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FTCE Biology 6-12
Teacher Certification Exam

By: Sharon Wynne, M.S.

Southern Connecticut State University

XAMonline, INC.
Boston

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

Copyright © 2008 XAMonline, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may
be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrievable
system, without written permission from the copyright holder.

To obtain permission(s) to use the material from this work for any purpose
including workshops or seminars, please submit a written request to:

XAMonline, Inc.
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Melrose, MA 02176
Toll Free 1-800-509-4128
Email: [email protected]
Web www.xamonline.com
Fax: 1-781-662-9268

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wynne, Sharon A.
nd
Biology 6-12: Teacher Certification / Sharon A. Wynne. -2 ed.
ISBN 978-1-60787-751-6
1. Biology 6-12. 2. Study Guides. 3. FTCE
4. Teachers’ Certification & Licensure. 5. Careers

Managing Editor Dr. Harte Weiner Assistant Editor Anna Wong

Copy Editor Christine Traxler Production Coordinator
David Aronson

Disclaimer:
The opinions expressed in this publication are the sole works of XAMonline and
were created independently from the National Education Association,
Educational Testing Service, or any State Department of Education, National
Evaluation Systems or other testing affiliates.

Between the time of publication and printing, state specific standards as well as
testing formats and website information may change that is not included in part or
in whole within this product. Sample test questions are developed by XAMonline
and reflect similar content as on real tests; however, they are not former tests.
XAMonline assembles content that aligns with state standards but makes no
claims nor guarantees teacher candidates a passing score. Numerical scores are
determined by testing companies such as NES or ETS and then are compared
with individual state standards. A passing score varies from state to state.

Printed in the United States of America

FTCE: Biology 6-12
ISBN: 978-1-60787-751-6

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

Table of Contents
COMPETENCY/SKILL # PG #

COMPETENCY 1.0 - KNOWLEDGE OF THE INVESTIGATIVE PROCESSES

OF SCIENCE

Skill 1.1 Proper use and care of the light microscope ..................................... 1

Skill 1.2 Recognize and distinguish between the types of microscopy and
uses ................................................................................................... 1

Skill 1.3 Identify common laboratory techniques (e.g., dissection; preserving,

staining, and mounting microscope specimens; preparing
laboratory solutions) .......................................................................... 2

Skill 1.4 Identify proper field techniques (e.g., site selection, field
procedures, sampling, capture/recapture, transects, collecting
techniques, environmental quality assessment) ................................ 4

Skill 1.5 Identify the uses of PCR, chromatography, spectrophotometry,

centrifugation, and electrophoresis .................................................... 6

Skill 1.6 Identify terms in a formula (e.g., chemical, ecological, physical) and
assess the relationships among the terms ........................................ 7

Skill 1.7 Identify the units in the metric system and convert between
dimensional units for one-, two-, and three-dimensional objects ....... 8

Skill 1.8 Identify assumptions, observations, hypotheses, conclusions, and

theories and differentiate between them............................................ 9

Skill 1.9 Evaluate, interpret, and predict from data sets, including graphical
data ................................................................................................... 9

Skill 1.10 Differentiate the characteristics of scientific research from other

areas of learning ................................................................................ 10

Skill 1.11 Distinguish between accuracy and precision, and between

systematic error and random error .................................................... 11

Skill 1.12 Characterize variables and the outcomes for appropriate

experimental designs......................................................................... 12

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

COMPETENCY/SKILL # PG #

Skill 1.13 Recognize that the validity and reliability of scientific knowledge is
based on reproducibility of results and statistical significance of
results, and is limited by the state of current technology and
possible bias...................................................................................... 12

Skill 1.14 Identify the development of biological knowledge through important

historical events, individuals (e.g., Robert Hooke, Mattias
Schleiden, Francis Jacob, Jacques Monod), and experimental
evidence ............................................................................................ 13

Skill 1.15 Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative data in

experimental, observational, and modeling methods of research...... 15

Skill 1.16 Recognize the elements of a well-designed and controlled

experiment......................................................................................... 16

Skill 1.17 Evidence of the evolutionary nature of science in the face of new
observations ...................................................................................... 17

Skill 1.18 Identify the consistent patterns that govern the occurrence of most
natural events .................................................................................... 20

COMPETENCY 2.0 - KNOWLEDGE OF THE INTERACTION OF

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY INCLUDING ETHICAL, LEGAL,
AND SOCIAL ISSUES

Skill 2.1 Identify and analyze areas of scientific research that may contribute
to ethical, legal, and social conflicts (e.g., reproductive and life-
sustaining technologies; genetic basis for behavior, population
growth and control; government and business influences on
biotechnology) ................................................................................... 23

Skill 2.2 Identify principles and uses of cloning, genomics, proteomics, and
genetic engineering and analyze possible ethical conflicts................ 23

Skill 2.3 Recognize and analyze global environmental challenges that may
result from scientific and technological advances and the
subsequent resolution of these problems (e.g., CFCs as coolants
and ozone depletion; insecticides for protecting crops and pollution
events)............................................................................................... 24

Skill 2.4 Analyze the synergistic relationship between basic and applied
research, technology, the economy and public welfare ..................... 25

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

COMPETENCY/SKILL # PG #

Skill 2.5 Analyze the causes and effects of multidrug resistance and
globalization on the spread and treatment of human pathogens ....... 26

Skill 2.6 Demonstrate knowledge of pertinent legislation and national

guidelines (e.g., NABT, ISEF) regarding laboratory safety,
hazardous materials, experimentation, and/or the use of organisms
in the classroom ................................................................................ 27

COMPETENCY 3.0 - KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES

OF LIVING THINGS

Skill 3.1 Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and
organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) in cells ................................................ 31

Skill 3.2 Compare and apply the laws of thermodynamics to living systems,
including the role of enzymes in biological reactions ......................... 35

Skill 3.3 Predict the effects of changes in pH, temperature, substrate

concentration, and enzyme concentration on enzyme activity........... 36

Skill 3.4 Identify substrates, products, and relationships between glycolysis,

Krebs cycle, and electron transport, including the respiration of
carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids ................................................ 36

Skill 3.5 Compare end products and energy yields of alcoholic fermentation,
lactic acid fermentation, and aerobic respiration ............................... 38

Skill 3.6 Identify the raw materials and products of C-3 photosynthesis,
including the Calvin cycle, light dependent and light independent
reactions, and factors that affect their rate ........................................ 39

Skill 3.7 Identify key differences between C-3, C-4, and CAM
photosynthesis, and the ecological significance of these pathways .. 41

Skill 3.8 Identify and analyze the process of chemiosmosis in

photosynthesis and respiration .......................................................... 42

Skill 3.9 Compare heterotrophy and autotrophy and the roles of these
processes in the environment............................................................ 43

Skill 3.10 Define antigen and antibody and recognize the antigen-antibody
reaction.............................................................................................. 43

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

COMPETENCY/SKILL # PG #

Skill 3.11 Compare active and passive immunity, identifying the positive and
negative effects of vaccines and inoculations.................................... 44

Skill 3.12 Evaluate the roles of cell recognition (e.g., cell-to-cell signaling,
autoimmune diseases, tissue rejection, cancer, pollen/stigma-style
interaction) in normal and abnormal cell activity ................................ 45

Skill 3.13 Identify the effect of environmental factors on the biochemistry of

living things (e.g., UV light effects on melanin and vitamin D production) .... 45

Skill 3.14 Identify the roles of ATP and ADP in cellular processes.................... 47

Skill 3.15 Compare chemosynthetic and photosynthetic processes and the

roles of organisms using these processes in the ecosystem ............. 48

Skill 3.16 Identify cell-to-cell communication in living things (e.g., electrical,

molecular, ionic) ................................................................................ 49

COMPETENCY 4.0 - KNOWLEDGE OF THE INTERACTION OF CELL

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Skill 4.1 Identify and analyze the major events in the development of the cell
theory ................................................................................................ 51

Skill 4.2 Distinguish between the major structural characteristics of

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells ........................................................ 51

Skill 4.3 Relate the structure of cell organelles to their functions .................... 53

Skill 4.4 Identify and evaluate the events of each phase of the cell cycle
(G1, S, G2, M) and the regulatory mechanisms of the cycle ............. 51

Skill 4.5 Compare the mechanisms and results of nuclear division

(karyokinesis) and cell division (cytokinesis) in plant and animal
cells ................................................................................................... 58

Skill 4.6 Compare characteristics of the major taxa (domains/kingdoms),

focusing on cellular characteristics .................................................... 58

Skill 4.7 Evaluate the relationships between the structures and functions of
cell membrane elements ................................................................... 60

Skill 4.8 Identify and compare active and passive transport mechanisms ...... 61

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

COMPETENCY/SKILL # PG #

COMPETENCY 5.0 - KNOWLEDGE OF GENETIC PRINCIPLES AND

PRACTICES

Skill 5.1 Evaluate the relationships between the structure and function of
DNA ................................................................................................... 63

Skill 5.2 Identify and sequence the principal events in DNA replication .......... 64

Skill 5.3 Identify and sequence the principal events of protein synthesis . 65

Skill 5.4 Distinguish between the various functions of DNA and RNA............. 66

Skill 5.5 Distinguish between the regulatory systems for prokaryotic and
eukaryotic protein synthesis .............................................................. 67

Skill 5.6 Evaluate the appropriate application of DNA manipulation

techniques (e.g. gene splicing, recombinant DNA, gene
identification, PCR technique) ........................................................... 68

Skill 5.7 Predict the effects of environmental and other influences on gene
structure and expression (e.g. viruses, oncogenes, carcinogenic
agents, mutagenic agents) ................................................................ 68

Skill 5.8 Analyze the processes and products of meiosis (e.g.,

gametogenesis in male and female vertebrates; plant, animal and
fungi meiosis) in representative examples from various kingdoms.... 69

Skill 5.9 Differentiate between classical laws of inheritance, their relationship

to chromosomes, and related terminology......................................... 71

Skill 5.10 Analyze applications of probability and chi-square analysis in

genetics ............................................................................................. 72

Skill 5.11 Analyze various patterns of inheritance (e.g., sex-linked, sex-

influenced, sex-limited, incomplete dominance, autosomal linkage,
multiple alleles, polygenic inheritance) .............................................. 74
Skill 5.12 Identify the causes of genetic disorders (e.g., point mutation,
nondisjunction, translocation, deletion, insertion, inversion,
duplication) ........................................................................................ 75

Skill 5.13 Identify the effect of a mutation in a DNA sequence on the products
of protein synthesis............................................................................ 76

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

COMPETENCY/SKILL # PG #

COMPETENCY 6.0 - KNOWLEDGE OF THE STRUCTURAL AND

FUNCTIONAL DIVERSITY OF VIRUSES AND PROKARYOTIC ORGANISMS

Skill 6.1 Distinguish the structure and function of viruses and prokaryotic
organisms .......................................................................................... 77

Skill 6.2 Identify the effects of viruses (e.g., HIV, influenza, measles, TMV,
feline leukemia, genital warts, some human cancers) on organisms . 78

Skill 6.3 Relate the structures and functions (e.g. morphology, motility,
reproduction and growth, metabolic diversity) of prokaryotic
organisms to their behavior and identification ................................... 78

Skill 6.4 Differentiate between the major types of bacterial genetic

recombination (i.e., transduction, transformation, and conjugation) .. 79

Skill 6.5 Relate microbial processes and products that are helpful or harmful
to human beings and their use in biotechnology ............................... 80

COMPETENCY 7.0 - KNOWLEDGE OF THE STRUCTURAL AND

FUNCTIONAL DIVERSITY OF PROTISTS, FUNGI, AND PLANTS

Skill 7.1 Identify major types of protists, fungi, and plant ................................ 81

Skill 7.2 Characterize the relationships of protists, fungi, and plants to other
living things ........................................................................................ 82

Skill 7.3 Distinguish between the structures and functions of various plant
tissues ............................................................................................... 83

Skill 7.4 Identify the characteristics of vascular and nonvascular plants and
relate these characteristics to adaptations allowing these plants to
broaden their ecological niches ......................................................... 84

Skill 7.5 Identify the functions and survival advantages of the major organs
of angiosperms and gymnosperms.................................................... 84

Skill 7.6 Distinguish between the structures of monocots and dicots (e.g.,
seeds, vascular bundles, venation, flower parts) ............................... 85

Skill 7.7 Identify the major mechanisms (e.g., transport, storage,

conservation) in plants and evaluate the survival advantages these
mechanisms give to different groups of plants .................................. 85

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

COMPETENCY/SKILL # PG #

Skill 7.8 Analyze the role of major plant growth regulators ............................. 85

Skill 7.9 Apply concepts of major methods of reproduction in plants,

including dispersal mechanisms ........................................................ 86

Skill 7.10 Analyze patterns of alternation of generations in various groups of

plants and algae ................................................................................ 88

COMPETENCY 8.0 - KNOWLEDGE OF THE STRUCTURAL AND

FUNCTIONAL DIVERSITY OF ANIMALS

Skill 8.1 Relate the structures of major animal tissue types to their function ... 89

Skill 8.2 Identify major animal body plans (e.g., symmetry, coelomic
character, embryonic origin) .............................................................. 89

Skill 8.3 Relate the processes of animal growth and development to early
embryological development (e.g. embryonic induction, ontogeny
recapitulating phylogeny)................................................................... 90

Skill 8.4 Relate the structures to functions of circulatory and respiratory

systems ............................................................................................. 90

Skill 8.5 Relate the structures to functions of excretory and digestive

systems ............................................................................................. 92

Skill 8.6 Relate the structures to functions of endocrine and nervous

systems ............................................................................................. 94

Skill 8.7 Relate the structures to functions of integumentary and

musculoskeletal systems ................................................................... 96

Skill 8.8 Relate the structures to functions of reproductive systems ............... 97

Skill 8.9 Relate the structures to functions of the human immune system ...... 98

Skill 8.10 Analyze the interconnectedness of animal organ systems ................ 99

Skill 8.11 Analyze the effects of feedback loops in human systems (e.g.,
classical vertebrate hormones, fight or flight) .................................... 100

Skill 8.12 Identify aspects of animal social behavior (e.g., communication and
signals, dominance hierarchy, territoriality, aggression, courtship,
innate and learned behavior) ............................................................. 100

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

COMPETENCY/SKILL # PG #

COMPETENCY 9.0 - KNOWLEDGE OF ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES AND

PROCESSES

Skill 9.1 Distinguish between individuals, populations, communities,

ecosystems, biomes, and the biosphere ........................................... 102

Skill 9.2 Analyze the relationship between organisms and their niches .......... 102

Skill 9.3 Analyze the roles of organisms in the major biogeochemical cycles
and processes ................................................................................... 103

Skill 9.4 Analyze patterns of energy flow in the biosphere .............................. 103

Skill 9.5 Evaluate factors that affect population composition, growth, size,
and geographic distribution ............................................................... 104

Skill 9.6 Distinguish between examples of competition, predation, and

differing types of symbioses (e.g., parasitism, mutualism,
commensalism) ................................................................................. 106

Skill 9.7 Evaluate succession in communities ................................................. 106

Skill 9.8 Identify renewable and nonrenewable resources and compare

management strategies for each, including environmental quality
assessment and mitigation ................................................................ 107

Skill 9.9 Analyze the effects of resource availability on society ...................... 107

Skill 9.10 Identify the potential local and global economic, aesthetic, and
medical consequences of air, land, and water pollution and
evaluate proposed solutions .............................................................. 108

Skill 9.11 Identify the potential local and global economic, aesthetic, and
medical consequences of global warming and evaluate proposed
solutions ............................................................................................ 108

Skill 9.12 Analyze the local and global consequences of loss of biodiversity .... 110

Skill 9.13 Characterize ecosystems unique to Florida (i.e., terrestrial, marine,

freshwater) and identify indicator species of each ............................. 110

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

COMPETENCY/SKILL # PG #

COMPETENCY 10 - KNOWLEDGE OF EVOLUTIONARY MECHANISMS

Skill 10.1 Compare evolution by natural selection with other theories (e.g.,
Lamarck, Darwin) .............................................................................. 113

Skill 10.2 Analyze the classical species concept and its limitations .................. 113

Skill 10.3 Compare systems of classification (e.g., classical taxonomy,

phenetics, cladistics) ......................................................................... 114

Skill 10.4 Apply a taxonomic key to a set of objects.......................................... 115

Skill 10.5 Analyze variation within a species and its relationship to changes
along an environmental cline ............................................................. 116

Skill 10.6 Identify factors affecting speciation and evolution in general (e.g.,
mutation, recombination, isolation, sexual reproduction and
selection, genetic drift, plate tectonics and geographic distribution) .. 116

Skill 10.7 Evaluate the role of mutation, recombination, isolation, sexual

reproduction and selection, genetic drift, and plate tectonics and
geographic distribution on evolution .................................................. 117

Skill 10.8 Compare the concepts of punctuated equilibrium and gradualism .... 119

Skill 10.9 Distinguish between examples of evidences for evolutionary theory

(e.g., biochemical, morphological, embryological, paleontological) ... 119

Skill 10.10 Analyze aspects of modern theories on the origin of life on Earth ..... 120

Skill 10.11 Recognize general evolutionary trends as they relate to major taxa . 120

Skill 10.12 Apply the Hardy-Weinberg formula and identify the assumptions
upon which it is based ....................................................................... 121

Sample Test .......................................................................................................... 123

Answer Key .......................................................................................................... 151

Rigor Table .......................................................................................................... 152

Rationale .......................................................................................................... 153

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

Great Study and Testing Tips!

What to study in order to prepare for the subject assessments is the focus of this
study guide but equally important is how you study.

You can increase your chances of truly mastering the information by taking some
simple, but effective steps.

Study Tips:
1. Some foods aid the learning process. Foods such as milk, nuts, seeds,
rice, and oats help your study efforts by releasing natural memory enhancers
called CCKs (cholecystokinin) composed of tryptophan, choline, and
phenylalanine. All of these chemicals enhance the neurotransmitters associated
with memory. Before studying, try a light, protein-rich meal of eggs, turkey, and
fish. All of these foods release the memory enhancing chemicals. The better the
connections, the more you comprehend.

Likewise, before you take a test, stick to a light snack of energy boosting and
relaxing foods. A glass of milk, a piece of fruit, or some peanuts all release
various memory-boosting chemicals and help you to relax and focus on the
subject at hand.

2. Learn to take great notes. A by-product of our modern culture is that we

have grown accustomed to getting our information in short doses (i.e. TV news
sound bites or USA Today style newspaper articles.)

Consequently, we’ve subconsciously trained ourselves to assimilate information

better in neat little packages. If your notes are scrawled all over the paper, it
fragments the flow of the information. Strive for clarity. Newspapers use a
standard format to achieve clarity. Your notes can be much clearer through use
of proper formatting. A very effective format is called the “Cornell Method.”

Take a sheet of loose-leaf lined notebook paper and draw a line all the
way down the paper about 1-2” from the left-hand edge.

Draw another line across the width of the paper about 1-2” up from the
bottom. Repeat this process on the reverse side of the page.

Look at the highly effective result. You have ample room for notes, a left hand
margin for special emphasis items or inserting supplementary data from the
textbook, a large area at the bottom for a brief summary, and a little rectangular
space for just about anything you want.

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

3. Get the concept then the details. Too often we focus on the details and
don’t gather an understanding of the concept. However, if you simply memorize
only dates, places, or names, you may well miss the whole point of the subject.

A key way to understand things is to put them in your own words. If you are
working from a textbook, automatically summarize each paragraph in your mind.
If you are outlining text, don’t simply copy the author’s words.

Rephrase them in your own words. You remember your own thoughts and words
much better than someone else’s, and subconsciously tend to associate the
important details to the core concepts.

4. Ask Why? Pull apart written material paragraph by paragraph and don’t
forget the captions under the illustrations.

Example: If the heading is “Stream Erosion”, flip it around to read “Why do

streams erode?” Then answer the questions.

If you train your mind to think in a series of questions and answers, not only will
you learn more, but it also helps to lessen the test anxiety because you are used
to answering questions.

5. Read for reinforcement and future needs. Even if you only have 10
minutes, put your notes or a book in your hand. Your mind is similar to a
computer; you have to input data in order to have it processed. By reading, you
are creating the neural connections for future retrieval. The more times you read
something, the more you reinforce the learning of ideas.

Even if you don’t fully understand something on the first pass, your mind stores
much of the material for later recall.

6. Relax to learn so go into exile. Our bodies respond to an inner clock called
biorhythms. Burning the midnight oil works well for some people, but not
everyone.

If possible, set aside a particular place to study that is free of distractions. Shut
off the television, cell phone, pager and exile your friends and family during your
study period.

If you really are bothered by silence, try background music. Light classical music
at a low volume has been shown to aid in concentration over other types. Music
that evokes pleasant emotions without lyrics are highly suggested. Try just about
anything by Mozart. It relaxes you.

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

7. Use arrows not highlighters. At best, it’s difficult to read a page full of
yellow, pink, blue, and green streaks. Try staring at a neon sign for a while and
you’ll soon see that the horde of colors obscure the message.

A quick note, a brief dash of color, an underline, and an arrow pointing to a

particular passage is much clearer than a horde of highlighted words.

8. Budget your study time. Although you shouldn’t ignore any of the material,
allocate your available study time in the same ratio that topics may appear
on the test.

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

Testing Tips:
1. Get smart, play dumb. Don’t read anything into the question. Don’t
make an assumption that the test writer is looking for something else than what is
asked. Stick to the question as written and don’t read extra things into it.

2. Read the question and all the choices twice before answering the
question. You may miss something by not carefully reading, and then re-
reading both the question and the answers.

If you really don’t have a clue as to the right answer, leave it blank on the first
time through. Go on to the other questions, as they may provide a clue as to
how to answer the skipped questions.

If later on, you still can’t answer the skipped ones . . . Guess. The only penalty
for guessing is that you might get it wrong. Only one thing is certain; if you don’t
put anything down, you will get it wrong!

3. Turn the question into a statement. Look at the way the questions are
worded. The syntax of the question usually provides a clue. Does it seem more
familiar as a statement rather than as a question? Does it sound strange?

By turning a question into a statement, you may be able to spot if an answer

sounds right, and it may also trigger memories of material you have read.

4. Look for hidden clues. It’s actually very difficult to compose multiple-foil
(choice) questions without giving away part of the answer in the options
presented.

In most multiple-choice questions you can often readily eliminate one or two of
the potential answers. This leaves you with only two real possibilities and
automatically your odds go to Fifty-Fifty for very little work.

5. Trust your instincts. For every fact that you have read, you subconsciously
retain something of that knowledge. On questions that you aren’t really certain
about, go with your basic instincts. Your first impression on how to answer a
question is usually correct.

6. Mark your answers directly on the test booklet. Don’t bother trying to fill
in the optical scan sheet on the first pass through the test.

Just be very careful not to miss-mark your answers when you eventually
transcribe them to the scan sheet.
7. Watch the clock! You have a set amount of time to answer the questions.
Don’t get bogged down trying to answer a single question at the expense of 10
questions you can more readily answer.

BIOLOGY 6-12
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

COMPETENCY 1.0 KNOWLEDGE OF THE INVESTIGATIVE PROCESSES OF

SCIENCE

SKILL 1.1 Demonstrate knowledge of the proper use and care of the light
microscope.

Light microscopes are commonly used in high school laboratory experiments. Total
magnification is determined by multiplying the ocular (usually 10X) and the objective
(usually 10X on low, 40X on high) lenses. Several procedures should be followed to
properly care for this equipment.

-Clean all lenses with lens paper only.

-Carry microscopes with two hands; one on the arm and one on the base.
-Always begin focusing on low power, then switch to high power.
-Store microscopes with the low power objective down.
-Always use a coverslip when viewing wet mount slides.
-Bring the objective down to its lowest position then focus moving up to avoid -
breaking the slide or scratching the lens.

SKILL 1.2 Recognize and distinguish between the types of microscopy and
uses.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek is known as the father of microscopy. In the 1650s,

Leeuwenhoek began making tiny lenses which gave magnifications up to 300x. He was
the first to see and describe bacteria, yeast plants, and the microscopic life found in
water. Over the years, light microscopes have advanced to produce greater clarity and
magnification. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) was developed in the 1950s.
Instead of light, a beam of electrons passes through the specimen. Scanning electron
microscopes have a resolution about one thousand times greater than light
microscopes. The disadvantage of the SEM is that the chemical and physical methods
used to prepare the sample result in the death of the specimen.

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SKILL 1.3 Identify common laboratory techniques (e.g., dissection; preserving,

staining, and mounting microscope specimens; preparing laboratory
solutions).

Some of the most common laboratory techniques are: dissections, preserving, staining
and mounting microscopic specimens, and preparing laboratory solutions.
Dissections

Animals that are not obtained from recognized sources should not be used. Decaying
animals or those of unknown origin may harbor pathogens and/or parasites. Specimens
should be rinsed before handling. Latex gloves are desirable. If gloves are not available,
students with sores or scratches should be excused from the activity. Formaldehyde is a
carcinogenic and should be avoided or disposed of according to district regulations.
Students objecting to dissections for moral reasons should be given an alternative
assignment.

Live specimens - No dissections may be performed on living mammalian vertebrates

or birds. Lower order life and invertebrates may be used. Biological experiments may
be done with all animals except mammalian vertebrates or birds. No physiological harm
may result to the animal. All animals housed and cared for in the school must be
handled in a safe and humane manner. Animals are not to remain on school premises
during extended vacations unless adequate care is provided. Many state laws state that
any instructor who intentionally refuses to comply with the laws may be suspended or
dismissed. Interactive dissections are available online or from software companies for
those students who object to performing dissections. There should be no penalty for
those students who refuse to physically perform a dissection.

2. Staining:

Specimens have to be stained because they are mostly transparent (except plant cells
which are green) under the microscope and are difficult to be seen under microscope
against a white background. The stains add color to the picture, making the image much
easier to see. The stains actually work by fixing themselves to various structures on or
in the cell. The exact structure determines the staining process used.

It is amazing to know that the variety of stains available are numerous, and are a vital
tool to determine what the cellular components are made of. Starch, protein and even
nucleic acids can be brought out using special stains.

Some common stains used in the laboratories are: methylene blue, chlorazol black,
lignin pink, gentian violet, etc.

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3. Mounting of specimens:

In order to observe microscopic specimens or minute parts, mounting them on a

microscope slide is essential. There are two different ways of mounting. One kind of
procedure is adapted for keeping mounted slides for a long time to be used again.

The second type of procedure is for temporary slides. We will discuss temporary
mounting since 12th Grade students are mostly concerned with the temporary mounting.
Their work does not require permanent mounting.
Water is a very common mounting medium in high school laboratories since it is cheap
and best suited for temporary mounting. One problem with water mounting is that water
evaporates.

Glycerin is also used for mounting. One advantage with glycerin is that it is non-toxic
and is stable for years. It provides good contrast to the specimens under microscopic
examination. The only problem with glycerin as a medium is that it supports mold
formation.

4. Preparation of laboratory solutions:

This is a critical skill needed for any experimental success. The procedure for making
solutions must be followed to get maximum accuracy.

i) weigh out the required amount of each solute

ii) dissolve the solute in less than the total desired volume (about 75%)
iii) add enough solvent to get the desired volume

1. Weight/volume:
Usually expressed as mg/ml for small amounts of chemicals and other specialized
biological solutions. e.g. 100 mg/ml ampicillin = 100 mg. of ampicillin dissolved in 1 ml of
water.

2. Molarity: moles of solute dissolved/ liter of solution

Mole = 6.02 times 10^23 atoms = Avogadro’s number

Mole = gram formula weight (FW) or gram molecular weight (MW)
* These values are usually found on the labels or in Periodic Table.
e.g. Na2SO4

2 sodium atoms - 2 times 22.99g = 45.98 g

1 sulfur atom - 1 times 32.06g = 32.06 g
4 oxygen atoms – 4 times16.00g = 64.00 g
Total = 142.04g

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1M = 1 mole/liter, 1 mM = 1 millimole/liter, 1 uM = 1 umole/liter

* How much sodium is needed to make 1L of 1M solution?

Formula weight of sodium sulfate = 142.04g
Dissolve 142.04g of sodium sulfate in about 750mL of water, dissolve sodium sulfate
thoroughly and make up the volume to 1 liter (L)

SKILL 1.4 Identify proper field techniques (e.g., site selection, field procedures,
sampling, capture/recapture, transects, collecting techniques,
environmental quality assessment).

Some of the field techniques described here are site selection, field procedures,
sampling, capture/recapture, transects, collecting techniques, and environmental
assessment. We will look at each of these individually.

Site selection:
Site selection in any field experiment is a critical factor. It depends on a number of
issues including the type of research that will be conducted in that site, the duration of
the investigation, and the accessibility of the site to city/town and transportation to that
site. The selection of a site is determined by a group of researchers from the team who
study all of the site aspects, make their recommendations, and then site selection may
be approved by the research team. If the first choice is found to be unsuitable a second
site, more suitable, will be selected. The most important thing is that all the researchers
must be reasonably comfortable with the site.

Field procedures:
Field procedures are procedures that are done for a succesful sample collection.
These are:
1. Preparing for field study: identifying learning objectives, the purpose of field study
2. Site selection: finding out a suitable site for the type of investigation
3. Sample collection: collecting samples
4. Preserving collected specimens

Sampling:
Sampling is collecting pieces/specimens or making instrument data points/observations
at determined intervals or areas for the purpose of research/investigation. Sampling
includes animal tracking, capturing, plant and animal tagging, plot sampling, specimen
collecting, transect sampling, water sampling, etc. The results obtained are used as
representative of the whole research area or population.

Capture/recapture:
Capture /recapture are methods very commonly used in ecological studies. This method
is also known as mark/capture, capture-mark-recapture, sight-resight and band
recovery.

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A researcher visits the sudy area (see site selection) and uses traps to capture
organisms alive. Each of these is marked with a unique identifier- a numbered tag/band-
and then is released unharmed back into the environment. Next, the researcher returns
and captures another sample of organisms. Some of the organisms in the second
sample will have been marked during the first visit and are known as recaptures. The
unmarked organisms are tagged just like the previous ones.
Population size can be estimated from as few as two visits to the study area, but usually
more than two visits are made.

Transect:
A transect is a path along which one records and/or counts occurrences of the
phenomenon of study (e.g. animals, for instance by noting each individual animal's
distance from the path, species of plants, in the process of estimating population
densities in a study area). This action requires an observer to move along a fixed path
and to count occurrences along the path and, at the same time, obtain the distance of
the object from the path. This results in an estimate of the area covered, an estimate of
the way in which detectability drops off from probability 1 to 0 as one moves away from
the path. Using these two figures one can arrive at an estimate of the actual density of
objects.

Collecting techniques:
The objective of capturing an animal is to identify it. It is much easier this way since the
animal is in our possession. There are 6 steps involved in this seemingly simple
procedure:

1. Catching – it is very difficult to catch insects like butterflies and dragon flies since
they are very quick and the person trying to catch them must be quicker. The
easy way is to use a net. This is safe and quick and eliminates running around
with the insects.

2. Enveloping – Place the dragon/butter fly wings folded in a glassine (stamp/coin

collection bag), label it, and number it. This way, when this bag is opened at a
later date, the information needed is on the envelope.

3. Acetoning – After leaving the specimens for awhile (in the mean time, they will
empty their intestines), one sacrifices the specimen by immersing it in acetone
briefly. Straighten the insect and then return it to actone and leave it there for 16-
24 hours. Acetone extracts water and fat from the specimens and they dry much
better, though some specimens may become discolored.

4. Removing – Remove from acetone and allow the specimens to dry in a spot
away from people, since acetone fumes are not good for our health.

5. Labeling – All the pertinent information must be attached to the specimens so

that information is much clearer at a later date when someone else is studying
them.

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6. Storing – The preserved specimens must be stored in a box protected from

humidity and pests.

Environmental quality assesment:

Environmental assessment is to study, collect information, and analyze it using scientific
principles and evaluate the quality and conditions of the type of environment under
study – e.g., marine, coastal, lake, etc. This is absolutely essential to detrmine the
hazards that are causing pollution and their effect on human and other life forms. The
environmental quality assessment is done in a site or multi site, for a short period of
time or lasting for a number of years. Whatever may be the size of the test site or the
duration of the investigation, the basic aim is to determine the quality of that particular
environment. Some environmental projects study water quality, air quality, sediment and
soil assessment, ground water assessment, oil spills and their effect on marine life, etc.

SKILL 1.5 Identify the uses of PCR, chromatography, spectrophotometry,

centrifugation, and electrophoresis.

Wet mount slides should be made by placing a drop of water on the specimen and
then putting a glass coverslip on top of the drop of water. Dropping the coverslip at a
forty-five degree angle will help in avoiding air bubbles.

Chromatography uses the principles of capillarity to separate substances such as plant

pigments. Molecules of a larger size will move slower up the paper, whereas smaller
molecules will move more quickly producing lines of pigment.

An indicator is any substance used to assist in the classification of another substance.

An example of an indicator is litmus paper. Litmus paper is a way to measure whether
a substance is acidic or basic. Blue litmus turns pink when an acid is placed on it and
pink litmus turns blue when a base is placed on it. pH paper is a more accurate
measure of pH, with the paper turning different colors depending on the pH value.

Spectrophotometry measures the percent of light at different wavelengths absorbed

and transmitted by a pigment solution.

Centrifugation involves spinning substances at a high speed. The more dense part of
a solution will settle to the bottom of the test tube, where the lighter material will stay on
top. Centrifugation is used to separate blood into blood cells and plasma, with the
heavier blood cells settling to the bottom.

Electrophoresis uses electrical charges of molecules to separate them according to

their size. The molecules, such as DNA or proteins are pulled through a gel toward
either the positive end of the gel box (if the material has a negative charge) or the
negative end of the gel box (if the material has a positive charge). DNA is negatively
charged and moves towards the positive charge.

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One of the most widely used genetic engineering techniques is polymerase chain
reaction (PCR). PCR is a technique in which a piece of DNA can be amplified into
billions of copies within a few hours. This process requires primer to specify the
segment to be copied, and an enzyme (usually taq polymerase) to amplify the DNA.
PCR has allowed scientists to perform several procedures on the smallest amount of
DNA.

SKILL 1.6 Identify terms in a formula (e.g., chemical, ecological, physical) and
assess the relationships among the terms.

A formula is a shorthand way of showing what is in a compound by using symbols and

subscripts. The letter symbols let us know the elements that are involved and the
number subscripts tell us how many atoms of each element are involved. No subscript
is used if there is only one atom involved.
For example – CH4 – This compound is methane gas and it has one carbon atom and 4
hydrogen atoms.

1. Chemical formulas:
Aerobic respiration: Let us look at this example. Our tissues need energy for growth,
repair, movement, excretion, and so on. This energy is obtained from glucose supplied
to the tissues by our blood. In aerobic respiration, glucose is broken down in the
presence of oxygen into carbon dioxide, and water and energy is released, which is
used for our metabolic processes.
The above reaction can be written in the form of a word reaction:

Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

By using chemical symbols and subscripts we can rewrite the above word equation into
a proper chemical equation:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy

The compounds on the left side of the equation are called reactants and the compounds
on the right side of the reaction are called products. The reactants in the above equation
have to combine in a fixed proportion for a chemical reaction to take place.

2. Ecological formulas:
A number of formulas are used in ecological research. We will use one of the most
widely used formulas in ecological investigations for an example. It is called the Lincoln-
Petersen method of analysis, and is used in population estimations.

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N = ( n1n2)/m

Where
N = Estimate of total population size
n1 = Total number of animals captured in the first visit
n2 = Total number of animals captured on the second visit
m = Number of animals captured on the first visit that were then recaptured on the
second visit

3. Physical formulas:
There are a number of formulas that are used in Physical Science and Physics.
Let us look at a very simple one –

D = m/v
Where
D = density g/cm
m = mass in grams
v = volume in cm

The above formula is used for calculating the density of an object.

It is absolutely important to write the appropriate units e.g., g (gram), cm (centimeter)
etc.

The second example is the formula for calculating the momentum of an object.

M = mass (kg) times velocity ( meters/second)

M = mv
The units of momentum are kg (m/s)

The above are only two of the many formulas that are used in a Physical science
classroom.

SKILL 1.7 Identify the units in the metric system and convert between
dimensional units for one-, two-, and three-dimensional objects.

Science uses the metric system; as it is accepted worldwide and allows easier
comparison among experiments done by scientists around the world.

The meter is the basic metric unit of length. One meter is 1.1 yards. The liter is the
basic metric unit of volume. 1 gallon is 3.846 liters. The gram is the basic metric unit of
mass. 1000 grams is 2.2 pounds.

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The following prefixes are used to describe the multiples of the basic metric units.

deca- 10X the base unit deci - 1/10 the base unit
hecto- 100X the base unit centi - 1/100 the base unit
kilo- 1,000X the base unit milli - 1/1,000 the base unit
mega- 1,000,000X the base unit micro- 1/1,000,000 the base unit
giga- 1,000,000,000X the base unit nano- 1/1,000,000,000 the base unit
tera- 1,000,000,000,000X the base unit pico- 1/1,000,000,000,000 the base unit

SKILL 1.8 Identify assumptions, observations, hypotheses, conclusions, and

theories and differentiate between them.

Science may be defined as a body of knowledge that is systematically derived from

study, observations, and experimentation. Its goal is to identify and establish principles
and theories that may be applied to solve problems. Pseudoscience, on the other hand,
is a belief that is not warranted. There is no scientific methodology or application.
Some of the more classic examples of pseudoscience include witchcraft, alien
encounters or any topic that is explained by hearsay.

Scientific theory and experimentation must be repeatable. It is also possible to be

disproved and is capable of change. Science depends on communication, agreement,
and disagreement among scientists. It is composed of theories, laws, and hypotheses.

theory - the formation of principles or relationships which have been verified and
accepted.

law - an explanation of events that occur with uniformity under the same conditions
(laws of nature, law of gravitation).

hypothesis - an unproved theory or educated guess followed by research to best

explain a phenomenon. A theory is a proven hypothesis.

SKILL 1.9 Evaluate, interpret, and predict from data sets, including graphical
data.

Graphing is an important skill to visually display collected data for analysis. The two
types of graphs most commonly used are the line graph and the bar graph
(histogram). Line graphs are set up to show two variables represented by one point on
the graph. The X-axis is the horizontal axis and represents the dependent variable.
Dependent variables are those that would be present independently of the experiment.
A common example of a dependent variable is time. Time proceeds regardless of
anything else going on. The Y-axis is the vertical axis and represents the independent
variable. Independent variables are manipulated by the experiment, such as the amount
of light, or the height of a plant. Graphs should be calibrated at equal intervals.

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If one space represents one day, the next space may not represent ten days. A "best fit"
line is drawn to join the points and may not include all the points in the data. Axes must
always be labeled. A good title will describe both the dependent and the independent
variable. Bar graphs are set up similarly in regards to axes, but points are not plotted.
Instead, the dependent variable is set up as a bar where the X-axis intersects with the
Y-axis. Each bar is a separate item of data and is not joined by a continuous line.

The type of graphic representation used to display observations depends on the data
that is collected. Line graphs are used to compare different sets of related data or to
predict data that has yet been measured. An example of a line graph would be
comparing the rate of activity of different enzymes at varying temperatures. A bar
graph or histogram is used to compare different items and make comparisons based
on this data. An example of a bar graph would be comparing the ages of children in a
classroom. A pie chart is useful when organizing data as part of a whole. A good use
for a pie chart would be displaying the percent of time students spend on various after
school activities.

Analyzing graphs is a useful method for determining the mathematical relationship

between the dependent and independent variables of an experiment. The usefulness of
the method lies in the fact that the variables represent on the axes of a straight-line
graph are represented by the expression, y = m*x + b, where m=the slope of the line,
b=the y intercept of the line. This equation works only if the data fit a straight-line graph.
Thus, once the data set has been collected, and modified, and plotted to achieve a
straight-line graph, the mathematical equation can be derived.

Skill 1.10 Differentiate the characteristics of scientific research from other

areas of learning.

Scientific research serves two purposes –

1. To investigate and acquire knowledge which is theoretical and
2. To do research which is of practical value.

Science is in a unique position to be able to serve humanity. Scientific research comes

from inquiry. An inquiring mind is thirsty, trying to find answers. The two most important
questions – why and how are the starting points. A person who is inquisitive asks
questions and wants to find out answers.

The characteristics of scientific research are methodical and are very different from
learning other areas like mathematics and history, to name a few.

Scientific research uses scientific method to answer the questions. Those who research
follow the scientific method, which consists of a series of steps designed to solve a
problem or find answer to their problem.

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The aim of the scientific method is to eliminate bias / prejudice from the
scientist/researcher. As human beings, we are influenced by our bias/prejudice and this
method helps to eliminate that. If all the steps of the scientific method are followed as
outlined, there is the maximum elimination of bias.

The scientific method is made up of the following steps –

1. Stating the problem clearly and precisely

2. Gathering information/research
3. Hypothesis (an educated guess)
4. Experimental design
5. Analysis of the results
6. Conclusion

Scientific research is clearly different from the learning of other areas. Science
demands evidence. Science requires experimenting to prove one’s ideas or
propositions. Science does not answer all our questions. Science doesn’t say anything
about the cultural, moral and religious beliefs of the individuals. It is up to us to use the
information science provides and make our own decisions according to our beliefs and
norms.

The learning of science is based on inquiry. Inquiry is absolutely important to

researchers because it is the starting point of learning. Researchers have a
responsibility to society in making them literates in science (to understand everyday
science problems like the greenhouse effect, pollution, energy crisis, unconventional
energy etc.,) and to pass on the information, which are experimental findings to the
society for its benefit and use.
Lastly researchers are bound by guidelines based on ethical, moral and cultural issues.

As we look at the learning of other areas, we find it is very different. Those who learn
other areas do not have to deal with the issues researchers have to deal with.

The study of other disciplines like history, mathematics, etc. is quite different, whereas
science demands facts, figures and reliability. Experimenting in science involves
accountability to society, which includes moral issues and ethics.

SKILL 1.11 Distinguish between accuracy and precision, and between

systematic error and random error.

Accuracy and precision

Accuracy is the degree of conformity of a measured, calculated quantity to its actual
(true) value. Precision also called reproducibility or repeatability and is the degree to
which further measurements or calculations will show the same or similar results.
Accuracy is the degree of veracity while precision is the degree of reproducibility.

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The best analogy to explain accuracy and precision is the target comparison. Repeated
measurements are compared to arrows that are fired at a target. Accuracy describes
the closeness of arrows to the bull’s eye at the target center. Arrows that strike closer to
the bull’s eye are considered more accurate.

Systematic and random error

All experimental uncertainty is due to either random errors or systematic errors.

Random errors are statistical fluctuations in the measured data due to the precision
limitations of the measurement device. Random errors usually result from the
experimenter’s inability to take the same measurement in exactly the same way to get
exactly the same number. Systematic errors, by contrast, are reproducible inaccuracies
that are consistently in the same direction. Systematic errors are often due to a
problem, which persists throughout the entire experiment. Systematic and random
errors refer to problems associated with making measurements. Mistakes made in the
calculations or in reading the instrument are not considered in error analysis.

SKILL 1.12 Characterize variables and the outcomes for appropriate

experimental designs.

The procedure used to obtain data is important to the outcome. Experiments consist of
controls and variables. A control is the experiment run under normal conditions. The
variable includes a factor that is changed. In biology, the variable may be light,
temperature, pH, time, etc. The differences in tested variables may be used to make a
prediction or form a hypothesis. Only one variable should be tested at a time. One
would not alter both the temperature and pH of the experimental subject.

An independent variable is one that is changed or manipulated by the researcher.

This could be the amount of light given to a plant or the temperature at which bacteria is
grown. The dependent variable is that which is influenced by the independent
variable.

SKILL 1.13 Recognize that the validity and reliability of scientific knowledge is
based on reproducibility of results and statistical significance of
results, and is limited by the state of current technology and
possible bias.

The validity of the scientific knowledge is based in the reproducibility of results and
statistical significance. Results must be reproducible regardless of whether it is of
practical use or of theoretical application.

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Investigations yield data, which are then analyzed. The experiments must be repeated a
few times, at least twice, to get reliable data. Reliable data are data that are
reproducible and from which theories are formulated. Anybody who does the same
experiment anywhere in the world must get same type result. It must follow the pattern,
although not the exact same figures. Patterns are what researchers look for in their
investigations. Hence, reproducibility is very important in scientific investigations.
The data obtained in investigations are subjected to statistical analysis. It must be
statically significant. With the advancement of technology, scientists are able to conduct
highly sophisticated experiments. But sometimes, the available technology is not
sophisticated enough for the type of research that is planned. Scientists are constantly
looking for higher levels of technology for use in experimentation. Hence, we can say
that research is being limited by the technology. Science is ahead of technology.

Skill 1.14 Identify the development of biological knowledge through important

historical events, individuals (e.g., Robert Hooke, Mattias Schleiden,
Francis Jacob, Jacques Monod), and experimental evidence.

The history of biology traces mans’ understanding of the living world from the earliest
recorded history to modern times. Though the concept of biology as a field of science
arose only in the 19th century, the origin of biological sciences could be traced back to
ancient Greeks (Galen and Aristotle).

During the Renaissance and Age of Discovery, renewed interest in the rapidly
increasing number of known organisms generated lot of interest in biology.

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564), a Belgian anatomist and physician whose dissections of

human body and descriptions of his findings helped to correct the misconceptions of
science. The books Vesalius wrote on anatomy were the most accurate and
comprehensive anatomical texts to date.

Anton van Leeuwenhoek is known as the father of microscopy. In the 1650s,

Leeuwenhoek began making tiny lenses that gave magnifications up to 300x. He was
the first to see and describe bacteria, yeast plants, and the microscopic life found in
water. Over the years, light microscopes have advanced to produce greater clarity and
magnification. The scanning electron microscope (SEM) was developed in the 1950s.
Instead of light, a beam of electrons passes through the specimen. Scanning electron
microscopes have a resolution about one thousand times greater than light
microscopes. The disadvantage of the SEM is that the chemical and physical methods
used to prepare the sample result in the death of the specimen.

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Robert Hooke (1635-1703) was a renowned inventor, a natural philosopher,

astronomer, experimenter and a cell biologist.
He deserves more recognition than he had, but he is remembered mainly for his law,
the Hooke’s law an equation describing elasticity that is still used today. He was the
type of scientist that was then called a “virtuoso”- able to contribute findings of major
importance in any field of science. Hooke published Micrographia in 1665. Hooke
devised the compound microscope and illumination system, one of the best such
microscopes of his time, and used it in his demonstrations at the Royal Society’s
meetings. With it he observed organisms as diverse as insects, sponges, bryozoans,
foraminifera, and bird feathers. Micrographia is an accurate and detailed record of his
observations, illustrated with magnificent drawings.

Carl Von Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist is well
known for his contributions in ecology and taxonomy. Linnaeus is famous for his
binomial system of nomenclature in which each living organism has two names, a
genus and a species name. He is considered as the father of modern ecology and
taxonomy.

In the late 1800s, Pasteur discovered the role of microorganisms in the cause of
disease, pasteurization, and the rabies vaccine. Koch took these observations one step
further by formulating that specific diseases were caused by specific pathogens.
Koch’s postulates are still used as guidelines in the field of microbiology: the same
pathogen must be found in every diseased person, the pathogen must be isolated and
grown in culture, the disease is induced in experimental animals from the culture, and
the same pathogen must be isolated from the experimental animal.

Mattias Schleiden, a German botanist is famous for his cell theory. He observed plant
cells microscopically and concluded that cell is the common structural unit of plants. He
proposed the cell theory along with Schwann, a zoologist, who observed cells in
animals.

In the 18th century, many fields of science like botany, zoology and geology began to
evolve as scientific disciplines in the modern sense.

In the 20th century, the rediscovery of Mendel’s work led to the rapid development of
genetics by Thomas Hunt Morgan and his students.

DNA structure was another key event in biological study. In the 1950s, James Watson
and Francis Crick discovered the structure of a DNA molecule as that of a double helix.
This structure made it possible to explain DNA’s ability to replicate and to control the
synthesis of proteins.

Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod contributed greatly to the field of lysogeny and
bacterial reproduction by conjugation and both of them won the Nobel Prize for their
contributions.

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Following the cracking of the genetic code, biology has largely split between organismal
biology consisting of ecology, ethology, systematics, paleontology, and evolutionary
biology, developmental biology, and other disciplines that deal with whole organisms or
group of organisms and the disciplines related to molecular biology - including cell
biology, biophysics, biochemistry, neuroscience, immunology, and many other
overlapping subjects.

The use of animals in biological research has expedited many scientific discoveries.
Animal research has allowed scientists to learn more about animal biological systems,
including the circulatory and reproductive systems. One significant use of animals is for
the testing of drugs, vaccines, and other products (such as perfumes and shampoos)
before use or consumption by humans. Along with the pros of animal research, the
cons are also very significant. The debate about the ethical treatment of animals has
been ongoing since the introduction of animals in research. Many people believe the
use of animals in research is cruel and unnecessary. Animal use is federally and locally
regulated. The purpose of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) is
to oversee and evaluate all aspects of an institution's animal care and use program.

SKILL 1.15 Differentiate between qualitative and quantitative data in

experimental, observational, and modeling methods of research.

Quantitative is derived from quantity (numerical, precise) and qualitative (impressive) is

derived from quality. Qualitative and quantitative data can be compared and
differentiated in four headings:

1. Assumptions:
In quantitative experimentation, the method is of primary importance. Variables are
identified and relationships are measured. In qualitative experimentation, subject matter
is of prime importance. Variables are complex, not clearly established, and are
interwoven and difficult to measure.

2. Purpose:
In quantitative data, it is generalized, with prediction and casual explanation. In
qualitative data, there is contextualization, interpretation and understanding of
perspectives.

3. Approach:
Quantitative research begins with hypotheses and theories. Experiments are conducted
using instruments and deduction. Components are analyzed, data are reduced to
indices and abstract language is used in write up. Qualitative research ends with
hypotheses and theory. The researcher is the instrument and is inductive. There is
minor use of numerical indices and the write up is descriptive.

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4. Role of the researcher:

The quantitative researcher is detached and impartial and is objective in carrying out the
research. The qualitative researcher is partial and personally involved and has
empathetic understanding.

Skill 1.16 Recognize the elements of a well-designed and controlled experiment.

Designing an experiment properly is absolutely important because the success of the

experiment depends on it. Before designing an experiment, one must identify the
elements of an experiment.

1. Control/standard: A control is something the results of an experiment are

compared with. Without this, we have no clue of the significance of the data
obtained in an experiment.
2. Constants: We need to have many constants for better results. Many factors
have to be kept constant in an experiment. The reliability of the data/results
depends to a greater extent on the number of constants. So, it is very important
to identify all the possible constants in an experiment, which then will be called a
well-controlled experiment.
3. Independent variables: These are the variables we have the power to change. It
is entirely up to us to choose the independent variables. These factors are going
to influence the outcome of the experiment. One has to keep in mind is that the
number of independent variables must be limited to a maximum of four,
otherwise the experiment gets complicated and the data may not be reliable.
4. Dependent variable: This is the factor that will be measured in an experiment. It
is called dependent variable since its outcome is dependent on the independent
variables.

After the experiment is conducted, it is of utmost importance to repeat the experiment at

least twice to obtain reliable data, which then can be analyzed and conclusions drawn.

Inferring is a very important skill since it interprets the results and facilitates the
researcher/scientist to draw logical conclusions.

Lastly, there is another important element to the experiment. The conclusions drawn
must be communicated orally, and in written form for the benefit of furthering knowledge
and sharing with the community to enlighten and educate it scientifically. This will help
the society in the long run to become scientifically literate.

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SKILL 1.17 Identify evidence of the evolutionary nature of science in the face of
new observations.

The wide range of evidence of evolution provides information on the natural processes
by which the variety of life on earth developed.

1. Palaeontology: Palaeontology is the study of past life based on fossil records and
their relation to different geologic time periods.
When organisms die, they often decompose quickly or are consumed by scavengers,
leaving no evidence of their existence. However, occasionally some organisms are
preserved. The remains or traces of the organisms from a past geological age
embedded in rocks by natural processes are called fossils. They are very important for
the understanding the evolutionary history of life on earth as they provide evidence of
evolution and detailed information on the ancestry of organisms.
Petrification is the process by which a dead animal gets fossilized. For this to happen, a
dead organism must be buried quickly to avoid weathering and decomposition. When
the organism is buried, the organic matter decays. The mineral salts from the mud (in
which the organism is buried) will infiltrate into the bones and gradually fill up the pores.
The bones will harden and be preserved as fossils. If dead organisms are covered by
wind- blown sand and if the and is subsequently turned into mud by heavy rain or
floods, the same process of mineral infiltration may occur. Besides petrification, the
organisms may be well preserved in ice, in hardened resin of coniferous trees (amber),
in tar, in anaerobic acidic peat. Fossilization can sometimes be a trace, an impression of
a form – e.g., leaves and footprints.

From the horizontal layers of sedimentary rocks (these are formed by silt or mud on top
of each other) called strata and each layer consists of fossils. The oldest layer is the
one at the bottom of the pile and the fossils found in this layer are the oldest; this is how
the paleontologists determine the relative ages of these fossils.

Some organisms appear in some layers only indicating that they lived only during that
period and became extinct. A succession of animals and plants can also be seen in
fossil records, which supports the theory that organisms ten to progressively increase in
complexity.

According to fossil records, some modern species of plants and animals are found to be
almost identical to the species that lived in ancient geological ages. They are existing
species of ancient lineage that have remained unchanged morphologically and maybe
physiologically as well. Hence, they’re called “living fossils”. Some examples of living
fossils are tuatara, nautilus, horseshoe crab, gingko and metasequoia.

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2. Anatomy: Comparative anatomical studies reveal that some structural features are
basically similar – e.g., flowers generally have sepals, petals, stigma, style and ovaries
but the size, color, number of petals, sepals etc., may differ from species to species.

The degree of resemblance between two organisms indicates how closely they are
related in evolution.
• Groups with little in common are supposed to have diverged from a common
ancestor much earlier in geological history than groups which have more in
common
• To decide how closely two organisms are, anatomists look for the structures
which may serve a different purpose in the adult, but are basically similar
(homologous)
• In cases where similar structures serve different functions in adults, it is important
to trace their origin and embryonic development

When a group of organisms share a homologous structure, which is specialized, to

perform a variety of functions in order to adapt to different environmental conditions are
called adaptive radiation. The gradual spreading of organisms with adaptive radiation is
known as divergent evolution.
Examples of divergent evolution are – pentadactyl limb and insect mouthparts

Under similar environmental conditions, fundamentally different structures in different

groups of organisms may undergo modifications to serve similar functions. This is called
convergent evolution. The structures, which have no close phylogenetic links but
showing adaptation to perform the same functions, are called analogous.
Examples are – wings of bats, bird and insects, jointed legs of insects and vertebrates,
eyes of vertebrates and cephalopods.

Vestigial organs: Organs that are smaller and simpler in structure than corresponding
parts in the ancestral species are called vestigial organs. They are usually degenerated
or underdeveloped. These were functional in ancestral species but no have become
non functional, e.g., vestigial hind limbs of whales, vestigial leaves of some xerophytes,
vestigial wings of flightless birds like ostriches, etc.

3. Geographical distribution:
• Continental distribution: All organisms are adapted to their environment to a
greater or lesser extent. It is generally assumed that the same type of species
would be found in a similar habitat in a similar geographic area. Examples:
Africa has short tailed (old world) monkeys, elephants, lions and giraffes. South
America has long-tailed monkeys, pumas, jaguars and llamas.

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• Evidence for migration and isolation: The fossil record shows that evolution of
camels started in North America, from which they migrated across the Bering
strait into Asia and Africa and through the Isthmus of Panama into South
America.
• Continental drift: Fossils of the ancient amphibians, arthropods and ferns are
found in South America, Africa, India, Australia and Antarctica which can be
dated to the Paleozoic Era, at which time they were all in a single landmass
called Gondwana.
• Oceanic Island distribution: Most small isolated islands only have native
species.
Plant life in Hawaii could have arrived as airborne spores or as seeds in the
droppings of birds. A few large mammals present in remote islands were brought
by human settlers.

4. Evidence from comparative embryology: Comparative embryology shows how

embryos start off looking the same. As they develop their similarities slowly decrease
until they take the form of their particular class.
Example: Adult vertebrates are diverse, yet their embryos are quite similar at very early
stages. Fishlike structures still form in early embryos of reptiles, birds and mammals. In
fish embryos, a two-chambered heart, some veins, and parts of arteries develop and
persist in adult fishes. The same structures form early in human embryos but do not
persist as in adults.

5. Physiology and Biochemistry:

Evolution of widely distributed proteins and molecules: All organisms make use of DNA
and/or RNA. ATP is the metabolic currency. Genetic code is same for almost every
organism. A piece of RNA in a bacterium cell codes for the same protein as in a human
cell.
Comparison of the DNA sequence allows organisms to be grouped by sequence
similarity, and the resulting phylogenetic trees are typically consistent with traditional
taxonomy, and are often used to strengthen or correct taxonomic classifications. DNA
sequence comparison is considered strong enough to be used to correct erroneous
assumptions in the phylogenetic tree in cases where other evidence is missing. The
sequence of the 168rRNA gene, a vital gene encoding a part of the ribosome was used
to find the broad phylogenetic relationships between all life.

The proteomic evidence also supports the universal ancestry of life. Vital proteins such
as ribosome, DNA polymerase, and RNA polymerase are found in the most primitive
bacteria to the most complex mammals.

Since metabolic processes do not leave fossils, research into the evolution of the basic
cellular processes is done largely by comparison of existing organisms.

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There are other evidences like Complex Iteration and Speciation.

SKILL 1.18 Identify the consistent patterns that govern the occurrence of most
natural events.

Some of the most common natural events are - hurricanes, tornadoes, volcanoes,
flooding, snow and ice, extreme heat, etc. In order to have a better understanding of
these natural events, it is important for us to take a close look at them. The US
government deals with these natural hazards and helps its people through agencies like
FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency). FEMA coordinates all the relief
activities so that people get assistance as soon as possible.

1. Hurricanes:
The term hurricane is derived from Huracan, a god of evil recognized by the Tainos, an
ancient aboriginal Central American tribe. Hurricanes form over tropical waters
(between 8 to 20 degrees Celsius or 80 degrees Fahrenheit or greater). The hurricane
season in the northern hemisphere runs from June to November.
There are 5 types of hurricanes based on a classification system, which was designed
in 1970, depending on the extent of damage a hurricane causes. This system was
designed by Herbert Saffir, an engineer and Robert Simpson, the then director of the
National Hurricane Center and is called the Saffir-Simpson scale. On this scale 1 is the
weakest and 5 is the strongest. Categories 3,4, and 5 are considered as major (intense)
hurricanes capable of inflicting great damage and loss of life. At the center of the
hurricane is an area mostly free of clouds, sinking air, and light winds, called the eye.
The National Hurricane Center issues warnings about hurricanes and people need to
follow them and take necessary precautions including stocking food, filling gas in
vehicles, and leaving homes when they are advised to.

2. Tornadoes:
A tornado is a rotating column of air extending from a thunderstorm to the ground and is
capable of tremendous destruction with wind speeds of 250 mph or more. The path of
the tornado can be 1 mile wide and 50 miles long. Tornadoes are the most violent
storms and about 1,000 occur each year. There are nearly 80 deaths and 1500 injuries
every year due to the destructive effect of tornadoes. They come in all shapes and sizes
and they occur mostly in the southern states. The peak season for tornadoes is March
to May.
Tornadoes are assessed one of five categories depending on the wind speed -
F1: 73-113 mph, moderate damage
F2: 113-157 mph, considerable damage
F3: 158-206 mph, severe damage
F4: 207-260 mph, devastating damage
F5: 261-318 mph, incredible damage
The above mph values are estimates only. The best precaution is to stay indoors when
a tornado warning is given and not to venture outdoors to observe.

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3. Volcanoes:
Volcanoes are mountains built by accumulation of their own eruptive products - lava,
crusted over ash flows, tephra, air borne ash, and dust. Volcanoes are different from
other mountains because they are not formed by folding or crumpling or by uplift and
erosion. A volcano is most commonly a conical hill or mountain built around a vent that
connects with reservoirs of molten rock below the surface of the earth. The term
volcano also refers to the opening of the vent through which the molten rock and
associated gases are expelled.
Buoyancy and gas pressure drive the molten rock, which is lighter than the surrounding
solid rock, forcing its way upward, and may ultimately break through areas of weakness
in the earth’s crust. When this happens, an eruption occurs and the molten rock may
pour from the vent as non-explosive lava or it may shoot violently into the air as dense
clouds of lava fragments. Larger fragments fall back around the vent, and the
accumulations of the fall back fragments may move down slopes as ash flows under the
force of gravity. Some of the finer ejected materials may be carried by the wind only to
fall to the ground many miles away. The finest ash particles may be ejected miles into
the atmosphere and can then be carried many miles around the world by stratospheric
winds before settling out. Magma is the molten rock below the surface of the earth that
rises through the volcanic vents. The term lava is used for magma that has erupted
through the vents and originates many miles beneath the ground. Ascending magma
commonly contains some crystals, fragments of surrounding unmelted rocks, and
dissolved gases, but it is primarily a liquid compound composed of oxygen, silicon,
aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, potassium, titanium, and manganese. Magmas
also contain many other chemical elements in trace quantities. Upon cooling, magma
forms igneous or magmatic rock. It is important for people who are living close to
volcanoes to leave their homes and go to a safer area soon after they hear about
volcanic eruption/activity.

4. Flooding:
Flooding kills people and destroys homes in many parts of the US. About 125 people
die of flooding in the US every year. The property damage runs into billions of dollars
and of late these figures have risen constantly. Flooding is caused by a number of
reasons - flooding during hurricanes due to heavy rains, coastal flooding (sea / ocean
waves), inland flooding from snow melting or swollen rivers, flooding from failure of
dams, impoundments or other water regulatory systems, flash floods from sudden large
downpours and also from ice jams (melting of ice due to heat). Every year the US
government spends billions of dollars assisting its citizens. People need to leave their
homes in the event of flooding and also insure their properties against flood and other
natural disasters.

5. Snow and ice:

Snow and ice are well known hazards to those living in the mountainous areas, regions
north of 35 degrees latitude. During the winter months, prolonged power outages,
automobile accidents, transportation delays, damage to buildings, and dangerous
walkways are often attributed to snow and ice. Although slippery surfaces are often the
primary cause of such problems, reduced visibility is responsible for many accidents.

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Snow can be warm, causing wet and slushy conditions, or cold, creating dry and
powdery conditions. The latter leads to blizzards when mixed with high winds. Blizzards
can reduce the visibility to zero. Drifting can block roadways, airport runways, and even
bury buildings. Snow and ice are often associated with low wind chills, which are
dangerous to exposed skin. Snow and ice reduce visibility and when they accumulate
on the surface, they reduce traction and put strain on power lines, roofs and other
structures. The most important part of dealing with snow and ice is forecasting and
warning for the purpose of community preparation. Communities can prepare for winter
storms by stocking sand and salt to improve road conditions, advising people to use
caution when leaving their homes and to stock plenty of food before a storm, in case
they are confined to their homes.

6. Extreme heat:
Extreme heat is very dangerous to people in tropical and sub tropical areas. Sometimes
even in places which are colder in winter, summer can get very hot and heat waves can
sweep through. From 1979 to 2002, excessive heat exposure caused 8,966 deaths in
the US. During this period, more people in the country died from extreme heat than any
other natural hazards. The elderly, children, and people with certain medical conditions
(such as heart disease) are at greater risk. Even healthy individuals can become victims
to heat, if they do strenuous exercise in extreme heat. It is often referred to as “Heat
Stroke” in the tropics. This can be avoided by taking some precautions. The most
important of which is to remain indoors, install air conditioning in homes, and increasing
the intake of water and fruit juices. It is important from the humanitarian point to check
on neighbors who may be susceptible.

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COMPETENCY 2.0 KNOWLEDGE OF THE INTERACTION OF

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY
INCLUDING ETHICAL, LEGAL, AND SOCIAL
ISSUES

SKILL 2.1 Identify and analyze areas of scientific research that may contribute
to ethical, legal, and social conflicts (e.g., reproductive and life-
sustaining technologies; genetic basis for behavior, population
growth and control; government and business influences on
biotechnology).

With advances in biotechnology come those in society who oppose it. Ethical questions
come into play when discussing animal and human research. Does it need to be done?
What are the effects on humans and animals? There are no right or wrong answers to
these questions. There are governmental agencies in place to regulate the use of
humans and animals for research.

Society depends on science, yet it is necessary that the public be scientifically literate
and informed in order to prevent potentially unethical procedures from occurring.
Especially vulnerable are the areas of genetic research, fertility, and life sustaining
medical treatment. It is important for science teachers to stay abreast of current
research and to involve students in critical thinking and ethics whenever possible.

SKILL 2.2 Identify principles and uses of cloning, genomics, proteomics, and
genetic engineering and analyze possible ethical conflicts.

Society impacts biological research. The pressure from the majority of society has led
to these bans and restrictions on human cloning research. Human cloning has been
restricted in the United States and many other countries. The U.S. legislature has
banned the use of federal funds for the development of human cloning techniques.
Some individual states have banned human cloning regardless of where the funds
originate.

Genetic engineering has drastically advanced biotechnology. With these advancements

come concerns for safety and ethical questions. Many safety concerns have answered
by strict government regulations. The FDA, USDA, EPA, and National Institutes of
Health are just a few of the government agencies that regulate pharmaceutical, food,
and environmental technology advancements.

Several ethical questions arise when discussing biotechnology. Should embryonic stem
cell research be allowed? Is animal testing humane? These are just a couple of ethical
questions that every person wonders. There are strong arguments for both sides of the
issues and there are some government regulations in place to monitor these issues.

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SKILL 2.3 Recognize and analyze global environmental challenges that may
result from scientific and technological advances and the
subsequent resolution of these problems (e.g., CFCs as coolants and
ozone depletion; insecticides for protecting crops and pollution
events).

Global environment is posing a huge challenge to governments of all countries. Our

technological and scientific advances have drastically affected our environment. Many
governments are trying to face this challenge by using technology and also by passing
laws to stop some undesirable practices that are polluting our planet.

The governments of some nations (including the U.S.) are taking this problem very
seriously. They are concerned with multiple things: to allow industrial growth while
restoring the environment and ensuring the health of humans. In order to understand
this problem, we need to look at some of the contemporary issues like - CFCs as
coolants, ozone depletion, insecticides for protecting crops, and pollution events.

1. CFCs as coolants:
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are a family within the group called haloalkanes
(also known as halogenoalkanes). This group of chemical compounds consists of
alkanes (such as methane or ethane), with one or more halogens (chlorine or fluorine)
linked, making them a type of organic halides. They are known under many chemical
names and are widely used as fire extinguishers, propellants, and solvents. Some
haloalkanes have negative effects on the environment such as ozone depletion. Use of
certain chloroalkanes have been phased out by the IPPC directive on greenhouse
gases in 1994 and by the Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) directive of the EU
(European Union) in 1997.

2. Ozone depletion:
The ozone layer (ozonosphere layer) is part of the earth’s atmosphere, which contains
relatively high concentrations of ozone. The ozone layer was first discovered by two
French physicists, Charles Fabry and Henry Buisson, in 1913.
About 90% of the ozone in our atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere, the region
from about 10 to 50 km above the earth’s surface. The remaining 10% of the ozone is
contained in the troposphere, the lowest part of our atmosphere. Although the
concentration of ozone in the ozone layer is very small, it is vitally important to life
because it absorbs biologically harmful ultraviolet radiation (UV) emitted from the sun.
Depletion of the ozone layer allows more of the harmful UV to reach the earth and
causing increased genetic damage to living things.

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3. Insecticides:
An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects in all developmental forms.
Insecticides are widely used in agriculture, households, businesses, and even in
medicine. Insecticides are one of the factors behind the increase in the agricultural
productivity of the 20th century. It is very important to balance agricultural needs with
safety concerns because the insecticides have the potential to significantly alter the
ecosystems by entering the food chain.

4. Pollution events:
There have been many pollution events in our history. The most infamous was the oil
pollution in 1971 during the Gulf war in Kuwait. This single event affected marine life
and birds. The oil spill on a large scale gave no chance for the birds to survive. It was
graphic, expensive, and an ecological disaster.

Skill 2.4 Analyze the synergistic relationship between basic and applied
research, technology, the economy and public welfare.
A synergistic relationship can be defined as a relationship that values above and
beyond what is achievable. This is a type of new interrelationship among the
participants. This relationship is about intent and commonness. It is also a kind of
interdependence among all those that are involved or participating.
Some very important qualities / characteristics of synergistic relationship are:
1. Open communication
2. Win-Win situation
3. Explore all options
4. Well defined objectives and realistic expectations
5. Clear roles and responsibilities
6. Take and share risks
7. Expect the unexpected and be flexible

There could be many more, but these are some of the important qualities.

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The relationship among the basic and applied research, technology, economy and
public or the society has to be synergistic. Basic research is the starting point in this
chain of events. Basic research provides with knowledge, which is again of two types.
The first type of knowledge is theoretical knowledge, giving us the understanding of
processes. Whereas the second type of knowledge could be applied for the benefit of
humanity / society / public. Applied research is great value because it is directly useful
to us; it deals with issues like Aids, Tuberculosis, HPV, Parkinson’s etc., to name a few.
This is very important to society because it is useful to the society / public. Public is
interested in it and public has its opinion about the research. Let’s look at stem cell
research for an example. There are people for and against this controversial piece of
research. We are living in the age of technology. Our lives are so intertwined,
dependent and in tune with technology. We are afraid that we may not be able to
function as human beings any longer without technology. Such is the relationship of
public with technology. The relationship of public with technology sometimes looks
dangerous. Whatever technology offers us on a platter, we are so ready to use it
whatever it might be. The economy is like the blood in the veins, without which we are
dead and one. The economy, technology and public are inseparable, in that our money,
comforts and modern knowledge are so intertwined with each of these three fields.
This synergistic relationship overlaps some moral and ethical issues. Whatever
research is done, public has a right to know it. In a synergistic relationship, as
mentioned earlier, there has to be open communication of what is going on.
The economy should not be the guiding principle for any piece of research or
technology. Clear objectives are absolutely important because the public has a stake in
all these ventures, especially if they are federally funded. If they are privately funded,
the organizations need to remember that they are bound by social ethics and correct
practices.
The ultimate goal of any research, technology project or economic venture must be for
the benefit of the public and there should be clear cut objectives and the flexibility to
expect the unexpected and the ability to deal with it.

Skill 2.5 Analyze the causes and effects of multidrug resistance and
globalization on the spread and treatment of human pathogens.

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is the ability of pathologic cells to show resistance to a wide
variety of structurally and functionally unrelated compounds. These pathologic cells
include bacterial, fungal and neoplastic (tumor) cells.
The widespread occurrence of MDR (multidrug resistance) in tumor cells presents a
major obstacle to successful cancer chemotherapy. Neoplastic resistance is the term
used to describe MDR in tumor cells. In cultured cancer cells, there are increased
levels of a glycoprotein called P-glycoprotein (P-gp). It is an ATP dependent extrusion
pump for drugs or any other substrates.

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The DNA of cancer cells has been modified such that the cells grow at an abnormal
rate, unable to perform their function and in many cases they damage the surrounding
cells. The genes involved in this abnormal growth of cancer cells are ras (provides
energy for cell division) and p53 (like a brake which stops cell division). When these two
are damaged, the cells keep on dividing without control.
The mechanism of MDR in cancer cells is as follows:
• Increased efflux of drugs (by P-gp, P-glycoprotein)
• Enzymatic deactivation of antibiotics (i.e. glutathione conjugation)
• Decreased permeability of the cells (drugs can’t get in)
• Altered binding sites
• Alternate metabolic pathways

There are other human pathogens like TB, HIV, Salmonella, Candida, etc. which have
become multidrug resistant, causing huge problems to our health. The mechanism of
MDR is almost the same in all of these human pathogens. It is important to know the
spread of these human pathogens. In this day and age, with increased communication
and travel, there is a huge change in the lifestyles of people.

• Outdoor lifestyle: As we play and move around outside, we are at greater risk of
being bitten by mosquitoes, ticks and other insects, which carry diseases like
West Nile virus, Ehlrichia etc.
• Tourism: Tourism is a very popular now. The inner curiosity of man to explore
and visit exotic, historical, and recreational spots is coming with a price. When
people visit countries that have some kinds of diseases, there is a very strong
possibility that some will be infected, though they had precautions (e.g., malaria
from Caribbean islands and other tropics).
• Moist, humid environment: Wherever there is this type of environment, we can
expect molds, especially black mold, which is not healthy.
• Cruise ships: The luxurious cruise ships have a downside to them. They have a
virus called Norwalk Virus, which survives in enclosed atmospheres like that of a
cruise ship.
• Some rural communities: Florida’s rural communities are facing the problem of
an increase in TB and HIV cases and also Cryptococcus.
• Migratory birds: Birds migrate for various reasons, but they also carry avian flu.
Avian Influenza is proving deadly of late.

The picture of multidrug resistance looks very dim. But researchers are trying to find
solutions to this gigantic problem. Research is being done on the development of drugs
that either avoid or inhibit these efflux pumps (ABC & MFS), allowing medication to slip
inside the bacterial cells and kill them. Some researchers are concentrating on disabling
the multidrug efflux pump.

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Some important aspects of the treatment of MDR:

1. Identification of the pathogen

2. Using a specific antibiotic for that pathogen rather than broad spectrum agents
3. Using the full course of antibiotic as prescribed by the physician
4. Not to use antibiotics for viral infections like cold, cough, bronchitis, etc.

SKILL 2.6 Demonstrate knowledge of pertinent legislation and national

guidelines (e.g., NABT, ISEF) regarding laboratory safety, hazardous
materials, experimentation, and/or the use of organisms in the
classroom.

In addition to requirements set forth by your place of employment, the NABT (National
Association of Biology Teachers) and ISEF (International Science Education
Foundation) have been instrumental in setting parameters for the science classroom.
All science laboratories should contain the following items of safety equipment. The
following are requirements by law.

• Fire blanket which is visible and accessible

• Ground Fault Circuit Interrupters (GFCI) within two feet of water supplies signs
designating room exits
• Emergency shower providing a continuous flow of water
• Emergency eye wash station which can be activated by the foot or forearm
• Eye protection for every student and a means of sanitizing equipment
• Emergency exhaust fans providing ventilation to the outside of the building
• Master cut-off switches for gas, electric and compressed air. Switches must have
permanently attached handles. Cut-off switches must be clearly labeled.
• An ABC fire extinguisher
• Storage cabinets for flammable materials

Also recommended, but not required by law:

• Chemical spill control kit
• Fume hood with a motor which is spark proof
• Protective laboratory aprons made of flame retardant material
• Signs which will alert potentially hazardous conditions
• Containers for broken glassware, flammables, corrosives and waste.
• Containers should be labeled.

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Students should wear safety goggles when performing dissections, heating, or while
using acids and bases. Hair should always be tied back and objects should never be
placed in the mouth. Food should not be consumed while in the laboratory. Hands
should always be washed before and after laboratory experiments. In case of an
accident, eye washes and showers should be used for eye contamination or a chemical
spill that covers the student’s body. Small chemical spills should only be contained and
cleaned by the teacher. Kitty litter or a chemical spill kit should be used to clean spills.
For large spills, the school administration and the local fire department should be
notified. Biological spills should also only be handled by the teacher. Contamination
with biological waste can be cleaned by using bleach when appropriate. Accidents and
injuries should always be reported to the school administration and local health facilities.
The severity of the accident or injury will determine the course of action to pursue.

It is the responsibility of teachers to provide a safe environment for the students. Proper
supervision greatly reduces the risk of injury and a teacher should never leave a class
for any reason without providing alternate supervision. After an accident, two factors are
considered: foreseeability and negligence.

Foreseeability is the anticipation that an event may occur under certain circumstances.
Negligence is the failure to exercise ordinary or reasonable care. Safety procedures
should be a part of the science curriculum and a well-managed classroom is important
to avoid potential lawsuits.

The "Right to Know Law” statutes cover science teachers who work with potentially
hazardous chemicals. Briefly, the law states that employees must be informed of
potentially toxic chemicals. An inventory must be made available if requested. The
inventory must contain information about the hazards and properties of the chemicals.
Training must be provided in the safe handling and interpretation of the Material Safety
Data Sheet.

The following chemicals are potential carcinogens and are not allowed in school
facilities:

Acrylonitriel, Arsenic compounds, Asbestos, Benzedrine, Benzene, Cadmium

compounds, Chloroform, Chromium compounds, Ethylene oxide, Ortho-toluidine, Nickel
powder, Mercury.

Chemicals should not be stored on bench tops or heat sources. They should be stored
in groups based on their reactivity with one another and in protective storage cabinets.
All containers within the lab must be labeled. Suspected and known carcinogens must
be labeled as such and segregated within trays to contain leaks and spills.

Chemical waste should be disposed of in properly labeled containers. Waste should be

separated based on their reactivity with other chemicals.

BIOLOGY 6-12 29
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

Material safety data sheets are available for every chemical and biological substance.
These are available directly from the company of acquisition or the internet. The
manuals for equipment used in the lab should be read and understood before using
them.

All laboratory solutions should be prepared as directed in the lab manual. Care should
be taken to avoid contamination. All glassware should be rinsed thoroughly with
distilled water before using and cleaned well after use. All solutions should be made
with distilled water as tap water contains dissolved particles that may affect the results
of an experiment. Unused solutions should be disposed of according to local disposal
procedures.

Biological material should never be stored near food or water used for human
consumption. All biological material should be appropriately labeled. All blood and
body fluids should be put in a well-contained container with a secure lid to prevent
leaking. All biological waste should be disposed of in biological hazardous waste bags.

Use of live specimens

No dissections may be performed on living mammalian vertebrates or birds. Lower

order life and invertebrates may be used. Biological experiments may be done with all
animals except mammalian vertebrates or birds. No physiological harm may result to
the animal. All animals housed and cared for in the school must be handled in a safe
and humane manner. Animals are not to remain on school premises during extended
vacations unless adequate care is provided. Any instructor who intentionally refuses to
comply with the laws may be suspended or dismissed.

Pathogenic organisms must never be used for experimentation. Students should

adhere to the following rules at all times when working with microorganisms to avoid
accidental contamination:

1. Treat all microorganisms as if they were pathogenic.

2. Maintain sterile conditions at all times

Animals which are not obtained from recognized sources should not be used. Decaying
animals or those of unknown origin may harbor pathogens and/or parasites. Specimens
should be rinsed before handling. Latex gloves are desirable. If not available, students
with sores or scratches should be excused from the activity. Formaldehyde is likely
carcinogenic and should be avoided or disposed of according to district regulations.
Students objecting to dissections for moral reasons should be given an alternative
assignment. Interactive dissections are available online or from software companies for
those students who object to performing dissections. There should be no penalty for
those students who refuse to physically perform a dissection.

BIOLOGY 6-12 30
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

COMPETENCY 3.0 KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES

OF LIVING THINGS

SKILL 3.1 Identify the structures, functions, and importance of inorganic and
organic compounds (e.g., water, mineral salts, carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, nucleic acids) in cells.

Water is necessary for life. Its properties are due to its molecular structure and it is an
important solvent in biological compounds. Water is a polar substance. This means it
is formed by covalent bonds that make it electrically lopsided.

oxygen
nucleus

protons
of hydrogen nuclei

A water molecule showing polarity Hydrogen bonding between

created by covalent bonds. water molecules.

Water molecules are attracted to other water molecules due to this electrical attraction
and allow for two important properties: adhesion and cohesion.

Adhesion is when water sticks to other substances like the xylem of a stem, which aids
the water in traveling up the stem to the leaves.

Cohesion is the ability of water molecules to stick to each other by hydrogen bonds.
This allows for surface tension on a body of water or capillarity, which allows water to
move through vessels. Surface tension is how difficult it is to stretch or break the
surface of a liquid. Cohesion allows water to move against gravity.

There are several other important properties of water. Water is a good solvent. An
aqueous solution is one in which water is the solvent. It provides a medium for
chemical reactions to occur. Water has a high specific heat of 1 calorie per gram per
degree Celsius, allowing it to cool and warm slowly, allowing organisms to adapt to
temperature changes.

BIOLOGY 6-12 31
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

Water has a high boiling point it is a good coolant. Its ability to evaporate stabilizes the
environment and allows organisms to maintain body temperature. Water has a high
freezing point and a lower density as a solid than as a liquid. Water is most dense at
four degrees centigrade. This allows ice to float on top of water so a whole body of
water does not freeze during the winter. In this way, animals may survive the winter.

A compound consists of two or more elements. There are four major chemical
compounds found in the cells and bodies of living things. These include carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins and nucleic acids.

Monomers are the simplest unit of structure. Monomers can be combined to form
polymers, or long chains, making a large variety of molecules possible. Monomers
combine through the process of condensation reaction (also called dehydration
synthesis). In this process, one molecule of water is removed between each of the
adjoining molecules. In order to break the molecules apart in a polymer, water
molecules are added between monomers, thus breaking the bonds between them. This
is called hydrolysis.

Carbohydrates contain a ratio of two hydrogen atoms for each carbon and oxygen
(CH2O)n. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches. They function in the release of
energy. Monosaccharides are the simplest sugars and include glucose, fructose, and
galactose. They are major nutrients for cells. In cellular respiration, the cells extract the
energy in glucose molecules. Disaccharides are made by joining two
monosaccharides by condensation to form a glycosidic linkage (covalent bond between
two monosaccharides). Maltose is formed from the combination of two glucose
molecules, lactose is formed from joining glucose and galactose, and sucrose is formed
from the combination of glucose and fructose. Polysaccharides consist of many
monomers joined. They are storage material hydrolyzed as needed to provide sugar for
cells or building material for structures protecting the cell. Examples of polysaccharides
include starch, glycogen, cellulose and chitin.

Starch - major energy storage molecule in plants. It is a polymer consisting of

glucose monomers.
Glycogen - major energy storage molecule in animals. It is made up of many
glucose molecules.
Cellulose - found in plant cell walls, its function is structural. Many animals lack
the enzymes necessary to hydrolyze cellulose, so it simply adds bulk (fiber) to
the diet.
Chitin - found in the exoskeleton of arthropods and fungi. Chitin contains an
amino sugar (glycoprotein).

Lipids are composed of glycerol (an alcohol) and three fatty acids. Lipids are
hydrophobic (water fearing) and will not mix with water. There are three important
families of lipids, fats, phospholipids and steroids.

BIOLOGY 6-12 32
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

Fats consist of glycerol (alcohol) and three fatty acids. Fatty acids are long carbon
skeletons. The nonpolar carbon-hydrogen bonds in the tails of fatty acids are why they
are hydrophobic. Fats are solids at room temperature and come from animal sources
(butter, lard).

Phospholipids are a vital component in cell membranes. In a phospholipid, a

phosphate group linked to a nitrogen group replaces one or two fatty acids. They
consist of a polar (charged) head that is hydrophilic or water loving and a nonpolar
(uncharged) tail which is hydrophobic or water fearing. This allows the membrane to
orient itself with the polar heads facing the interstitial fluid found outside the cell and the
internal fluid of the cell.

carbohydrate
chain

phospholipid hydrophobic
bilayer tails

hydrophilic
channel heads
protein
transport
recognition
protein
protein
cholesterol

Steroids are insoluble and are composed of a carbon skeleton consisting of four inter-
connected rings. An important steroid is cholesterol, which is the precursor from which
other steroids are synthesized. Hormones, including cortisone, testosterone, estrogen,
and progesterone, are steroids. Their insolubility keeps them from dissolving in body
fluids.

Proteins compose about fifty percent of the dry weight of animals and bacteria.
Proteins function in structure and aid in support (connective tissue, hair, feathers,
quills), storage of amino acids (albumin in eggs, casein in milk), transport of substances
(hemoglobin), hormonal to coordinate body activities (insulin), membrane receptor
proteins, contraction (muscles, cilia, flagella), body defense (antibodies), and as
enzymes to speed up chemical reactions.

BIOLOGY 6-12 33
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION EXAM

All proteins are made of twenty amino acids. An amino acid contains an amino group
and an acid group. The radical group varies and defines the amino acid. Amino acids
form through condensation reactions with the removal of water. The bond that is
formed between two amino acids is called a peptide bond. Polymers of amino acids are
called polypeptide chains. An analogy can be drawn between the twenty amino acids
and the alphabet.

Millions of words can be formed using an alphabet of only twenty-six letters. This
diversity is also possible using only twenty amino acids. This results in the formation of
many different proteins, whose structure defines the function.

There are four levels of protein structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.

Primary structure is the protein’s unique sequence of amino acids. A slight change in
primary structure can affect a protein’s conformation and its ability to function.
Secondary structure is the coils and folds of polypeptide chains. The coils and folds
are the result of hydrogen bonds along the polypeptide backbone. The secondary
structure is either in the form of an alpha helix or a pleated sheet. The alpha helix is a
coil held together by hydrogen bonds. A pleated sheet is the polypeptide chain folding
back and forth. The hydrogen bonds between parallel regions hold it together.
Bonding between the side chains of the amino acids forms tertiary structure.
Disulfide bridges are created when two sulfhydryl groups on the amino acids bond
together to form a strong covalent bond. Quaternary structure is the overall structure
of the protein from the aggregation of two or more polypeptide chains. An example of
this is hemoglobin. Hemoglobin consists of two kinds of polypeptide chains.

Nucleic acids consist of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Nucleic acids contain the instructions for the amino acid sequence of proteins and the
instructions for replicating. The monomer of nucleic acids is called a nucleotide. A
nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA), a
phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The base sequence codes for the
instructions. There are five bases: adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, and uracil.
Uracil is found only in RNA and replaces the thymine. A summary of nucleic acid
structure can be seen in the table below:

SUGAR PHOSPHATE BASES

DNA deoxy- present adenine, thymine,

ribose cytosine, guanine

RNA ribose present adenine, uracil,

cytosine, guanine

BIOLOGY 6-12 34
Another random document with
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 n., 452, 508, 516, 518, 522; general strategy, 544 ff., 561,
570
Salmydessos, 51
Samos, Samians, 31, 35–37, 51 n., 81, 106, 125 ff., 161, 401, 430,
433, 522 f., 534 f., 529, 530
Samothrace, 218, 220, 400, 406
Sandokes, 327
Sardes, 25, 27, 30, 68, 69 f., 70, 74, 82, 94 f., 108, 213 f., 228,
240, 535, 537
Sardinia, 116, 118, 254 n., 422
Saromata, Mt., 303
Saronic Gulf, 253, 352, 538, 545
Sarpedon, 218
Salræ, 220
Scythians, 10, 57, 145
Scythian expedition, 48 ff., 70, 72, 75, 85, 146 n., 209, 210, 415,
535
Selinus, 424
Selymbria, 145
Sepias, 322, 323 ff., 342, 374
Seriphians, 354 n.
Sestos, 56, 215, 218, chap. xii. latter part. 538, 551
Sicily, 131, 134, 244–256, 321, 355, 367, 421–428, 540, 567, 575
Sideroporto, 263 n., 264, 268 n., 282
Sidon, 73, 219
Sigeon, 49 n., 78
Sikinnos, 379
Sikyon, 320, 354 n., 469 n., 528
Simonides, 313
Siphnians, 354 n.
Siris, 365, 369 n.
Sisimakes, 115
Skiathos, 318, 321 f., 331, 335 n., 342, 384
Skione, 429
Skironid Way, 378
Skolopœis, 525
Skolos, 449 and n., 463, 496
Skopadæ, 227
Skyllias, 331, 343
Smerdomenes, 219
Smyrna, 14
Soli, 106
Soros (at Marathon), 165 ff.
Spaniards, 425
Sparta, 25, 29, 37, 76, 91 ff., 154 f. and n., 159, 168, 172 f., 182,
193, 220, 225 f.; Tempe 229, 231, 237, 240; Argos, 243;
Sicily, 245, 252; Argos, 253; Sicily, 254 n.; strategy, 271;
Thermopylæ, chap. vii. passim; people and government, 315;
fleet, 320, 344, and North Greece, 348 n.; fleet, 354 and n.,
385, 401, 420, 433, 438; policy, 440 ff.; army, 442 and n.,
443, 456, 469 n.; at Platæa, 492 ff.; army, 493; at Platæa,
498 ff., 508, 512 ff.; at Mykale, 527 ff.; characteristic, 530,
531, 541; strategy, 549; sources, 567, 569 n., 576
Spercheios, R., 258, 263 n., chap. vii. passim
Sphendale, 449
Stagiros, 220
Stamata, 164
Stein, 282, 389, 443 n.
Stentoris, Lake, 218
Stesenor, 106
Stesilaos, 190
St. George Island, 371 f., 375, 384, 386, 405
Strabo, 23, 52, 106 n., 113, 215, 283, 335 n., 525
Strategic questions, Artemisium, 318, 331 f.
Attica. 440, 445
Bœotia, 544
Cyprus, 105
Eubœa, 265
General, 113, 124, 153, 157, 266 f., 267 n., 298 f., 321, 351,
359 ff., 365, 406, 409 f., 413, 415, 416, 422, 432, 437, 449
ff., 462, 522, 524, chap. xiii. passim
Greece, 159, 171 f. (Marathon), 178, 179 ff., 185, 193, 226
Hellespont, 530
Isthmus, 378
Kithæron-Parnes, 445–448, 450, 451
North Greece, 268
Œne, 447
Peloponnesian, 270 ff.
Peloponnesus, 345, 444
Persian, 344 f.
Platæa, 473 ff., 476 n., 488, 492, 510, 511
Platæa town, 446
Salamis, 352, 380 f., 386
Thebes, 347
Thermopylæ, 263 ff., 269, 298, 316
Thermopylæ and Artemisium, 543
 Thessaly, 230 n., 232, 541
Thracian Chersonese, 531
West Asia, 7, 13, 90, 96, 105, 112
Strattis, 433
Stryme, 220
Strymon, 66 ff., 72, 120, 136, 139, 212, 220, 221
Stylida, 259, 327 n.
Styreans, 320, 354 n., 469 n.
Suidas, 179 n., 183 n., 184 n.
Sunium, Cape, 181 ff., 190, 376
Susa, 69, 72, 75, 76, 102 f., 109, 121, 141, 149, 243, 537
Sybaris, 133 f., 369 n.
Syloson, 37
Synetos, 229 n.
Syracuse, 244 ff., 421–428
Syria, 219
Syrtis, Greater, 255

Tabalos, 30
Tacitus, 62, 63, 149 n.
Tactics and equipment, 92, 126, 129 f.; Marathon, 183 ff., 193,
195, 208, 269 n., 270 f., 297, 299, 322, 334 and n.; Salamis,
386, 394, 396, 399, 400, 425–427, 437, 441, 442, 462, 473
ff., 477, 478, 500, 501, 502, 508, 510, 512 ff., 525, 528, chap.
xiii. passim
Tanagra, 448, 449, 451 n.
Tanais, 52
Tarentum, 73
Taurus Mountains, 7 f., 12, 15, 24, 426
Tearos, 51
Tegea, Tegeans, 273, 306, 468, 469 n., 471, 494, 500, 502, 509
Tempe, Vale of, 221, 228 and n. and ff., 231 f., 235, 252, 253 ff.,
257, 271 n., 279, 294, 541, 571
Tenedos, 141, 146
Tenos, 161, 374, 389
Teos, 125
Terillos, 246, 254 n.
Thasos, 137, 139, 141, 152, 220
Thaumaki, 258 f., 279, 298, 453
Thebes, 179, 273, 293; attitude at Thermopylæ, 294–296, 306,
308 f., 313, 314, 347, 356, 439, 445, 447, 448, 451, 456,
chap. xi. passim (especially 476, 505, 512, 516 ff., 518 n.),
527, 546
Thebes in Pthiotis, 258, 279
Themistocles, 203 ff., 229 n., 231, 236, 238 f., 270, 328 ff., 337 ff.,
343, 352 and rest of chap. ix. passim (especially 358, 359 ff.,
368, 369 n., 391). 411 ff., 417, 419 f., 431, 543 ff., 561 ff.
Theomestor, 401
Theopompos, 156
Therma, town sand gulf, 151, 221, 228, 319, 320 n., 321 f., 327
n., 331
Thermopylæ, 128, 163, 223, 227, 229, 232, chap. vii. passim;
description, 277 ff., 318 ff., 320 n., 323, 328 f., chap. viii.
 passim. 345 ff., 351, 374, 441, 514, 516, 541 ff., 568;
sources, 569 n., 576
Thero, 246, 254 n., 423
Thespiæ, 273, 293, 306, 308 f., 313, 314, 356, 460
Thesprotis, 287
Thessaly, 207, 221, 223, 226 f., 229 n., 239, 252, 257 f., 271, 272,
276, 287, 298, 299, 346 ff., 347 f., 359, 369, 384, 410, 417,
419, 437, 439, 450, 453, 472, 516 f., 518, 541, 546, 566
Thirlwall. 55
Thrace, Thracians, 50, 60, 64 ff., 69, 93 f., 118, 120, 136, 141,
145 ff., 218–220, 418, 450, 532, 551
Thracian Chersonese, 49, 54, 65, 145 f., 218, 531
Thriasian Plain, 166, 441, 447, 452 n.
Thucydides, 116, 161 n., 174 n., 241, 261, 264 n., 273, 298, 333
n., 345, 360 ff., 459 n., 460 n., 465, 466 n., 493 n., 498, 555
Thurii, 369 n.
Thyreatic Plain, 444
Tigranes, 525
Timegenides, 475, 517
Timo, 197
Timodemos, 420
Timon, 236
Tithorea, 348
Tmolos, Mt., 94
Torone, 429
Trachis, 260, 264 n., 277 ff., 280; site, 281 f., 286, 293, 300, 348
n.
Trade questions, 53, 94, 97 n.., 105, 120, 134, 198, 241, 249, 367,
369 n., 434, 435, 523, 529, 530, 552
Trœzen, 320, 321, 353 and n., 354 n., 469 n., 528
Tyrants (Greek), 52, 54 ff., 86, 87, 91, 124 ff., 148, 169, 202, 247
f., 252
Tyras, 52
Tyrodiza, 212
Tyrrhenians, 131

Valerius Maximus, 335 n.

Vergutiani Spring, 456, 472, 485, 520
Villa, 446 n.
Vischer, 481 ff., 487
Vrana, 164

War, the great, issues, 1 ff., 21

Woodhouse, W. J., 467 n.

Xanthippos, 198, 431 f., 531 ff., 548 f., 551 f.

Xenophon, 188 n., 297, 299, 446, 487, 542
Xerxes (special references), 205 f., 214, 398, 403, 408, 509

Zanklé, 134
 THE END.

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PASS OF THERMOPYLAE
London: John Murray, Albemarle Street.
Stanford’s Geographical Establishment, London.
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BATTLEFIELD OF PLATAEA
London: John Murray, Albemarle St.
Stanford’s Geographical Establishment, London.

Footnotes.

See note at the end of the Preface.

2
It would be misleading to claim any exact accuracy for the
chronology of this period. All that can be said is that the dates given
are nearly correct. It is, therefore, undesirable to use the preposition
“in” when the preposition “about” represents in reality the extent of
our knowledge.
Herodotus, speaking probably of the earlier part of the reign,
mentions twenty. The Behistun inscription enumerates twenty-three;
the inscription of Naksh-i-Rustem twenty-eight.
4
Any date after 511 is highly improbable, because in that year Hippias
was driven out of Athens and retired to Sigeum. Had the expedition
taken place after his arrival there, it is almost certain that he would
have accompanied Darius. Other considerations tend in the same
direction.
5
Herodotus says seven hundred thousand men and six hundred ships.
This would imply that somewhat more than the ordinary general levy
of the Empire was called out for the expedition. The numbers are
almost certainly exaggerated.
The number of ships, viz. six hundred, as stated by Herodotus, is
somewhat suspicious. The Persian fleet at Ladé is stated to have
been six hundred (H. vi. 9). At Marathon it is the same (vi. 95).
These may be mere vague calculations without any real foundation;
it may be that six hundred was the ordinary official number of
vessels that belonged to the Persian war fleet, and that Herodotus
has assumed that on each of these occasions the whole fleet was
employed. In the present instance, he does not mention any save
the Greek contingents. It is extremely unlikely that the Greeks could
furnish six hundred vessels. They could only raise three-fifths of that
number at the time of the battle of Ladé. Still, Herodotus knows so
little about the present expedition, that his omission to mention
other contingents, if not a mere oversight, may be due to the want
of information.
6
As it is important to note the exact nature of the traceable evidence
on which Herodotus bases the various details he gives of the
campaign, it may be pointed out in the present case that he states
that Darius set up pillars with bilingual inscriptions at the point of
crossing, and that the Byzantians removed them to their city, and
used them for the altar of the temple of Artemis Orthosia. One
stone, covered with Assyrian letters, was left in the temple of
Dionysus.
This is apparently the statement of one who has seen them there;
and the sentence which follows, in which Herodotus gives his own
view as to the position of the bridge, tends to confirm this
impression.
Those who have seen the terrific current off Seraglio Point at
Constantinople will understand that the bridge could hardly have
been constructed opposite Kalchedon.
Herodotus’ residence at Samos would enable him to obtain some
sort of information with regard to the work of a Samian architect. He
must have seen, too, the picture of the bridge, with the
accompanying inscription, dedicated by Mandrocles, the engineer, in
the temple of Hera.
7
Probably further up, since there are great marshes on the north side
of the river near the mouths of the Sereth and Pruth. It is more
probable that it was between Tchernavoda and the great bend to the
Delta.
8
An examination of the map will show that this point, though its exact
identification has not yet been satisfactorily ascertained, must have
been on or close to the direct route from Byzantion northwards.
9
It may seem strange to suppose for one moment that the words
could apply to those cities whose subjection to Persia is certainly
implied in the earlier part of the account of the Scythian expedition.
It must be remembered, however, that Herodotus never mentions
the circumstances or even the fact of their previous reduction.
0
I take it that the Lake Prasias of Herodotus is to be identified with
the lower of the two lakes of the Strymon, and not with the Upper,
as in Kiepert’s recent Atlas.
Οὐκ ... ἀρχὴν Translation very uncertain, vide Liddell & Scott’s
Lexicon. May mean “not originally,” or even “not at all.”
2
I would refer those who wish to examine it in detail to the excellent
notes on the subject in Macan’s “Herodotus,” vol. i p. 162, ff.
3
Macan, ad loc. cit.
4
Manuscript text ἄνεως or ἄνεος gives no sense. Restorations
proposed ἄνεσις or ἀνανέωσις. Vide Macan, note, vol. i. p. 170.
5
In attempting to write the history of the revolt, I have been
immensely aided and considerably influenced by the acute analysis
of that section of Herodotus’ history which is contained in Mr.
Macan’s edition of H. iv., v., vi. I have not in all cases, as will be
seen, adopted his conclusions in detail. The very excellence of Mr.
Macan’s work renders it all but impossible to avoid plagiarism in
matter if not in actual words. But if I am guilty, I am guilty of the
sincerest form of flattery.
6
Cf. H. v. 96, ad fin. and 97, where Herodotus clearly implies that the
demand had been made no long time before Aristagoras arrived at
Athens, which was, of course, after the events at Naxos, and after
the die of revolt had been cast.
7
As Macan points out, the story was in all probability a celebrated
story of the period; and “the man with the tattooed head” played the
same part in Greek legend as “the man with the iron mask” in that
of later days.
8
Vide Macan, “Herod.”
9
Cf. H. v. 49. Ὡς Λακεδαιμόνιοι λέγουσι.
0
The detail of the “guides” is improbable. The road the expedition
followed was the high road from Ephesus to Sardes.
The ἐβοήθεον τοῖσι Λυδοῖσι in H. v. 102 is a somewhat remarkable
expression. It might have been thought that it was Artaphernes,
cooped up in the citadel of Sardes, who would be first in the
thoughts of the Persian commanders. Did the Lydians still remember
against the Greek the betrayal of Crœsus? Or had Persia been
favouring the Lydian against the Greek trade, and so forwarded the
conspiracy of revolt? It appears as if we have a faint trace of one of
those numerous lost motives of the history of the fifth century.
2
The προπυνθανόμενοι indicates that they had early information of
the attack. It cannot, however, have reached them prior to the
landing near Ephesus, for Artaphernes was caught unprepared, and
it cannot be supposed that he received later intelligence than the
commanders farther inland.
3
Another possible cause may have been a change in the
preponderance of political parties at Athens during this year.
4
Cf. opening words of v. 103.
5
Mr. Macan attributes the spread of the revolt from Cyprus to
Byzantion to the autumn of 498 (vol. ii. p. 69). I do not understand
his reasons for so doing. Herodotus (v. 103) seems to cite the
expedition to Byzantion as an example of the energy which the
Ionians threw into the revolt in spite of the refusal of the Athenians
to give further aid, a refusal which must be attributed to the winter
of 498–97.
6
I am fully aware of the significance of the words ὡς καὶ τοὺς Ἴωνας
ἐπύθετο ἀπεστάναι. But I would suggest that, reading them with
their context, they point to the beginning of a plot of revolt, rather
than to its actual outbreak.
7
Mr. Macan proposes an Athenian origin for this tale of the events at
Susa. Yet the Athenians were not likely to suggest to the world that
 they had brought on Greece all the trouble of the period of the great
war. Herodotus may have simply reproduced, with additions by
himself, a pan-Hellenic version of a famous tale.
8
Herodotus applies the name to a promontory, but Strabo, 682, says
that the Keys are two islands off the east coast of Cyprus.
9
To show the utter confusion of Herodotus’ narrative in this respect, it
is only necessary to point out that he implies that Daurises
immediately (v. 116) after the battle near Ephesus proceeded to
reduce part of the Hellespontine district, which, if his previous
account of the course affairs is to be credited (v. 103) did not revolt
until months after the battle. Moreover, Daurises (v. 117) wins rapid
successes in this region, and then is recalled by the revolt in Caria,
which cannot have been brought about (v. 103), at the most
moderate calculation, within six months of the battle near Ephesus.
0
My view, stated briefly, is that the events recounted in H. v. 116, ff.,
cannot be earlier than 496.
Ταύτας μὲν ἐπ᾽ ἡμέρῃ ἑκάστῃ αἵρεε.
2
Not the celebrated stream of the Marsyas legend.
3
Herodotus mentions Pixodaros of Kindys, a son of Mausolos, as
proposer of the first of those alternative plans. The connection of the
name Mausolos with Halikarnassos a century later, 377–353 (vide
Macan), suggests the possibility that this man had also a connection
with Herodotus’ native town, and that the story, like those tales of
Artemisia in the narrative of the campaign of 480, is a part of the
historian’s work which can be definitely assigned to a Halikarnassian
source.
4
H. v. 120, Μιλήσιοι τε καὶ οἱ τούτων σύμμαχοι cannot mean a Pan-
Ionian force. The nearness of Labraunda seems to have encouraged
the Milesians and their nearest neighbours to venture on an attempt
to save Caria. The other Ionians, in all probability, had their attention
 occupied by a Persian army sufficiently large to make it necessary
for them to stay and guard their homes.
5
On the manifest improbability of Hecatæus having proposed
anything of the kind, vide Macan, vol. i., note on p. 267.
6
Ἐπιστάμενος seems to be used emphatically.
7
I think it best to postpone the discussion of the evidence on this
point until, taken in its chronological order, it is complete.
8
The taking of Miletus is evidently assumed by Herodotus to have
occurred in the same campaigning season as the battle of Ladé.
There is no trace of a winter intervening between the battle and its
capture. Cf. H. vi. 18.
9
Ἀγνωμοσύνῃ τε διεχρέωντο.
0
Chapter 17.

The existence of such a tale in Herodotus suggests the possibility

that his anti-Ionian bias was founded on something more than
Halikarnassian or Dorian prejudice; that it was, indeed, largely based
upon the colouring given to the story of the revolt by those sections
of the populations of the Ionian towns who were dissatisfied with
the way in which the operations were carried on, or whose conduct
had been such as to excite the criticism of those insurgents who had
shown a more persistent courage.
2
Cf. Οὐκ ἔχω ἀτρεκέως συγγράψαι; ἀλλήλους γὰρ καταιτιῶνται.
3
“In column,” probably a detail in accordance with Herodotus’
previous statement as to the “manœuvre of cutting the line;” in fact,
a conjecture of the historian’s own. The Chians are described as
“διεκπλέοντες” in the course of the battle. Had Dionysios of Phokæa,
then, so convinced them of the value of this manœuvre that they
practised it, in spite of the fact that they had forty marines on board
each vessel, i.e. were prepared for a wholly different form of tactics?
4
As Macan and others point out, this dedication was probably made
after Mykale.
5
H. vi. 23, 24.
6
The emphatic mention of these Lesbians in this passage has
suggested the idea that this attack on Chios was an act of spite on
the part of the Æolian Lesbians against the Ionian Chians.
Those who maintain this view seem to leave out of account two
difficult questions which it must raise:⁠—
(1) What conceivable object can the Lesbians have had⁠—
(a) In making such an attack for such a motive;
(b) In running the great risk it involved at a time when the
victorious Phœnician fleet was within a few hours’ sail of
Chios?

(2) Taking Herodotus’ tale as it stands, who are the Ionians (Chap,
xxviii., ad init.) who accompany Histiæus and the Æolians in their
attack on Thasos, if they are not from Chios?
7
Vide Kiepert’s most recent map of Asia Minor.
8
Artaphernes there, and therefore campaigning season probably over.
9
Like many other geographical names of ancient and modern times,
this was used in both a wider and a narrower sense. It is applied by
Herodotus in some passages to the whole region from the Pontus to
the Hellespont; in others to the immediate neighbourhood of the
Hellespont. It is used here in the wider sense.
0
The practical difficulties of the history are rendered all the greater by
the uncertainty of the interpretation of the text in the opening of H.
vi. 40.
The all but complete absence of any details of Miltiades’ life between
the time of the Scythian expedition and the end of the Ionian Revolt
seems to me to support the view that there is very little
 documentary evidence underlying Herodotus’ history, save that of
inscriptions and of other official documents, demonstrable instances
of whose use are rare. Had the historian made large use of private
memoirs, supposing such existed, it is unlikely that he would have
omitted to have recourse to the records of the Philaid family.
2
The significance of this last assertion is very striking. The reference
is to the Ionian towns especially, which, on the indication of purely
general evidence, might be supposed to have been tributary to
Athens at the time to which Herodotus refers.
The question raised belongs obviously to a period much later than
479 b.c., and must be left for discussion in a work dealing with the
period between the Persian and Peloponnesian wars.
Meanwhile I would refer English students of Greek history to the
long note on the subject in Macan, “Herod.” iv., v., vi., vol. i. p. 302.
3
E.g.. Strattis of Chios., H. viii. 132.
4
Cf. H. vi. 43.
5
The employment of Mardonios on this political business, in a case in
which Artaphernes might have been expected to be the agent for
the carrying out of this particular act of policy, suggests that Darius
had in his mind considerations similar to those which are described
by Tacitus as having influenced the Roman Government in the
settlement of Britain after the revolt of the Iceni: “Missus igitur
Petronius Turpilianus tanquam exorabilior et delictis hostium novus,
eoque pœnitentiæ mitior” (Tac. Agric. xvi.).
6
It has sometimes been assumed that this was, on the part of
Athens, a direct recognition of Sparta, not merely as the chief power
in Greece, but as exercising some sort of control over Athens itself.
The assumption is possible, but not necessary.
7
The second part of the objection seems inconsistent with Herodotus’
own statement, v. 75, that a law had been made some years before
 in Sparta to the effect that the two kings might not both accompany
a military expedition. It is, however, possible that this law applied
merely to the command of the army in time of war (cf. the
circumstances under which it was made), and that when other
important Government business abroad was on hand, the custom of
the Spartan constitution provided that both kings should take part in
it, that each might act as a check upon the other. It is evident in this
instance that Kleomenes was not in a position to enforce his
demands, and even on the second occasion there is no suggestion of
armed interference.
8
It is not a part of the design of this chapter to discuss in detail either
(a) the various palpably unhistorical references to incidents of the
campaign made by the orators of the fourth century, as well as by
later classical authors;
or (b) the numerous and varied reconstructions of the history of
the time which have been attempted by modern writers.
The policy thus adopted with regard to the latter is not due to
want of respect, but to want of space. Any full discussion of these
theories would make a book in itself.
They are very fully explained and discussed in⁠—

(1) Busolt’s “Griechische Geschichte;”

(2) Macan, Herod. iv.–vi, vol. 2, Appendix 10,
(3) Hauvette’s “Hérodote;”

and to these I would refer any student who wishes to survey the
whole field of possible and impossible theory.
I owe much to these able summaries of critical discussion, as well
as to other papers which I have read at different times in various
German periodicals.
A very valuable article on the constructive side of the history of
the campaign is that by Mr. J. A. R. Munro, in the Journal of Hellenic
Studies, vol. xix., Part II., 1899.
 With respect to the ancient authorities, the majority of modern
critics seem to be in agreement that the amount of reliable evidence
outside Herodotus is very small.
The topographical details observable at the present day which
have a bearing on the history of the actual fight are few, though
important.
9
It must at the same time be pointed out that the statement is not
above suspicion in certain respects. Herodotus says, for instance,
that “many of the continentals” and “all the islanders” gave earth
Cf. H. vi. 96. and water. Did Naxos give “earth and water”? It is a very
remarkable exception. Who were these “continentals”?
Of all the states only one is mentioned by name—Ægina. Did Ægina
really Medize at this time, or was it merely that Athens feared she
might do so, or might, at any rate, take the opportunity afforded by
a Persian attack to pay off old scores?
0
The same number as on the Scythian expedition, and at Ladé; and
therefore not on this account very reliable.
Cf. H. vi. 94: Ἐσβαλόμενοι δὲ τοὺς ἵππους ἐς ταύτας [τὰς ἱππαγωγοὺς
νέας] Καὶ τὸν πεζὸν στρατὸν ἐσβιβάσαντες ἐς τὰς νέας, ἔπλεον
ἑξακοσίῃσι τριήρεσι ἐς τὴν Ἰωνίην.
2
Various exaggerated estimates of these numbers are given in later
historians. Modern authorities have formed estimates varying from
30,000 to 50,000.
6400 Persians fell at Marathon, when the Persian centre must
have been almost wiped out, but when not more than half the
Persian army was engaged in the battle. This would suggest 20,000
as the number of Persians at Marathon, and about 40,000 as the
number of the whole expedition.
3
Thuc. ii. 8 is, of course, irreconcilable with this statement. I do not
propose to discuss a question which really does not admit of any
certain solution. There is, of course, a mistake somewhere, but we
 cannot pretend at the present day to say where it lies. For
discussion, vide Macan, vol. i. p. 353.
4
The tale, or, at any rate, certain elements of it, manifestly originate
in a source at Chalkis.
5
I adopt Stein’s suggestion that κατέργοντες is used intransitively, as
being the most probable of the suggestions which have been made
with regard to the translation or amendment of this doubtful
passage.
6
Vide “Zur Topographie von Marathon” in the Mittheilungen des
Deutschen Archæologischen Instituts, i. pp. 67–94 (1876).
7
H. vi. 124: ἀνεδέχθη μὲν γὰρ ἀσπίς· καὶ τοῦτο οὐκ ἔστι ἄλλως εἰπεῖν,
ἐγένετο γάρ· ὃς μέντοι ἦν ὁ ἀναδέξας, οὐκ ἔχω προσωτέρω εἰπεῖν
τούτων.
8
Sparta, doubtless, would not act with the Alkmæonidæ.
9
As represented in some histories of Greece.
0
As the object of this chapter is not to refute the theories of others,
but to examine and explain the evidence bearing on the campaign, I
do not propose to point out defects in theories which differ from my
own. I am most nearly in agreement with Mr. J. A. R. Munro. I had
formed my opinions on the main questions of the campaign before I
read his article, but it has supplied me with arguments of an
important character which certainly had not occurred to me before I
read it.
In the accepted text of Herodotus the name is Pheidippides, which is
almost certainly a textual error.
2
These chronological details are important, as they enable us to
construct a diary of events, which is not without its significance in
the narrative of the truce.
3
It is impossible to say how far this excuse for delay was genuine.
4
The Persian dead are still unburied when the Spartans visit the field.
H. vi. 120. They leave Sparta on the 15th, and arrive at Athens on
the 17th. A period of several days intervened between
the arrival of the Athenians at Marathon and the battle.
Plutarch (De Herod. Malign. 26) asserts that the battle took place
on the 6th of Boedromion. He accuses Herodotus of suppressing the
fact that the Athenians held a festal procession in honour of the
battle on the 6th of this month.
It is true that the festival did take place on this date; but the day
was chosen, not because it was the date of the battle, but because it
was the festival of Artemis Agrotera, to whom a vow had been made
in case of success, probably before the army started from Athens.
5
Cf. (Arist.) Athen. Polit. 22.
6
The original passage in which this is mentioned is the scholion on
Aristophanes, Knights, 778: ἐν Μαραθῶνι: τόπος τῆς Ἀττικῆς εἰς ὃν
ἐνώρμησαν Δᾶτις καὶ Ἀρτάβαζος Μηδικοὶ σατράπαι, etc.
Suidas, a very late author in the 10th and 11th centuries of our
era, reproduces the information, drawing it evidently from the
above-mentioned source.
7
The fact that the Persians were in battle array seems to invalidate
the theory which has been put forward, that the Persians, when the
Greeks rushed upon them, were marching towards the lower road,
with intent to reach Athens that way. If that had been so, it is not
possible to imagine that the battle could have been the set battle
which it appears to have been according to Herodotus’ description.
His description of the main incidents of the fight seems the most
absolutely reliable part of his narrative.
8
In the late author Suidas there is a note which gives a positive
support to this negative fact of Herodotus’ silence. He says that the
expression χωρίς ἱππεῖς had become a proverbial expression,
originating from the fact that when Datis invaded Attica, the Ionians
 who were with him informed the Athenians that the cavalry were
away, and so Miltiades attacked and won the victory.
9
The total loss of the Persians is given by Herodotus at 6400. This is
not likely to be an understatement in that 6400 must have been
included the greater part of the Persian centre, which seems to have
been all but annihilated, if the circumstances of the battle be taken
into consideration. It is thus against probability that more than
20,000 Persian troops took part in the engagement.
The comparative smallness of the Persian numbers is further
indicated by the words which tradition attributed to Miltiades. He is
said in the course of his appeal to Kallimachos (ch. 109) to have
spoken confidently of success in case the Greeks took the offensive.
There is no reason to insist on such words having been actually used
by Miltiades. The important historical point is that in the tradition of
the battle which Herodotus followed such language was attributed to
him, language which could not conceivably have been used had the
Persians very greatly outnumbered the Greeks.
0
Numbers varying from 100,000 to 500,000 are given by various later
authors.
Cornelius Nepos, Justin, Suidas, give estimates of from 9000 to
10,000 Athenians, and 1000 Platæans. Herodotus (ix. 28, 29) gives
the Athenian numbers at Platæa as 8000 hoplites and 8000 light-
armed, and this at a time when many citizens were serving on the
fleet at Mykale. The number 10,000 at Marathon is probably an
understatement, though not one of a gross character.
2
The Persian position is indicated by three circumstances:⁠—
(1) The position of the “Soros,” which would presumably be
situated where the majority of the Athenians must have fallen, i.e. in
the centre of the line; and where, too, the decisive blow of the battle
was struck.
(2) The fact, expressly mentioned by Herodotus, that the Greek
centre was (Chap. 113) driven inland (ἐς τὴν μεσόγαιαν).
 (3) The fact that (Chap. 115) the barbarians who escaped seem to
have reached their ships without difficulty.
Hauvette, in assuming the Persians to have been in a position
close to the Charadra, parallel to it, and south of it, ignores these
three points, and places the Persians in about the most
disadvantageous position they could have chosen in the whole plain.
3
This seems the most probable translation of the word δρόμῳ. Apart
from the physical impossibility of a heavy-armed infantryman
advancing a space of nearly one mile “at a run,” or “at the double,”
the word δρόμῳ seems to be used in a technical sense, taken, as it
were, from the Greek infantry “drill-book” of Herodotus’ own time,
implying a pace faster than that denominated by the technical word
βάδην. (For βάδην, vide Xen. Hell. v. 4. 53, etc.) There cannot be
any certainty on this point, because we know so little of Greek
infantry drill at this period.
Another possible explanation of the passage may be that
Herodotus has ascribed to the whole length of the advance a form of
movement which was only adopted when the Greeks came within
range of missiles.
4
Cf. Paus. i 15. 3, where he is describing the picture: Τὸ δὲ ἔσω τῆς
μάχης φεύγοντές εἰσιν οἱ βάρβαροι καὶ ἐς τὸ ἕλος ὠθοῦντες
ἀλλήλους. Those who met this fate must presumably have belonged
to the Persian centre, who would be cut off from the ships by the
closing in of the Greek flanks.
5
Cf. Paus. i. 32. 3: Καὶ ἕτερος [τάφος] Πλαταιεῦσι Βοιωτῶν καὶ
δούλοις. ἐμαχέσαντο γὰρ καὶ δοῦλοι τότε πρῶτον.
6
Ephoros [Fragm. 107, Fragm. Histor. Græc.] attributes the raising of
the siege to the fact that the Athenian fleet imagined that a signal
implied that the Persian fleet was still at the neighbouring island of
Mykonos.
He thus seems to assume that the Parian expedition followed
immediately upon Marathon.
 It cannot be said that the vague direct evidence on the question
determines this point. It is, however, in the highest degree unlikely
that the expedition was undertaken in the same year as Marathon;
and the detail with regard to the Persian ships seems to have been
inserted in the story either by Ephoros or his original authority,
either (a) in order to rationalize a story in which the motive
was inadequate,
or (b) because the version followed was one favourable to
Miltiades.

Despite his chronological vagueness, Herodotus (vi. 132) clearly

implies an interval between Marathon and the Parian expedition, in
which Miltiades’ reputation stood very high.
7
In some histories of Greece, discredit is cast upon Herodotus’
assertion that the preparation for the great invasion was begun in
the last years of Darius. In the absence of evidence, this denial of
the stated fact must rest on the basis of general probability.
In reference to this point I would urge that the most noticeable
feature of Darius’ policy towards the west is its extreme tenacity of
purpose. His plans had met with the severest checks in the course of
their operation, yet he and his brother Artaphernes had persisted in
their designs of conquest and acquisition in Europe, whenever
circumstances rendered military and political interference possible.
8
This is attributed in some Greek histories to the discovery of the
treason of the Alkmæonidæ. So far from being caused by that, it
took place in spite of it.
9
Cf. Clinton, “Fasti Hellenici,” 113, 26.
The archon’s name recorded for Ol. 71, 4, is Themistocles. His
identity with the great Themistocles is highly probable, though not
certain.
Dionysius of Halikarnassos says that Themistocles was archon in
the official year, 493–492.
0
This point will be more fully discussed in dealing with the charges of
corruption brought against Themistocles in Herodotus’ history of the
war.
Cf. Plut. Them. 4. ἔπραξε δὲ ταῦτα Μιλτιάδου κρατήσας
ἀντιλέγοντος. ὡς ἱστορεῖ Στμσίμβροτος. Stesimbrotos is a fifth
century writer.
2
E.g. Delbrück attributes to Xerxes an army of from 65,000 to 75,000
combatants.
3
Herodotus (vii. 60) reckons the land army at 1,700,000, and the
total effective at 2,641,610 (vii. 185). He (vii. 186) says that this
number must be doubled in order to arrive at the full total of the
expedition.
4
Herodotus probably arrived at these numbers from information
picked up from various towns all round the Ægean, furnished by
persons who had witnessed the passage of the army, or had heard
of it from others who had been eye-witnesses. The enormous
exaggerations of estimate made by eye-witnesses in estimating the
numbers of a crowd of quite moderate dimensions, may easily
account for the impossible numbers stated to and by Herodotus.
5
Those who state a much smaller number than this do not take into
account the Oriental reliance on numbers, an Eastern characteristic
which the Persian, unless he is much traduced, fully shared.
I hesitate to express any conjecture as to the possible maximum
of the land force on this occasion. No evidence on this point can be
said to exist.
6
The description of the route adopted renders it improbable that this
body of troops included much more than the local levies of Western
Asia. Sardes was the real place of rendezvous, though it is possible
that some of the contingents did not join the main force until it
arrived at Abydos.
7
Calculations show that the only eclipses about this time visible at
Sardes occurred on October 2, 480 (mentioned H. ix. 10), and
February 16, 478.
8
Herodotus says on the left. It is obvious that he has confused his
point of view, and is speaking from that of a traveller voyaging in a
ship up the coast.
The physical difficulties of the interior of the Balkan peninsula,
together with the practical question of commissariat, render it
probable that Herodotus is mistaken as to the nature of this inland
march, and of the troops which undertook it. The main body of the
army must almost certainly have pursued the coast road, which was
easy, supplied with depôts of stores, and in touch with the fleet. The
divisions which went inland were probably large detachments sent to
inspire awe in the breasts of the inland tribes, so as to discourage
them from any attempt to cut the line of communications.
0
Vide also p. 207.
1
The expedition to Thessaly must have been in the spring of 480. The
Thessalian deputies came to the Isthmus “as soon as they were
informed that the Persian was about to cross over into Europe” (H.
vii. 172). Xerxes spent the winter of 481–480 at Sardes, and started
thence “at the beginning of the spring” (H. vii. 37).
2
The Expedition to Tempe in Diodorus.—The account of the Tempe
expedition as given by Diodorus differs in certain most important
particulars from the brief narrative in Herodotus. It is possible that
the manifest absurdity of the chronology in the historian’s work has
created an undue prejudice against him as a source of evidence, a
tendency increased by the second-hand nature of his information. It
seems to me, however, that this latter characteristic constitutes a
very strong reason for treating his information with respect. There is
no reason why a bad historian should be a bad copyist; and
whatever the man himself may have been, the writers from whose
work he plagiarized so freely may in some cases have been most
reliable witnesses. The passage on Tempe is in Bk. XI. ch. ii. 13, and
it may be well to note the points in which he agrees with, and in
which he differs from, the account in Herodotus.
Diodorus. Herodotus.
1. The Greeks sent ten thousand Gives the same number—ten
hoplites to Thessaly to seize the thousand.
passes to Tempe.
2. On hearing of the size of the Mentions this as the reported
Persian force. cause of withdrawal from
Tempe.
3. Synetos was leader of the Evænetos.
Lacedæmonians.
4. Themistocles leader of the Same.
Athenians.
5. Ambassadors sent by the No mention.
Lacedæmonians to the other States,
asking them to send forces to join in
the defence of the passes.
6. They were eager to include the No mention.
whole of the Greek States in the
defending forces, and to get them to
take part in the war against the
Persians.
7. They left Tempe because the Believes the real reason for
majority of the Thessalians and the departure to have been the
other Greeks in that neighbourhood discovery that there were
gave earth and water to Xerxes’ other passes by which Tempe
envoys. could be turned.
 Diodorus. Herodotus.
8. Ænianians, Dolopians, Malians,
Perrhæbians, Magnetes, medize
while army still at Tempe. Makes no distinction between
9. Achæans (Phthiotis), Locri, the time at which these two
(Opuntian), Thessalians, Bœotians, sets of States medized.
after the departure of Greek force
from Tempe.
It is quite plain that the account of Diodorus is not borrowed from
Herodotus, nor does it show traces of having had, either in whole or
even in part, a common source. In certain respects it is the more
probable tale of the two. For example, the comparative smallness of
the numbers sent is explained by the fact that the Lacedæmonians
and Athenians hoped that the other Greeks would send contingents.
Again, the size of the Persian force is given as a reason for going to
Tempe, while Herodotus gives it as a reason for leaving the same,
though he is inclined to reject the tale. It is inconceivable that the
Greeks should at this time have been totally ignorant of the
magnitude of the Persian force. Diodorus’ tale admits of the
common-sense explanation that, having made up their minds to
defend the North, they thought it best to choose a place where the
Persian superiority in numbers would be of as little advantage as
possible, though it was mainly for political purposes that so
advanced a position was taken up.
In speaking of the medization of the States or clans, he evidently
uses Θέτταλοι in Chapter II. in a general sense of the population of
the region of Thessaly, whereas in Chapter III. he uses it of the
Thessalians, properly so-called. There is nothing in Herodotus which
contradicts Diodorus’ account of the medization. Both accounts may
be true, though that of Diodorus is the fuller one. There is one point
in it which is peculiarly supported by what Herodotus says. The
Aleuadæ medized; but the mass of their subjects disapproved of this
policy, and called in the Southern Greeks. The great Thessalian lords
 were lords of the plain rather than of the mountain. It was
consequently the population of the plain which was opposed to their
policy. It is therefore a remarkable fact that the tribes of the
Thessalian region, which Diodorus mentions as having medized in
the first instance, are those of the bordering mountain region;
whereas those of the great plain remained true to the Greek cause
until the withdrawal of the army from Tempe left them exposed to
the overwhelming flood of the invasion.
3
Diodorus gives his name as Synetos.
4
The Thessalian appeal to the Congress at the Isthmus to send a
force to Tempe is made to the προβόυλοι τῆς Ἑλλάδος, but the
expression used by Herodotus in vii. 145 and 172, οἱ περὶ τὴν
Ἑλλάδα Ἕλλήνες τὰ ἀμείνω φρονέοντες, has almost an official ring
about it.
5
Cf. language used by the Greek embassy to Gelo at Syracuse (H. vii.
157).
6
It has been asserted that this passage from Diodorus is drawn from
the passage of Ephorus, of which the fragment is a survival. It would
seem to me that the essential difference between the two points to
a difference of origin, and that they are two pieces of evidence on
the question, and not one.

Note on the Sequence of Events in Relation to the Negotiations

with Gelo.
It would, perhaps, be a mistake to lay too much stress on the
indications of date in Herodotus with reference to the somewhat
crowded incidents of this time. The actual dates cannot be settled,
though it is possible to arrive at some idea of Herodotus’ views as to
the sequence of events.
(a.) The Greek spies were sent to Asia at the time when Xerxes’
army was collected at Sardes (vii. 146).