105. Expressionism

Expressionism is an artistic and literary movement that seeks to express

emotional experience rather than physical reality. The movement is
characterized by the distortion of reality, often to evoke moods or ideas
about the human condition, rather than providing an accurate depiction
of the world. Expressionism can be seen in both visual arts and
literature.

Key Features:

Focus on emotional experience and subjective perception.

Often distorts reality to convey intense feelings.

Associated with themes of alienation, anxiety, and the struggles of the

human psyche.

Example:

In Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis (1915), the protagonist Gregor

Samsa wakes up to find himself transformed into a giant insect. The
surreal situation and Gregor’s emotional turmoil reflect the alienation
and inner conflict central to expressionist literature.

Edvard Munch’s The Scream (1893), though a painting, is often

considered a key work of expressionism, capturing intense emotion
through vivid colors and distorted figures, evoking feelings of despair
and existential dread.

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106. Fable
A fable is a short fictional story that typically features animals, plants, or
inanimate objects as characters and conveys a moral lesson. These
stories are often written in prose or verse and are used to teach a lesson
about human nature or society.

Key Features:

Often features anthropomorphized animals or objects.

Conveys a moral or ethical lesson.

Simple, accessible storytelling.

Example:

Aesop’s Fables (6th century BCE) are some of the most famous
examples. One of his well-known fables, The Tortoise and the Hare,
teaches the moral that "slow and steady wins the race."

Jean de La Fontaine's Fables (1668) also feature animals to convey

lessons on human behavior. For instance, The Fox and the Grapes
illustrates the idea of cognitive dissonance, where the fox, unable to
reach the grapes, declares they are sour.

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107. Fabliau
A fabliau is a short, humorous, and often bawdy narrative popular in
medieval French literature. These tales often depict lower-class
characters and focus on themes like trickery, infidelity, and social satire.
The tone is typically light-hearted and aimed at entertaining the audience
with its wit and ribaldry.

Key Features:

Often humorous or satirical in nature.

Focuses on the lower classes and their everyday concerns.

Frequently includes trickery, infidelity, and social commentary.

Written in rhymed verse.

Example:

Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales (14th century) contains

examples of fabliaux, such as The Miller’s Tale, which is a bawdy story
involving deception and sexual escapades among a carpenter, his wife,
and a student.

The Fabliaux of the 12th and 13th centuries by authors like Rutebeuf,
who wrote tales that mocked the clergy, depicting their greed and
hypocrisy.

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108. Farce

A farce is a form of comedy characterized by exaggerated, improbable

situations, physical humor, and slapstick. It often involves mistaken
identities, misunderstandings, and absurd characters. Farces are designed
to entertain by relying on silly, absurd situations rather than subtle
dialogue or character development.

Key Features:

Exaggerated situations and physical comedy.

Absurd and improbable events.

Emphasis on humor derived from misunderstandings or mistaken

identities.

Example:

Molière’s Tartuffe (1664) is a classic example of farce. It centers on the

hypocrisy of a pious-looking but deceitful man, Tartuffe, who deceives a
wealthy family, leading to a series of comedic situations and
misunderstandings.

Ben Jonson’s The Alchemist (1610) is another example. It features con

artists who create a series of absurd situations in their efforts to deceive
others, providing a fast-paced, farcical plot.

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109. Feminine Rhyme

Feminine rhyme refers to a rhyme that involves two syllables, with the
emphasis placed on the second syllable. This type of rhyme contrasts
with the masculine rhyme, which involves a single stressed syllable.
Feminine rhyme is often used in poetry to add musicality or to create a
softer, more flowing rhythm.

Key Features:

Involves two syllables.

The second syllable is stressed.

Creates a softer, flowing rhythm in poetry.

Example:

Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock (1712) contains examples of

feminine rhyme. An instance of feminine rhyme in the poem is in lines
like:

“May all your views be full of glee”

“And let no grief your heart oppress”

Christina Rossetti’s Remember (1862) also uses feminine rhymes. For

instance:

“Remember me when I am gone away, / Gone far away into the silent
land.”

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110. The Great Fire of London

The Great Fire of London occurred between September 2 and September

6, 1666, and is one of the most significant events in English history. The
fire began in a small bakery on Pudding Lane and quickly spread,
destroying a large part of the city, including 87 churches, 13,200 houses,
and numerous other buildings. It is believed that the fire was started
accidentally but was exacerbated by the dry weather, wooden buildings,
and narrow streets. Despite the destruction, only a few people are
recorded to have died in the fire.

Key Features:

Major disaster that devastated central London.

Started in a bakery and spread rapidly.

Led to the rebuilding of London with improved fire safety regulations.

Symbolized the end of the medieval city and the beginning of modern
urban planning.

Example:

The fire's impact on literature can be seen in works like John Dryden's
Annus Mirabilis (1667), which commemorates the fire as well as the
Second Dutch War and the plague.

Samuel Pepys' Diary (1666) offers first-hand accounts of the fire,

providing a detailed narrative of the chaos and efforts to control the
flames.

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111. Flat and Round Characters
The terms flat character and round character were coined by the critic
E.M. Forster in his book Aspects of the Novel (1927). A flat character is
one-dimensional, typically embodying a single trait or quality and
lacking depth. In contrast, a round character is more complex, showing
multiple facets of personality and undergoing development throughout
the story.

Key Features:

Flat Characters: Simple, undeveloped, often embody one key trait or

idea.

Round Characters: Complex, well-developed, and capable of change or

growth over time.

Example:

Flat Characters: In Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol (1843),

Ebenezer Scrooge begins as a flat character—mean, greedy, and
unkind—before transforming into a more rounded character as the novel
progresses.

Round Characters: In Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice (1813),

Elizabeth Bennet is a round character with multiple qualities: she is
witty, independent, but also flawed and capable of growth.

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112. Futurism
Futurism was an early-20th-century avant-garde movement in literature,
art, and culture, originating in Italy, which sought to break away from
the past and embrace modernity, technology, speed, and innovation. The
movement emphasized the beauty of machines, violence, and the
rejection of traditional aesthetics in favor of dynamic, forward-looking
expressions.

Key Features:

Rejection of tradition and glorification of modern technology, speed, and

industrial progress.

A focus on the future rather than the past.

Often characterized by radical forms of expression and experimentation.

Example:

Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, the founder of Futurism, wrote the Futurist

Manifesto (1909), calling for the destruction of old cultural forms and
celebrating speed and machines.

In literature, Marinetti's Zang Tumb Tumb (1914) exemplifies Futurist

principles through its experimental use of language and typography,
portraying the sound and chaos of war.

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113. Georgic
A georgic is a type of poem that addresses the cultivation of the land,
agriculture, and rural life. It is often didactic, providing advice on
farming or offering insights into rural society. The term comes from the
Georgics, a poem by the Roman poet Virgil that celebrates rural life and
the hardships of farming.

Key Features:

Focuses on agricultural life, rural labor, and farming.

Often presents a moral or educational message related to hard work and

perseverance.

Often written in verse.

Example:

Virgil’s Georgics (29 BCE), a four-book poem, is a prime example,

offering advice on farming and celebrating rural life.

In English literature, John Milton’s Lycidas (1638), though primarily an

elegy, can be seen as a kind of georgic, dealing with the pastoral and
agricultural themes of nature.

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114. Georgian Age in English Literature

The Georgian Age in English literature refers to the period between the
reign of George I (1714) and the death of George IV (1830). This era
was marked by political stability, the rise of the middle class, and the
development of the novel, along with the continuation of neoclassical
ideals in art and literature. Writers from this period were known for their
focus on rationality, order, and restraint.

Key Features:

Characterized by political stability and economic growth.

Dominance of neoclassical ideals (balance, order, restraint).

Development of the novel as a literary form.

Example:

Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719) and Jonathan Swift’s Gulliver’s

Travels (1726) are important works from the early Georgian period.

Later in the Georgian era, Jane Austen’s novels such as Pride and
Prejudice (1813) focus on the social and domestic life of the emerging
middle class.

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115. Georgian Poets
The Georgian Poets were a group of English poets writing during the
first two decades of the 20th century. They were primarily associated
with a style characterized by nature imagery, traditional forms, and a
sense of nostalgia. The term “Georgian” was applied to this group
because their work coincided with the reign of King George V (1910-
1936).

Key Features:

Emphasis on nature, rural life, and a romanticized view of the past.

Often conservative in style, with traditional meter and rhyme.

A sense of quiet melancholy, reflecting a nostalgia for simpler times.

Example:

Rupert Brooke is one of the most famous Georgian poets, known for his
The Soldier (1914), a patriotic poem that became iconic during World
War I.

Siegfried Sassoon, though later associated with the war poets, was
initially considered a Georgian poet, particularly for his early poetry
collection The Daffodil Fields (1917).

Walter de la Mare was another significant Georgian poet, known for

works such as The Listeners (1912), which evokes mystery and a sense
of the supernatural.

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116. Georgian Poetry
Georgian Poetry refers to a style of poetry written during the early 20th
century, particularly in the years leading up to and during the First
World War. This style was associated with the reign of King George V
(1910-1936). Georgian poets often celebrated nature, rural life, and the
beauty of the countryside, offering an idealized, peaceful image of life.
The movement was somewhat nostalgic and resisted the modernist
changes happening in literature during this period.

Key Features:

Idealization of rural life and nature.

Traditional poetic forms, including meter and rhyme.

Often melancholic, reflecting a longing for the past or simpler times.

Limited engagement with contemporary social issues or politics.

Example:

Rupert Brooke’s 1914 and Other Poems (1914), particularly the poem
The Soldier, exemplifies the Georgian style's patriotic and idealized
view of war and England.

Siegfried Sassoon and Robert Graves, while later associated with war
poetry, were initially considered part of the Georgian poets for their
early works, such as Graves' The Moon's at the Full (1914).

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117. Globe Theatre
The Globe Theatre was a historic theatre in London, most famous as the
venue where many of William Shakespeare’s plays were performed.
Built in 1599, it was the home of Shakespeare’s acting company, the
Lord Chamberlain’s Men, later known as the King’s Men. The original
Globe Theatre was destroyed by fire in 1613 but was rebuilt in 1614. A
modern reconstruction of the Globe was opened in 1997 near the
original site.

Key Features:

Built by Shakespeare’s company in 1599.

Circular, open-air design with a large central stage and standing room in
the "pit."

Important venue for Shakespeare’s plays.

Performances were accessible to a wide audience, including the working

class.

Example:

Shakespeare's works, such as Hamlet (1600), Macbeth (1606), and A

Midsummer Night's Dream (1595), were performed at the Globe, which
allowed for an immersive and dynamic theatrical experience. The theatre
is iconic for its role in bringing Shakespeare’s drama to life for both elite
and common people.

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118. Georgic

A georgic is a type of didactic poetry that focuses on rural life,

agriculture, and the hardships of working the land. It often provides
practical advice on farming while also reflecting on the labor involved
and its broader significance to human life. The term comes from Virgil's
Georgics (29 BCE), a poem that offers guidance on farming, but also
contemplates the difficulties and virtues of rural labor.

Key Features:

Focus on agriculture, rural life, and farming.

Often didactic and instructional, offering advice or moral lessons.

A blend of practical knowledge and philosophical reflection.

Example:

Virgil's Georgics (29 BCE) is the defining example of this genre,

offering lessons on farming and the relationship between humans and
nature.

In English literature, John Milton’s Lycidas (1638) is sometimes

considered a georgic, with its themes of nature, pastoral life, and the
metaphorical idea of cultivation.

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119. Gothic Novels
Gothic novels emerged in the late 18th century and became a dominant
genre throughout the 19th century. They are characterized by dark,
mysterious settings, often involving supernatural events or elements.
These novels frequently explore themes such as madness, death, and
terror. The Gothic novel is known for its emphasis on atmosphere,
emotional extremes, and a sense of impending doom.

Key Features:

Dark, mysterious, and often supernatural settings (castles, monasteries,

haunted places).

Themes of terror, the supernatural, and psychological horror.

Often features a heroine in distress, a villain, and a brooding, mysterious

hero.

Exploration of the darker sides of human nature.

Example:

Horace Walpole's The Castle of Otranto (1764) is widely considered the

first Gothic novel, featuring a haunted castle, supernatural occurrences,
and a tragic love story.

Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818) combines Gothic and science fiction

elements, focusing on themes of ambition, isolation, and the
consequences of scientific experimentation.

Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1897) is another quintessential Gothic novel,

focusing on themes of fear, desire, and the supernatural.

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120. Graveyard School
The Graveyard School refers to a group of 18th-century poets, primarily
British, who wrote poetry that explored death, mortality, and the
afterlife. Their works were typically melancholy and meditative, often
set in graveyards or involving imagery of death and decay. The term
"Graveyard School" was coined due to the frequent use of graveyards as
symbolic settings in these poems.

Key Features:

Focus on death, mortality, and the afterlife.

Dark, reflective, and often melancholic tone.

Poetic themes centered on human vulnerability, impermanence, and the

inevitability of death.

Example:

Thomas Gray's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751) is one of

the most famous examples, meditating on death and the lives of the
common people buried in a rural graveyard.

Edward Young’s Night Thoughts (1742-1745), a philosophical poem

reflecting on death and the afterlife, is another example of Graveyard
poetry.

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121. Grub Street
Grub Street refers to a street in London, historically associated with
impoverished writers, often hack writers or journalists who wrote for
money rather than artistic merit. Over time, the term came to represent
the world of cheap, low-quality literature, and the writers associated
with it. It also came to symbolize the commercial side of literature, as
opposed to more literary or highbrow pursuits.

Key Features:

Refers to writers who are more interested in making a living than in

artistic or intellectual pursuits.

Often associated with newspapers, pamphlets, and cheap literature.

Used in a derogatory sense to refer to low-quality or hack writing.

Example:

Samuel Johnson's The Idler (1758) and James Boswell's biography of

Johnson both offer insights into the literary world of Grub Street.
Johnson himself worked as a writer for hire, creating works like The
Dictionary of the English Language (1755), while being critical of the
hack writers populating Grub Street.

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122. Grundyism
Grundyism is a term coined from the character Mrs. Grundy in Thomas
Morton's play Speed the Plough (1798). Mrs. Grundy represents the
moral and social norms of the time, and the term came to describe the
rigid adherence to conventional and prudish social values. It implies a
narrow-minded sense of propriety and a strict judgment of others based
on societal standards.

Key Features:

Refers to the upholding of strict social propriety and conventional

morality.

Associated with judgmental attitudes and hypocrisy regarding personal

behavior.

Often used to criticize people who conform to societal norms without

question.

Example:

Thomas Morton's Speed the Plough (1798), which features the character
Mrs. Grundy, whose opinions represent the restrictive social values of
her time.

The term is often used in discussions of Victorian society, which was

characterized by rigid morality and a focus on decorum.

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123. Hamartia
Hamartia is a term from Aristotle’s Poetics that refers to a tragic flaw or
error in judgment, leading to the protagonist's downfall in a tragedy. It is
often translated as "fatal flaw" or "misjudgment" and is central to
classical tragedy. The concept suggests that the protagonist's downfall is
not entirely due to fate, but rather a flaw within their character or
decision-making.

Key Features:

Refers to a protagonist's tragic flaw or mistake that leads to their demise.

Integral to Aristotelian tragedy, where the hero’s downfall is both

inevitable and caused by their own actions or choices.

Often involves pride, jealousy, or excessive ambition (hubris).

Example:

Sophocles' Oedipus Rex (429 BCE): Oedipus's hamartia is his

stubbornness and his attempts to defy fate, which ultimately leads to his
tragic downfall.

Shakespeare’s Macbeth (1606): Macbeth's hamartia is his unchecked

ambition, which drives him to murder and self-destruction.

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124. Harangue

A harangue is a lengthy, passionate, and often aggressive speech or

lecture, usually delivered in a public setting. It involves strong, forceful
rhetoric, often aimed at persuading or denouncing something. Harangues
can be highly emotional and may not always be logical or reasoned, but
instead focus on stirring up passion or agitation.

Key Features:

A long, emotional speech or lecture.

Often forceful, aggressive, and passionate in tone.

Typically intended to persuade, criticize, or incite action.

Example:

Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790):

Burke’s work, though not a harangue in the traditional sense, can be read
as a passionate critique of the French Revolution, using the language and
tone of a harangue.

Shakespeare's Julius Caesar (1599): Mark Antony's funeral speech is

often considered a form of a harangue, where he manipulates the crowd
through emotional appeals, stirring them to revolt.

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125. Hedonism
Hedonism is a philosophical belief that pleasure or happiness is the
highest good. In literature, it is often explored as a lifestyle or worldview
where the pursuit of personal pleasure (whether physical or mental) is
the ultimate goal. In the context of ethics, hedonism suggests that actions
are morally right if they lead to pleasure and wrong if they lead to pain.

Key Features:

Belief that pleasure or happiness is the primary or most important goal

of life.

Can be both physical (sensual pleasure) and mental (intellectual or

emotional pleasure).

In literature, often depicted as a pursuit of self-indulgence or excess.

Example:

John Wilmot, Earl of Rochester’s poetry, particularly works like A Satyr

Against Reason and Mankind (1679), often reflects the hedonistic
attitude, rejecting the constraints of reason and advocating for sensual
pleasure.

Oscar Wilde's The Picture of Dorian Gray (1890): The protagonist,

Dorian Gray, embraces a hedonistic lifestyle, seeking pleasure without
regard for consequences, leading to his eventual downfall.

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126. Heroic Couplet
A heroic couplet consists of two rhymed lines of iambic pentameter,
often used in epic and dramatic poetry. The lines are characterized by
their formal structure and were famously employed by poets like
Alexander Pope and John Dryden. The heroic couplet often conveys a
sense of grandeur or moral seriousness, fitting for works of high style or
heroic themes.

Key Features:

Two lines of rhymed iambic pentameter.

Often used in epic or narrative poetry.

Conveys a sense of grandeur or moral seriousness.

Example:

Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock (1712): Pope's mock-epic uses
the heroic couplet throughout, like in these lines:

> "What dire offense from amorous causes springs,

What mighty contests rise from trivial things."

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127. Heroic Line

The heroic line is a single line of verse written in iambic pentameter,

typically used in epic poetry or verse dramas. Like the heroic couplet, it
is associated with high or formal styles, especially in the works of poets
like John Milton or Alexander Pope. The heroic line is often used for
solemn or dramatic effect.

Key Features:

A single line of iambic pentameter.

Common in epic or formal verse.

Used to elevate the tone or convey grandeur.

Example:

John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667): Milton uses the heroic line
throughout his epic, as in the line:

> "Of man’s first disobedience, and the fruit

Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste."

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128. Homily
A homily is a short sermon or religious discourse, typically given during
a church service. It is often based on a scripture passage and serves to
offer moral or spiritual lessons. In literature, the homily is a form of
didactic writing that aims to instruct or offer guidance, often addressing
religious or ethical matters.

Key Features:

A short sermon or moral discourse.

Usually based on religious scripture.

Aimed at instructing or offering spiritual or moral guidance.

Example:

John Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress (1678): Although an allegory,

Bunyan’s work also functions as a homily, conveying Christian
teachings through the journey of its protagonist.

Sermons by John Donne: Donne's sermons, such as Death’s Duel, are

homilies that address deep spiritual matters, using scripture to instruct
and reflect.

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129. Hymn
A hymn is a song or poem of praise, often directed towards God or a
deity, commonly used in religious worship. Hymns are typically written
in a formal, elevated style, using specific rhythms and patterns to convey
devotion and reverence.

Key Features:

A song or poem of praise.

Often associated with religious worship.

Usually written in formal, elevated language.

Example:

Isaac Watts’ When I Survey the Wondrous Cross (1707): A well-known

Christian hymn, it uses reflective language to praise Christ’s sacrifice.

Charles Wesley's Hark! The Herald Angels Sing (1739): A famous

Christmas hymn, praising the birth of Christ.

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130. Idyll
An idyll is a short poem or literary work that describes the simple,
peaceful, and idealized aspects of rural life. Often, it portrays a vision of
harmony with nature and rural innocence. While it may have a pastoral
setting, it often focuses on a nostalgic or utopian vision of rural life.

Key Features:

A short poem or prose work.

Depicts peaceful, rural life, often idealized.

Associated with a vision of simplicity, tranquility, and nature.

Example:

Theocritus' Idylls (3rd century BCE): One of the earliest examples of the
idyll, focusing on rustic life and pastoral themes.

Alfred, Lord Tennyson’s The Idylls of the King (1859-1885): A

collection of twelve narrative poems that combine Arthurian legend with
idyllic portrayals of nature and heroism.

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131. Imagery
Imagery refers to the use of vivid or figurative language to create mental
pictures or sensory experiences in the mind of the reader. It appeals to
the five senses—sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell—and is often used
to evoke emotions or represent ideas symbolically. Effective imagery
can transform abstract concepts into something tangible, enhancing the
depth and emotional resonance of a work.

Key Features:

Descriptive language that appeals to the senses.

Creates mental pictures or vivid sensations.

Can enhance themes or emotions in a literary work.

Example:

William Wordsworth’s I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud (1807): The

imagery of "daffodils" in full bloom brings to life a peaceful, vibrant
scene that conveys the speaker’s feelings of joy and inspiration.

132. Imagism
Imagism was a literary movement that emerged in the early 20th
century, focusing on clear, precise language and direct, unembellished
images. The movement rejected the flowery, ornate language of 19th-
century poetry and sought to capture the essence of moments with
minimalism. Leading figures included Ezra Pound and H.D. (Hilda
Doolittle).

Key Features:

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Direct, clear, and precise language.

Focus on imagery and evocation.

Rejection of unnecessary decoration or sentimentality.

Example:

Ezra Pound’s In a Station of the Metro (1913):

> "The apparition of these faces in the crowd;

Petals on a wet, black bough."
This short poem encapsulates the essence of a moment using a vivid,
visual image, characteristic of Imagism.

133. Impressionistic Criticism

Impressionistic criticism focuses on the personal, subjective response of

the reader to a work of literature, emphasizing individual feelings and
experiences over objective analysis. It highlights how a piece of
literature affects the reader's emotions and perceptions rather than its
formal qualities, structure, or intent.

Key Features:

Emphasizes subjective, personal reactions.

Focuses on emotional or sensory impressions.

Less concerned with the author’s intent or literary techniques.

Example:

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Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway (1925): The novel’s stream-of-
consciousness style invites readers to experience the fragmented,
impressionistic thoughts of the characters, especially Clarissa Dalloway,
as they move through London.

134. Incunabulum

Incunabulum refers to books printed before 1501, during the infancy of

the printing press. The term is often used to describe early printed works
that laid the foundation for the mass production of books. These works
were typically written in Latin and are significant for their role in the
dissemination of knowledge during the Renaissance.

Key Features:

Books printed before 1501.

Produced during the early days of the printing press.

Often valuable to historians and collectors due to their rarity and

historical significance.

Example:

The Gutenberg Bible (c. 1455): The first major book printed using
movable type, considered one of the most important incunabula in
history for its role in the spread of literacy.

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135. The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution (18th-19th centuries) was a period of major
industrialization and technological change, which began in Britain and
spread to other parts of the world. It transformed economies, societies,
and cultures, particularly with the rise of factories, mass production, and
urbanization. The movement also significantly influenced literature,
inspiring works that dealt with social changes, class struggles, and the
effects of industrialization on human life.

Key Features:

Period of technological advancement, mass production, and industrial

growth.

Shift from agrarian economies to industrial urban societies.

Influenced literature, focusing on themes of labor, inequality, and the

human cost of progress.

Example:

Charles Dickens' Hard Times (1854): Dickens critiques the

dehumanizing aspects of industrialization and the rise of factory-based
economies, portraying the struggles of working-class characters in a
rapidly changing society.

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136. Interior Monologue
Interior Monologue is a literary technique used to convey a character's
inner thoughts and feelings. It presents the character’s thoughts in a
continuous flow, often mimicking the unspoken, subconscious dialogue
in their mind. Unlike direct dialogue, it allows the reader to experience
the character’s internal world in a direct and personal way. This
technique is often associated with modernist literature.

Key Features:

Presents a character’s stream of consciousness.

Reveals thoughts and emotions in real-time.

Often without traditional punctuation or sentence structure.

Example:

James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922): The interior monologue technique is

famously used in the "Penelope" chapter, where Molly Bloom’s
thoughts flow freely and seemingly without interruption, revealing her
inner desires, doubts, and memories.

137. Intrigue
Intrigue refers to a plot or storyline in literature that is marked by
secretive or covert actions, often involving complex schemes,
manipulation, or deception. It often revolves around the use of suspense
and tension to engage the reader or viewer. This term is commonly used
in the context of mystery or thriller genres.

Key Features:

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Involves secretive or deceptive actions.

Creates suspense and tension.

Often centered around complex schemes or conspiracies.

Example:

William Shakespeare’s Othello (1603): The play is driven by Iago’s

intrigue—his manipulations and deceit lead to Othello’s jealousy and
tragic downfall. The entire plot hinges on secretive plotting and betrayal.

138. Interlude
Interlude refers to a short dramatic piece that is inserted between the acts
of a play or performance, typically for comic relief or as a break in the
action. Historically, interludes were performed in between the main acts
of medieval and Renaissance plays, often offering a humorous or
satirical diversion.

Key Features:

A brief dramatic work or scene inserted between the acts of a play.

Often provides comic relief or a thematic shift.

Used in early theater, especially in the medieval and Renaissance

periods.

Example:

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The Interludes of John Heywood (early 1500s): Heywood’s plays, such
as The Four P's, used interludes to provide humor and topical
commentary, often exploring moral themes with wit and satire.

139. In-Yer-Face Theatre

In-Yer-Face Theatre is a term used to describe a genre of contemporary

drama that is aggressive, confrontational, and unapologetically explicit.
These plays often tackle taboo subjects, challenge social norms, and
force the audience to confront uncomfortable realities. The genre
emerged in the 1990s, primarily in the UK.

Key Features:

Bold, confrontational style.

Themes that challenge societal norms or deal with uncomfortable truths.

Often includes explicit language, violence, or controversial subject

matter.

Example:

Mark Ravenhill’s Shopping and Fing (1996): This play is a

quintessential example of In-Yer-Face Theatre, with its explicit
language, violence, and critique of consumerism, sexual exploitation,
and alienation in modern society.

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140. Internal Rhyme

Internal Rhyme refers to rhyming words that occur within a single line
of verse, as opposed to at the end of lines (external rhyme). It creates a
musical quality and can add rhythm, emphasis, or a sense of cohesion
within the line. Internal rhymes can appear at various points within the
line, not just at the beginning or end.

Key Features:

Rhyming occurs within a single line of poetry.

Adds musicality and emphasis to the verse.

Can enhance the thematic or emotional impact of the poem.

Example:

Edgar Allan Poe’s The Raven (1845):

> “Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary,”
The rhyme of “dreary” and “weary” within the same line exemplifies the
use of internal rhyme, contributing to the poem's haunting rhythm and
tone.

141. Irony
Irony is a literary device where there is a discrepancy between what is
said and what is meant, what appears to be and what actually is, or what
is expected and what happens. It is used to create humor, highlight
contradictions, or emphasize the difference between appearance and
reality.

Types of Irony:

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Verbal Irony: When a speaker says something but means the opposite
(sarcasm).

Situational Irony: When there is a difference between what is expected

to happen and what actually occurs.

Dramatic Irony: When the audience knows something that the characters
do not.

Example:

Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal (1729): Swift uses verbal irony to

suggest that the impoverished Irish might ease their economic troubles
by selling their children as food to rich gentlemen and ladies. This
satirical proposal is meant to expose the dire situation of the poor, using
irony to criticize British colonial policies.

142. Ivory Tower

The term Ivory Tower refers to a place or state of intellectual pursuit
detached from the real world or practical concerns. It is often used
pejoratively to describe academics or scholars who are perceived as out
of touch with everyday reality, focusing only on theoretical or abstract
concerns.
Key Features:

Refers to academic or intellectual isolation.

Often used to critique scholars who are disconnected from practical life.

Implies a lack of engagement with real-world issues.

Example:

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T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land (1922): While Eliot’s poetry can be seen as
an example of deep intellectual exploration, critics have sometimes
accused his works of being part of an “Ivory Tower” tradition, with
dense allusions and themes that are hard for the general public to engage
with.

143. Jargon

Jargon refers to specialized language or terminology used by a particular

group, profession, or field of study. It is often technical, and may be
difficult for outsiders to understand. Jargon is commonly used to
streamline communication among experts but can exclude non-experts.

Key Features:

Specialized language used by a specific group.

Can be technical, and may not be easily understood by outsiders.

Useful for precise communication within a group, but can alienate

others.

Example:

Medical Jargon: Terms like tachycardia, myocardial infarction, or

hemoglobin are used in the medical field to convey specific information
quickly but might confuse someone without medical training.

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144. Jacobean Age
The Jacobean Age refers to the period in English history during the reign
of King James I (1603–1625). This era followed the Elizabethan Age
and was characterized by a flourishing of English literature, especially in
drama. The playwrights of the period are known for their darker themes
and more complex characterizations.

Key Features:

The era is marked by the reign of King James I.

Known for darker, more cynical themes in literature and drama.

Significant writers include Ben Jonson, John Webster, and Francis

Beaumont.

Example:

John Webster’s The Duchess of Malfi (1613): A classic Jacobean

tragedy that explores themes of corruption, power, and betrayal. The
play’s complex characters and dark, violent themes are typical of
Jacobean drama.

145. Jouissance

Jouissance is a term from French literary theory that refers to an intense

form of pleasure or enjoyment, particularly one that is disruptive or goes
beyond ordinary pleasure. The term is most often associated with the
work of French theorist Roland Barthes, who used it to describe the
pleasurable but sometimes overwhelming experience of reading
literature, particularly when it challenges conventional ideas.

Key Features:

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Refers to a form of pleasure that is intense, transgressive, and often
associated with the breakdown of traditional meanings or structures.

The term is often used in literary theory to describe the kind of pleasure
derived from complex or challenging texts.

It is linked to the idea of breaking free from normative language and

interpretation.

Example:

Roland Barthes’ The Pleasure of the Text (1973): Barthes discusses

jouissance in the context of reading literature that goes beyond simple
enjoyment, drawing on the pleasure of transgression and discovery when
encountering texts that defy conventional reading practices.

146. Kit-Cat Club

The Kit-Cat Club was a social and literary club in early 18th-century
England, founded around 1703. It was composed primarily of Whig
politicians, writers, and artists who gathered for intellectual discussions
and to celebrate their shared cultural and political ideals. The club
played an important role in the literary culture of the time and was
named after Christopher Cat, a famous pastry cook who supplied the
club with cakes.

Key Features:

A group of influential writers, artists, and politicians during the early

18th century.

Members included prominent figures such as the poet John Dryden and
the essayist Joseph Addison.

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Known for supporting the Whig Party and for being patrons of literature
and art.

Example:

The works of Sir Richard Steele and Joseph Addison: Both were key
members of the Kit-Cat Club and contributed to the development of
English literature through their periodicals, particularly The Tatler and
The Spectator, which aimed to improve society through satire and moral
commentary.

147. Künstlerroman
A Künstlerroman is a genre of novel that focuses on the development
and coming-of-age of an artist. It traces the protagonist's artistic
development and often emphasizes the conflict between the individual's
creative impulse and societal expectations or limitations. This genre
explores the inner life of an artist as they grow and mature, often
highlighting the struggles that come with pursuing a career in art.

Key Features:

Focuses on the growth and development of an artist.

Explores the inner conflict between creativity and societal norms.

Typically follows the artist from youth to maturity.

Example:

Goethe's Wilhelm Meister’s Apprenticeship (1795-1796): Often

considered the seminal Künstlerroman, this novel follows Wilhelm
Meister, a young man who seeks to become an actor. The book

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examines his growth, self-discovery, and the tension between artistic
ambition and social expectations.

148. Lake Poets

The Lake Poets were a group of English Romantic poets who lived in or
around the Lake District in northern England, during the late 18th and
early 19th centuries. The three most notable poets of this group were
William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Robert Southey.
Their works often explored themes of nature, the imagination, and the
human connection to the environment.

Key Features:

A group of poets closely associated with the Lake District in England.

Emphasized themes of nature, the sublime, and personal reflection.

Helped shape the Romantic movement in English literature.

Example:

William Wordsworth’s Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern

Abbey (1798): This poem exemplifies the Lake Poets’ focus on the
natural world and its emotional and spiritual significance. Wordsworth’s
reflective and meditative style deeply influenced Romantic poetry.

149. Lampoon

A lampoon is a form of satire that mocks or ridicules an individual,

group, or institution, often in a humorous and exaggerated manner.
Lampoons typically aim to expose the flaws or absurdities of their

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target, often with sharp wit and irony. The term originates from a type of
satirical poem or written attack, but it is now used more broadly.

Key Features:

A mocking, satirical work aimed at a person, group, or institution.

Uses humor, exaggeration, and sharp wit.

Often aims to ridicule or expose flaws in a harsh but comedic way.

Example:

Alexander Pope’s The Dunciad (1728): This satirical poem is a famous

lampoon of the literary world of the time, particularly targeting the
"dull" and "ignorant" writers who Pope felt were ruining literature.
Through exaggerated mockery, Pope critiques the state of 18th-century
English literature.

150. Late Victorian Age

The Late Victorian Age refers to the period in English history and
literature from the 1870s to 1901, during the final years of Queen
Victoria’s reign. It was marked by significant social, political, and
technological changes, as well as a reaction against the optimism and
moral certainty of the earlier Victorian period. The literature of this era
often deals with themes of decay, alienation, and the questioning of
traditional values.

Key Features:

The final phase of the Victorian era, characterized by uncertainty and

social change.

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A period of industrial progress, as well as political and scientific
upheaval.

Writers often focused on themes of pessimism, disillusionment, and the

challenges of modernity.

Example:

Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891): Hardy’s novel deals

with the harshness of rural life and the tragic consequences of social and
sexual morality. The novel exemplifies the skepticism and pessimism
characteristic of the Late Victorian Age, as it critiques the rigid social
systems of the time.

151. Legislative Criticism

Legislative Criticism refers to a form of criticism where literary works
are judged or critiqued through a lens of legal or societal standards,
focusing on how literature reflects or challenges the laws, policies, or
social structures of a society. It examines how texts critique or influence
the legislative frameworks in which they exist, sometimes advocating
for change or reform.

Key Features:

Focuses on the relationship between literature and legal or political

systems.

Critiques how laws and societal norms are represented or challenged in

literature.

Can serve as a form of activism or call for reform in the public sphere.

Example:

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Charles Dickens’s Bleak House (1853): This novel critiques the English
legal system, particularly the inefficiency and corruption of the
Chancery courts. The narrative exposes how the legal process can entrap
individuals and perpetuate injustice, offering a pointed commentary on
the societal and legislative issues of the time.

152. Lexicography

Lexicography is the practice of compiling dictionaries. It involves

researching, defining, and documenting words and their meanings, along
with their history and usage. It is both a scholarly and a practical
discipline and plays a crucial role in preserving language and enabling
communication.

Key Features:

The study and practice of dictionary-making.

Involves defining words, providing their etymology, and explaining their

usage.

Lexicographers often track the evolution of language and the meanings

of words over time.
Example:

Samuel Johnson’s A Dictionary of the English Language (1755): One of

the first comprehensive English dictionaries, Johnson’s work had a
significant impact on the development of lexicography. It included over
40,000 entries and not only defined words but also provided literary
examples of their use, showing the cultural and social relevance of
language.

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153. Limerick

A limerick is a type of humorous or whimsical poem that follows a

specific structure: five lines with a rhyme scheme of AABBA. Limericks
often feature playful, nonsensical, and absurd content, and they have
been popular since the 18th century.

Key Features:

A five-line poem with a distinct AABBA rhyme scheme.

Often humorous, whimsical, or absurd in tone.

Known for their rhythm and meter, typically written in anapestic meter
(two short syllables followed by a long syllable).

Example:

Edward Lear’s There was an Old Man with a Nose (1846): A classic
limerick by Lear, it follows the typical structure and humor of the form:
"There was an Old Man with a nose,
Who said, 'If you choose to suppose,
That my nose is too long,
You are certainly wrong!'
That remarkable Man with a nose."

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154. The Literary Club (also Doctor Johnson's Circle)

The Literary Club, also known as Dr. Johnson's Circle, was an informal
gathering of intellectuals and writers in London in the 18th century,
primarily focused on the discussion of literature, philosophy, and
culture. Dr. Samuel Johnson was a key member, and the club was
influential in shaping literary and intellectual life during the period.

Key Features:

A group of prominent intellectuals and writers, including Dr. Samuel

Johnson, Edmund Burke, and Joshua Reynolds.

Focused on literary and philosophical discussions, with a shared interest

in the development of English literature and arts.

Played a role in the establishment of literary criticism as a formal

discipline.

Example:

Dr. Samuel Johnson’s Dictionary of the English Language (1755): The

Literary Club provided a forum for Johnson's ideas, and many of the
club's members, like James Boswell, played a role in chronicling
Johnson’s life and work. Johnson’s Dictionary, created with input from
the club, remains a major achievement in lexicography.

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155. Lollards
The Lollards were a group of English reformers and religious dissenters
in the late 14th and early 15th centuries, often associated with the
teachings of John Wycliffe. They criticized the practices of the Roman
Catholic Church and advocated for reforms, such as translating the Bible
into English and questioning church authority. The movement is often
seen as a precursor to the Protestant Reformation.

Key Features:

Religious reformers who opposed the Catholic Church’s practices.

Followers of John Wycliffe, who translated the Bible into English.

Advocated for a more personal and direct relationship with God,

emphasizing scripture over tradition.

Example:

John Wycliffe’s English Bible Translation (1382): Wycliffe’s translation

of the Bible into English was foundational for the Lollard movement. It
allowed common people access to the scriptures in their native language,
which was one of the central beliefs of the Lollards. Wycliffe’s ideas
would later influence the Protestant Reformation, especially figures like
Martin Luther.

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156. Malapropism
Malapropism is a form of language mistake where a person uses a word
incorrectly in place of a similar-sounding one, often resulting in a
humorous effect. The term originates from the character "Mrs.
Malaprop" in Richard Sheridan's The Rivals (1775), who frequently
misused words.

Key Features:

The misuse of similar-sounding words, leading to absurd or humorous

results.

Often used for comic effect, highlighting the speaker's ignorance or lack
of sophistication.

Common in comedy, satire, and social commentary.

Example:

In Sheridan's The Rivals, Mrs. Malaprop says:

"We have been the capital enemies to each other’s wishes."
(She likely meant to say "principal enemies.")

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157. Comedy of Manners
A Comedy of Manners is a type of comedy that satirizes the manners,
conventions, and social customs of a particular group, often focusing on
the behavior and pretensions of the upper class. These comedies
emphasize wit, sophisticated dialogue, and social conflict.

Key Features:

Focus on the manners, customs, and behaviors of high society.

Satirical and often witty, highlighting hypocrisy and social conventions.

Characters are often portrayed as vain, self-absorbed, and obsessed with

status.

Example:

Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest (1895): This play is a

classic example of a Comedy of Manners. It humorously critiques
Victorian society’s obsession with social status, marriage, and propriety
through its witty dialogue and absurd situations.

158. Masque
A Masque is a form of dramatic entertainment that combines music,
dance, and elaborate costumes, often featuring mythological or
allegorical themes. It was particularly popular in 16th and 17th century
England, often performed at royal courts.

Key Features:

A theatrical performance that includes music, dancing, and elaborate

costumes.

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Often allegorical or mythological in theme, celebrating social or political
events.

Usually performed for the upper class, often as part of court

entertainments or royal celebrations.

Example:

Ben Jonson’s The Masque of Blackness (1605): This masque, performed

for Queen Anne, celebrated the queen’s beauty and also explored themes
of racial identity, with the actresses wearing blackface to represent
African queens. The masque is notable for its use of music, dance, and
allegory.

159. Masculine Rhyme

Masculine Rhyme refers to a rhyme that occurs on the final stressed

syllable of a line, often used in formal poetry and epic works. It contrasts
with feminine rhyme, which occurs on the penultimate syllable.

Key Features:

A rhyme on the final stressed syllable of a line.

Common in more forceful or serious poetry.

Often used in epic, dramatic, and narrative poetry.

Example:

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In Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock (1712), we see the use of
masculine rhyme: "What wondrous beauty breaks the mind's repose,
And fills the heart with endless soft woes."
The rhyme "repose" and "woes" is masculine because it focuses on the
last stressed syllable.

160. Meiosis

Meiosis is a rhetorical term that refers to the use of understatement or a

figure of speech where something is intentionally downplayed or
described with less significance than it actually has. It can often have a
humorous or ironic effect.

Key Features:

The deliberate use of understatement or minimizing the importance of

something.

Often used to create irony or humor.

Can emphasize a point by downplaying it.

Example:

In William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar (1599), Mark Antony uses

meiosis when he says, “Brutus is an honorable man,” after Brutus has
betrayed Caesar. The repetition of this phrase, with its ironic
understatement, emphasizes Brutus' dishonorable actions.

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161. Metaphysical Poets

The Metaphysical Poets refers to a group of 17th-century English poets

known for their complex and intellectual poetry, characterized by
intricate metaphors (often called conceits), witty wordplay, and a deep
exploration of love, faith, and philosophy.

Key Features:

Use of elaborate metaphors and conceits, often comparing dissimilar

things.

Exploration of complex themes such as love, death, religion, and the

nature of existence.

Frequent use of paradox, intellectual arguments, and conversational

tone.

Example:

John Donne’s The Flea (1633): A poem where Donne uses the image of
a flea to argue about the nature of love and the relationship between two
people.

George Herbert’s The Collar (1633): A poem that contrasts the poet’s
rebellious attitude toward religion with his eventual submission to God’s
will.

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162. Methodism

Methodism is a Christian denomination that emerged in the 18th

century, founded by John Wesley and his brother Charles. It emphasized
methodical practices in religious observance, including disciplined
study, prayer, and community involvement.

Key Features:

A focus on personal faith, piety, and social justice.

Emphasis on the "methodical" practices of prayer, Bible study, and

communal worship.
Advocated for social reform, including the abolition of slavery,
improving education, and promoting temperance.

Example:

John Wesley's Journal (1770): Wesley’s personal account of his

religious travels, struggles, and theological reflections. His writings were
influential in the spread of Methodism.

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163. Middle English Period
The Middle English Period refers to the time in English literature from
the 12th to the 15th century, following the Norman Conquest of
England. This period saw significant linguistic and cultural shifts, with
French and Latin influences on English, leading to the development of a
more recognizable form of the English language.

Key Features:

Development of a richer, more diverse vocabulary, influenced by

Norman French and Latin.

Rise of notable literary forms like allegories, ballads, and romances.

Works often focused on chivalric ideals, religious themes, and societal

changes.

Example:

Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales (1387–1400): A famous work

from the Middle English Period, this collection of stories told by
pilgrims on their way to Canterbury captures the diversity of medieval
English society.

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164. Mime
Mime refers to a form of theatrical performance in which actors use
gestures and facial expressions to convey meaning, without speaking. It
is often used in comedy, silent film, or physical theater.

Key Features:

Non-verbal performance that conveys emotion, story, or action through

gestures, movements, and expressions.

Often combined with music or sound effects.

Frequently used for comedic or dramatic effect.

Example:

Marcel Marceau, a famous French mime, known for his performances as

Bip the Clown, is a modern example of mime artistry.

165. Miracle Play

A Miracle Play is a form of medieval drama that depicted the lives of

saints, miracles, and biblical stories, aiming to educate the audience
about Christian doctrine and virtue.

Key Features:

Focus on religious themes, often illustrating the lives of saints, miracles,

or biblical events.
Performed in medieval town squares, often as part of religious festivals.

Rooted in medieval Christian morality and beliefs.

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Example:

The Chester Miracle Plays (14th–15th centuries): A cycle of plays from

the medieval period that dramatized key biblical events such as the
creation, the life of Jesus, and the Last Judgment.

166. Modernist Period in English Literature

The Modernist Period refers to the literary movement of the early 20th
century, marked by a deliberate break with traditional forms of writing.
It sought new ways to express the complexities of modern life, reflecting
disillusionment with the past, the impact of war, and the questioning of
established norms.

Key Features:

Fragmented narrative structures, stream of consciousness, and

experimentation with form.

Themes of alienation, existential crisis, and the fragmentation of

identity.

Rejection of Victorian conventions in favor of more innovative,

subjective representations of experience.

Example:

James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922): A groundbreaking modernist novel that

uses stream of consciousness and fragmented narrative techniques to
depict a single day in the life of Leopold Bloom in Dublin.

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Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway (1925): A novel that uses stream of
consciousness and explores the inner lives of its characters, reflecting on
time, memory, and post-World War I trauma.

167. Monody
A Monody is a type of lyrical poetry, typically an elegy, where one
person laments or mourns a loss, often the death of a beloved figure. It is
characterized by its solitary expression of grief or sorrow.

Key Features:

A single speaker expressing grief, often in the form of a lament.

Often a form of elegy or personal mourning.

Focused on loss, whether of a person, an ideal, or a past event.

Example:

John Milton’s Lycidas (1637): A famous monody where Milton laments

the death of his friend Edward King, blending classical references and
Christian themes of resurrection.

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168. Monograph
A Monograph is a detailed written study or scholarly work on a single
subject, often an academic or professional analysis of a specific topic. It
is typically more in-depth than an article but less extensive than a full
book.

Key Features:

Focus on a specific aspect of a subject, often academic in nature.

A thorough, detailed exploration of the topic.

Often peer-reviewed and published as part of scholarly research.

Example:

“The Life of Samuel Johnson” by James Boswell (1791): A monograph

on the life and works of Samuel Johnson, which offers an in-depth
exploration of the renowned lexicographer’s character, achievements,
and legacy.

169. Morality Plays

Morality Plays were a popular form of medieval theater that depicted
allegorical stories, where virtues and vices were personified as
characters. The plays often conveyed moral lessons, guiding audiences
toward virtuous behavior.

Key Features:

Allegorical figures represent virtues (e.g., Good Deeds, Mercy) and

vices (e.g., Greed, Pride).

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Moral or religious lessons were central, often emphasizing the
consequences of sin.

Popular in medieval England during the 15th and 16th centuries.

Example:

Everyman (c. 1495): One of the most famous morality plays, where the
character Everyman represents all of humanity, and he must account for
his life before God, guided by allegorical figures like Good Deeds,
Knowledge, and Death.

170. Mot Juste

Mot Juste is a French term meaning "the exact word" or "the perfect
expression." In literature, it refers to the precise and most effective word
choice to express a particular thought or idea.

Key Features:

A carefully selected word or phrase that is perfectly suited to express a

particular meaning.

Often used in the context of language precision, particularly in literary

composition.

Can elevate the clarity and emotional impact of writing.

Example:

In Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities (1859), the phrase "It was the
best of times, it was the worst of times" is an example of mot juste, as it
precisely encapsulates the contradictory nature of the period leading up
to the French Revolution.

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171. The Movement
The Movement refers to a group of British poets active in the 1950s,
known for their emphasis on clarity, precision, and the use of traditional
forms. The poets rejected the romanticism and excesses of modernist
poetry, favoring a more controlled and objective style.

Key Features:

A reaction against the complexities and obscurity of modernism.

Emphasis on simple, direct language and formal structure.

Interest in everyday life and intellectual themes.

Example:

Philip Larkin’s The Whitsun Weddings (1964): A collection that

exemplifies the movement’s themes of ordinary life and sober reflection,
using clear and direct language.

Kingsley Amis’s The Old Devils (1986): A novel that reflects the
Movement’s concern with realism, portraying the lives of older men
grappling with aging.

172. Mystery Plays

Mystery Plays are a type of medieval religious drama that depicted
biblical stories, primarily focusing on the lives of saints, Christ’s
Passion, or the creation of the world. They were performed as part of
religious festivals in medieval towns and aimed to educate the audience
in Christian doctrine.

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Key Features:

Often performed by guilds in medieval towns, part of church festivals.

Depicted Bible stories or the lives of saints.

Combined entertainment with moral and religious instruction.

Example:

The York Mystery Plays (14th century): A cycle of plays performed in

the city of York that dramatized key events from the Bible, such as the
Creation, Noah's Ark, and the Last Judgment.

173. Mysticism

Mysticism is a spiritual belief system where an individual seeks a direct

and personal experience with the divine or a higher reality. In literature,
mysticism is expressed through works that explore transcendental
experiences, divine union, or the exploration of the spiritual world.

Key Features:

Focus on the direct experience of the divine, often through introspection

or altered states.

Language is often paradoxical, trying to describe the indescribable.

The belief in the transcendence of the self and unity with God or the
cosmos.

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Example:

Julian of Norwich’s Revelations of Divine Love (1373): A classic work

of Christian mysticism that details her visions and spiritual experiences,
exploring themes of God's love and mercy.

Rainer Maria Rilke’s Letters to a Young Poet (1929): While not strictly
mystical, Rilke's exploration of the divine and the importance of inward
reflection resonates with mystical thought.

174. Myth
Myth refers to traditional stories or narratives that explain the origins of
the world, natural phenomena, and human behavior. Myths often involve
gods, heroes, and supernatural events, and are used to convey cultural
values and beliefs.

Key Features:

Often features gods, heroes, or supernatural beings.

Used to explain natural or social phenomena.

Deeply embedded in cultural and religious contexts.

Example:

Homer’s The Iliad (c. 8th century BCE): A mythic epic that recounts the
story of the Trojan War, involving gods and heroes such as Achilles and
Hector.

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The Mahabharata (c. 400 BCE–400 CE): An Indian epic that, though
primarily a historical and moral tale, incorporates numerous mythic
elements involving gods, demigods, and legendary heroes.

175. Neoclassicism
Neoclassicism refers to the revival of classical ideals in art, literature,
and philosophy during the 17th and 18th centuries. It emphasized
reason, order, and restraint, and was a reaction against the exuberance
and emotionalism of Baroque and Rococo styles.

Key Features:

A return to the classical ideals of ancient Greece and Rome, including

order, clarity, and balance.

Emphasis on reason, logic, and restrained emotion.

Focus on universal themes and moral instruction.

Example:

Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock (1712): A satirical poem that
uses classical forms and themes to mock the social mores of the time.

John Dryden’s Absalom and Achitophel (1681): A political satire that

employs classical models to comment on English politics, demonstrating
the neoclassical blend of form and moralistic intent.

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176. Neologism

Neologism refers to the creation or use of new words or expressions in a

language, often to describe new ideas, technologies, or cultural
phenomena. Neologisms can emerge through cultural shifts, scientific
advancements, or creative use in literature.

Key Features:

New words or phrases that are coined to fill gaps in language or reflect
new realities.

Can become part of the common lexicon or remain as temporary terms.

Often used in literature to reflect contemporary concerns or ideas.

Example:

George Orwell’s 1984 (1949): Orwell coined the terms “doublethink”

and “Newspeak” to describe the oppressive manipulation of language in
a dystopian regime.

Lewis Carroll’s Through the Looking-Glass (1871): Carroll created

several neologisms, including “chortle” and “galumph,” to capture new
or imagined concepts.

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177. Negative Capability

Negative Capability is a term coined by poet John Keats, referring to the

ability of a writer to embrace uncertainty and ambiguity without the
need for logical resolution or rational explanation. It is an aesthetic that
celebrates mystery and the acceptance of contradictions.

Key Features:

The poet or writer accepts ambiguity and allows mystery to exist without
needing to explain or resolve it.

Involves the capacity to live with uncertainty and contradiction in both

art and life.

Example:

John Keats’ Ode on a Grecian Urn (1819): The poem embraces the
unresolved nature of art, celebrating the urn’s mysterious permanence
and its ability to capture beauty and emotion without providing
definitive answers.

178. New Aristotelian School

The New Aristotelian School refers to a 20th-century movement that
sought to revive the teachings of Aristotle in the context of modern
literary and philosophical criticism. This school emphasized the
importance of form, structure, and logical analysis in interpreting texts.

Key Features:

Focus on Aristotle’s ideas of plot, character, and catharsis.

Emphasis on literary structure, especially the unity of action in drama.

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Attention to the moral and philosophical dimensions of literature.

Example:

Cleanth Brooks’ The Well Wrought Urn (1947): This work applies
Aristotelian principles to modern poetry, arguing that a poem’s form and
meaning are intertwined and must be studied as a whole.

179. New Criticism

New Criticism was a literary theory movement that emerged in the early
20th century, particularly in the United States. It focused on close
reading of the text itself, emphasizing form, structure, and meaning
without considering the author’s intentions or historical context.

Key Features:

Emphasis on the text as an autonomous entity.

Focus on formal elements like symbolism, imagery, and structure.

Rejection of biographical or historical approaches to literature.

Example:

William Faulkner’s The Sound and the Fury (1929): New Critics would
focus on the novel’s complex structure, its use of stream-of-
consciousness, and the symbolism of the Southern landscape, without
considering Faulkner’s biography or historical context.

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180. Neoplatonism
Neoplatonism is a philosophical system that emerged in the 3rd century
CE, which combined elements of Plato’s philosophy with mystical
elements. It focuses on the idea that all of reality emanates from a single,
transcendent source—the One.

Key Features:

Reality is structured hierarchically, with all things emanating from the

One.

Emphasis on the soul’s journey towards unity with the divine.

Influence on Christian mysticism and Renaissance thought.

Example:

Plotinus’ Enneads (3rd century CE): A foundational work of

Neoplatonism that explores the nature of the One and the process of
emanation from this ultimate source.

Dante’s Divine Comedy (1320): Though primarily Christian, Dante’s

work incorporates Neoplatonic ideas, particularly the soul’s journey
towards God and the hierarchical structure of the cosmos.

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181. Novella
A novella is a short novel or a long short story that typically focuses on a
single character or event, exploring its depth in a more detailed and
structured manner than a short story but with less complexity than a full-
length novel.

Key Features:

Lengthier than a short story but shorter than a novel (usually between
20,000 to 40,000 words).

Focuses on a single incident or character development.

Offers a concise but profound exploration of themes and characters.

Example:

Franz Kafka’s The Metamorphosis (1915): A novella about Gregor

Samsa, who wakes up to find himself transformed into a giant insect,
and his emotional and social alienation.

James Joyce’s The Dead (1914): A novella from Joyce’s collection

Dubliners, focusing on a moment of epiphany and realization in the life
of Gabriel Conroy.

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182. Oedipus Complex
The Oedipus Complex, a term coined by Sigmund Freud, refers to a
child’s unconscious desire to replace the parent of the same sex and
possess the parent of the opposite sex. This psychological theory is
important in literary criticism and analysis, especially concerning
familial relationships and identity.

Key Features:

Describes a child’s unconscious desire for the opposite-sex parent and

rivalry with the same-sex parent.

Associated with Freud’s theories on sexuality and development.

Often used to analyze characters’ relationships in literature, particularly

in family dynamics.

Example:

Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex (c. 429 BCE): The source of the Oedipus
Complex, where Oedipus unknowingly fulfills the prophecy that he will
kill his father and marry his mother.

William Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1600): Hamlet’s complex relationship

with his mother Gertrude and his feelings toward his father’s death are
often analyzed through the lens of the Oedipus Complex.

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183. Oxford Movement

The Oxford Movement (also known as Tractarian Movement) was a

19th-century Anglican religious movement that aimed to return to
traditional Christian practices and revive the spiritual and liturgical
elements of the Church of England. It was a reaction against the
evangelical and liberal tendencies in the church.

Key Features:

Emphasis on the importance of church tradition, liturgy, and sacraments.

Revitalization of the high church and Anglo-Catholic aspects of

Anglicanism.

Aimed to protect the Church of England from Protestant and secular

influence.

Example:

John Henry Newman’s Apologia Pro Vita Sua (1864): A key text in the
Oxford Movement, where Newman defends his conversion to
Catholicism and articulates his religious journey.

John Keble’s The Christian Year (1827): A collection of poems

reflecting the Tractarian ideals, emphasizing the importance of liturgical
calendar and religious devotion.

184. Pamphlet
A pamphlet is a small booklet or brochure, usually dealing with a
specific topic or issue. Pamphlets were particularly common in political

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and social debates and are often used for advocacy or persuasive
purposes.

Key Features:

Short and concise format, typically without a binding (though it may be

stapled).

Often used to convey a particular viewpoint, persuade, or provide

information on a current issue.

Usually inexpensive to produce and widely distributed.

Example:

Thomas Paine’s Common Sense (1776): A pamphlet that powerfully

argued for American independence from Britain and was instrumental in
swaying public opinion.

Martin Luther’s Ninety-five Theses (1517): A pamphlet that sparked the

Protestant Reformation by criticizing the Catholic Church’s practices,
particularly the sale of indulgences.

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185. Panegyric

A panegyric is a formal public speech or written work that praises

someone or something, often exaggerated in nature. It is a form of
eulogy, aimed at extolling the virtues of its subject.

Key Features:

Praise-oriented and often overly complimentary.

Used in ceremonial or formal contexts.

Typically focuses on highlighting the positive qualities of individuals or

groups.

Example:

Pericles' Funeral Oration (431 BCE): A famous panegyric delivered by

the Athenian leader Pericles, praising the fallen soldiers of Athens and
celebrating the virtues of democracy.

John Dryden’s A Panegyric on His Majesty (1661): A poem that praises

King Charles II, celebrating his return to the throne after the English
Civil War.

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186. Pantheism
Pantheism is a philosophical and religious belief that equates God with
the universe and everything in it, rejecting the idea of a personal,
anthropomorphic deity. In literature, pantheism often emerges as a
theme where nature and divinity are interconnected.

Key Features:

God is seen as identical to the universe and all of its phenomena.

A belief in the divinity of nature and the cosmos.

Often promotes a sense of oneness with the natural world.

Example:

William Wordsworth’s Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern

Abbey (1798): A poem that reflects pantheistic themes, celebrating the
spiritual connection between nature and the divine.

Ralph Waldo Emerson’s Nature (1836): An essay where Emerson

expresses pantheistic ideas, viewing nature as a reflection of the divine.

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187. Parody
A parody is a humorous or satirical imitation of a serious work, genre, or
author. It often exaggerates features or themes to make a point, mock the
original, or offer commentary on cultural or literary norms.

Key Features:

Mimics the style or themes of another work, often in a humorous or

exaggerated way.

Aims to critique or make fun of the original work or genre.

Can serve as both entertainment and criticism.

Example:

Alexander Pope’s The Dunciad (1728): A satirical poem that parodies

epic poetry and mocks contemporary writers and critics.

Miguel de Cervantes’ Don Quixote (1605): Parodies the chivalric

romance genre, especially the unrealistic portrayal of knights and their
heroic quests.

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188. Pantomime
Pantomime refers to a performance art that uses gestures, facial
expressions, and body movements to convey meaning without words. In
English literature, the term is often associated with the theatrical
tradition of exaggerated, comedic performances, especially in holiday
season plays.

Key Features:

Non-verbal performance; communication is through gestures and

expressions.

Often humorous and exaggerated, with a focus on physical comedy.

Popular in theatre, particularly in holiday performances.

Example:

Harlequinade: A traditional pantomime style popular in English theatre,

often involving slapstick humor and visual gags.

Charles Dickens’ The Pickwick Papers (1836): Features elements of

pantomime in its portrayal of exaggerated characters and physical
comedy, though not a pantomime itself.

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189. Parable

A parable is a simple, moral story used to convey a lesson or principle,

often using allegorical elements. Parables are particularly common in
religious texts and folklore.

Key Features:

Short, simple narrative with a clear moral lesson.

Often uses allegory or symbolism.

Frequently found in religious or philosophical works.

Example:

Jesus’ Parables in the New Testament: Stories like the Parable of the
Good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37) and the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11-32)
are designed to teach moral and ethical lessons.

George Orwell’s Animal Farm (1945): A political parable that uses

animals to symbolize the events leading to the Russian Revolution and
the rise of Stalinism.

190. Paston Letters

The Paston Letters are a collection of correspondence written by
members of the Paston family, a prominent 15th-century English family.
These letters provide valuable insight into the social, political, and
cultural life of the time, as well as the early development of the English
language.

Key Features:

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A collection of over 1,000 letters, dating from the 15th century.

Reflects the lives, politics, and issues of the medieval upper classes.

Serves as a key historical and linguistic document.

Example:

The Paston Letters: A series of letters written by various members of the

Paston family, detailing their experiences, business dealings, and
personal lives during the 15th century. These letters offer a detailed
account of English life during the Wars of the Roses.

191. Pathetic Fallacy

Pathetic Fallacy refers to a literary device where human emotions or
characteristics are attributed to nature, inanimate objects, or animals. It
is a form of personification but specifically used to reflect human
feelings or moods in the natural world, often to enhance the emotional
atmosphere of a scene.

Key Features:

Attributing human feelings or traits to non-human elements.

Common in Romantic literature to convey emotion or mood through

nature.

Often used to mirror the emotional state of characters.

Example:

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William Wordsworth’s Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern
Abbey (1798): The natural surroundings reflect the speaker's emotions
of nostalgia and peace.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818): The storms and desolate

landscapes often mirror the turmoil and tragedy of the characters,
especially Frankenstein’s inner conflict.

192. Picaresque Novel

A picaresque novel is a genre of prose fiction that portrays the
adventures of a roguish, often lower-class hero who travels from one
place to another, typically engaging in humorous, satirical, or episodic
adventures. The focus is usually on the character's wit and survival in a
corrupt world.
Key Features:

The protagonist is a "picaro" (a rogue or a low-born character).

The narrative is often episodic, with the protagonist encountering

different characters and situations.

Focuses on satire, social criticism, and the flaws of society.

Example:

Miguel de Cervantes’ Don Quixote (1605): Although not strictly a

picaresque novel, it features the adventures of a delusional nobleman
and his squire, engaging with social critique through their episodic
encounters.

Henry Fielding’s The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling (1749):

Follows the picaresque journey of Tom Jones, a foundling raised in the
countryside who navigates a series of adventures and misadventures.

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193. Philistines
In a literary context, Philistines refers to people who are seen as
uncultured, materialistic, and indifferent to intellectual and artistic
pursuits. The term originally comes from the biblical Philistines, who
were enemies of the Israelites, and was later popularized in modern
times to refer to a lack of appreciation for art and culture.

Key Features:

Associated with ignorance or disdain for culture, art, and intellectualism.

Often used in contrast to those with refined taste and an appreciation for
the arts.

A derogatory term to criticize the non-intellectual or non-artistic

lifestyle.

Example:

Matthew Arnold’s Culture and Anarchy (1869): Arnold uses the term
"Philistines" to describe the middle-class, who he believes are lacking in
cultural sophistication and higher ideals.

Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House (1879): The bourgeois characters in this

play can be seen as “Philistines” due to their shallow attitudes toward
family and society.

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194. Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else's work, ideas, or intellectual
property and presenting them as one’s own without proper
acknowledgment. In literature, this can involve copying text or ideas
from another author, which is considered unethical and illegal.

Key Features:

Copying someone else’s work or ideas without permission or credit.

Can involve textual copying, paraphrasing without citation, or stealing

ideas.

Plagiarism is highly frowned upon in academic, literary, and artistic

circles.

Example:

T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land (1922): Although Eliot famously borrowed
and referenced multiple sources (including other works of literature), it
was done through careful intertextuality, not plagiarism, showing how
plagiarism contrasts with academic or literary citation.

Jonah Lehrer’s Imagine: How Creativity Works (2012): Lehrer was

accused of plagiarism when it was revealed that he had fabricated quotes
from Bob Dylan and used material from other sources without proper
attribution.

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195. Poetic Diction

Poetic diction refers to the specific choice of language and style used in
poetry. It often involves elevated or ornate language, including figures
of speech, formal tone, and unusual syntax, to create a heightened
emotional or aesthetic effect.

Key Features:

Language that is more formal or lyrical than ordinary speech.

Utilizes metaphors, similes, and other figures of speech to enhance

meaning.

Common in Classical and Romantic poetry to convey beauty, emotion,

or profundity.

Example:

John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667): Milton uses lofty and elaborate
language, which is characteristic of the poetic diction of his time.

William Wordsworth’s Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern

Abbey (1798): Wordsworth’s diction is both simple and profound,
evoking deep emotion and spiritual reflection on nature.

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196. Poetic License
Poetic license refers to the freedom that poets and other artists have to
deviate from conventional rules of grammar, syntax, or fact in order to
create a desired effect, express emotion, or enhance artistic expression.

Key Features:

Poets often bend or break grammatical or factual rules.

This freedom is granted to allow for creativity and artistic expression.

Used in metaphor, syntax, and sometimes even in the factual accuracy of

descriptions.

Example:

Shakespeare’s use of language in Hamlet (1600): Shakespeare often

bends syntax and word order for dramatic and poetic effects, which is a
classic use of poetic license.

Edgar Allan Poe’s The Raven (1845): Poe uses poetic license to
manipulate language and rhythm for emotional effect and a sense of
horror.

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197. Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a group of English painters, poets,

and critics who sought to return to the simplicity and naturalism of art
before the Italian Renaissance painter Raphael. They aimed for more
vivid colors, detailed compositions, and themes from medieval and
classical literature.

Key Features:

Founded in 1848 by Dante Gabriel Rossetti, William Holman Hunt, and

John Everett Millais.

Focused on vivid detail, symbolism, and medieval subjects.

Sought to reject academic conventions and revive earlier, more authentic

artistic approaches.

Example:

Dante Gabriel Rossetti’s The Blessed Damozel (1850): A poem that

illustrates the Pre-Raphaelite ideals, using rich imagery and exploring
themes of love and loss.

John Everett Millais’ Ophelia (1851-1852): A famous painting that

reflects the Pre-Raphaelite focus on detailed naturalism and literary
themes, depicting Ophelia from Shakespeare’s Hamlet.

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198. Problem Plays (of Shakespeare)
Problem plays are plays by William Shakespeare that explore complex
moral, social, and psychological dilemmas without offering clear
resolutions. These plays often deal with themes of justice, power, and
identity.

Key Features:

Present a central moral or social issue without clear-cut answers.

Often have ambiguous endings, leaving the audience to reflect on the

problems presented.

Often involve characters who are morally complex or conflicted.

Example:

Shakespeare’s Measure for Measure (1604): A play that addresses issues

of justice, mercy, and the abuse of power. The resolution is morally
complex, leaving audiences to question what is right.

Shakespeare’s Troilus and Cressida (1602): Explores the futility of love

and war, presenting complex characters and situations without clear
moral answers.

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199. Protagonist

The protagonist is the main character in a story, play, or novel, around

whom the plot revolves. The protagonist typically undergoes significant
personal growth or change, and their actions drive the narrative forward.

Key Features:
Central character around whom the conflict or plot is focused.

Often experiences change or growth over the course of the story.

Faces challenges that lead to a resolution of the story’s conflict.

Example:

Homer’s The Odyssey (8th century BCE): Odysseus is the protagonist,

whose journey home from the Trojan War is the focus of the epic.

Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations (1860-1861): Pip is the

protagonist, whose personal growth and experiences with love, loss, and
social class drive the novel.

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200. Prothalamion

A prothalamion is a type of poem written to celebrate a forthcoming

wedding, often used as a literary form to announce or praise a betrothal
or marriage. The term was coined by Edmund Spenser in his famous
work Prothalamion.

Key Features:

Written in celebration of an upcoming wedding.

Often includes themes of love, marriage, and union.

Typically composed in a formal, celebratory tone.

Example:

Edmund Spenser’s Prothalamion (1596): A lyrical celebration of the

forthcoming marriage of two sisters, using elaborate imagery and formal
language to depict the beauty and sanctity of marriage.

Sir Philip Sidney’s Astrophil and Stella (1591): Though not strictly a
prothalamion, Sidney’s sonnets focus on the idea of romantic and
idealized love, echoing the themes of marital devotion.

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201. Pseudo
Pseudo is a prefix used to denote something that is false or deceptive,
often used to describe works, ideas, or people that falsely claim to be
something they are not. In literature, it can refer to works that claim a
false origin or identity, such as "pseudo-historical" works, or works that
pretend to be authentic while being imitative or spurious.

Key Features:

Implies falsehood or deception.

Used to describe works that imitate but are not true representations of
the original.

In some cases, "pseudo" can be used to describe imitation genres or

movements.

Example:

“Pseudo-epigraphy”: A genre where authors falsely attribute their works

to famous figures. An example is the Pseudo-Longinus work, attributed
falsely to Longinus, who is believed to have written On the Sublime.

“Pseudo-classical” works: These may attempt to follow classical models

but lack the depth and originality of true classical works.

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202. Psychological Novel

A psychological novel focuses on the interior lives, thoughts, and

emotions of its characters. It delves deeply into their mental and
emotional states, often exploring complex and subtle shifts in
perception, identity, and understanding.

Key Features:

Emphasis on character development and mental states.

Often explores themes of consciousness, self-identity, and psychological

conflict.

Non-linear narrative structures, introspective and reflective tone.

Example:

Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway (1925): A modernist novel that

explores the inner thoughts and emotions of Clarissa Dalloway and
others over the course of a single day, delving into themes of memory,
identity, and mental health.

James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922): Through a stream-of-consciousness

technique, Joyce explores the mental and emotional states of his
characters, particularly Leopold Bloom, capturing the complexity of
human thought.

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203. Purple Patch
A purple patch refers to a passage of writing in a work that is overly
ornate, extravagant, or melodramatic, often seen as an attempt to show
off literary skill. It is used to describe passages that may seem out of
place in terms of style or tone.

Key Features:

An excessively ornate or florid passage.

Often interrupts the flow of the work, standing out due to its
overemphasis.

Can sometimes be seen as self-indulgent or pompous.

Example:

John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667): While Milton’s epic contains many
grand and beautiful lines, some critics have pointed to passages like the
description of Satan as an example of “purple patch,” where the
language may seem overly grand in comparison to the narrative context.

William Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1595-1596): The

character of Hippolyta’s speech on the forest is often cited as an
example of purple patch due to its high-flown style.

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204. Reconciliation Plays of Shakespeare
Reconciliation plays refer to the later works of William Shakespeare,
known as his "tragicomedies" or "romances," where there is a focus on
forgiveness, reconciliation, and often a happy resolution to conflict.
These plays explore themes of familial unity, redemption, and the
restoration of social harmony.

Key Features:

Focus on the resolution of conflict and reconciliation.

Includes forgiveness, restoration of relationships, and social harmony.

Often ends with a marriage or union symbolizing resolution.

Example:

Shakespeare’s The Winter’s Tale (1611): The play deals with themes of
jealousy, loss, and redemption, culminating in the reconciliation of the
characters Leontes and Hermione after years of separation.

Shakespeare’s The Tempest (1611): A play about forgiveness, power

dynamics, and the eventual restoration of relationships, with the
character Prospero reconciling with those who wronged him.

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205. The Red Cross Knight
The Red Cross Knight is the protagonist of Edmund Spenser's The
Faerie Queene (1590), an allegorical poem. The knight represents
holiness and virtue, embarking on a quest to rescue Una, the symbol of
truth, and to battle various evils and challenges, embodying the virtues
of Christian knights.
Key Features:

Allegorical character representing holiness and virtue.

Part of Spenser’s epic poem, The Faerie Queene, which explores various
virtues and vices.

Symbolizes the struggle of good versus evil.

Example:

Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene (1590): The Red Cross Knight
represents St. George and stands as an emblem of Christian virtue and
heroism. His quest involves battling the Dragon (evil) and rescuing Una
(truth), reflecting a moral and spiritual journey.

206. Renaissance

The Renaissance refers to the cultural, intellectual, and artistic

movement that began in Italy in the 14th century and spread throughout
Europe, marking the transition from the Middle Ages to the modern era.
It was characterized by a revival of classical learning, humanism, and a
focus on individualism and secularism.

Key Features:

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A revival of interest in classical Greek and Roman art, philosophy, and
literature.

Emphasis on humanism and individual potential.

Flourishing of the arts, sciences, and literature.

Example:

William Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1600): Reflects Renaissance ideals,

particularly the exploration of human nature and individual choice,
central themes of Renaissance humanism.

Leonardo da Vinci’s works (such as The Last Supper): Represent the

artistic achievements of the Renaissance, blending science, art, and
humanism.

207. Renaissance of Wonder

The Renaissance of Wonder refers to the renewed interest in exploration,
discovery, and the unknown during the Renaissance period. This
includes the fascination with the natural world, scientific inquiry, and
the vastness of the universe, which led to advancements in both art and
science.

Key Features:

Emphasis on exploration and discovery.

Intellectual curiosity about the world, nature, and the cosmos.

A connection between art, science, and philosophy.

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Example:

Copernicus’s On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (1543): His

work challenged the medieval geocentric view of the universe,
contributing to the Renaissance’s scientific and philosophical
explorations.

Christopher Columbus’s voyages (1492 onward): Symbolize the

Renaissance’s thirst for exploration and discovery.

208. Reformation
The Reformation was a religious movement in the 16th century that led
to the division of Christianity into Roman Catholicism and
Protestantism. It was sparked by figures like Martin Luther and John
Calvin and had profound effects on religious, political, and social life in
Europe.

Key Features:

A challenge to the authority of the Catholic Church and its practices.

Focused on the need for reform within the Church and a return to
biblical teachings.

Led to the establishment of Protestant denominations.

Example:

Martin Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses (1517): A key document in the

Reformation, challenging Catholic practices like the sale of indulgences
and calling for a return to biblical scripture.

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John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667): While not directly a product of the
Reformation, Milton’s work reflects its religious conflicts, particularly
in its exploration of divine authority and human freedom.

209. Regionalism
Regionalism refers to a literary movement that emphasizes the
characteristics of specific geographical areas, often focusing on the
dialect, culture, and customs of a particular region. It seeks to highlight
the distinctive features of a locale, often giving voice to local characters
and concerns.

Key Features:

Focus on regional dialects, customs, and traditions.

Characters often represent local culture and regional identity.

Exploration of the relationships between individuals and their

environment.

Example:

Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884): A work that

uses the Mississippi River as its setting, depicting regional dialects and
the social and racial issues in the American South.

Willa Cather’s My Ántonia (1918): Set in the Nebraska plains, this

novel explores life in rural America and reflects the values and struggles
of pioneer families.

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210. Romanticism
Romanticism was an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that
originated in the late 18th century and emphasized emotion,
individualism, nature, and the sublime. It was a reaction against the
Enlightenment's focus on reason and the Industrial Revolution's
mechanization.
Key Features:

Emphasis on emotion, imagination, and individualism.

Reverence for nature and the sublime, often depicted in stark contrast to
industrialization.

Focus on the supernatural, the past, and the idealization of rural life.

Example:

William Wordsworth’s Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern

Abbey (1798): A key example of Romanticism, exploring the
individual's emotional and spiritual connection with nature.

Mary Shelley's Frankenstein (1818): A Gothic novel that reflects

Romantic themes of isolation, the quest for knowledge, and the
consequences of defying nature.

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211. Romantic Revival
The Romantic Revival refers to the resurgence of interest in the themes
and ideals of Romanticism that began in the late 18th century,
particularly during the 19th century. It was marked by a return to
emotional depth, the celebration of nature, and the focus on individual
experience, imagination, and creativity.

Key Features:

Revival of Romantic ideals like nature, emotion, and the sublime.

Focus on personal expression and imagination.

Often a response to industrialization and the rise of rationalism.

Example:

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (formed in 1848) is an example of the

Romantic Revival in art and literature, focusing on medieval themes,
emotional intensity, and idealized nature. Key works include Dante
Gabriel Rossetti's "The Awakened Soul" (1854).

William Blake's Songs of Innocence and of Experience (1789-1794):

These poems explore the contrast between innocence and experience and
reflect Blake's Romantic beliefs in imagination and vision.

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212. Saga

A saga is a long narrative, often dealing with the heroic deeds and
adventures of a family or group of people over generations. It is rooted
in Scandinavian literature and often blends historical events with myth
and legend.

Key Features:

Long, episodic narrative focused on family or community.

Typically involves heroism, adventure, and moral dilemmas.

Often includes supernatural or mythological elements.

Example:

The Saga of the Volsungs (13th century): A Norse epic that blends
history, myth, and legend, following the heroic deeds of the Volsung
family, including the hero Sigurd and his slaying of the dragon Fafnir.

J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings (1954-1955): While not a saga in
the traditional sense, Tolkien's work mirrors the saga tradition through
its focus on heroic quests and family legacies.

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213. Satire
Satire is a literary genre that uses humor, irony, exaggeration, or ridicule
to criticize or mock individuals, institutions, society, or human nature. It
often seeks to provoke thought or bring about social change by
highlighting flaws, hypocrisies, or injustices.

Key Features:

Humor, irony, and exaggeration used to criticize or mock.

Often aims to expose societal flaws or human vices.

Can target political, social, or cultural issues.

Example:

Jonathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal (1729): A satirical essay suggesting

that the poor sell their children as food to the rich, a biting critique of
British colonialism and the treatment of the Irish poor.

George Orwell’s Animal Farm (1945): A political satire that uses a farm
and its animal inhabitants to mock totalitarian regimes, particularly the
Soviet Union.

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214. Scansion
Scansion is the analysis of a poem's meter, which involves identifying
the pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in each line. This helps to
understand the rhythm and structure of a poem.

Key Features:

The process of marking the stressed and unstressed syllables in a line of

verse.

Helps identify the meter, such as iambic pentameter, trochaic tetrameter,

etc.

Provides insight into the rhythm and musicality of a poem.

Example:

In Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18, "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?"

the scansion shows that it follows iambic pentameter: da-DUM da-DUM
da-DUM da-DUM da-DUM.

Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock (1712): Written in heroic

couplets, the scansion is marked by iambic pentameter, such as in the
line "What mighty contests rise from trivial things."

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215. Skepticism
Skepticism refers to an attitude of doubt or questioning, especially with
regard to knowledge or beliefs. In literature, it often manifests as a
critical stance toward accepted truths, particularly regarding religion,
philosophy, or the human condition.

Key Features:

A questioning or doubting attitude toward truth and knowledge.

Often challenges established ideas or beliefs.

May lead to a search for deeper understanding or to disillusionment.

Example:

René Descartes’ Meditations on First Philosophy (1641): Descartes'

skepticism about the certainty of knowledge leads him to his famous
conclusion "Cogito, ergo sum" ("I think, therefore I am").

Voltaire’s Candide (1759): Through the character of Candide, Voltaire

questions the idea that "all is for the best in the best of all possible
worlds," highlighting the absurdity of such an optimistic belief in the
face of human suffering.

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216. Scribblers Club
The Scribblers Club refers to a group of writers, often satirists, who
gather to exchange ideas and challenge the prevailing literary or political
culture. In the 18th century, particularly in Britain, groups like the
Scribblers Club often mocked the literary establishment.

Key Features:

A club or group of writers, typically involved in satire or social

commentary.

Used to criticize the establishment or dominant cultural ideas.

Focused on intellectual exchange and literary experimentation.

Example:

The Scriblerus Club: Founded in 1714 by Alexander Pope, Jonathan

Swift, John Arbuthnot, and others, it produced satirical works like The
Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus (1741), which ridiculed contemporary
intellectual and cultural trends.

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217. Semantics

Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words,

phrases, sentences, and texts convey meaning. In literature, it is
concerned with how language functions in context to produce meaning.

Key Features:

Focuses on the meaning of words and sentences.

Explores how context influences interpretation.

Investigates both literal and figurative meanings.

Example:

Saussure’s Course in General Linguistics (1916): Ferdinand de Saussure

is a key figure in semantics, exploring how meaning arises from the
relationship between signs (words) and their referents.

T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land (1922): The complex, multi-layered

meanings in Eliot’s poem can be analyzed semantically to understand
the interplay between allusions, symbols, and cultural references.

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218. Senecan Tragedy
Senecan Tragedy refers to the tragedies written by the Roman
philosopher and playwright Seneca. These plays are characterized by
their declamatory style, focus on psychological conflict, and themes of
revenge and violence.

Key Features:

Written in a declamatory style, with long speeches and rhetorical

flourishes.

Emphasizes revenge, tyranny, and psychological conflict.

Often features violent acts and strong emotions.

Example:

Seneca’s Phaedra (1st century AD): A tragedy centered on the queen

Phaedra’s forbidden love for her stepson Hippolytus, leading to
destruction and tragedy.

Shakespeare’s Titus Andronicus (1594): Influenced by Seneca’s

tragedies, it features themes of revenge and violence, with characters
speaking in long, rhetorical passages.

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219. Senecan Tradition
The Senecan Tradition refers to the influence of Seneca’s tragic style on
later European drama, especially during the Renaissance and early
modern period. Writers like Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe drew
on Seneca’s focus on intense emotional states and violent action.

Key Features:
The focus on revenge and moral dilemmas.

Use of rhetorical speeches and soliloquies.

Psychological depth and violent action.

Example:

Christopher Marlowe’s Tamburlaine the Great (1587): A play that

exhibits the Senecan tradition through its grand, declamatory speeches
and focus on the tyrannical ambition of the protagonist.

Shakespeare’s Hamlet (1600): The soliloquies and themes of revenge in

Hamlet owe much to the Senecan tradition.

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220. Sensibility
Sensibility refers to a literary movement of the 18th century,
emphasizing emotion, empathy, and an appreciation for the natural
world. Writers focused on feelings of tenderness, vulnerability, and the
importance of emotional experience over rational thought.

Key Features:

Emphasis on emotion, compassion, and personal experience.

Celebrates the beauty of nature and human sensitivity.

Often portrayed the suffering of the individual and the nobility of

emotional response.

Example:

Samuel Richardson’s Pamela (1740): The novel portrays the emotional

suffering and moral triumph of the heroine, Pamela, and reflects the
values of sensibility in its portrayal of virtue and emotional struggle.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s The Confessions (1782): Rousseau’s

autobiographical work is a key example of sensibility, focusing on
personal emotions and inner experiences.

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221. Serenade
A serenade is a musical or poetic composition, often written in honor of
someone, usually as a romantic gesture. In literature, it can refer to a
poem or song expressing love or admiration, typically performed at
night under a lover's window.

Key Features:

Typically a romantic, celebratory piece.

Often performed outdoors, especially in the evening.

Can be a poem or a song expressing admiration or affection.

Example:

Ludwig van Beethoven’s Serenade in D Major (1802): A well-known

musical serenade.

P.B. Shelley’s A Serenade (1820): A poem expressing love and longing,

where the speaker serenades his lover, invoking the imagery of the night.

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222. Sentimentality
Sentimentality refers to an excessive or insincere expression of
emotions, especially those that are tender or melancholic. In literature,
sentimentality is often criticized for being overly emotional or
manipulative.

Key Features:

Over-the-top emotional expression.

Can evoke pity, sorrow, or tenderness but is often criticized for lacking
depth.

Often seen in works where emotions are exaggerated to manipulate the

audience’s feelings.

Example:

Charles Dickens’ Oliver Twist (1837-1839): The portrayal of the

orphaned Oliver can be seen as sentimental, evoking pity and sympathy
through exaggerated suffering.

Sentimental novels of the 18th century: Works like Laurence Sterne's

Sentimental Journey (1768) focus on emotional exploration but are often
criticized for their indulgence in overly emotional responses.

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223. Seventeenth-Century Literature
Seventeenth-century literature in English spans the 1600s, a period
marked by profound social, political, and religious upheaval. The
literature of this time reflects themes of conflict, exploration, and the
questioning of traditional values, often blending the Baroque with the
emerging Enlightenment ideas.

Key Features:

Divided into the metaphysical poets, Cavalier poets, and Puritan writers.

Focused on religion, politics, and personal identity.

Flourished during times of political instability, such as the English Civil

War.

Example:

John Milton’s Paradise Lost (1667): A defining work of the 17th

century, blending religious themes with classical influences, addressing
the fall of man and the rebellion of Satan.

Andrew Marvell’s To His Coy Mistress (1681): A poem from the

Cavalier poets, blending sensuality with wit.

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224. Slice of Life
Slice of Life is a literary technique or genre that represents ordinary,
everyday experiences without any exaggerated or sensational plot
elements. It focuses on depicting real life in its mundane, unremarkable
aspects.

Key Features:

Focus on realistic, often mundane events and experiences.

Characters are usually ordinary people in ordinary situations.

The narrative does not necessarily have a clear plot or resolution.

Example:

James Joyce’s Dubliners (1914): A collection of short stories depicting

ordinary Dublin life, with a focus on moments of epiphany and insight.

Anton Chekhov’s The Complaints Book (1897): Depicts the mundane

events of everyday life, emphasizing the emotions and subtleties in
seemingly trivial situations.

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225. Solecism
A solecism is a grammatical mistake or inconsistency, particularly one
that violates the rules of syntax. It can also refer to a social faux pas or
improper behavior in speech or writing.

Key Features:

A mistake in syntax or grammar.

Can also refer to a breach of social etiquette or convention.

Often used to describe awkward or improper constructions in language.

Example:

“Me and him went to the store”: The incorrect use of "me" instead of "I"
is a solecism in English grammar.

William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar (1599): While not a solecism itself,

Shakespeare’s plays contain instances where characters deliberately use
faulty language to convey social status or character flaws.

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226. Soliloquy
A soliloquy is a dramatic speech in which a character expresses their
thoughts aloud, often alone on stage, and is not intended to be heard by
other characters. It is a tool to reveal inner thoughts, conflicts, or
motivations.

Key Features:

Spoken by a character alone on stage, revealing their internal thoughts.

Used to express personal reflection, moral dilemmas, or philosophical

musings.

Common in Shakespearean drama.

Example:

Hamlet’s soliloquy, "To be, or not to be" (from Hamlet 1600): Perhaps
the most famous soliloquy in Western literature, where Hamlet
contemplates life, death, and the human condition.

Macbeth’s soliloquy on the dagger (from Macbeth 1606): Macbeth

envisions a dagger leading him toward Duncan’s chamber, revealing his
troubled mind before committing murder.

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227. Spasmodics
Spasmodics refers to a group of 19th-century English poets who were
known for their intense, emotional, and often irregular verse. They were
considered to be over-expressive, and their style was marked by sudden
bursts of emotional passion.

Key Features:

Intense, dramatic, and irregular poetic style.

Focused on passionate and emotional expressions.

Often linked to the Pre-Raphaelite movement.

Example:

Thomas Lovell Beddoes’ Death’s Jest-Book (1850): A work that

epitomizes the spasmodic style with its violent imagery and dark
emotional intensity.

D.G. Rossetti’s early poetry: Although not strictly spasmodic, his early
poems share elements of spasmodic emotion and irregularity.

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228. Spenserian Stanza

The Spenserian Stanza is a verse form invented by Edmund Spenser in

his epic poem The Faerie Queene (1590), consisting of nine lines with a
specific rhyme scheme and meter.

Key Features:

Composed of eight iambic pentameter lines followed by a final line in

iambic hexameter (alexandrine).

The rhyme scheme is ABABBCBCC.

Example:

Edmund Spenser’s The Faerie Queene (1590): The poem’s elaborate

structure is built upon the Spenserian stanza, which helped give it a
flowing, musical quality.

229. Spoonerism
A spoonerism is a verbal mistake in which the initial consonants or
sounds of two words are swapped. It is often humorous and can create
unintended meanings.

Key Features:

The switching of sounds or letters between words.

Often creates humorous or absurd results.

Named after Reverend William Archibald Spooner, who was known for
making such errors
Example:

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"You have hissed all my mystery lectures" (instead of "missed all my
history lectures"): A famous spoonerism attributed to Reverend Spooner.

"A lack of pies" (instead of "a pack of lies"): Another humorous

example of a spoonerism.

230. Sprung Rhythm

Sprung Rhythm is a metrical pattern developed by Gerard Manley

Hopkins, which is based on the number of stressed syllables rather than
the traditional alternating pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. It
aims to mimic natural speech rhythms.

Key Features:

Focus on stressed syllables.

Lines are made up of varying numbers of syllables.

Closely resembles the rhythm of natural speech.

Example:

Gerard Manley Hopkins’ The Windhover (1877): The poem uses sprung
rhythm to capture the movement and energy of the bird in flight, with
the meter mirroring the natural rhythms of speech and nature.

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231. Structuralism

Structuralism is a theoretical approach that examines language, culture,

and society by analyzing underlying structures. It focuses on
understanding the relationships between elements within a system,
emphasizing that meaning is produced through these structures rather
than through individual elements in isolation. In literature, structuralism
seeks to uncover the deep structures that govern narratives, focusing on
binary oppositions, myths, and codes that shape meaning.

Key Features:

Focuses on the relationships between parts of a system rather than the

individual elements.

Uses linguistic principles to analyze culture, society, and literature.

The work of Ferdinand de Saussure laid the groundwork for

structuralism, particularly his theory of the signifier (sound) and the
signified (meaning).

Example:

Roland Barthes’ Mythologies (1957): Barthes analyzes popular culture

and media to reveal the mythic structures that shape meaning.

Claude Lévi-Strauss’ The Structural Study of Myth (1955): Explores

how myths share universal structures across cultures.

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232. Stream of Consciousness Novel

The stream of consciousness is a narrative mode that attempts to capture

the continuous flow of thoughts, feelings, and sensory experiences of a
character, often in a disjointed or fragmented manner. This technique
often disregards conventional narrative structures, and presents a more
direct and raw depiction of a character's inner life.

Key Features:

Represents the unstructured flow of thoughts and sensory experiences.

Often lacks traditional punctuation or narrative clarity.

Frequently used to represent psychological states or consciousness.

Example:

James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922): One of the most famous examples of

stream-of-consciousness writing, particularly in the final chapter, where
the thoughts of Molly Bloom are presented in an unbroken flow.

Virginia Woolf’s Mrs. Dalloway (1925): Woolf uses this technique to

depict the inner lives of her characters, blending their thoughts,
memories, and perceptions.

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233. Sublime
The sublime refers to a quality of grandeur or beauty that inspires awe,
wonder, or fear. In literature, it is often associated with descriptions of
vast, overwhelming landscapes or experiences that go beyond ordinary
human understanding. The sublime was a central concept in
Romanticism and is often used to express the vastness and mystery of
nature, life, or existence.
Key Features:

Describes overwhelming beauty, awe, or terror.

Often involves nature, the cosmos, or the divine as objects of

contemplation.

Was theorized by Edmund Burke and Immanuel Kant in their respective

works on aesthetics.

Example:

Edmund Burke’s A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas

of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757): Burke explores the emotions and
experiences that the sublime evokes, such as fear and astonishment.

William Wordsworth’s Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern

Abbey (1798): Wordsworth reflects on the sublime power of nature and
its ability to elevate the soul.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818): The novel often uses the sublime to
describe the natural world, particularly in scenes where characters
confront the vastness of nature and their own insignificance.

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234. Symbolism
Symbolism is a literary movement and technique that emerged in the late
19th century, particularly in France, and focuses on using symbols—
often abstract or metaphorical—to convey deeper meanings and
emotions. Symbolist poets rejected direct representation and instead
employed symbolism to express inner states, dreams, and spiritual
truths.

Key Features:

Uses symbols to represent abstract concepts or emotional states.

Often evokes mystery, mysticism, and the supernatural.

Rejects direct description in favor of indirect suggestion.

Example:

Charles Baudelaire’s Les Fleurs du mal (1857): A foundational work of

symbolism, where Baudelaire uses metaphor and imagery to explore
themes of beauty, decadence, and the human condition.

Arthur Rimbaud’s A Season in Hell (1873): Rimbaud’s symbolic poems

explore the poet’s inner turmoil and visions, employing rich, dreamlike
imagery.

Stéphane Mallarmé’s Un Coup de dés jamais n'abolira le hasard (1897):

A symbolist work that uses fragmented and experimental typography to
evoke the uncertainty of existence.

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235. Theatre of Cruelty
Theatre of Cruelty is a concept developed by French playwright and
director Antonin Artaud, which calls for a radical form of theater that
aims to shock the audience into confronting their deepest emotions and
unconscious fears. The theater should be a visceral, physical experience,
rejecting traditional dialogue and plot in favor of a more primal,
emotional expression.

Key Features:

Focuses on intense, raw emotions and physicality.

Aims to disturb or shock the audience, breaking the boundaries between

performance and life.

Uses a non-verbal language of gestures, sounds, and visuals.

Example:

Antonin Artaud’s The Theatre and Its Double (1938): Artaud outlines
his philosophy of the Theatre of Cruelty, advocating for a theater that
would awaken the senses and the unconscious mind of the audience.

Artaud’s The Cenci (1935): A play that exemplifies the Theatre of

Cruelty with its intense, symbolic action and shocking portrayal of
violence and madness.

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236. Threnody

A threnody is a type of poem or song of lamentation or mourning,

typically written to express grief over a death or loss. It is often
associated with an elegiac tone, focusing on sorrow and the
remembrance of the deceased.

Key Features:

A mournful or sorrowful tone.

Often commemorates the dead or expresses grief.

Common in both ancient and modern poetry, often linked to funerary

rites.
Example:

Matthew Arnold's Threnody (1867): Arnold’s poem mourns the

untimely death of his beloved friend, Arthur Hugh Clough, expressing
deep sorrow and personal loss.

Christopher Marlowe's Hero and Leander (1598): While not a traditional

threnody, Marlowe’s elegiac verses on the untimely death of his friend,
along with the elegiac qualities of the poem, align with themes of
mourning.

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237. Three Unities
The Three Unities is a concept in classical drama that dictates three
primary rules for the construction of a play. These unities are: Unity of
Action, Unity of Time, and Unity of Place. The idea was formulated by
Aristotle in his Poetics and later adhered to during the neoclassical
period.

Key Features:

Unity of Action: A play should have one main plot, with no subplots or
extraneous material.

Unity of Time: The action of the play should take place within a single
day or a brief period of time.

Unity of Place: The play should occur in one location or a small number
of locations.

Example:

Pierre Corneille’s Le Cid (1637): Although Corneille follows the unity

of action and time to a degree, the play has faced criticism for not fully
adhering to the unity of place, as it moves between different locations.

Jean Racine's Phèdre (1677): Racine's tragedy strictly follows the

unities, with a single plot, a day-long timeframe, and a fixed location in
the court of Athens.

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238. Tract
A tract is a short pamphlet or brochure that deals with a particular issue,
typically written for the purpose of advocacy or persuasion. Tracts were
especially popular in the 17th and 18th centuries, used to communicate
political, religious, or social arguments.

Key Features:

A short pamphlet or leaflet.

Aimed at persuasion, often addressing social, religious, or political

issues.

Written to convey a focused message, sometimes polemical.

Example:

John Milton's Areopagitica (1644): This famous tract advocates for

freedom of the press and against censorship, one of the most significant
political tracts in English literature.

Thomas Paine's Common Sense (1776): A tract urging American

colonies to seek independence from British rule, one of the most famous
political tracts in history.

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239. Tragi-Comedy
A tragi-comedy is a genre of drama that blends elements of both tragedy
and comedy, often involving serious, poignant issues with a resolution
that is unexpectedly happy or redemptive. It is marked by a combination
of tragic characters or themes with comic situations or endings.

Key Features:

Combines tragic and comic elements.

Often features a serious conflict, but ends on a lighter, more hopeful

note.

The blend of genres reflects the complexity of human experience, where

tragedy and comedy can coexist.

Example:

Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale (1611): This play is a well-known

example of tragi-comedy, starting with a tragic sequence involving
jealousy and the apparent death of the heroine, but concluding with a
joyous and miraculous resolution.

Ben Jonson's The Sad Shepherd (1600): A lesser-known tragi-comedy

that mixes pastoral elements with darker, tragic themes.

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240. Treatise
A treatise is a formal, systematic, and comprehensive written work that
thoroughly examines a specific subject. It is usually more in-depth than
an essay, offering detailed analysis or argumentation on a particular
issue, often in a scholarly context.

Key Features:

A formal, in-depth exploration of a specific topic.

Often academic or philosophical in nature.

Aimed at providing thorough analysis or establishing a particular point

of view.

Example:

John Locke's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690): A

treatise on the nature of human knowledge and understanding, it is one
of the most significant works in philosophy.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s The Social Contract (1762): A political treatise

that discusses the relationship between individuals and the society in
which they live, focusing on the concept of general will and political
authority.

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241. Transcendentalism

Transcendentalism is a philosophical and literary movement that

emerged in the 19th century in America, advocating for the inherent
goodness of people and nature, the importance of intuition and
spirituality over empirical observation, and the belief that individuals
can transcend the limitations of society and connect with the divine
through personal experience.

Key Features:

Emphasis on individual intuition and self-reliance.

Focus on the connection between humans and nature.

Rejection of organized religion and societal norms in favor of personal

spirituality.

Example:

Ralph Waldo Emerson’s Nature (1836): A foundational text in

transcendentalism that explores the relationship between humans and
nature, advocating for a direct connection with the divine through
nature.

Henry David Thoreau’s Walden (1854): A transcendentalist work that

emphasizes living simply and in harmony with nature, with Thoreau
retreating to a cabin in the woods to explore self-reliance and the natural
world.

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242. Twentieth-Century Literature

Twentieth-century literature refers to the body of literary works

produced during the 20th century, marked by significant changes in
literary style, form, and subject matter. It includes movements such as
modernism, postmodernism, existentialism, and more, reacting to the
dramatic societal, cultural, and political shifts of the time.

Key Features:

Modernism (early 20th century) challenged traditional narrative

structures and explored fragmentation, alienation, and the breakdown of
certainty.

Postmodernism (mid-20th century) further questioned traditional forms

and embraced metafiction, intertextuality, and pastiche.

Themes of existentialism, the absurd, and critiques of power and

authority are prevalent.

Example:

James Joyce’s Ulysses (1922): A modernist work that breaks traditional

narrative forms, using stream of consciousness and fragmented structure
to explore the inner thoughts of its characters.

George Orwell’s 1984 (1949): A dystopian novel critiquing totalitarian

regimes and the effects of surveillance and censorship, characteristic of
20th-century concerns about authority and individual freedom.

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243. Utopia
A utopia is an imagined perfect society where everything works
harmoniously. It is often used to explore social, political, and
philosophical ideals, and serves as a critique of existing social structures
by depicting a hypothetical, ideal world.

Key Features:

Depicts an ideal or perfect society.

Critiques contemporary social, political, or economic conditions.

Often includes elements of social engineering or reform to achieve the

utopian vision.

Example:

Thomas More’s Utopia (1516): The book outlines a fictional island

society where all citizens live in harmony and justice prevails, often seen
as a critique of European society in More's time.

Plato’s Republic (c. 380 BCE): A foundational text in Western thought

discussing an ideal society ruled by philosopher-kings, where justice and
harmony are achieved through a structured social order.

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244. University Wits
The University Wits were a group of late-16th-century English
playwrights and poets who were educated at Oxford or Cambridge and
influenced the development of Elizabethan drama. They are known for
their sophisticated language, complex plots, and contribution to the rise
of professional theatre.

Key Features:

Graduates of Oxford or Cambridge, many of whom became playwrights.

Helped bridge the gap between classical drama and popular Elizabethan
theatre.

Pioneered many aspects of Elizabethan theatre, including complex

characterization and the use of blank verse.

Example:

Christopher Marlowe’s Doctor Faustus (1592): A play by one of the

most famous University Wits, Marlowe's work is notable for its use of
blank verse and exploration of ambition and sin.

Robert Greene’s Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay (1594): A comedic play
by another member of the University Wits that combines elements of
romance and medieval legend.

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245. Verisimilitude
Verisimilitude refers to the appearance of being true or real. In literature,
it is the quality of a narrative that makes it seem plausible or lifelike,
even when the events or characters are fictional. It is often used to
ground fantastical stories in a believable framework.

Key Features:

The degree to which a narrative appears truthful or realistic.

Used in both realistic works and in fantastical genres to make events

seem possible.

Often associated with the creation of realistic characters, dialogue, and

settings.

Example:

Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe (1719): This novel is known for its
verisimilitude, as Defoe uses detailed descriptions of the shipwreck and
the protagonist’s survival to create a believable narrative of adventure.

Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace (1869): Tolstoy’s epic historical novel is
rich in verisimilitude, with detailed depictions of Russian society and the
Napoleonic Wars that ground the personal stories of the characters in
real historical events.

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246. Victorian Compromise

The Victorian Compromise refers to the social and moral compromises

made during the Victorian era (1837-1901), where there was a tension
between public morality and private desires. It involved reconciling the
era’s strict moral code with the realities of industrialization, colonialism,
and the complexities of modern life.

Key Features:

A balance between rigid morality and the emerging complexities of

industrial and urban life.

Often focused on the role of women, class, and the suppression of

emotions or desires.

Reflection of an age that valued respectability but was also marked by

hypocrisy.

Example:

Charles Dickens’s Hard Times (1854): A novel that critiques the

industrial revolution and the dehumanizing aspects of Victorian society,
where the characters must navigate the Victorian moral and social codes.

Thomas Hardy’s Tess of the d'Urbervilles (1891): A novel that explores

the hypocrisy of Victorian sexual morality through the tragic life of
Tess, who is punished for the sins of others.

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247. Vorticism
Vorticism was an early 20th-century art and literary movement in
Britain, associated with modernism, that emphasized dynamic
movement, energy, and abstract forms. It was influenced by Futurism
and Cubism, focusing on the machine age and the vitality of modern life.

Key Features:

Emphasized dynamic movement and abstraction.

Sought to break from traditional artistic and literary forms.

Reflects the energy and modernity of the machine age.

Example:

Ezra Pound’s Vorticism Manifesto (1914): Pound, associated with the

movement, argued for the creation of new art that embodied the energy
and dynamism of modern life, rejecting sentimentalism and past
traditions.

Wyndham Lewis’s Blast (1914): The journal and its associated works
represent the Vorticist ethos, advocating for a bold, modernist break
from the past in literature and art.

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248. Willing Suspension of Disbelief
The willing suspension of disbelief is a concept proposed by Samuel
Taylor Coleridge, describing the act of readers or viewers temporarily
accepting the implausible or fantastic elements of a story in order to
engage with it emotionally and intellectually.

Key Features:

Readers or viewers knowingly accept the fantastic or unrealistic aspects

of a story for the sake of enjoyment.

It allows for immersion in fantastical or imaginative narratives.

Often invoked in the context of genres like fantasy, science fiction, and
supernatural fiction.

Example:

J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings (1954-1955): Readers suspend

their disbelief to accept a world filled with hobbits, elves, and orcs,
engaging emotionally with the story despite its fantastical nature.

William Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream (1595-1596): The

play asks the audience to accept the magical elements (e.g., fairies) and
enjoy the fantasy, allowing them to become absorbed in the comedic and
romantic elements of the play.

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249. Wit
Wit refers to a form of intelligent humor that is characterized by
sharpness, quickness of thought, and often a playful or satirical edge. It
involves the ability to perceive relationships between ideas and express
them in a clever, often humorous, manner.

Key Features:

Quick, sharp, and intelligent humor.

Often involves puns, wordplay, and irony.

Can be satirical, pointing out the absurdities in social norms or human

behavior.

Example:

Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest (1895): Wilde’s play is

full of witty dialogue, clever wordplay, and satirical commentary on
Victorian society and its conventions.

Alexander Pope’s The Rape of the Lock (1712): A mock-epic poem that
uses wit to satirize the vanity and superficiality of the upper class.

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250.Zeugma

One word governs multiple others, often with different meanings.

Creates a blending of different ideas or a humorous juxtaposition.

Often used in literature to create irony, humor, or surprise.

Example:

Alexander Pope's The Rape of the Lock (1712):

"He lost his mud, and his way at once."

Here, the verb "lost" is used to govern both "his mud" (in the literal
sense) and "his way" (in the figurative sense), creating a clever and
humorous connection between two very different things.

Charles Dickens’ The Pickwick Papers (1837):

"She was neither a woman nor a girl, but a pretty little thing to be sure."

Dickens uses a form of zeugma, with the word "pretty" controlling both
the appearance of the woman and the girl in a playful way.

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