Factors Affecting

Second Language
Learning & Acquisition

S.L.A., March 2018

Presentation for Discussion and Expansion

References: Krashen (1988), Ellis (1990), Brown (2000)

 Introduction
• Field observations and multi-disciplinary
research, conducted during the last fifty
years, have provided valuable insight into
how human psychology, cognitive
potential, plus socio-cultural factors
significantly affect second or foreign
language acquisition rates in or outside
classroom environments.
 Psychological Factors
• Individual personality traits, group behavior
patterns, emotional characteristics, or specific
high/low manifestations of these, have a direct
impact in the quality and speed rate of second
language acquisition.

• Psychological factors are often connected to

Stephen Krashen’s Affective Filter Hypothesis,
although in a true sense this range of factors is
much broader.
 Cognitive Factors
• Each individual learner will, depending on innate or
developed learning, thinking, and performance abilities,
demonstrate a certain disposition for second language
acquisition (SLA) rate.

• The word “intelligence” has to be treated carefully in the

field of SLA, as it may refer not to the actual capacity for
learning and skills retention, but in particular to the
way(s) each learner will adapt in style and preference, to
the challenges involved in mastering a language other
than his/her native one.
 Socio-cultural Factors
• First and/or second language acquisition
does not occur in absence of levels of
interaction between those individuals
proficient and non-proficient in the use of
the target language. Layers of
socialization and cultural features will
significantly impact the quality and rate of
acquisition of a second language,
regardless of context.
 Psychological Factors
• Self-esteem: It refers to the level of individual
confidence and performance demonstrated in
handling the challenges of the interlanguage
phase in SLA.

• Motivation: An internal and external factor, it

will directly impact the possibilities of SLA at an
individual/group level. It plays an important role
in language teaching/lesson planning, as it has
to be calibrated, delivered and monitored.
 Psychological Factors
• Anxiety: It can negatively impact the rate and
quality of SLA, and it’s present in all learners.
Careful management and effective lowering of
anxiety through proper motivation and feedback
will increase self-confidence in learners.

• Attitudes: A particular disposition toward

learning a second language may develop in
individuals, acting as a “forced switch” in SLA.
Attitudes towards learning a language may form
due to a variety of reasons.
 Psychological Factors
• Empathy: A “connection monitor” may develop
in individuals toward SLA in through the
relationship with instructor(s) and other learners.
It can affect levels of self-confidence and
motivation, directly linked to the perceived
quality of those relationships.
• Extroversion: Natural disposition or eagerness
(or lack of, introversion) has an impact in the
level and quality of interaction needed to solidify
SLA communicative aspects. Shyness or
“excessive” output are factors to be considered
in the classroom and beyond.
 Cognitive Factors
• Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP) :
CALP refers to a measurable overall performance in
one’s native language academically learned aspects,
and the potential it can reflect towards the acquisition of
another language.

• Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills (BICS):

BICS refers to a measurable overall performance in
using basic commands, engaging in social
conversation, or demonstrating communicative fluency
as part of the acquisition process of a language.
 Cognitive Factors
• Stages of Development:
Identified as the levels of progressive growth
toward the achievement of second or additional
language mastery that take place during the
interlanguage process, these are reflected in
different ways among individuals and groups of
learners.
Considering the stages of development is critical
in the lesson planning and delivery strategy
process, as it takes into account all variables
needed for a sustained rate of language
acquisition and minimizes the risks of learners
regressing or stalling along the way.
 Cognitive Factors
• Learning strategies: It refers to inner capacities of
each learner to ease the process of SLA, closely
related to the management of sensory perception, and
the handling of input and skills through these. Learning
strategies may between individuals, and need to be
addressed by instructors as well.

• Cognitive style: It responds to the core of the critical

question “how do I learn?”. Individuals may
demonstrate a particular cognitive style in terms of
how they perform using an ability or skill. This aspect
is closely related to learning strategies, as they share
common aspects BUT should be considered separate
factors.
 Cognitive Factors
• Age and acquisition: As demonstrated in the
behaviorist/innatist theories of SLA, age is to be
considered into the planning of language instruction due
to the various incidence levels this factor may carry,
particularly in lesson contents and deliver formats.

• Bilingualism: SLA learners, conditioned by a permanent

environment of dual language (eg. maternal language
different from that of place where learner lives), will
process SLA at the cognitive level in a distinct manner
than those individual learners for which the target
language is not part of their permanent environment.
 Socio-cultural Factors
• Acculturation Variables: SLA rate may
be affected by the level/speed of
adaptation to the culture where the target
language derives from, in individual
learners. Affective factors play a role in it,
as the level of “acceptance” or “rejection”
of culture plays a role in the motivation
for learning, or use of, a second or
language.
 Socio-cultural Factors
• Differential Status of Languages: The
comparative level of importance -or
social relevance- given between one’s
native and target language -to acquire or
being acquired-, also plays a role in how
the target language will be acquired.
Social perception considerations of the
use of a target language may affect
potential SLA quality and rate.
 Socio-cultural Factors
• Value systems: Attitudes towards
learning and education, individual
participation, initiatives, or social roles,
and in particular social reactions to
these, may have an impact on an
learner’s motivation and interests toward
complete SLA. Value systems are often
connected to acculturation variables, as
they often appear in learners subject to
those social environment conditions.
 Socio-cultural Factors
• Dialects and Standard Languages: Closely
related to the cultural/ethnic environment
where second language skills are to be used,
dialect vs. standard language proficiency may
occur first, depending on the influence of the
social context on learners. This aspect
represents an important factor to be
considered by instructors, towards effective
linguistic competence of individual learners.