EME331: Fluid Mechanics I

Contact Hours: 45
Pre-requisite: EME131, EME142
Purpose of the Course
The purpose of this course is to enable the learner to gain knowledge and skills in the
following:
i) The properties of Newtonian fluids.
ii) The pressure distribution for static fluids.
iii) The forces acting on surfaces for static fluids.
iv) Concepts of mass, momentum and energy conservation to flows.
v) Basic ideas of turbulence
Expected Learning Outcomes
At the end of this course, the student will be able to;
i) Determine the dimensions and units of physical quantities.
ii) Identify the key fluid properties used in the analysis of fluid behavior.
iii) Explain effects of fluid compressibility.
iv) Apply the concepts of viscosity, vapor pressure, and surface tension.
v) Determine the pressure at various locations in a fluid at rest.
vi) Analyse the buoyant force and discuss the stability of floating or submerged objects.
Course Content
1. Properties of Fluid: Definitions, dimensions. Pressure, Temperature, Density,
Viscosity, Vapour Pressure, Surface Tension, etc. Measurements of temperature and
viscosity. Fluid Statics: Pressure changes in gravity field with and without temperature
gradients, pressure measurements by \ and manometers, fluids in relative equilibrium,
pressure distribution in a liquid subject to vertical and horizontal acceleration, forced
vortex hydrostatic pressure, steady and unsteady flow, uniform and non-uniform flow,
streamlines, discharge and mean velocity, control surface and control volume,
substantial derivative for velocity, transport theorem, continuity equation. Forces on
Surfaces: Hydrostatic pressure, forces and centres of pressure on plane and curved
surfaces, buoyancy stability of floating and submerged bodies, metacentre,
determination of metacentric height, stability of vessels carrying liquids with open
surfaces.

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Mode of delivery
Lectures, tutorials, demonstrations, discussions
Laboratory exercises
1) Calibration of pressure gauges
2) Measurement of pressure by manometers
Instructional Materials/Equipment
Chalkboard/white board, LCD Projector, flip charts
Course evaluation
Continuous Assessment Tests- 30%
End of Semester Examination -70%
Total- 100%
Core Reading Materials for the Course
1. Bruce R. M., Alric and H. O. Theodore, (2012). Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics. Wiley
and sons’ UK, 747 p.
2. Donald F. Y., R. M. Bruce, H. O. Theodore and W. H. Wade. (2010). A Brief Introduction
to Fluid Mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, UK, 5th ed. 528 p.
Recommended Reference Materials
1. Douglas J. F., R. D. Matthews (1996). Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics. Longman
Group, Harlow, UK.
2. Douglas J.F. and R.D. Mathews (2010). Fluids Mechanics Vol. 1and 2. Longman Group,
Harlow, UK
Journals
1. Journal of Engineering Science
2. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering

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Introduction
Fluid mechanics may be defined as that branch of Engineering-science which deals with the
behaviour of fluids at rest as well as in motion. The fluid mechanics may be divided into three
parts: Statics, kinematics and dynamics
Statics The study of incompressible fluids at rest is called hydrostatics and that dealing with
the compressible static gases is termed as aerostatics.
Kinematics. It deals with the velocities, accelerations and the patterns of flow only. Forces or
energy causing velocity and acceleration are not considered.
Dynamics. It deals with the relations between velocities, accelerations of fluid with the forces
or energy causing them

Mechanical engineers study fluid mechanics for several reasons:

1. Design and Optimization: Fluid mechanics helps mechanical engineers design and optimize
systems that involve fluid flow, such as pipelines, pumps, turbines, and hydraulic systems.
2. Energy Transfer: Fluid mechanics is crucial for understanding energy transfer between
fluids and mechanical systems, like heat exchangers, engines, and power generation
systems.
3. Fluid-Structure Interaction: Mechanical engineers need to understand how fluids interact
with structures, like bridges, buildings, and aircraft, to ensure stability and safety.
4. Thermal Management: Fluid mechanics plays a key role in thermal management, including
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, cooling systems, and thermal
energy storage.
5. Transportation: Fluid mechanics is essential for designing and optimizing vehicles, like
cars, airplanes, and ships, to reduce drag, improve fuel efficiency, and enhance
performance.

Fluid:
A fluid may be defined as follows:
Fluid refers to a substance that is capable of flowing, and has no fixed shape, such as liquids
and gases. Fluids can also refer to a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to
external shearing force.”
A fluid has the following characteristics:
1. It has no definite shape of its own, but conforms to the shape of the containing vessel.
2. Even a small amount of shear force exerted on a liquid/fluid will cause it to undergo a
deformation which continues as long as the force continues to be applied.

A fluid may be classified as follows:

- (i) Liquid, (ii) Gas, (iii) Vapour.

- (i) Ideal fluids (ii) Real fluids.

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(i) Liquid
- A liquid is a fluid which possesses a definite volume (which varies only slightly with
temperature and pressure).
- Liquids have bulk elastic modulus when under compression and will store up energy in the
same manner as a solid. As the contraction of volume of a liquid under compression is
extremely small, it is usually ignored and the liquid is assumed to be incompressible.
- A liquid will withstand a slight amount of tension due to molecular attraction between the
particles which will cause an apparent shear resistance, between two adjacent layers. This
phenomenon is known as viscosity.
- All known liquids vaporise at narrow pressures above zero, depending on the temperature.
(ii) Gas. It possesses no definite volume and is compressible.
(iii) Vapour. It is a gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near the
liquid state (e.g., steam).
(i) Ideal fluids. An ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity and surface tension and is
incompressible. In true sense no such fluid exists in nature. However fluids which have
low viscosities such as water and air can be treated as ideal fluids under certain
conditions. The assumption of ideal fluids helps in simplifying the mathematical
analysis.
(ii) Real fluids. A real practical fluid is one which has viscosity, surface tension and
compressibility in addition to the density. The real fluids are actually available in
nature.

Properties of fluids
The properties of water are of much importance because the subject of hydraulics is mainly
concerned with it. Some important properties of water which will be considered are: Density,
specific gravity, viscosity, vapor pressure, cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, capillarity and
compressibility.

Density / mass density ( ℎ ) – its the ratio of mass of fluid to its volume or mass per unit
volume ( ⁄ ).

Specific weight or weight density ( ) – ratio of the weight of the fluid to its volume or weight
per unit volume ( ⁄ ⁄ ).
ℎ
= = =

Specific gravity – volume of a fluid occupied by a unit mass of volume per unit mass of the
fluid or volume per unit mass of fluid ( ⁄ ).
1
= = =

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Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight (or density) of the liquid to the specific weight
(or density) of a standard fluid. It is dimensionless and has no units. It is represented by S. For
liquids, the standard fluid is pure water at 4°C
ℎ ( )
= =
ℎ ( )

Specific weight of water may be taken as 9.81 ⁄ and density may be taken as
1000 ⁄ .
Problem 1.1
Calculate the specific weight, density, specific volume and specific gravity of a liquid having
a volume of 6 m3 and weight of 44 kN.
44
= = = 7.33 ⁄
6
7.33 10
= = = 747.5 /
9.81
1 1
= = = 0.00134 ⁄
747.5
7.33
= = = 0.747
9.81
Problem 1.2
Calculate the density, specific weight and weigh of one litre of petrol of specific gravity of 0.7.

= = = 0.7

= 0.7 = 1000 0.7 = 700 /

= 0.7 = 9.81 0.7 = 6.868 /

1 = 0.001

= = 6.868 10 0.001 = 6.865

Problem 1.3
Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one litre of a liquid which weighs
7N.

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Viscosity
May be defined as the property the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement
of one layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid. (Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's
resistance to flow)
Example, take different fluids (e.g oil, lubricant, water, paint etc) all at the same temperature
pour on an inclined surface. Compare the times for the different fluids to reach at a certain
point on the surface. The one that moves fastest has the lowest viscosity. The one that moves
slowest has the highest viscosity.
Thus, viscosity is the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to shearing stresses.
It is a measure of the internal fluid friction which causes resistance to flow. It is primarily due
to cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers, and as flow occurs, these
effects appear as shearing stresses between the moving layers of fluid.

Refer to figure, when two layers of fluid, at a distance ′ ′

apart, move one over the other at different velocities, say +
, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear
stress acting between the fluid layers.
The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower layer
while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top
layer. This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of
velocity with respect to . It is denoted by (called Tau).

ℎ , =

- where, µ = Constant of proportionality and is known as co-efficient of dynamic viscosity

or only viscosity.
- is the rate of shear stress or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient

=
⁄
- Thus, viscosity may also be defined as the shear stress required to produce unit rate of shear
strain.
- In S.I. (International System of Units) Units for viscosity . ⁄
- In centimetre–gram–second system of units its known as poise
1
1 = . ⁄
10
Problem 1.4
Two horizontal plates are placed 1.25 cm apart between them between them being filled with
oil of viscosity 14 poises. Calculate the shear stress in oil if upper plate is moved from rest with
a velocity of 2.5 m/s.
= 1.25 = 0.0125

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 14
= 14 = . ⁄
10
= − 0 = 2.5 /
14 2.5
= = = 280 ⁄
10 0.0125
Kinematic Viscosity
Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio between the dynamic viscosity and density of fluid.
It is denoted by ν (called nu).

ℎ , = =

- In S.I. Units for viscosity ⁄

- In C.G.S UNITS (Centimetre–Gram–Second system of units its known as stoke
1 = 10 ⁄ = /
1
1 =
100
Problem 1.5

Find the kinematic viscosity of an oil having a density of 981 ⁄ . The shear stress at a
pint in oil is 0.2452 ⁄ and velocity gradient at that point is 0.2 per second.

= 981 ⁄ , = 0.2452 ⁄ , = 0.2 /

0.2452
= = = 1.226 . ⁄
⁄ .2

1.226
= = = 0.00125 ⁄ 0.00125 10 /
981

10 ⁄ =1

0.125 ⁄ = 12.5

Problem 1.6
The space between two square flat parallel plates is filled with oil. Each side of the plate is 60
cm. The thickness of the oil film is 12.5 mm. The upper plate, which moves at 2.5 m/s requires
a force of 98.1 N to maintain the speed. Determine:
(i) The dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and
(ii) The kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95.

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Given
(i) The dynamic viscosity of the oil in poise, and

= 0.36 , = 12.5 10 , = 2.5 , = 98.1 ,

= =

98.1 2.5
=
0.36 0.0125
= 1.3625 . ⁄
1
. ⁄ =1
10
1.3625 . ⁄ = 13.653
(ii) The kinematic viscosity of the oil in stokes if the specific gravity of the oil is 0.95.

= 0.95 ∴ = 0.95 1000 = 950 ⁄

1.3625
= = = 0.001435 ⁄
950
10 ⁄ =1

0.001435 ⁄ = 14.35

Newton’s Law of Viscosity

This law states that the shear stress (τ) on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the
rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity.

ℎ =

The fluids which follow this law are known as Newtonian fluids, and fluids that do not obey
this law are known as Non – Newtonian fluids.

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Types of Fluids
The fluids may be of the following types:
1. Newtonian fluids. These fluids follow Newton’s
viscosity equation. For such fluids µ does not change
with rate of deformation. Examples. Water, kerosene,
air etc.
2. Non – Newtonian. Fluids which do not follow the
linear relationship between shear stress and rate of
deformation (given by are termed as non-Newtonian
fluids. Such fluids are relatively uncommon.
Examples. Solutions or suspensions (slurries), mud
flows, polymer solutions, blood etc
3. Plastic fluids - In the case of a plastic substance which
is non-Newtonian fluid, an initial yield stress is to be exceeded to cause a continuous
deformation. These substances are represented by straight line intersecting the vertical axis
at the “yield stress”
4. Ideal fluid. An ideal fluid is one which is incompressible and has zero viscosity (or in
other words shear stress is always zero regardless of the motion of the fluid). Thus, an ideal
fluid is represented by the horizontal axis (τ = 0). An ideal fluid has no viscosity. There is
no fluid which can be classified as a perfectly ideal fluid. However, the fluids with very
little viscosity are sometimes considered as ideal fluid
5. Real fluid – a fluid which possesses viscosity is known as a real fluid, in actual practice all
fluids are real fluids.
(read on examples of the above fluids)

Problem 1.4 If the velocity distribution over a plate is given by = − , in which is

the velocity in m/s, at a distance y above the plate, determine the shear stress at = 0 and
= 0.15 . Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.63 poises.
1
1 = . ⁄
10
8.63 = 0.863 . ⁄
2 2
= − ∴ = −2
3 3

2
= − 2(0) = 0.667
3

2
= − 2(0.15) = 0.367
.
3

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 (i) Shear stress at y=0
= = 0.863 0.666 0.5756 ⁄
(ii) Shear stress at y=0.15

. = = 0.0.367 0.367 = 0.3167 ⁄

Problem 1.5 The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by = − in
which u is the velocity in meters per second at a distance of y meter above the plate. Determine
the shear stress ay = 0.15 . Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 8.5 poise.
Problem 1.6 The velocity distribution for flow over a plate is gives by = − where u is
the velocity in m/s at a distance y metres above the plate. Determine the velocity gradient and
shear stress at the boundary and 1.5 m from it. Take dynamic viscosity of fluid as 0.9 . / .
Problem 1.7 If the velocity profile of a fluid over a plate is parabolic with the vertex 20 cm from
the plate, where the velocity is 120 cm/s, calculate the velocity gradients and shear stresses at
a distance of 0, 10 and 20 cm from the plate, if viscosity of the fluid is 8.5 poise.

= 20 , = 120 ⁄ , = 8.2
1
1 = . ⁄
10
8.5 = 0.82 . ⁄
Given the velocity profile is parabolic, the equation of velocity profile will be
= + +
.........Equation 1
Constants a b and c can be determined from boundary conditions as follows
(a) @ = 0, = 0
(b) @ = 20 , 120 /
(c) @ = 20 , =0

Boundary condition (a) Substitute =0 = 0 in Equation 1 the we get = 0.

Boundary condition (b) Substitute = 20 , = 120 ⁄ = 0 in Equation 1, then
we get

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 120 = (20) + (20)
120 = 400 + 20
............Equation ii
Boundary condition (c)

=2 +

@ = 20 , =0

0 = 40 + ∴ = −40
............Equation iii

From Equation II and III

120 = 400 + 20(−40)
= −0.3
From Equation III
= −40 = −40(−0.3) = 12
Substitute a, b and c in Equation I
= −0.3 + 12
Velocity gradient

= −0.6 + 12

- @ =0 = −0.6(0) + 12 = 12/

- @ = 10 = −0. 6(10) + 12 = 6/

- @ = 20 = −0. 6(20) + 12 = 0/

Shear stresses

- @ =0 = = 0.84 12 = 10.2 . ⁄

- @ = 10 = = 0.84 6 = 15.1 . ⁄

- @ = 20 = = 0.84 12 = 0 . ⁄

Problem 1.8 The velocity distribution of flow over a plate is parabolic with vertex 30 cm from
the plate, where the velocity is 180 cm/s. If the viscosity of the fluid is 0.9 . / .find the
velocity gradients and shear stresses at distances of 0, 15 cm and 30 cm from the plate.

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