Centre for Distance and Online Education

Punjabi University, Patiala

Class : Bachelor of Library and Information Science

Semester : 2
Paper : LIBB1209T (Information and Communication
Technology : Basics)
Medium : English Unit : I
Lesson No.
1.1 : Computers : hardware, input, output and stroage devices.
software : system software and application software
1.2 : Information and Communication Technologess (ICT) : Concept and
Impact on Society
1.3 : ICT : Application in Libraries
1.4 : Library Automation : Need, Purpose and Application
1.5 : Information Retrieval : Search Engeines, Boolean Operators
1.6 : Computer Networks : Concept, Classification of Computer Network
on the basis of size (LAN, MAN and WAN) and Topologies and
Advantages of networks

website : www.pbidde.org
BACHELOR OF LIBRARY AND PAPER — LIBB1209T
INFORMATION SCIENCE INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY : BASICS

LESSON NO.1.1 AUTHOR : DR. KULWINDER SINGH

AND DR.AMANDEEP SINGH MARWAHA

COMPUTERS : HARDWARE, INPUT, OUTPUT AND STROAGE DEVICES.

SOFTWARE : SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND APPLICATION SOFTWARE
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is a Computer ?
1.3 Definition of Computer.
1.4 Components of Computer.
1.5 Salient features of Computer.
1.6 Hardware
1.6.1 Input Device
1.6.2 Output Device
1.6.3 Storage Device
1.7 Software
1.7.1 System Software
1.7.2 Application Software
1.8 Summary.
1.9 Keywords.
1.10 Self check exercise.
1.11 Suggested Redings.
1.1 Introduction
The computer is not just a calculator that works automatically but also
sophisticated electronic equipment for manipulating words and numbers. To
many people, the word computer suggests “computation”, and that word means
“math”, which scares some people. Computers are not calculators, although
you can use a computer as a calculator. In the simplest definition, a computer
is an electronic device—a machine that can manipulate data. Many of these
manipulations have nothing to do with math. Computers are devices, which
can compute at a very high speed. There are many kinds of computers in the
world today but their basic functions are mostly the same. Computers have
made a lot of impact on our everyday life. Computers are used by writers,
television producers, musicians, poets, and in every walk of life be it homes,

1
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 2 Paper — LIBB1209T
schools, colleges, offices, industries, hospitals, banks, railways etc. They are
presently used, among other applications, to :
• Design buildings, bridges and machines.
• Assist in Railways reservations.
• Minimize material cost through inventory control.
• Prepare examination results.
• As teaching aids.
• Systematically store and retrieve data quickly on crimes and
criminals.
• Play games like chess and video games.
1.2 What is a Computer ?
A computer is “an electronic device that processes given data to derive
the required and useful information”. The computer performs the following
functions like :
INPUT : It accepts data and instructions from the user by means of a
input device, such as a keyboard.
PROCESSING : It performs a number of arithmetic and logical operations
as per instructions given.
OUTPUT : It presents the required information or output to the user on
a device, such as a printer or a monitor that shows the end results of processing
operations.
STORAGE : It stores the results of processing operations for future use.
So we can say “a computer is an electronic device which can receive
inputs (data) as raw material and processes it according to the program
instructions to produce the output in a useful form”.
1.3 Definition of Computer
A computer can be defined as fast and accurate electronic system for
data management designed to accept and store input data, and process them
under the direction of a program (set of instructions) stored in the computer
itself, for producing the desired outputs.
1.4 Components of Computer
• Central Processing Unit :- The CPU or microprocessor is a device
which can receive the information in bits, process it and transform it into a
meaningful output. The CPU comprises of control unit, memory unit and
Arithmetic logic unit. The CPU is the brain of any computer system.
• Arithmetic logic Unit :- The arithmetic logic unit of a computer
system is the place where the actual execution of instruction takes place
during the processing operation. To be more precise, all calculations are
performed and all comparisons are made in the ALU.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 3 Paper — LIBB1209T

• Control Unit :- How does the input device know that it is time
for it to feed data into the storage unit ? How does the ALU know what should
be done with the data once they are received ? and how is it that any the final
results are sent to the output device and not the intermediate results ? All this
is possible because of the control unit of the computer system. By selecting
interpreting and seeing to the execution of the program instruction, the control
unit is able to maintain order and direct the operation of the entire system.
• Memory Unit :- All the data and results are stored in memory
unit. The memory unit comprises of million of cells each capable of storing a
unit of information. These electromagnetic cells are also referred as storage
locations or addresses.
1.5 Salient Features of Computers
Com put ers are b ec om ing popula r day by day becaus e of their
characteristics. The major characteristics that make the computer such a
powerful machine can be enumerated as speed, storage, accuracy, ability to
operate automatically, diligence, scientific approach and versatility etc. These
are briefly explained below :
1.5.1 Speed
The way we can measure the speed of a car travelling in terms of Km/hour,
the speed of a computer too can be measured. The speed of a computer is much
more than what man can possibly record or calculate normally. The computer’s
speed at performing a single operation can be measured in terms of :
1. Milliseconds—A thousandth of a second or 10 –3
2. Microseconds—A millionth of a second or 10 –6
3. Nanoseconds—A thousand millionth of a second or 10 –9
4. Pico seconds—A million millionth of a second or 10 –12
A computer is a very fast and accurate device. Most instructions are
carried out in less than a millionth of a second. It can process thousands of
instructions within a few seconds for which a human being can take several
days or months. Computers make calculations at a very high speed. A powerful
computer is capable of executing about 3 million calculations per second. The
unit of measurement of a computer’s speed is MIPS which means Millions of
instruction per second.
1.5.2 Storage and Retrieval of Information
One of the major failings in man is his inability to remember and 'store'
large volumes of information in his brain. The computer is capable of overriding
this deficiency as it can store
(a) Large volumes of information being processed simultaneously
within its own temporary memory and
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 4 Paper — LIBB1209T
(b) Larger volumes of data to be maintained more permanently on
secondary media such as—floppy disks, magnetic disks and
tapes, punched cards, microfilms etc.
The storage capacity of any media or item can be measured in terms
of certain units e.g. a 1 litre bottle or a 5 kg pack or a 1500 cubic litre water
tank etc. The storage capacity of a computer is measured in terms of Bytes,
Kilobytes, Megabytes and Gigabytes. Computers can store vast amounts of
information on magnetic media, such as magnetic tapes and magnetic disks.
For instance the entire Encyclopedia Britannica can be stored in half of the
compact disk. Equally important is the fact that information held on such
media can be shifted through and accessed within a few milliseconds.
1.5.3 Accuracy
Computer’s accuracy is consistently high. In spite of its high speed of
processing errors seldom occur. The amount of research that has gone into
developing the computer to function optimally has created a device that
operates at near 100% accuracy. Errors can occur in computerized system
also but most of them occur due to human mistakes rather than technical
problems in the computer.
1.5.4 Automatic
As stated earlier, the computer is a device, which performs much more
than a calculator, which is capable of doing lot of arithmetic operations and
need a human operator to press the necessary keys for any operation to be
performed. A computer is quite capable of functioning automatically, thus the
ability to accept and store a sequence of instructions. Such a sequence of
instructions is called a program and must be written in the language of the
computer. The program instructions will be processed in the sequence
automatically.
1.5.5 Diligence
The computer is a machine that does not feel tired and distracted.
Computer is free from problems like exhaustion, lack of concentration,
confusion, etc. It can perform even to an extent of more than 10 million
calculations; it does each and every calculation operating at exactly the same
level of speed and accuracy even if it has to carry out the most lengthy and
complex operations.
1.5.6 Scientific Approach
The entire approach to solving problems is highly scientific, objective
and sequentially carried out, leaving no room for emotional and subjective
evaluations made by man, which are sources of potential errors and unjustified
results.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 5 Paper — LIBB1209T
1.5.7 Versatility
The computers are used widely in so many areas of man’s daily life.
This is ample evidence of its versatility that it can carry out processes ranging
from si mpl e mathem ati cal calculations to highly com plex and logical
evaluations. Computers can perform almost any task, provided the task can
be reduced to a series of logical steps.
1.5.8 Reliability
Computers are designed in such a way that their individual components
have very high life and degree of reliability. The output generated by the
computer is very reliable, but it is reliable only when the data, which is
passing as input to the computer and the program, which gives instructions,
are correct and reliable.
1.5.9 Intangible benefits
Computers give many intangible benefits like flexibility, ability to
accommodate changes and expansion, competitive advantage, better services
can be provided, people may be served in jiffy without much hassle etc.
1.5.10 No emotional, ego and psychological problems
As computers are machines they do not come with any emotional, ego
and psychological problems, which are otherwise destructive in nature. We
may not neglect this front because above all, these are the things, which are
the major causes of problems arising in an environment.
1.5.11 No Intelligence
A computer can perform the information processing and reasoning only
on the basis of the intelligence provided by human beings in terms of programs
developed but it cannot make decisions on its own.
A computer may thus be thought of as a servant who would carry out
instructions obediently at a very high speed and without exhibiting any
emotions. Thus with above characteristics computers do have a strong point
to enter every sphere of life.
1.6 Hardware
Hardware is the term given to the machines itself and to the various
individual pieces of equipments. It refers to the phsycial devices of a computer
system. Thus, the input, storage, processing, control and output devices are
hardware.
Input, Output and Stroage Devices
The links between man and computer are through the input,output and
stroage devices. These act as the interface between the I & O devices and the
CPU. While the Input device transmits the input as a series of electrical pulses
to the computer, the output device retranslates the electrical pulse into a High
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 6 Paper — LIBB1209T

Level Language readable by man.

The communication link established between man and the computer is
through the Input Device. It ‘reads’ the INPUT, that the user has prepared and
wish to give to the computer, and translates it into a series of electrical pulses
for the machine to understand. Just as one can understand and sense things
through sight, smell, sound and touch, the computer, too is able to accept
INPUT from different kinds of INPUT DEVICES. Over the years these have also
undergone changes and modifications.
1.6.1 Input Devices
Punched Card Reader
J. Jacquard had initiated the system of punched cards, through his
loom. H. Hollerith further developed it as a significant means to input data &
instructions into the computer (- based on the Hollerith code.). This input unit
was used by Charles Babbage, the “Father of Computers”. Punched cards are
the most primitive form of communication and are used very sparingly today.
The punched card contains 80 columns, containing 12 punching
positions in each column. The information is punched as holes into these
cards in a series of unique codes. These cards are then sequentially arranged
into a series of ‘pack’ ready to be input to the computer. For this purpose we
require an input device called as CARD READER—which is a device for reading
packs of cards ‘electro-mechanically with speed of about 300-1600 cards per
minute and transcribing the pattern of holes punched, into a series of electrical
pulses which the computer, can interpret. About 200 characters per minute
could be read by this input device.
Today, the typically modern card-readers can operate at speeds of over
1000 cards per minute resulting in a maximum transmission of about 80,000
characters per minute into the computer.

Punched card has the following advantages :

1. It is relatively cheaper.
2. Both user as well as machine can read data.
Limitations :
1. The volume of cards which are very huge are difficult to maintain
and control.
2. As the card devices are essentially composed of many mechanical
parts, these devices are subject to frequent breakdowns.
3. Speed of processing data on card by card reader and punched
cards is low.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 7 Paper — LIBB1209T
4. They are not reusable.
Paper Tape Reader
Another input device that also deals with paper media is the PAPER
TAPE READER. This device reads the unique combination of holes punched
into a paper tape in much the same way as the card reader. Only here the
information is stored on a roll of paper tape, instead of a pack of cards. As
the paper tape is cheaper than punched cards it gained wide usage for data
communication, recording and requisition. The typical reading speed of a
modern paper tape reader is about 1,000 characters per second but can go
up to over 2000 CPS.
Mark and Character Recognition
Mark and character recognition involves 3 types of recognition viz.
OPTICAL MARK SENSE Reading, MAGNETIC INK Reading and the OPTICAL
CHARACTER Reading.
The OPTICAL MARK SENSE READER is an input device that reads the
presence or absence of a mark made with a pencil. The card or the form is
divided into boxes or ovals, in which a mark is made either by pen or pencil.
A character is represented by marking a correct combination of boxes in any
column. Usually these cards are printed for special purposes, so that, marking
at specific purposes signify number, yes or no etc. This technique is now-a-
days popular in various competitive examinations, where the examinees have
to mark their answers on preprinted answer sheets using pencil, which is then
read by an OMR, so that the evaluation becomes easier and accurate. The
reading mechanism goes over the media on which the data is present and
reads it as a series of absence or presence of marks, made by the graphite
deposits of a pencil. These readers are capable of operating at a speed of
10,000 A4 documents per hour. It is widely used in a number of spheres and
the most common application is perhaps the checking of answer sheets with
multiple-choice answers.
With the success of the mark sense readers, a further research was
done into character recognition readers. This proved highly successful and
resulted in the development of the OPTICAL CHARACTER READER. OCR permits
direct reading of any printed character. A photoelectric device that determines
the outline and shape reads each character on an OCR document. This shape
is then compared with a sample set that is already within the device. The
identification of the characters is generated in electronic codes to the computer.
OCRs recognize characters printed in a special format. Use of OCR saves a lot
of time that would otherwise be spent in data transcription. It increases data
accuracy and timeliness of information produced.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 8 Paper — LIBB1209T
The early OCR devices would only read a single ‘font’ (type-style), but
now they are able to ‘read’ typewriter and computer printed documents. They,
however, cannot be used to read handwriting since every person’s handwriting
has variations to it.
Some of the typical OCR fonts being used are the OCR-A, OCR-B,
ECMA-II, PICA-72. OCR devices are able to read about 2400 characters per
second. They are used in connection with billing in western countries e.g.
electricity bills, gas bills, etc. Examples are American National Standards
OCR, European OCR.
Finally we arrive at MAGNETIC INK CHARACTER RECOGNITION devices,
also called MICR readers. The method employed in this is the documents with
characters marked in ink are passed through a magnetic field where the ink-
coded characters magnetize the reader’s head due to magnetic ink. These are
then read and recognized on the basis of the strength of current according to
the size of the magnetized area in a specific pattern. MICR devices operate
at a speed of reading 2400 characters per second and find wide application
in banking systems and establishments. One can see these characters on
cheques. Banks, to process the large volumes of cheques generally use MICR.
The information coded on the cheque is printed with special ink that contains
magnetized particles of iron oxide. The characters are read or recognized by
the reader based on patterns on magnetization of particles in the ink. Magnetic
ink characters are also human readable. It eliminates the document encoding
process. Applications besides banking include utility bills, customer payment
coupons, etc.
This way of input has several advantages :
1. In spite of rough handling, one can read the information with a
very high degree of accuracy.
2. The information processing is faster.
The major limitation of MICR is that it can recognise only 10 digits and
4 special characters, we cannot use alphabetic characters.
Bar Codes
Data can also be recorded in the form of Bar Codes i.e. Vertical lines
with varying widths alternating with spaces. These bars are read by bar code
reader or optical reader and converted into electrical pulses. The pattern of
bar is unique and standardized, which gets converted into specific information.
Bar code readers read price and inventory codes printed on products that are
frequently purchased, such as goods in supermarkets. These codes are specific
codes of which the UPC (Universal Product Code) and EAN (European Article
Number) are common. They are used in manufacturing and distribution, in
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 9 Paper — LIBB1209T
warehouses, retail stores, bank teller windows, and business offices.
Keyboard
Most computer systems use an input device that is attached with the
computer or a terminal and looks quite like a typewriter. This device that
consists of keys marked with characters on them is referred to as a KEYBOARD.
Some of the keys have two characters marked on them, one above the other—
which are known as upper case and lower case characters, respectively. The
numbers usually appear on the topmost row with other upper shelf symbols.
Every key and key combination passes a unique signal to the computer. It is
generally used for typing text-based information. During typing, the keys get
displayed on the VDU so that the user can see what he is typing.
Key boards usually contain the following keys :
1. Numeric keys, which are arranged as a pad as same as calculator,
which are used for inputting numeric values.
2. Character keys, which are used for inputting characters.
3. Function keys, which are preprogrammed for specific operations.
These can also be programmed by the user so as to work in a way
he desires.
4. Special keys : Which are usually used for cursor controls, special
symbols, and other specific purposes.
Cursor-control keys, the ones with arrows, move the cursor on the VDU.
Other special keys delete and insert characters from text, scroll the screen,
clear the screen, and so on.
Keyboards are used to input data and program, where the depression
of a key sends the corresponding electronic code to the computer. They
cannot be used to input large volumes of data since they are slow and tedious
i.e. at the rate of human typing. These keyboards are an integral part of
computer terminals.
Mouse
A mouse is a pointing device that rolls on a small rubber ball and has
two or three buttons on the top. This input device is used specially for
Graphic User Interfaces (GUI). This is used as a pointing device. The user
rolls on a smooth surface, the cursor movement on the screen is controlled
by mouse. The movement of the ball is sensed by two sensors and resolved
into horizontal and vertical components. The movement of the mouse controls
the movement of cursor on the screen. Clicking of the mouse button while the
cursor or pointer points to the option to be selected does selection of menu
option. One can point to any place on screen, make selections, and click an
option etc., so that input is provided to computer.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 10 Paper — LIBB1209T
Light pen
Light pen is used to select a menu option displayed on the screen. It
is used in application areas like designing and engineering etc. We usually
see, during election analysis, that the anchors of the show, draw lines or
markings on the computer screen which we can see, and as well during
cricket matches we see the various points, field is pointed or shown using free
hand lines. This is done using a light pen. It is a type of pointing device that
is used to choose a displayed menu option on screen for a program. It
functions on the concept of photocell placed in a small tube. As the tip of the
pen is moved over the screen surface, it will detect the light coming from a
limited field of view. This light from the screen activates photocell, and electric
response is transmitted to the process which identifies menu option that has
triggered photocell.
Joystick
It is one of the popular input devices used for playing games on
computers. It provides fast, controlled movement on the screen and allows
movement of objects around the screen easily. The position and speed with
which the joystick is moved is controlled by a lever that is attached to a solid
base. Different shapes of joysticks are available now-a-days.
Track Ball
This is similar to joystick, the difference is that track ball uses hard
sphere instead of handle for cursor control. This hard ball can be rotated by
hand in any direction. The sphere's speed and direction of rotation is translated
into digital signals, which control the cursor.
Touch Screen
These input devices are very user friendly, which accept the input by
mere clicking/pressing with a finger or any other object. These are similar to
video display units, which are having the same appearance, the difference
being they take input directly. Touch screen takes input as when a finger or
object comes in contact with the screen, the light beam is broken, and the
location of breaking of light beam is recorded, which acts as inputs.
Magnetic Strips
These are thin bands of magnetically encoded data. These are usually
on credit cards. The data stored on these strips can be anything, but usually
they include special codes, which are used for accessing accounts. These
strips are usually pasted on the card, and this card is swiped in a card reader
which reads the data stored on the strips. The data cannot be seen and read
by mere looking at the card, it is usually secret.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 11 Paper — LIBB1209T
Scanner
These scanners look and work somewhat like a photocopier. One needs
to simply lay an image or page of text face down on the flatbed scanner and
then issue a command to scan the page.
The page stays stationary and mechanism inside the flat bed scanner
moves over the image to scan it. The scanned image is then transferred to the
system and saved. A scanner allows you to scan documents, pictures, or
graphics and view them on the computer. You can also use software to edit
the items you scan. To scan text, optical character recognition (OCR) software
is needed.
Voice Input/Recognition Devices
Another form of inputting data is by the voice-input system, which is
one of the latest developments. The human need for easy and faster way of
input is giving rise to a very friendly input systems, which take input using
human voice, i.e. when one speaks it takes the input. These devices convert
human speech into electric signals that a computer can recognize. The device
has a microphone through which spoken words are input to the computer.
Within the computer there is a pre-stored vocabulary of about 100 to 200
words in the form of typical ‘sound-patterns’. The voice-input word is then
compared with and recognized with the vocabulary stored inside. These devices
are used in those areas of application where one may not be free to use the
keyboard e.g. in laboratories, quality control or even by disabled people. The
great limitation is the vocabulary and modulation, which will surely be overcome
and we can get voice response systems. Most of the voice recognition systems
are speaker dependent. For example, talk writer.
1.6.2 Output devices
So far, we have dealt with how data and instructions can be generated
as INPUT and is retrieved by us via the OUTPUT DEVICE. Like the former,
there are many kinds of output devices.
Hard Copy Devices
Hard copy means that the output is in directly usable form, that is, in
printed or plotted form. Hard copy devices produce a permanent record on
media such as paper or microfilm. They are very slow in operation as compared
to soft copy devices because these often involve mechanical movement.
Following hard copy devices are very popular :
• Card and Tape Punch (now outdated)
• Printers
• Plotters
• Photographic output
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 12 Paper — LIBB1209T
Card and Tape Punch
These punching devices are output devices which look like the
corresponding readers but in this case, the read units are replaced by punch
units for punching holes. Speed of card punches are about 5 cards per
second, and that of paper tape punchers are up to 300 characters per second.
Printers
Printed output are extremely popular as man immediately understand
them. There are various kinds of printers as output devices viz. :
• Character Printers—which print a character at a time.
• Line Printers—which print a full line at a time.
• Page Printers—which print a full page at a time.
The above are examples of what are termed as IMPACT PRINTERS. In
impact printer, a character is printed on the paper through physical contact
between the print head and paper. Either the needle or a character is stuck
on the paper through the ribbon. This creates a lot of noise when these
printers work. NON-IMPACT printers are those in which printing is done
without the ‘contact’ e.g. Laser Printing, Thermal Printing etc.
A further classification of printers can be done on the basis of the TYPE
OF CHARACTERS used viz. Dot Matrix printers and Shaped character printers.
Printers are also classified on the basis of the quality of output and
speed, where letter quality printing is best seen in electronic typewriters used
for correspondence purposes. Printers of low speeds are the character printers
like the DOT Matrix Printers, Daisy-Wheel Printers, Thermal Printers. Medium
Speed printers are like the line printers that can be drum, chain or band
based. High-speed printers are page printers like the Optical Laser printer
and Electrostatic printers.
Let us now analyse the more commonly used printers one by one.
Impact Printers
These are those type of printers which have direct mechanical contact
between the head of the printer and paper.
Character Printers
Character printers form one letter at a time on the paper. Typically,
they do this in one of two ways.
Dot Matrix
The dot-matrix printer is a widely used inexpensive printer capable of
operating at speeds of 30 to 200 characters per second. Each character in this
print type is a collection of dots in a rectangular matrix. Thus the name dot
matrix has come to these printers. The printing head of these printers contain
vertical array of pins, which fires the selected pins against carbon ribbon or
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 13 Paper — LIBB1209T
inked surface, while the head moves across the paper to form a pattern of
dots representing characters. In these type of printers individual characters
are formed by needles which hit against the ribbon selectively forming patterns
of dots. These printers are versatile as their character set can be changed so
that different styles and graphic symbols can be printed. The print quality of
dot matrix printers is inferior. These printers can print characters in draft
quality, standard quality as well near letter quality.
Non-impact printers such as ink-jet, thermal and electrostatic units
also use the dot-matrix technique. It comes in two print head specifications,
9 pins and 24 pins.
Examples are EPSON EX 1000, EPSON LQ 1050, CITIZEN MSP 55,
GODREJ, etc.
Daisy Wheel
This printer is a solid font type character printer. The quality of print
of this printer is good. Daisy wheel printer is named as such because the print
head resembles a daisy flower, with the printing arms appearing like the
petals of the flower. The daisy wheel printer uses shaped characters at a
speed of about 40 characters per second. The print head is a 60 mm diameter,
spoke rimmed wheel in which each spoke contains a single character at the
end of the spoke. Printing is performed by the rotation of the wheel to the
appropriate spoke at the print-location. It is a bi-directional printer, i.e. the
head of the printer prints while moving in forward direction as well as in
backward direction. Daisy wheel printer is a letter quality printer because it
produces solid characters unlike broken characters formed by a dot matrix
printer. The font (i.e. style of character) is of fixed type for a Daisy Wheel
printer. This printer is relatively expensive, produces high quality printing but
is still slow in printing.
Line Printers
Line printers are also impact printers using shaped characters. These
can be barrel/drum printers or chain/band printers. These printers print a
complete line at a time. The drums, chains or bands have letters marked on
them and rotate at a uniform speed. The paper passes between the drum,
chain or band and a row of hammers strike the character image through a
carbon ribbon, as the required characters pass the print positions. Line Printers
are capable of operating at speeds of 300 to 1200 lines per minute and each
line contains about 132-136 print positions. Line printers sacrifice quality of
print for speed.
Page Printers
Optical laser printer and electrostatic printers have facilitated the
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 14 Paper — LIBB1209T
printing of matter, a complete page at a time. These are high-speed printers
capable of operating at speeds of 30-250 pages per minute, but due to their
extremely high costs, are not very popular. Laser printers use character type
made of dots, but the dots are so closely placed that they look like shaped
characters.
Non-Impact Printers
These are those types of printers where there is no direct mechanical
contact between the head of the printer and paper. There is no impact or
hitting of needles, so non-impact printers don’t make any noise while printing.
They come in many varieties :
• Thermal Printer
• Laser Printer
• Ink Jet Printer
• Electrostatic Printer
Thermal Printer
Thermal printers, the slowest of the non-impacts, form characters by
burning them on specially treated paper. In a thermal printer pressing an
array of electrically heated needles against heat sensitive paper forms the
characters. Such papers have a special heat sensitive coating that becomes
dark when a spot is heated. Character is printed with a matrix of dots that
are heated by the needles.
This printer’s basic disadvantages are that it uses special type of paper.
It isn’t possible to produce multiple copies simultaneously with this type of
printer. A special type of paper is used with this printer, that is costly. This
has reduced the popularity of thermal printers. Operating at about thirty
characters per second, they are sometimes built into microcomputers, especially
portable and lap sized versions.
Laser Printer
When cost is not the criteria, and the quality is important, then the
most suitable printer is a laser printer. Laser printer works on the concept of
using laser beams to create an image on a photosensitive surface. Initially the
desired output image is written on a copier drum with a laser beam that
operates under the control of the computer. These type of printers use laser
beams which charge the drum negatively, to which black toner powder which
is positively charged is sticked. The toner is permanently fused on paper with
heat and/or pressure by rolling the drum over the blank paper. Laser printers
are quiet and produce very high quality of output. They are capable of printing
4-30 pages per minute.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 15 Paper — LIBB1209T
Ink Jet Printer
Ink Jet printer uses dot matrix approach to print text and graphics.
This is an expensive but faster printing device. Nozzles in the print head
produce tiny ink droplets. This printer uses a mechanism where it sprays ink
from tiny nozzles through an electric field that arranges charged particles ink
into characters. The paper absorbs the ink and it dries instantaneously. It has
a speed of 40-300 cps (character per second) with software controls on size
and style of characters. These printers support colour printing and are very
quiet and noiseless in operation. The print quality of such printers is very
near letter-quality. These types of printers are very reliable.
Electrostatic printer
An electrostatic printer moves a continuous sheet of paper over the
print in pins that put small electric charges on the paper. The paper then
passes through a toner solution. Particles of ink adhere to the charged areas
of the paper. When the paper is heated, the particles melt, thus producing the
characters. Some electrostatic printers print upto 5,000 lines per minute.
Such printers use dot-matrix approach for printing. The print head contains
a vertical array (i.e. a vertical column) of pins. Such printers can also produce
graphics. Electrographic printers can be quite fast. A Honeywell model, for
example prints upto 18,000 lines (about 300 pages) per minute.
Plotters
Plotters are printers of a special kind in which there is an ink pen (or
many ink pens in the case of coloured plotters) that moves up, down and
across. The graphics and drawings produced by plotters are uniform and
precise and of very high quality. Plotters are output devices that are used to
produce precise and good quality graphics and drawings under computer
control. Plotters are used widely in scientific and engineering fields, complex
engineering drawing and for drawing of maps that require high degree of
accuracy and have to be used for CAD purposes (Computer Aided Design).
Photographic Output
It is in the form of a high-resolution image on the photographic film. It
is capable of storing large quantities of data in readable character form in a
relatively small space e.g. microfilm.
Micro Film
The computer output Microfilm device is very expensive and specially
made for extensive computer users. Information stored on magnetic tapes is
made into miniature images on the microfilm. The information is displayed as
characters on the VDU, and by using photographic methods, it is recorded on
to a film, usually, a 16-35 mm roll film. Drawings, picture and narrative text,
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 16 Paper — LIBB1209T
on a full display (equivalent to a page of line punch output), is recorded as
a single frame. A special reader of printer can be used to view the processed
film. The speed of recording is 25-50 times faster than the average line
printers. Its density is very high. it is used to store data for future viewing.
Soft Copy Devices
Soft copy is magnetic/audible form that cannot be used directly. These
devices do not produce a permanent record. Following soft copy devices are
very popular :
• Visual Display Unit (VDU)
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) used in laptop computers
• Audio Response Unit (ARU)
Visual Display Unit
Where temporary and quick retrieval of information is needed Visual
Display Units is the best output terminal that can be used. It is the most
commonly used output device. The VDU uses a cathode ray tube to display
information. The screen enables the user to check the accuracy of both the
INPUT and the OUTPUT. The characters are generated from a ‘dot matrix’
where a selected pattern of dots is illuminated to form a character. The input
errors can be corrected instantly—without wasting anytime. A specialized and
expensive form of VDU is the graphics VDU which is able to display graphics.
VDUs can be the ordinary black and white variety or the coloured variety.
There are many types of VDU based on different characteristics :
1. Text and Graphics 2. Monochrome and Coloured.
1. Text and Graphics : Certain VDUs are capable of displaying a
character set such as that provided by the ASCII code. The output of a
computer is best presented in graphical form. For that a graphical monitor is
required which has a high degree of resolution and the screen is divided into
rows and columns of dots called pixels.
2. Mono chr ome and Colou r Monit o r : Monit ors capable of
displaying only a single colour image are called monochrome monitors. It has
only one electron gun. Colour monitor is capable of displaying upto 17 million
colors using combinations of basic colours. It has different colours. Generally
two types of coloured monitors are used :
RGB (RED, GREEN, BLUE)
CMYK (CYAN, MAGNETA, YELLOW and ‘K’ FOR BLACK)
RGB colour monitor has three electron guns and the screen is coated
with three types of phosphors : Red, Green and Blue.
Liquid Crystal Display
This is like the display in digital watches and calculators where Liquid
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 17 Paper — LIBB1209T
Crystal Display (LCD) is used. Here there is a flat panel and does not have
a picture tube. It works on the principle that when high voltage is applied, the
crystals line up in such a way that it blocks the light passing through them
and in absence of light is seen as the characters on the screens. These panels
are a lot better than CRTs as they do not flicker and cause strain to the eyes.
Audio Response Unit
Transient information, or any information that need to be conveyed on
once, could be utilised in such a manner that the OUTPUT can be retrieved
by an AUDIO RESPONSE UNIT. Here, the messages have to be composed and
transmitted in coded form over telephone lines through a Voice-input system
or by using a keyboard for INPUT. The response is assembled from pre-
recorded words and phrases after the input is analysed, and the response is
delivered clearly and more slowly than human verbal replies. ARU permits
computers to talk to people. It works in the following manner. All the sounds
needed to process the possible inquiries are provided on a storage medium.
Each sound is given a code. When enquiries are received, the processor
follows a set of rules to create a reply message in a coded form. This coded
message is then transmitted to an audio-response device. The sounds are
assembled in proper sequence.
A common example of an ARU is the way messages and train schedules
are narrated on railway stations having automatic enquiry system.
1.6.3 Storage Devices
The primary stroage memory cannot hold data or instructions once the
computer is switched off. Therefore, a computer requires more stable (non-
volatile) type of memory so that it can store all the data (files) and instructions
(software programs) even after the computer is turned off. This kind of memory
is known as secondary memory or auxiliary memory or peripheral storage or
secondary storage. As opposed to primary storage, which the Central Processing
Unit (CPU) uses for processing data and instructions, secondary storage is used
to store data and programs when they are not being processed. Secondary storage
includes devices like hard disks, floppies, CD-ROMs, and magnetic tapes. These
devices have a larger (and more permanent) storage capacity and they are less
expensive as compared to primary storage devices, but they are slow in
comparison.
Magnetic Tape
It is oldest type of secondary storage device. Magnetic tape mechanism
is similar to the commonly used audio tape recorders. It is a plastic tape with
magnetic coating. The data is stored in the form of tiny segments of magnetised
and de-magnetised portion on the surface of material. Magnetised portion of
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 18 Paper — LIBB1209T
the surface refers to the bit value ‘1’ where as demagnetised portion refers to
the bit value ‘0’. Tapes come in a number of forms, including ½-inch wide tape
wound on a reel, ¼-inch wide tape in data cartridges and cassettes, and tapes
that look like ordinary music cassettes but are designed to store data instead
of music.
The major differences between magnetic tape units are the speed at which
the tape is moved past the read/write head and the density of the recorded
information. The amount of data or the number of binary digits that can be
stored on a linear inch of tape is known as the tape’s recording density.
Magnetic tapes are very durable and can be erased as well as reused.
These tapes are the least expensive and reliable storage medium for organising
archives and taking backup. However, magnetic tapes are not suitable for data
files that need to be revised or updated often because it stores data in a
sequential manner. Being sequential access devices means that the user must
advance or rewind the tape to the position where the requested data starts.
Tapes are also slow due to the nature of the media. While data transfer can be
increased by increasing the speed of the tape, this can lead to two problems.
One, the heads are more likely to miswrite due to not having enough time to
align the polarities of the magnetic particles, or may misread due to the tape
not being under the head long enough. The other problem has to do with the
durability of the tape media itself - the faster the tape is started, pulled, and
stopped, the more it will stretch. If the tape stretches too much, then it will
render it unusable for data storage, and data loss may result. The tape now has
a limited role because disk has proved to be a superior storage medium.
Advantages:

(1) Data-entry to CPU from magnetic tape is 100 times faster than the card
readers.
(2) Magnetic tape is used for input, output and very large amount of data
storage.
(3) Magnetic tape cassettes are easily transportable.
(4) Magnetic tapes are available in varying densities.
(5) Magnetic tapes hold high data recording density, resulting in low cost per
bit of storage.
Disadvantages:
(1) Loading and unloading of tape require much time.
(2) Handling of the tape must be done carefully. Tapes should be kept in dust
free environment and away from corrosive gases or chemicals.
(3) Effect of magnetism and heat may damage the tapes.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 19 Paper — LIBB1209T

(4) It is necessary to check the accuracy of data is stored on the tape.

(5) They are not flexible when file updating requires record insertion and
deletion.
Magnetic Disk
Magnetic disks are the most widely used and popular storage medium
for direct access secondary storage. They offer high storage capacity, reliability,
and have the capability to access the stored data directly. A magnetic disk
comprises a thin piece of plastic/metal circular plate/platter, which is coated
with magnetic oxide layer. Data is represented as magnetised spots on a disk.
A magnetised spot represents as 1 (bit) and the absence of a magnetised spot
represents a 0 (bit). To read the data, the magnetised data on the disk is
converted into electrical impulses, which is transferred to the processor. Writing
data onto the disk is accomplished by converting the electrical impulses from
the processor into magnetic spots on the disk. The data in a magnetic disk can
be erased and reused virtually infinitely. The disk is designed to reside in a
protective case or cartridge to shield it from the dust and other external
interference.
The surface of a disk is divided into imaginary tracks and sectors. Tracks
are concentric circles where the data is stored. Disk sectors refer to the number
of fixed- size areas that can be accessed by one of the disk drive’s read/write
heads, in one rotation of the disk, without the head having to change its position.
An intersection of a track and a disk sector is known as track sector. Generally,
a disk has eight or more disk sectors per track. However, different types of
magnetic disk may have different number of tracks. Modem day disks are marked
(tracks and sectors) on both surfaces, hence they are also known as double-
sided disks.
In order to make the disk usable, first it must be formatted to create
tracks and sectors. The formatting of a magnetic disk refers to the assignment
of addresses to the different areas in the disk. Without formatting, there would
be no way to store data into the disk. If a sector is corrupted after formatting, it
will be marked as damaged, and the data saved on it will not be readable.
Frequently, multiple disks are maintained and used together to create a
large disk storage system. Typically, two, three, or more platters are stacked on
top of each (disk pack) other with a common spindle, which turns the whole
assembly. There is a gap between the platters, making room for magnetic read/
write head. There is a read/write head for each side of each platter, mounted
on arms, which can move them towards the central spindle or towards the edge.
This concept of stacking the disk is known as cylinder.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 20 Paper — LIBB1209T
Types of Magnetic Disk
Broadly, magnetic disks can be classified into three types: floppy disk,
hard drive and zip disk.
Floppy Disk
It is the most popular secondary storage device used to transfer the files
from one PC to another Pc. Floppy disk is made of plastic material. It is coated
with magnetic oxide. It is normally covered with a plastic or cardboard sleeve
for protection. A hole at the center is provided for mounting disk drive hub, and
an another small hole for index mark sensing. The data is stored along concentric
circles called tracks. A notch at the right side of the disk is used to protect
floppy form writing over it. There are two standard sizes, 5½ inch and 8 inch.
Now 8-inch floppy is outdated. A more recent development is 3½ inch. The
capacity of floppy disk is varied (e.g. 360 KB, 1.2 MB, 2 MB, 1.44 MB etc.)

Figure: Floppy disks

The floppy disk is slipped into the drive mechanism for read/write
operation. The mechanism holds the envelope and the flexible disk are rotated
inside the envelope by the drive mechanism. The read/write head is in contact
with a slit for operation. The head is moved radically. i.e. track to track. The
floppy disk is a low cost device. Floppies have a speed limitation of about 360-
RPM. A low-density floppy disk has 40 tracks, 9 sector per track and 515 bytes
per sec tor. Floppy dis ks are used f or data preparation, small busi ness
applications and word processing systems.
Hard Disk:
The hard disk, also called the hard drive or fixed disk, is the primary storage
unit the computer. A hard disk consists of a stack of disk platters that are
made up of aluminum alloy glass substrate coated with a magnetic material
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 21 Paper — LIBB1209T
and protective layers. The hard drive’s speed is discussed in terms of access
time (the speed at which the hard drive finds data), which is measured in
milliseconds. The average drives have an access time of 9 to 14 ms. The lower
the access time, the faster the hard drive. The capacity, or amount of information
that a hard drive can store, is measured in bytes. Hard disk plays a significant
role in the following important aspects of a computer system:
 Performance: The hard disk plays a very important role in overall system
performance. The speeds at which the computer boots up and programs
load are directly related to the hard di sk speed. The hard d isk’s
performance is also critical when multitasking is exercised.
 Storage Capacity: A bigger hard disk lets one store more software and
data into it, thereby permitting the user to store large software related to
complex processes such as graphics and multimedia.
 Software Support: Nowadays almost all software needs large storage
space and faster hard disks to load them efficiently. Usually, older hard
disks can barely hold the operating system and few uncomplicated
software that does not require much space.
 Reliability: One way to assess the importance of any hardware component
is to consider how much damage is caused in case it fails. By this standard,
the hard disk is considered the successful storage component by a long
way. A good quality hard disk, combined with smart maintenance and
backup habits, can help ensure that the nightmare of data loss doesn’t
become part of daily life.
Zip disk
Zip disk is a removable storage device and it has a capacity to store 100-
250 MB of data Zip disk’s drive unit is measured at 18 x 13 x 4 cm and weighs
about half kilogram. It has rubber feet to stabilise the unit in either vertical or
horizontal position. The substrate for the disk is made up of plastic material on
which magnetic oxide particles are coated. There are two indicator lights, green
for power, and amber for disk access. It has an eject button, but no ON/OFF
switch. It comes complete with drive, connection cable, power supply, operating
software, and a starter 100 MB disk. After installation, you can transfer files to
and from the zip drive as if you are accessing hard disk or floppy drive.
The zip disk is similar in diameter to that of the 3½-inch floppy diskette.
However, one should keep in mind that although they may look similar to floppy
disks, but a zip drive cannot read or write floppy disks and similarly a floppy
drive cannot read/write data onto a zip disk. Either the zip drive can be built
into the computer or it can be connected to the computer via a parallel or SCSI
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 22 Paper — LIBB1209T
cable. There are different versions of zip disks and drives available in the market.
These versions can hold 100, 250, and 110 MB of data. As a zip disk can hold
as much as 70 times of information as compared to a floppy disk, it can be used
to store heavy graphics, music or presentation files.
Advantages of Magnetic Disks
 Magnetic disks follow direct access mode for reading and writing onto
the data files, thereby making an ideal device for accessing frequently
accessed data.
 Magnetic disks are easily moveable from one place to another because
of their small size and lightweight.
 The data transfer rate of disks is much higher than magnetic tapes.
 Due to their low cost and high data recording densities, the cost per bit
in magnetic disks is minimum.
 The storage capacity of these disks is virtually unlimited as numbers of
such disks can be added to store data.
 Magnetic disks are less prone to the corruption of data as they can
withstand the temperature and humidity change in a much better way
as compared to magnetic tapes.
Disadvantages of Magnetic Disks
 Magnetic disks must be stored in a dust-free environment in order to
protect them from crashing down.
 The cost of Magnetic disks storage is more costly than the cost of magnetic
tapes.
 Magnetic disks are less secure than magnetic tapes.
4.5 Optical Disk
As compared to magnetic tape and magnetic disk, optical disk is a
relatively new secondary storage medium. During the last few years, it has proved
to be a promising random access medium for high capacity secondary storage,
because it can store extremely large amounts of data in a limited space.
An optical-disk storage system consists of a rotating disk, which is coated
with a thin metal or some other material that is highly reflective. Laser beam
technology is used for recording/reading of data on the disk. Due to the use of
laser beam technology, optical disks are also known as laser disks or optical
laser disks.
Unlike magnetic disks, which have several concentric tracks, an optical
disk has one long track, which starts at the outer edge and spirals inward to the
center. This spiral track is ideal for reading large blocks of sequential data,
such as music. However, it makes for slower random access time than the
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 23 Paper — LIBB1209T
concentric tracks used by magnetic disks, whose sectors can be located faster,
because they are always found on a given track at a fixed -distance from the
center.
(a) Track pattern on an optical disk (b) Track pattern on a magnetic
disk

Difference in track patterns on optical and magnetic disks.

Like a track on a magnetic disk, the track of an optical disk is split up

into sectors, but with optical disks, each sector has the same length, regardless
of whether it is located near the disk’s center or away from the center. This type
of data organization allows data to be packed at maximum density over the
entire disk. However, it also requires a more complicated drive mechanism,
because the rotation speed of the disk must vary inversely with the radius; the
drive must slow down the disk’s rotation speed to read sectors towards the
outside of the disk, and speed it up to read sectors towards the center of the
disk.
The cost-per-bit of storage is very low for optical disks, because of their
low cost and enormous storage density. They come in various sizes, ranging
from 12-inch to 4.7-inch diameter. The most popular one is of 5.25 inch diameter,
whose capacity is around 650 Megabytes. This storage capacity is equivalent to
about 2,50,000 pages of printed text.
Types of Optical Disks
All optical disks are round platters. They come in different sizes and
capacities. The two most popular types of optical disks in use are CD-ROM and
WORM disks.
 CD-ROM: CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk-Read-Only Memory. It is a
spin-off of music CD technology, and works much like the music CDs
used in music systems. In fact, if you have a soundboard and speakers
connected to your computer, you can play music CDs with your computer.
The CD-ROM disk is a shiny, silver color metal disk of 5½ inch (12
cm) diameter. It has a storage capacity of about 650 Megabytes. It is so
called, because of its enormous storage capacity on a compact-size disk,
and because it is a read-only storage medium. That is, these disks come
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 24 Paper — LIBB1209T
pre-recorded, and the information stored on them cannot be altered.
 WORM Disk: WORM stands for write-once, read-many. WORM disks allow
the users to create their own CD-ROM disks by using a CD-recordable
(CD-R) drive, which can be attached to a computer as a regular peripheral
device. WORM disks, which look like standard CD-ROM disks, are
purchased blank and encoded using a CD-R drive. The information
recorded on a WORM disk by a CD-R drive can be read by any ordinary
CD-ROM drive. As the name implies, data can be written only once on a
WORM disk, but can be read many times. That is, as with a CD-ROM
disk, once data has been etched on to the surface of a WORM disk, it
becomes permanent, which can be read, but never altered.
Advantages:
1. The cost-per-bit of storage for optical disks is very low, because of their
low cost and enormous storage density.

2. The use of a single spiral track makes optical disks an ideal storage
medium for reading large blocks of sequential data, such as music.

3. Optical disk drives are more reliable storage medium than magnetic
tapes or magnetic disks.

4. Optical disks have a data storage life in excess of 30 years.

5. Since data once stored on an optical disk becomes permanent, the danger
of stored data getting inadvertently erased/overwritten is not there with
optical disks.

6. Due to their compact size and light weight, optical disks are easy to
handle, store, and port from one place to another.
7. Music CDs can be played on a computer having a CD-ROM drive along
with a sound board and speakers. This allows computer systems to be
also used as music systems, whenever desired.
Limitations:

1. It is a read-only (permanent) storage medium. Data once recorded, cannot

be erased, and hence, the optical disks cannot be reused.
2. It is not easy to copy an optical disk, as it is to a floppy disk. One needs
to have software and hardware for writing disks.
3. The data access speed for optical disks is slower than magnetic disks.
4. Optical disks require a more complicated drive mechanism than magnetic
disks.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 25 Paper — LIBB1209T
Uses of Optical Disks

ptical disks are typically used for one or more of the following purposes:

1. For distributing large amounts of data at low cost. For example, a complete
encyclopedia, dictionary, world atlas, dictionary of quotations, biographies
of great people, information about all educational institutions of a
particular type in a country, etc. are often distributed on CD-ROM disks.

2. For distribution of electronic version of conference proceedings, journals,

magazines, books, product catalogs, etc.
3. For distribution of new or upgraded versions of software products by software
vendors.
4. For storage and distribution of a. wide variety of multimedia
applications, such as video games.
5. For archiving of data, which are not used frequently, but which may
be used once in a while.
6. WORM disks are often used by end-user companies to make permanent
storage of their own proprietary information. For example, many banks use
them for making a permanent record of their daily transactions.
Magneto-Optical Disk
As implied by the name, these drives use a hybrid of magnetic and optical
technologies, employing Laser to read data on the disk, while additionally
needing magnetic field to write data. A magneto-optical disk drive is so designed
that an inserted disk will be exposed to a magnet on the label side and to the
light (laser beam) on the opposite side. The disks, which come in 3½-inch and
5½-inch formats, have a special alloy layer that has the property of reflecting
laser light at slightly different angles depending on which way it is magnetised,
and data can be stored on it as north and south magnetic spots, just like on a
hard disk.
Magneto-optical drives use a laser to target and heat specific regions of
magnetic particles. This accurate technique enables magneto-optical media to
pack in a lot more information than other magnetic devices. Once heated, the
magnetic particles can easily have their direction changed by a magnetic field
generated by the read/write head. Information is read using a less powerful
laser, making use of the Kerr effect, where the polarity of the reflected light is
altered depending on the orientation of the magnetic particles. Where the laser/
magnetic head has not touched the disk, the spot represents a ‘0’, and the
spots where the disk has been heated up and magnetically written will be seen
as data’ 1 ‘. However, this is a ‘two-pass’ process, which, coupled with ill
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 26 Paper — LIBB1209T
tendency for magneto-optical heads to be heavy, resulted in early
implementations being relatively slow. Nevertheless, magneto-optical disks can
offer very high capacity and cheap media as well as top archival properties,
often being rated with an average life of 30 years, which is far longer than any
magnetic media.
Mass Storage Devices
In order to get vast amount of storage capacity of several bytes (trillions
and more) in a computer system, a different kind of storage system is used. In
such type of system, multiple units of similar kinds of storage media are
associated together to form a chain of mass storage devices. These storage media
may include multiple magnetic tape reels or cartridges, multiple arrays of
magnetic disks or multiple CD-ROMs as a secondary storage device.
Broadly speaking, we can categorise mass storage devices into three types:
 Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks (RAID): The basic idea of RAID
is to combine multiple hard disks into an array of disk drives to obtain
high performance, large capacity, and reliability that exceeds that of a
single large drive. These arrays of drives appear to the host computer as
a single logical drive.
 Automated Tape Library: An automated tape library comprises numerous
set magnetic tapes along with their drives and controllers mounted in a
single unit. The unit comprises one or more tape drives to perform read/
write operations on the tapes in the tape library. In the multiple tape
drive environment, these tapes can be simultaneously read or write, thus,
resulting in the speedy rate of data transfer. Multiple drives lead to the
reliability of the storage unit because if one of the drives fails, then the
unit can continue to operate with other tape drives. These tape libraries,
can store up to several terabytes of data.
 CD-ROM Jukebox: A CD-ROM jukebox comprises numerous set of CD-
ROM disks along with their drives and controllers mounted in a single
unit. The unit comprises one or more CD-ROM drives to perform read/
write operations on the CD-ROM in the jukebox. In the multiply CD-
ROM drive environment, these CD-ROMs can be simultaneously read or
write, thus resulting in the speedy rate of data transfer. Multiple drives
lead to the reliability of the storage unit because if one of the drives fails,
then the unit can continue to operate with other CD-ROM drives. These
jukeboxes can store up to several terabytes of data.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 27 Paper — LIBB1209T
Benefits of Secondary Storage
Modern computing systems consist of four hardware components: central
processing unit, memory, secondary storage, and input-output devices that interact
with end users. The input device is used for providing data to the computer.
The CPU processes this data and provides the output via the output device.
The secondary storage is used to store the data and instructions permanently.
These data (files) and instructions (software programs) are then loaded in primary
memory (RAM) so that the computer can process the data efficiently. Once the
output is presented by the computer, if the user wants to, it is stored on the
secondary storage.
Imagine how many filing-cabinet drawers would be required to hold the
millions of files of, say, tax records kept by a big corporation. The record storage
rooms would have to be enormous. Computers, in contrast, permit storage on a
tape or disk in extremely compressed form. Storage capacity is unquestionably
one of the most valuable assets of the computer. Secondary storage is the storage
space where one can store software and data on a semi-permanent basis. It is
necessary because primary storage can be used only temporarily. The user
probably will like to store the data that he derives from processing; that is why
secondary storage is needed. Furthermore, main memory is limited in size,
whereas secondary storage media can store as much data as necessary.
The benefits of secondary storage can be summarised as follows:
 Non-Volatility: By nature, a secondary storage device is non-volatile,
that is, it does not lose its contents even when its power is cut off. Hence,
such devices do not require a continuous supply of electricity as the
primary memory does.
 Capacity: Secondary storage devices are used by organisations so that
they can store large volumes of data (equivalent of a room full of data on
paper) in sets of disks that take up less space than a breadbox. A simple
diskette holds the equivalent of 500 printed pages, or 1 book. An optical
disk can hold the equivalent of approximately 500 books.
 Reliability: Data in secondary storage is safe because secondary storage
is physically reliable. Sometimes, however, disks may fail, but the overall
reliability of secondary storage is excellent. Moreover, it is more difficult
to tamper or illegally access the data on secondary storage as compared
to data stored in traditional file cabinets.
 Convenience: With the help of a computer, authorised people can locate
and access data quickly.
 Cost: It is less expensive to store data on a tape or disk (the principal
means of secondary storage) than to buy and house filing cabinets. Data
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 28 Paper — LIBB1209T
that is reliable and safe is less expensive to maintain than data subject
to errors. Nevertheless, the greatest savings can be found in the speed
and convenience of filing and retrieving data.
 Reusability: The data remains in the secondary storage as long as it is
not overwritten or deleted by the user. When the data is placed in the
RAM, the computer actually makes a copy of that data in the memory.
The user can change the data as per requirement, and in case he wants
to revert to the original copy, he can simply close the data file, as long as
he has not saved the modified work. In that case, CPU will replace the
original copy with the modified copy.
 Portability: Modem day storage devices like CD-ROMs and floppy disks
are so small that they can be easily ported from one computer to another.
In addition, since most of the storage devices are standardised, they can
be used with almost every computer irrespective of their construct.
1.7 Software
The term software refers to the set of computer programs. To be precise,
software means a collection of programs, whose objective is to enhance the
capabilities of the machine.
1.7.1 System Software
System software is a term for the programs that handle the running of
your computer’s hardware. System software is a type of program that acts like
a driver in a bus. This software controls all processing activities and ensures
that the resources of the computer are used efficiently. It sets the rules for
how the hardware and software work together. This is that software which is
used for developing or running a computer system. It contributes to the
control and improved performance of the computer system. MS DOS, UNIX
and Microsoft Windows are examples of system software or operating system
software. This software provides a wide variety of services and functions which
makes the computer useful.
System software basically serves major purposes like :
• Used by the computer to do a task.
• It controls the execution of programs on the computer.
• It controls the internal function of the computer.
• It controls other devices connected to the CPU.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 29 Paper — LIBB1209T
System software can be categorized as :
1. Operating systems (control programs)
2. Language Processors or Translators (Assemblers, Compilers,
Interpreters)
3. Device Drivers (system testing tools)
4. Utility Programs etc.
Thus we can describe system software as a package which consists of
various programs required for the functioning of the computer itself. It is also
needed for translation, loading, controlling and running of the programs.
Operating systems :
In between the hardware and the applications lies the operating system.
The operating system is a program that conducts the communication between
the various pieces of hardware like the video card, sound card, printer, the
motherboard and the applications.
• The operating system is usually located on a disk.
• Can be on the hard disk drive, a floppy disk, or CD-ROM disk.
• Must be loaded into RAM before it can be used.
• Used by the computer’s hardware to work with its parts.
• Tells the computer how to :
 display information on the screen.
 use a printer.
 store information on a secondary storage device.
• The system software’s that control peripherals are called drivers.
• Does basic tasks, like printing a document or saving a file.
• The operating system starts (launches) the application software
so that it can be used.
Language Processors :
(a) Translators :
A digital computer accepts digits and characters as input from an input
device like keyboard; however this input is not understandable by the
computer. To make the computer understand it, the input has to be converted
into machine language. The software which does this and increases the
productivity of the programmer is called Translator.
Translators are divided into three categories.
(i) Compilers
(ii) Interpreters
(iii) Assembler
(i) Compilers : A compiler is software that will accept the total program
code as input and then convert it into machine code. Compilers are the
translators which translate high level language programs into machine
code which is executed afterwards. For every language usually there is
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 30 Paper — LIBB1209T
a compiler which interprets and converts the program in that language
into machine understandable code. Some of the important ones are
COBOL, PASCAL, FORTRAN, Turbo C, etc.
(ii) Interpreters : Interpreter also does the same task of converting the
program code into machine code like compiler which takes the complete
program as input, but interpreter takes the program code line by line
and converts it into machine code. When coming to operational efficiency,
compiler is more efficient than an interpreter. Most high level languages
are compiler-based languages where as BASIC language is interpreter
based.
(iii) Assembler : An assembly language program cannot be directly executed
by the computer. It also works the same way as compiler and interpreter
but here, the input programs are in assembly language. The output is
in machine language. The input to assembler program is an assembly
language program known as source program and the output of assembler
is a machine language program known as object program.
Device Drivers :
These are special programs which enhance the capability of operating
systems, so that it can support many input/output devices. Device Drivers
are special type of software created by peripheral device manufacturers to
provide the facility to the computer to communicate with the peripheral device,
e.g., printer drivers, mouse drivers, etc. These softwares are to be installed
so that they are activated to work on the given operating system. Drivers
convert the data supplied by the computer according to the device setting and
then transfer to the device to work over it.
Utilities :
These utilities are those software programs which are provided by the
manufacturer of hardware to perform some specific tasks on your computer.
Examples of some of these tasks are file organizations.
Utilities allow you to
• Specific purpose application software used to help a computer
work better or to avoid problems.
• Some utility programs are built into the operating system.
• Scandisk in the Windows operating system.
• Disk formatting software
Examples of utility programs
1. Anti-virus software
2. Disk maintenance software
3. File management programs
4. Security software
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 31 Paper — LIBB1209T
1.7.2 Application Software
Application software programs work with the operating system to help
you use your computer to do specific types of work such as specific inventory
control reports, financial accounting, linear programming, or medical accounting
tasks, payroll, examinations, human resources management etc. These software
packages vary with the degree of sophistication, extent of coverage, and
complexity. These applications must be user friendly, so that one can work
by following easy and specific instructions, which are to be provided by the
software.
It is subdivided into two broad categories depending upon the source
of development as well as the users :
• Standard or Pre written Application Software
• Customized or User written Application Software
Standard or Pre written Application Software
These are generalized set of programs used to deal with a particular
application. These are developed by group of people or an individual to be
used by others to solve common problems faced by many users. These are
usually sold in the market at specific prices, which act as the source of
revenue for the developers of these software. They are user friendly and are
helpful for general activities of an organisation or an individual, where one
does not have time or knowledge to write their own programs, but can use
these software for their use. It saves programming effort and expense on the
part of the user and the user gets well tested and tried programs. Examples
include MS-Office, WordStar, Lotus Smart Suite, Tally, Adobe PageMaker,
Adobe Photoshop, etc. One major class of standard application packages is
ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) packages like SAP, Oracle, etc. Some
common tasks done by those application software
• Planning
• Writing
• Record keeping
• Calculating
• Communicating
• Drawing
• Painting
What can be done with general purpose application software is only
limited by the imagination of the user.
The various types are :
(i) Word processing software
(ii) Electronic spread sheets
(iii) Database management software
(iv) Report generator
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(v) Communication software
(i) Word Processing Softwares
T h e s e a r e t h a t s of t w a re, w h i c h h el p s i n c r ea t i n g d oc u m en t s ,
manipulating, formatting and printing of the text in documents e.g. WordStar,
Microsoft Word etc. are some of the available word processing software.
(ii) Electronic Spreadsheets
Electronic spreadsheets are like sheets of paper with rows and columns.
In these data can be entered as numbers, characters, formulae and all other
types of data which has to be entered in the form of a table. Electronic
spreadsheets have significant advantages over paper. Some of the advantages
are :
(a) These are flexible and changes can be made easily.
(b) Various in built functions can be used.
(c) Calculations can be carried out automatically.
(d) On updating data recalculating is done automatically.
(e) Columns and rows can be resized.
(f) Data can be easily inserted and deleted.
Examples of spreadsheet software are Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft-Excel, etc.
(iii) Database Management Software
Data can be organised in a collection of logically related tables called
a database. The most commonly used database in our day-to-day life are
Dictionary, where words are arranged alphabetically alongwith their meaning
and the telephone directory, where the telephone numbers alongwith the
name and address are arranged in alphabetical order. The data has to be
managed so that the retrieval of information is effective and easy. Managing
data involves creating deleting, updating, adding, modifying data in databases.
Database Management Software or System (DBMS) is a software package that
allows a user to perform above functions. Some of the DBMS packages
commonly used by people for personal computing are dBASE, FOXPRO,
Microsoft Access, Oracle etc.
(iv) Report Generator
Timely reports of various activities are always needed in day-to-day
operations to help in decision making. If these reports are made manually it
is a very difficult task, therefore some software are used to help a user to
design a report, with ease and within time. Some of the commonly available
report generating software are Oracle reports, Crystal reports etc.
(v) Communication Software
Communication is required for all operations. Effective communication
i.e. sending and receiving data plays a key role in the smooth running of any
organisation or day-to-day life. There can be an electronic data transfer between
two different computers in a network using communication lines, satellites
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 33 Paper — LIBB1209T
etc. The concept of E-Mail, i.e., electronic mail has become the order of the
day, where one can communicate with anyone throughout the world by sending
a mail electronically.
Customized or User written Application Software
These are programs written by the user programmer in order to perform
specific jobs for the user. They are written in a variety of programming
languages depending on the task at hand. Normally these are sets of programs
used in conjunction with one another, e.g., Payroll System, Customized
Accounting Packages for a company, etc.
So major difference between System Software and Application Software
is :

System Software Application Software

This includes the operating system This includes programs that are used
(Windows 98, for example) and all by the computer operator such as
other programs that allow the word p rocessors ( Mi cros of t Word,
computer to function. for example), games, spreadsheets,
etc.

1.8 Summary
Computers are versatile machines and are found to be used in various
application areas like science & technology, commerce & industry, education &
research, medicine, law, transport & Communication, home, entertainment, etc. A
computer can perform both arithmetical as well as logical operations. The major
characteristics of computer are speed, storage, accuracy, automatic, diligence, and
versatility etc.
The peripheral devices of a computer; referred to as I/O devices, provide
an efficient mode of communication between the central system and the
outside environment. A computer serves no purpose without the ability to
receive information from an outside source and transmit back the results in
a meaningful form. The most familiar means of entering information into a
computer is through the keyboard, mouse, punched card readers, tapes and
disks, etc. The output can be in any form i.e. typed, printed, sketched, visible
nonviable, audio, video etc. Similarly a number of output devices are available
on which the computer system can give its processing results like printer,
computer screen (VDU), plotter, disks, etc.
Secondary memory refers to the memory, which can store all the data (files)
and instructions (software programs) even after the computer is turned off. It
includes devices like hard disk, floppy disk, CD-ROM, and tape drives. Secondary
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 34 Paper — LIBB1209T
storage comes with many benefits, that is, non-volatility, capacity, reliability,
convenience, cost, reusability, and portability.
Hardware needs software or programs, to work. Software is of two types:
system software and application software. Programs designed to act as interface
between the hardware and application programs are called system software. System
software coordinates and controls the computer hardware. Application software is
designed to do a specific task or solve a specific problem. Application software
includes special-purpose and general-purpose programs.
1.9 Keywords
Input, processing, Output, Vacum tubes, Transistors, Integrated circuits.
Input devices, output devices, hard copy devices, VDU, LCD, soft copy devices,
printers, plotters. Hardware, Software, System Software, Operating Systems,
Translators, Compilers, Assembler, Interpreters, Device drivers, Utilities.
1.10 Self check exercise
Q1 :- What are the major characteristics of the computer that make it
such a powerful device ?
Q. 2: Define an Input device and list names of various Input devices
you know of.
Q. 3: What are various kinds of printers ? Classify them and give five
suitable examples.
Q. 4: Define and distinguish between Application Software and System
Software.
Q. 5 : What is the importance of System Software for a Computer System ?
1.11 Suggested readings
“Computer Fundamental” By P.K. Sinha,
BPB Publications, New Delhi
“Information Technology” By P.S.G. Kumar,
BR Publishing Corporation, New Delhi
BACHELOR OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE PAPER: LIBB1209T
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY : BASICS

LESSON No. 1.2 AUTHOR: VISHAL SINGH

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICT):

CONCEPT AND IMPACT ON SOCIETY
1. Introduction
2. Advantages of ICT
3. Disadvantages of ICT
4. Impact of ICT on Society 6 UNDEFINED

1. Introduction
There is widespread research interest in information and communication
technologies (ICTs). ICTs are crucially important for sustainable development in
developing countries, for the past two decades most developed countries have
witnessed significant changes that can be traced to ICTs. These multi-
dimensional changes have been observed in almost all aspects of life: economics,
education, communication, and travel. In a technology-driven society, getting
information quickly is important for both sender and receiver. ICTs have made it
possible to quickly find and distribute information.
The technological changes that have influenced our lives in recent years,
information technology (IT) has had the greatest impact. This will continue at
least until the end of the first half of the century, when other major technological
breakthroughs in the area of new materials, biotechnology, or energy, may
provide entirely new ways of living.
An information society is one that makes the best possible use of ICTs. We
support this view by describing it as a society in which the quality of life, as well
as prospects for social change and economic development, depends increasingly
upon information and its exploitation. In such a society, living standards,
patterns of work and leisure, the education system and marketplace are all
influenced by advances in information and knowledge. This is evidenced by an
increasing array of information-intensive products and services.
The information society is a way for human capacity to be expanded, built
up, nourished, and liberated by giving people access to tools and technologies,
with the education and training to use them effectively. There is a unique
opportunity to connect and assist those living in the poorest and most isolated
regions of the world. Informatization of society is a major hurdle that most
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 36 Paper-LIBB1209T
nations, especially developing countries, are encountering. The information
society or information age is a phenomenon that began after 1950, which brings
challenges as we seek to integrate and expand the universe of print and
multimedia sources. The two terms are often used to describe a cybernetic society
in which there is a great dependence on the use of computers and data
transmission linkages to generate and transmit information.
In the past few decades there has been a revolution in computing and
communications, and all indications are that technological progress and use of
information technology will continue at a rapid pace. Accompanying and
supporting the dramatic increases in the power and use of new information
technologies has been the declining cost of communications as a result of both
technological improvements and increased competition. According to Moore's law
the processing power of microchips is doubling every 18 months. These advances
present many significant opportunities but also pose major challenges. Today,
innovations in information technology are having wide-ranging effects across
numerous domains of society and policy makers are acting on issues involving
economic productivity, intellectual property rights, privacy protection and
affordability of and access to information. Choices made now will have long-
lasting consequences and attention must be paid to their social and economic
impacts.
One of the most significant outcomes of the progress of information
technology is probably electronic commerce over the Internet, a new way of
conducting business. Though only a few years old, it may radically alter economic
activities and the social environment. Already, it affects such large sectors as
communications, finance and retail trade and might expand to areas such as
education and health services. It implies the seamless application of information
and communication technology along the entire value chain of a business that is
conducted electronically.
ICTs for Informing Citizens
One of the identified agents through which the world will constantly
experience change is technology. In the business of trying to make information
available in the right form to the right user both at the personal and
organizational levels, and at the right time, the bid to cope with great flood of
information has led to the need for a more sophisticated way of handling
information faster and better.
Information technology is “the use of manmade tools for the collection,
generation, communication, recording, re-management and exploitation of
information. It includes those applications and commodities, by which
information is transferred, recorded, edited, stored, manipulated or
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 37 Paper-LIBB1209T
disseminated”. The information technology is a revolution which has penetrated
almost all fields of human activity, thus transforming economic and social life.
ICTs have been the basis for human existence from time immemorial and
this has driven man to continuously seek ways to improve the processing of
information and communicating such information to one another irrespective of
distance and on a real-time basis. Surviving n the information age depends on
access to national and global information networks. ICTs are the bedrock for the
survival and development of any nation in a rapidly changing global environment,
and it challenges us to devise initiatives to address a host of issues such as
reliable infrastructure, skilled human resources, open government, and other
essential issues of capacity building.
At the heart of technology lie two main or branches of technology:
computing and telecommunication. The technologies covered are the computer
system, Internet/electronic mail (e-mail), mobile phone, and fax machine.
Computers
Computers were originally used by scientists for calculating numbers, and
have gradually become useful in offices and industries. In recent times, simplified
models that can be used by almost everybody have become common in schools
and homes for accomplishing many varied tasks and applications.
The uses that computers are now commonly put to: writing letters, and
reports, printing books, newspapers, and magazines, drawing pictures and
diagrams, doing statistics, mathematics and handling financial records,
controlling traffic lights, flying aeroplanes, making and playing music and video,
sending messages anywhere in the world.
Internet
The Internet is a global collection of many types of computers and
computer networks that are linked together. It is increasingly becoming the
solution to much information, problems, information exchange, and marketing.
The Internet is a mixture of many services with the two most commonly used
being electronic mail (e-mail for short) and the World Wide Web (www). It plays a
significant role in education, health, political processes, agriculture, economy,
businesses and newsgroups, with Internet connectivity; one can do business all
over the world without physical contact with the buyer or the need for a business
intermediary.
E-mail
Electronic mail (e-mail) is the exchange of text messages and computer
files transmitted via communications networks such as the Internet. Fapohunda
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 38 Paper-LIBB1209T
sees the e-mail system as the equivalent of postal mailing services, with the
biggest difference being the time and cost involved. And not only written data, but
all sorts of information in the form of video, audio, or photographs, can be sent
via e-mail. Oketunji describes e-mail as an increasing popular method of
communication, especially in the workplace.
Mobile Phones
Bittner defines mobile phones as a telephone system that can move or be
moved easily and quickly from place to place. Mobile phones were once the tool of
rich and busy executives who could afford both the luxury. Mobile phones are
now the ICT that is reshaping and revolutionizing the communications globally.
Its impact on the economic activities of nations, businesses, and small
entrepreneurs is phenomenal. According to Marcelle the availability of this new
technology has been reshaping the material basis of the society as well as
bringing about a profound restructuring of economic, political and cultural
relations among states.
According to Tiemo, the importance of information cannot be
overemphasized. People need information to plan and carry out their decisions.
More than 90 percent of Africa's population could greatly benefit from information
on better choice of food, safe water and basic nutrition, child care, family
planning, immunization, prevention and control of endemic diseases. The
combination of modern communication devices could play significant roles in the
collection and dissemination of global information. Oji-Okoro supported this view
by stating that mobile telephony usage by individuals enables them to
communicate with loved ones, clients and business associates. For large
businesses, it is a means of providing a service that leads to an increase in
profits. For governments, revenues are gained through taxes and duties. As a tool
for sustainable livelihoods, mobile telephones provide employment for many who
could have been idle.
Fax machine
Telefacsimile systems permit the transaction of images (photos, printed
images, maps, drawings) and their reproduction on paper at a remote receiver.
Facsimile (fax) is not a new service; however, advances in digital imaging
technology and microelectronics have caused a sharp drop in prices with a
significant increase in capacities. “Long distance copying” might be an
appropriate nickname for this telecommunication process. Any document,
whether it is handwritten, contains pictures, diagrams, graphs, charts or typed
text can be transmitted at a great speed for relatively low cost. The fax system is
widely available; most organizations have at least one fax machine.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 39 Paper-LIBB1209T
2. Advantages of ICT
ICTs stand for information and communication technologies and are
defined, for the purposes, as a “diverse set of technological tools and resources
used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store, and manage
information.” These technologies include computers, the Internet, broad casting
technologies (radio and television), and telephony.
The Effectiveness of ICTs in Education
ICTs are a potentially powerful tool for extending educational
opportunities, both formal and non-formal, to previously underserved
constituencies—scattered and rural populations, groups traditionally excluded
from education due to cultural or social reasons such as ethnic minorities, girls
and women, persons with disabilities, and the elderly, as well as all others who
for reasons of cost or because of time constraints are unable to enroll on campus.
• Anytime, anywhere. One defining feature of ICTs is their ability to transcend
time and space. ICTs make possible asynchronous learning, or learning
characterized by a time lag between the delivery of instruction and its reception
by learners. Online course materials, for example, may be accessed 24 hours a
day, 7 days a week. ICT-based educational delivery (e.g., educational
programming broadcast over radio or television) also dispenses with the need for
all learners and the instructor to be in one physical location. Additionally, certain
types of ICTs, such as teleconferencing technologies, enable instruction to be
received simultaneously by multiple, geographically dispersed learners (i.e.,
synchronous learning).
• Access to remote learning resources. Teachers and learners no longer have
to rely solely on printed books and other materials in physical media housed in
libraries (and available in limited quantities) for their educational needs. With the
Internet and the World Wide Web, a wealth of learning materials in almost every
subject and in a variety of media can now be accessed from anywhere at anytime
of the day and by an unlimited number of people. This is particularly significant
for many schools in developing countries, and even some in developed countries,
that have limited and outdated library resources. ICTs also facilitate access to
resource persons, mentors, experts, researchers, professionals, business leaders,
and peers—all over the world.

ICTs help prepare individuals for the workplace.

One of the most commonly cited reasons for using ICTs in the classroom
has been to better prepare the current generation of students for a workplace
where ICTs, particularly computers, the Internet and related technologies, are
becoming more and more ubiquitous. Technological literacy, or the ability to use
 Bachelor of Library and Information Science 40 Paper-LIBB1209T
ICTs effectively and efficiently, is thus seen as representing a competitive edge in
an increasingly globalizing job market.
Benefits/Advantages of ICT in Education
Here are some of the benefits which ICT brings to education according to
recent research findings.
General benefits
 Greater efficiency throughout the school.
 Communication channels are increased through email, discussion groups and
chat rooms
 Regular use of ICT across different curriculum subjects can have a beneficial
motivational influence on students’ learning.
Benefits for teachers
 ICT facilitates sharing of resources, expertise and advice
 Greater flexibility in when and where tasks are carried out
 Gains in ICT literacy skills, confidence and enthusiasm.
 Easier planning and preparation of lessons and designing materials
 Access to up-to-date pupil and school data, any time and anywhere.
 Enhancement of professional image projected to colleagues.
 Students are generally more ‘on task’ and express more positive feelings when
they use computers than when they are given other tasks to do.
 Computer use during lessons motivated students to continue using learning
outside school hours.
Benefits for students
 Higher quality lessons through greater collaboration between teachers in
planning and preparing resources.
 More focused teaching, tailored to students’ strengths and weaknesses, through
better analysis of attainment data.
 Improved pastoral care and behavior management through better tracking of
students
 Gains in understanding and analytical skills, including improvements in
reading Comprehension.
 Development of writing skills (including spelling, grammar, punctuation, editing
and re-drafting), also fluency, originality and elaboration.
 Encouragement of independent and active learning, and self-responsibility for
learning.
 Flexibility of ‘anytime, anywhere’ access.
 Development of higher level learning styles.
 Bachelor of Library and Information Science 41 Paper-LIBB1209T
 Students who used educational technology in school felt more successful in
school, were more motivated to learn and have increased self-confidence and self-
esteem.
 Students found learning in a technology-enhanced setting more stimulating and
student-centred than in a traditional classroom.
 Broadband technology supports the reliable and uninterrupted downloading of
web-hosted educational multimedia resources
 Opportunities to address their work to an external audience
 Opportunities to collaborate on assignments with people outside or inside school
Benefits for parents
 Easier communication with teachers
 Higher quality student reports – more legible, more detailed, better presented
 Greater access to more accurate attendance and attainment information
 Increased involvement in education for parents and, in some cases, improved self-
esteem
 Increased knowledge of children’s learning and capabilities, owing to increase in
learning activity being situated in the home
 Parents are more likely to be engaged in the school community
 You will see that ICT can have a positive impact across a very wide range of
aspects of school life.
ICT and Raising Standards
Recent research also points to ICT as a significant contributory factor in the
raising of standards of achievement in schools.
 Schools judged by the school inspectors to have very good ICT resources achieved
better results than schools with poor ICT.
 Schools that made good use of ICT within a subject tended to have better
achievement in that subject than other schools.
 Socio-economic circumstances and prior performance of pupils were not found to
be critical.
 Secondary schools with very good ICT resources achieved, on average, better
results in English, Mathematics and Science than those with poor ICT resources.
A range of research indicates the potential of ICT to support improvements in
aspects of literacy, numeracy and science.
 Improved writing skills: grammar, presentation, spelling, word recognition and
volume of work.
 Age-gains in mental calculations and enhanced number skills, for example the
use of decimals.
 Bachelor of Library and Information Science 42 Paper-LIBB1209T
 Better data handling skills and increased ability to read, interpret and sketch
graphs Improvements in conceptual understanding of Mathematics (particularly
problem solving) and Science (particularly through use of simulations)
The use of ICTs helps improve the quality of education
ICTs can enhance the quality of education in several ways: by increasing
learner motivation and engagement by facilitating the acquisition of basic skills,
and by enhancing teacher training. ICTs are also transformational tools which,
when used appropriately, can promote the shift to a learner-centered
environment.
Motivating to learn. ICTs such as videos, television and multimedia computer
software that combine text, sound, and colorful, moving images can be used to
provide challenging and authentic content that will engage the student in the
learning process. Interactive radio likewise makes use of sound effects, songs,
dramatizations, comic skits, and other performance conventions to compel the
students to listen and become involved in the lessons being delivered. More so
than any other type of ICT, networked computers with Internet connectivity can
increase learner motivation as it combines the media richness and interactivity of
other ICTs with the opportunity to connect with real people and to participate in
real world events.
Facilitating the acquisition of basic skills. The transmission of basic skills
and concepts that are the foundation of higher order thinking skills and creativity
can be facilitated by ICTs through drill and practice. Educational television
programs such as Sesame Street use repetition and reinforcement to teach the
alphabet, numbers, colors, shapes and other basic concepts. Most of the early
uses of computers were for computer-based learning (also called computer-
assisted instruction) that focused on mastery of skills and content through
repetition and reinforcement.
Enhancing teacher training. ICTs have also been used to improve access to
and the quality of teacher training. For example, At Indira Gandhi National Open
University, satellite-based one-way video- and two-way audio-conferencing was
held in 1996, supplemented by print-materials and recorded video, to train 910
primary school teachers and facilitators from 20 district training institutes in
Karnataka State. The teachers interacted with remote lecturers by telephone and
fax
Examples of ICT-based activities
What kinds of classroom activities are suited to the use of ICT? The
following is a brief guide to some of the most common uses of ICT in teaching and
learning.
Finding out
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Students can use ICT to find out information and to gain new knowledge
in several ways. They may find information on the Internet or by using an ICT-
based encyclopedia such as Microsoft Encarta. They may find information by
extracting it from a document prepared by the teacher and made available to
them via ICT, such as document created using Microsoft Word or a Microsoft
PowerPoint slideshow. They may find out information by communicating with
people elsewhere using email, such as students in a different school or even in a
different country.
Processing knowledge
Students can use ICT as part of a creative process where they have to
consider more carefully the information which they have about a given subject.
They may need to carry out calculations (eg. by using Microsoft Excel), or to
check grammar and spelling in a piece of writing (perhaps using Microsoft Word),
or they may need to re-sequence a series of events (for example by re-ordering a
series of Microsoft PowerPoint slides).
Sharing knowledge
Students can use ICT to present their work in a highly professional format.
They can create documents and slideshows to demonstrate what they have
learned, and then share this with other students, with their teacher and even via
email with people all around the world.
Computers and the Internet use for teaching and learning
There are three general approaches to the instructional use of computers
and the Internet, namely:
1) Learning about computers and the Internet, in which technological literacy is
the end goal;
2) Learning with computers and the Internet, in which the technology facilitates
learning across the curriculum; and
3) Learning through computers and the Internet, integrating technological skills
development with curriculum applications.
Learn about computers and the Internet
Learning about computers and the Internet focuses on developing technological
literacy. It typically includes:
 Fundamentals: basic terms, concepts and operations
 Use of the keyboard and mouse
 Use of productivity tools such as word processing, spreadsheets, data base
and graphics programs
 Use of research and collaboration tools such as search engines and email
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 44 Paper-LIBB1209T
 Basic skills in using programming and authoring applications such as
Logo or HyperStudio
 Developing an awareness of the social impact of technological change.
Learning with computers and the Internet
Learning with the technology means focusing on how the technology can be the
means to learning ends across the curriculum. It includes:
 Presentation, demonstration, and the manipulation of data using
productivity tools
 Use of curriculum-specific applications types such as educational games,
drill and practice, simulations, tutorials, virtual laboratories,
visualizations and graphical representations of abstract concepts, musical
composition, and expert systems
 Use of information and resources on CD-ROM or online such as
encyclopedia, interactive mapsand atlases, electronic journals and other
references.
 Technological literacy is required for learning with technologies to be
possible, implying a two-step process in which students learn about the
technologies before they can actually use them to learn.
Learning through computers and the Internet mean
Learning through computers and the Internet combines learning about
them with learning with them. It involves learning the technological skills “just-
in-time” or when the learner needs to learn them as he or she engages in a
curriculum-related activity.
Computers and the Internet used in distance education
Many higher educational institutions offering distance education courses
have started to leverage the Internet to improve their programme’s reach and
quality.
3. Disadvantages of ICT
One of the major barriers for the cause of ICT not reaching its full potential
in the foundation stage is teacher’s attitude. According to Hara, within the early
years education attitudes towards ICT can vary considerably. Some see it as a
potential tool to aid learning whereas others seem to disagree with the use of
technology in early year settings. Blatchford and Whitebread, suggests that the
use of ICT in the foundation stage is “unhealthy and hinders learning”. Other
early years educators who are opposed to offering ICT experiences within the
educational settings take a less extreme view than this and suggest that ICT is
fine, but there are other more vital experiences that young children will benefit
from. In theory some people may have the opinion that the teachers who had not
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 45 Paper-LIBB1209T
experienced ICT throughout their learning tend to have a negative attitude
towards it, as they may lack the training in that area of the curriculum.
Another important drawback to using ICT in schools is the fact that
computers are expensive. According to the IT learning exchange, in most schools
ICT will be the single largest curriculum budget cost. This may be seen as a good
thing but on the other hand there will be little money left over for other significant
costs.
4. Impact of ICT on Society 06 UNDEFINED
ICT refers to the devices used to communicate between computers.
Information communication technology (ICT) has greatly impacted and enhanced
global socialization and interactions. In fact information technology has taken
over nearly every aspect of our daily lives from commerce (buying and selling) to
leisure and even culture. Today, mobile phones, desktop computers, hand held
devices, emails and the use of Internet has become a central part of our culture
and society. These technologies play a vital role in our day to day operations.
ICT has made global social and cultural interaction very easy. We now live in an
interdependent global society, where people can interact and communicate swiftly
and efficiently. News and information can now be transmitted in minutes.
Individuals can easily stay in contact with members of their families who reside in
other countries or make new friends across the world. ICT made a major
contribution towards the elimination of language barriers - people speaking
different languages can connect and socialize or trade in real time via the
Internet. This is made possible with the use of language translators.
Examples of information and communication technology (ICT) tools used for
these purposes are emails, instant messaging (IM), Chat rooms and social
networking websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, Skype, iPhones, cellular
phones and similar applications.
There are many advantages of the new ICT technology:
Processing of data is much faster on a computer.
Example : Calculating an annual budget on a spreadsheet is instantaneous,
doing the calculations by hand would take some time.
Repetitive processing can be better done using computerised machinery.
Example : Humans get tired, lose concentration and generally fed up if they have
to repeat the same task over and over again. Robotic machinery will perform the
same task repeatedly with consistent quality and never need a break, or software
programs can be written to process all the records in a database.
Searching for data is much faster.
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Example : Finding a patient's record in a doctor's surgery can be done in seconds
on a computerised database system, whereas it would take a receptionist some
minutes to locate a folder in a paper filing system.
Data storage capacity is almost limitless in a computer system.
Example : Large quantities of data can be stored on hard discs or media such as
CDs or DVDs instead of needing enormous quantities of paper and many large
filing cabinets. Eg. In a national driving licence database.
Data communications are fast and accurate. Data transmitted over a network
will arrive at its destination anywhere in the world in just a few seconds.
Example : A computer user can place an order for an item on an Internet website
and it will be received immediately - posting an order in the mail would take a day
or two to arrive.
Data can be output on a computer in a variety of different formats.
Example : Annual sales figures for a retail business can be printed as a
spreadsheet, displayed as a graph, or as a multimedia presentation involving text,
sound, graphics and animations.
In as much as the advantages of IT are numerous, it is important to
mention some of its major disadvantages to the society.
A significant disadvantage is that older generations find it difficult to catch
up with the ever changing and numerous technologies available today. Fear of
change, resistance to change and inability to catch up with rapid technology
evolution are areas to note.
The issue of digital divide cannot be ignored. In the world today, there are
people in the society who are not in the position to take advantage of available
technology. This may be due to poverty or geographical location. For example,
access to technology can be said to be limited in many developing countries and
these may result in lesser opportunities for economical and social development.
BACHELOR OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE PAPER: LIBB1209T
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY : BASICS
LESSON No. 1.3 AUTHOR: VISHAL SINGH

ICT: Application in Libraries

1. Objectives
2. Introduction
3. ICT: Concept and meaning
4. Components of ICT in libraries
5. Reproduction Technology
6. Concept of ICT in Libraries: A Gradual Development
7. Why is ICT Needed in Libraries?
8. Functions and Benefits of ICT Based Library System
9. ICT Based User Services
10. Impact of ICT on Libraries and Librarians
11. New Skills and Knowledge Required For Information Professionals
12. Major Problems and Recommendations
13. Conclusion
1. Objectives
 to explore various components of ICT used in libraries
 to trace the advancement of ICT in libraries;
 to compare old and new technologies;
 to identify the reasons for introducing ICT in Libraries;
 to explain the functions, impacts and challenges of ICT based library services
2. Introduction
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a comprehensive
concept and parallel concept with Information Technology (IT), that denotes not only
a single unit of technology but an assemble of technologies like telecommunication
equipments, data processing equipments, semi conductors, consumer electronics,
etc. The concept has brought a phenomenal change in the information collection,
preservation and dissemination scene of the world. For the profession of
librarianship, this turn of the events is a blessing in disguise.
The emergence of IT is one of the wonderful gifts of modern science and
technology which has brought tremendous changes in Library and Information
Science. Application of IT to Library and information work has revolutionized the
traditional concept of Libraries from a 'store house of books to an intellectual
information center' connoting the concept of electronic Library. It has opened up a
new chapter in Library communication and facilitated global access to information
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crossing the geographical limitations. Using ICT, libraries are also playing an
important role in facilitating access to global information and knowledge resources.
3. ICT: Concept and meaning
ICT incorporates a range of technologies used to support communication and
information. ICT includes both networks and applications. Networks include fixed,
wireless and satellite telecommunications, broadcasting networks. Well-known
applications are the Internet, database management systems and multimedia tools.
By implication, a holistic understanding of ICT necessarily includes consideration of
telecommunications policies, information policies and human resource development
policies
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is a diverse set of
technological tools and resources used to communicate and to create, disseminate,
store and manage information. The ICT sector is a heterogeneous collection of
industry and service activities including information technology equipment and
service, telecommunication equipments and services, media and broadcast, Internet
service provision, libraries, commercial information providers, network based
information services and related professional specialized services. We can also say
that ICTs are those technologies that enable the handling of information and
facilitate different forms of communication. These include capturing technologies
(eg. camcorders), storage technologies (e.g CD-ROMs), processing technologies (e.g.
application software), communication technologies (e.g. Local Area Network) and
display technologies (e.g. computer monitors). So, we can define ICT as 'the use and
application of computers, telecommunications and microelectronics in the
acquisition, storage, retrieval, transfer and dissemination of information’.
4. Components of ICT in libraries
The ICT came about as a result of the digital convergence of computer
technologies, telecommunication technologies and other media communication
technologies.
We can categorize the components of Information Technology (IT), which
frequently used in library and information center are as follows:
 Computer Technology
 Communication Technology
 Reprographic, micrographic and printing technology.
Now a brief account of these Information and Communication Technologies is
discussed below:
Computer technologies: The dramatic development in the information
transmission process in every field of human endeavor has been made by the
widespread use of computer technology that can further be divided into following
categories:
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Workstations: These are expensive and powerful computers used mainly by

engineers and scientists for sophisticated purposes. These include following:
Mainframe computers: Mainframe computers are fast, large capacity computers,
after the super computer, occupies a specially wired, air-conditioned room and
capable of great processing speeds and data storage.
Super computers: Super computers are high-capacity computers that are the
fastest calculating device ever invented. They are used where complex numerical
calculations are required.
Mini computers: Mini computers are refrigerator-size machine that are essentially
scale-down mainframes. Minicomputers are becoming more important as servers in
networks.
Personal Computer (PCs): These are desktop, floor-standing or portable computers
that can run easy-to-use programmes such as word processing or spreadsheets.
Microchip technology: A microchip is a tiny piece of silicon that contains
thousands of micro-miniature electronic circuit components, mainly transistors. The
microprocessor of microcomputer, which process data, is made from microchips.
Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI is a group of related technologies that attempts to
develop machines to emulate human like qualities, such as learning, reasoning,
communicating, seeing and hearing.
Software technology: Software consists of the step-by-step instructions that tell
the computer what to do. Many software packages for various applications in the
field of library and information services and management are commercially
available. Some of the important library packages available are:
Cds/isis (computerized documentation system/integrated set of information
system): This public domain package of library software developed by UNESCO is a
menu driven generalized information storage and retrieval system designed
especially for computerized management of structured database. The windows
version of CDS/ISIS is called WINISIS.
In magic: In this study, the major functions include cataloguing, acquisitions,
circulations, serials, on-line catalogue, retrieval, etc.
Book: This software system which supports all the major library functions including
circulation control, acquisition, serial control, etc. This software is in COBOL
language.
Winisis: This study is for use in creating, maintaining and searching library and
information databases. It supports text and index searches, controlled indexing
terms.
Libsys: It is the most comprehensive library software. It supports almost all
activities relating to acquisition, cataloguing, circulation, serials and articles alert
CD-ROM technology: CD-ROM is an acronym that stands for Compact Disc Read
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Only Memory. It is an optical disc of 120 mm diameter and a hole of 15 mm at the

center with thickness 1.2 mm. Data is recorded in digital form using laser beam.
CD-ROM is used to hold prerecorded text, graphics and sound.
Communication technologies: Communication or telecommunication technologies
are used to transmit information in the form of signals between remote locations,
using electrical or electromagnetic media as carriers of signals. Communication
technologies comprise the following:
Audio technology: The outmoded AM (Amplitude Modulated) radio receivers are
being replaced by the modem FM (Frequency Modulated) receivers. The recent
development is the production of Compact Discs (CDs). Audio technology can be
used in libraries and information centres for a wide variety of purposes such as
storytelling to children, imparting education, knowledge, recreation, etc.
Audio-visual technology: AV technologies are those by which things can be
understood by listening as well as seeing. AV technologies include the following:
Motion picture: It can be used in library as one of the instruments of mass media
communication. It is the dynamic source of information, education and recreation.
TV: Television is one of the traditional and old information and
communication technologies which was dominated by major of station in
its formative period.
CATV (Cable Television) system: It is a wired communication system of high
capacity that flows from a central source through a major distribution cable to
neighborhood lines and finally to the line into the house.
Videodisc: Videodiscs can be used to disseminate computer programmes, digital
databases, educational video programmes and a range of electronic publications.
Videotext: Videotext is a newer technology, but as in the on-line information
retrieval, the information is stored in computer files and accessed through a
telecommunication link.
Teletext: Teletext is a one-way service to a large number of simultaneous users,
where pays of information from a central database are broadcast as part of the
regular television signal.
Telephone: The telephone is one of the longest established methods of electronic
information transfer especially to transfer the voice which can be a strong means of
disseminating information and keeping of what is being happened concerned
organization and outside as well.
Cell phone or mobile phone: Mobile telephones are based on the cellular radio
technology. Mobile phone provides the facility to dial connections anywhere in the
world. As the user of mobile telephone moves from cell to cell the radiotelephone link
switches from one central transmitter/receiver to a second while the call continues,
uninterrupted.
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Fax (facsimile transmission): It is a method of converting an image into electronic

signals that can be transmitted over a communication link and converted back into
an image at the receiving end.
E-mail: E-mail is a system of exchanging message in electronic format. It is the most
used tool on the Internet. It has brought a revolutionary changes in communication
because any type of information such as personal notes, letter, documents,
publication, computer program, even pictures and sound can be sent to or received
from anywhere of the world within a fraction of a second at a very cheap rate
through electronic signals called SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).
Voice Mail: Voice mail acts like a telephone machine that digitizes the incomings
voice message and store for retrieval later. It is an alternative system of e-mail.
Teleconference: Teleconference is a meeting among people remote from one to
another who are linked by a communication device such as a telephone, television
or computer. There are following five types of teleconference: Audio teleconference,
Video teleconference, Computer teleconference or Computer conference, Document
conference and Personal videoconference.
Satellite technology: Satellites are in fact formed of microwave transmission in
that satellites, which are positioned in space approximately 22,300 miles above the
earth, represent relay stations for earth round communication.
Internet: Technically the Internet is a junction of a number of hardware and
software resources or equipments to construct the infrastructure and to perform
multiple functions. It is treated as a virtual library where world's information
resources are gathered for the use of the clientele. It has broken down the distance
barrier in communication. It has greatly influenced the practice of librarianship.
Access to information through Internet has changed the total scenario of
librarianship.
Network technology: The important function of network is to interconnect
computers and other communication devices so that data can be transferred from
one location to another instantly. Generally computer network is of following three
types:
LAN (Local Area Network): LAN is a communication network that covers limited
geographic area such as campus, or building.
MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): MAN is a communication network that covers
the whole big city.
WAN (Wide Area Network): WAN is a communication network that covers wide
geographic area such as a country, or state.
5. Reproduction Technology
Reprographic technology: The term reprographic is used to identify that field of
information processing which concerns with technologies and equipments for the
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reproduction of documents.
Micrographic technology: Micrographic is that field of information technology
which concerns making use of microforms. Microform is a generic term for all
information carriers which use microfilm or similar optical media (including study)
for the high-density recording and storage of optically encoded information in the
form of micro images of printed document, bit patterns or holograms.
Printing technology: A printer is a device that converts computer output in to
printed images. There are a number of different kinds of printers used in library
such as Dot Matrix Printers, Laser printer, InkJet printer, Thermal printer, etc.
6. Concept of ICT in Libraries: A Gradual Development
Library and information centers entered into information and communication
technology era in 1960s
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With the availability of general purpose computers for performing traditional

library activities. Some of the significant developments regarding ICT in libraries
during that period are as follows:
 The MEDLARS (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System) project to
mechanize the handling medical literature at the national library of medicine,
USA;
 The pioneering work on serial control by the Soutl1ern Illinois University of
California at San Diego.
 Initiation of project MARC (Machine Readable Cataloguing) by the Library of
Congress to provide a format for cataloguing.
The next era of ICT based library began in the late 1960s to a great extent
with the success of INTREX and the MARC projects. During this online, real time
interactive computer systems were introduced in the library and information field.
In 1967 both OCLC and BALLOTS became operative. In the early 1970s, Online
Systems were in operation in several libraries, for example, Bell Telephone
Laboratories, Eastern Illinois University etc.
7. Why is ICT Needed in Libraries?
Various factors have contributed to bring about change from traditional to
ICT based library operations. Basically ICT is needed in libraries for the following
two main reasons:
In terms of various problems faced by the traditional Library systems: The
manual performances of library functions were getting difficult because of the
following main reasons:
 The size of recorded information is ever growing whereas space available at
the disposal of each library is limited. No library can think of getting
additional space every year, although the collection will grow continuously;
 Due to knowledge explosion, the society is faced with multifaceted and
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 54 Paper-LIBB1209T

multidimensional information to such an extent that not only its storage has
created challenge, but the organization of this bulk of information has also
become unwieldy;
 Library operations, due to potential growth of information, could take many
hours to perform manually;
 Due to information explosion, all sorts of housekeeping jobs and information
works can be performed by manually with less effective and less accuracy.
In terms of various facilities provided by computers and related technologies:
The advantages of using computers and other telecommunication media/devices in
managing libraries are manifold. Some of the advantages are as follows:
Speed: A computer can carry out an instruction in less than a millionth of a second.
Searching of information, compilation of bibliographies, and preparation of current
awareness bulletins, indexing and sorting can be processed by a computer in a few
hours.
Storage: Human brain can store pieces of information to some limitation whereas
computers can store voluminous data.
Accuracy: Computers can perform functions very accurately.
Reliability: Computers and all related technologies have long life if maintained
properly. The data gathered in it are reliable.
Repetitiveness: A computer can be used repetitively to process information.
Compactness: The present day computers are laptop/palmtop, which do not occupy
more space.
8. Functions and Benefits of ICT Based Library System
Traditionally, computers in libraries have been used and in most cases are still
being used to automate the following functions:
 Acquisition and budget
 Cataloguing and short loans
 Circulation
 Serial control (Periodicals)
 Provision of access to online catalogue.
Since the 1950s, use of ICT in libraries has basically gone through four stages,
corresponding to the major reasons for automating:
 Improving the efficiency of internal operations
 Improving access to local library resources
 Providing access to resources outside the library
 Interoperability of information systems.
ICT is used in various fields of library activities. Some of the areas where new
technologies can perfectly be used are as follows:
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Acquisition:
 Accession list
 Order file/report
Serials management
 Serials cheek-in/out and claiming
 Union/holding list
Cataloguing/classification
 Catalogue card/label production
 Retrospective conversion
 On-line catalogue
Circulation
 Issuing
 Inter library loan
 Reservations
 Over dues
Audio-visual management
 Accounting/budgeting
Management
 Word processing/mailing
 Scheduling/planning
 Statistics/report
Information storage/retrieval
 Database construction
 Online database searching
 Down loading/uploading
 Indexing and abstracting
Reference Information Services
 Bibliographic listings
 Library instructions
 Public access/computer literacy.
9. ICT Based User Services
Some library users are adopting electronic habits, making increasing use of the
new ICT including computers, the Internet, the Web, Intranet, Extranet and other
technologies As a result; library users are placing new demands on their libraries.
They require access to the latest information, updated information resources and
access to ICT facilities that they could use in their work.
Use of ICT in libraries enhances user’s satisfaction. It provides numerous
benefits to library users. Some of the benefits are:
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 provide speedy and easy access to information

 provides remote access to users
 provides round the clock access to users
 provides access to unlimited information from different sources
 provides information flexibility to be used by any individual according to
his/her requirements
 provides increased flexibility
 facilitates the reformatting and combining of data from different sources.
Libraries are also providing various ICT -based services to their users, including the
following:
 Provision of Web access to OPACs
 Electronic document delivery
 Networked information resources
 Delivery of information to user’s desktops
 Online instructions
 Online readers advisory services
Web access to OPACs: Libraries are providing access to Web-based Online
Public Access Catalogue (OPAC) interfaces. This is making it easier for OPAC
users to learn and use these resources since they only have to learn how to use
one universal access client, the Web browser.
Electronic document delivery: Libraries are implementing ICT -based
interlibrary lending system using electronic networks to deliver copies of journal
articles and other documents in digital format [mainly in Portable Document
Format (PDF)] to library users desktops.
Networked information resources: Libraries are providing their users with
access to networked information resources, i.e. databases, electronic scholarly
journals, encyclopedias, public government information, etc, provided by various
publishers or suppliers.
Information delivery to users: Library and information users are now getting
access to electronic information resources from the computer desktops in the
computer laboratories, Internet cafes, offices and even at home. This is resulting in
librarians and other information specialists investigating and implementing systems
that can deliver customized information to user’s desktop computer environment,
irrespective of their geographical location.
Online instructions: Libraries are also implementing online based bibliographic or
library use programmes. These include online tutorials on searching online
resources and virtual tours of library collections.
Online readers advisory services: Libraries are implementing Web-based versions
of reader’s advisory services and reference services. These include services such as
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informing users via the Web about new acquisitions, providing reviews and
recommendations, providing facilities for readers to interact with the reference staff
(Virtual Reference Desks), etc.
10. Impact of ICT on Libraries and Librarians
Computer has brought in a new impact to the library and information usage.
In libraries, information technology has assisted library professionals to provide
value added quality information service and give more remote access to the inter-
nationally available information resources. Today's highly sophisticated information
technology to facilitate the storage of huge amounts of data or information in a very
compact space. Information technologies promise fast retrieval of stored information
and revolutionize our concept of the functions of a traditional library and a modem
information center. Recently technological developments have dramatically changed
the mode of library operations and services.
Modem ICT is impacting on various aspects of libraries and the information
profession. Advancements in ICT and the wide spread use of ICT is resulting in
digital information sources and digital media replacing and becoming the dominant
form of information storage and retrieval.
The term library no longer refers only to physical buildings located in a specific
geographic location but also to electronic or digital or virtual libraries that can be
accessed from anywhere. Library collections consist not only of physical information
resources such as books, periodicals, videos, films and many more, stored in
physical library buildings, but also include digital resources. Access to digital
information resources is not restricted to specified hours and days of the week at
one physical library building. The proliferation of digital information available over
the Internet, intranets and extranets is resulting into libraries and information
centers losing their former place as the focus of the information environment in
many organisations. Libraries are becoming one of the many information systems
available to information end-users.
11. New Skills and Knowledge Required For Information Professionals
Information sources and services being provided by libraries to their users need
to adapt to the electronic information environment being experienced by most
information end-users In addition to the traditional library and information
management skills, librarians now need to possess additional skills and expertise,
more so in the use of modem information and communication technologies,
automated information service, electronic publishing, digital information
management and knowledge management. New informational professional should
acquire technological systems thinking, commitment to continuous improvement of
skills, techniques and strategies and sensitivity to network environment.
In modem ICT based library services, the information professionals handle
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various types of activities in relation to the use of computers and other new
information technologies Some of these are: handling and developing information
storage and retrieval systems of specialized/local data and materials, managing
different types of housekeeping operations, carrying out on-line searches for
information users using modern equipment, exchanging local databases and sharing
of resources through networking.
For the modem information services, technically qualified personnel will be
required to provide access to databases and databanks and to work in the
exploitation of the resources of libraries. In a study less system, the information
personnel, who are familiar with the resources available in machine-readable form
and with vocabularies, query languages, indexing and search strategies will be
needed to exploit these resources most effectively and efficiently.
12. Major Problems and Recommendations
Today the world of ICT-based libraries is still in its infancy. A number of
problems contribute to this situation.
1. Administrative barriers
This problem is much more acute in public university libraries than private
university libraries and special libraries. Administrators, policy makers, and
government executives are not fully aware of the importance of ICT. Moreover,
library administrators have failed to make its importance clear. Lack of knowledge of
technological developments has created a significant barrier to the installation or
development of ICT facilities in libraries.
2. Lack of skilled manpower
Library professionals do not have adequate knowledge regarding computer
applications and automation.
3. Lack of financial support
Inadequate financial support has made possibility of ICT application in
libraries more complex.
4. Lack of infrastructure
Inadequate physical facilities hamper the growth of ICT. Telecommunications
infrastructure and an uninterrupted power supply are crucial needs for Libraries.
5. Lack of ICT resources
ICT means more than the use of computers. Less attention has been paid to
other communication and related technologies. Some libraries have no Internet
connection. Most have a manual circulation operation. They have no barcode
readers for use in automated circulation. Most libraries are using microcomputers
only with no server in most of the libraries.
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6. Absence of local resources

50% of the libraries in the survey use the CDS/ISIS developed by UNESCO. Most
have no system administrator or other means of developing other software.
7. Psychological Barriers
The reluctance of library personnel to accept new technologies hinders the
development of ICT-based libraries.
8. Lack of E-Resources Selection Policy
The lack of a comprehensive collection development policy for e-resources
means that the collections of e-resources in surveyed libraries are not significant.
9. Lack of shared initiatives
10. Lack of ICT Training Programs
11. Lack of long-term planning
Recommendations or action plans to help overcome the barriers to ICT-based
library systems:
1. Well-trained and skilled personnel are essential ingredients for implementing ICT
in libraries. Steps should be taken to develop properly trained and competent people
for this purpose.
2. Libraries need funds to initiate the implementation of ICT. The government can
play a vital role by allotting sufficient funds for purchasing and maintaining ICT in
libraries.
3. The government's administrative complexity should be reduced to help create
awareness of the importance of ICT in libraries.
4. The government should make library and information services a part of national
development initiatives, efforts, and plans.
5. Libraries need a suitable location with sufficient space for collections and
services. To this end, government must create an information infrastructure for the
country.
6. The libraries should develop a centralized database, linked with other
international networks, that includes all documents and sources of information
available in the country, in order to support scientific research and to provide
decision-makers easy access to information.
7. Libraries need strong support from their parent organizations and the
government. This can be achieved only if there is such awareness regarding ICT.
8. Networking is one of the most effective ways of serving users’ needs
comprehensively. Networked access to databases would help get newly-published
information to library users.
9. Professional organizations such as the Library Associations and library
administrators should organize short-term training programmes for library
professionals in computer applications in library and information services, online
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information retrieval, data processing, electronic publishing, and also software such
as Microsoft Office, CDS/ISIS, etc.
10. A comprehensive collection development policy for e-resources should be
maintained by the libraries in the study, in order to follow a set of standard
practices for acquisition and management of electronic information resources. There
should be specific budget for new resources and the renewal of existing resources.
13. Conclusion
Today computer and related technologies has brought revolutionary changes
in the whole ~world of information. Perhaps, this is the most exciting period in the
history of human race when world's most population is shifting from 'techno-
illiterate' to 'techno-literate'. The society is undergoing a kind of transformation with
the passing of each day; we find that 'Information and Communication Technology
(lCT) has affected almost every sector of our life, bringing a change in the case of
people's think, interaction, etc. This revolutionary change is also true in the case of
libraries and information centers. Libraries and information centers can hardly
function today without computers and information technologies. In the modern
world the library and information professions have been changed and adopted itself
to the developments of Information and Communication Technology. These
technologies have acquired the do-or-die prominence; those who go with the
advances will survive and others will become obsolete. A well-equipped library with
the facilities of modern information infrastructures and technologies could satisfy
the maximum demand of the present technology conscious users.
BACHELOR OF LIBRARY & PAPER–LIBB1209T
INFORMATION SCIENCE INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY : BASICS
LESSON NO. 1.4 AUTHOR : H.P.S. KALRA

LIBRARY AUTOMATION : NEED, PURPOSE

AND APPLICATION
STRUCTURE
4.1 Objective
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Prequisties for understanding library automation
4.4 Need of Library automation
4.5 Factors for library automation
4.6 Advantages of library automation
4.7 Objectives of a library automation programme
4.8 Application of automation in libraries.
4.8.1 Housekeeping operations
4.8.1.1 Acquisition
4.8.1.2 Periodicals Management
4.8.1.3 Cataloguing
4.8.1.4 Circulation
4.8.2 Information retrieval
4.8.3 Content analysis
4.8.4 Management information and reporting
4.9 Summary
4.10 Self-check exercise
4.11 References and further reading
4.1 Objective
The objective of this lesson is to introduce the students to the basic
concept of library automation, its need and purpose, and to identify areas/
functions/operations where automation activities in libraries can be applied.
4.2 Introduction
In common usage, library automation refers to the use of computers and
other machines in various operations of the library. As with other new
technologies, computer technology in the later half of the 20 th century and later,
the communication technologies have been adopted by libraries and information
centres for improving the efficiency and effectiveness of their services. Beginning
from Machine Readable Cataloging (MARC) project of the Library of Congress
(the national library of the United States) in 1460s for cataloguing, and later the
use of computer technology in various activities and operations in libraries all
61
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over the world, three open many other areas and opportunities for libraries by
possibility of offering improved as well as new services to their users. Such
alternative terms were (and sometimes even presently are) also being used to
describe library automation as : computerization of libraries, computerized library
systems, modernization of libraries, IT in libraries etc. ‘Library automation’ and
‘library automation and networking’ are now standard terms in professional
literature of library & information science. In these chapters, the discussion is
largely on automation aspect in libnries though a large number of libraries
worldwide (as well as in India) are either already networked or are moving towards
networking.
4.3 Prerequisites for understanding Library automation :
An understanding of some of the following topics is necessary to understand
the concept of library automation.
– Computers in general and their historic perspective
– Computer generations
– Types of computers and their classification
– Functional parts of a computer
– Working of a computer
– Computer hardware and software
– Operating systems and computer languages
– Many of these topics are covered in enough detail in the preceding
chapters.
4.4 Need of Library Automation :
The invention and increasing use of computers in various fields of human activity
is witness to the fact that the computer is considered to be essential component for the
all round development. Computer’s entry in almost all the fields of human endeavour
is due to its great qualities, viz, the splendid speed to act in nano second, the superb
capabilities to do unmanageable and impossible loooking things, the unlimited capacity
to store ocean of information on to tiny storage mediums, immense capability to perform
repeatative jobs without fatigue, the radical power to sort, arrange, retreive and
disseminate information almost instantaneously etc. The computer was invented
because it was needed, and it will remain as it is needed. Day by day it is becoming
more and more indispensable for the society and has swayed all fields of human
activities. Its use in the library is the need of the day and its application will certainly
increase the use and utility of libraries.
4.5 Factors for library automation :
Besides tremendous growth of information, technological and other factors
now require libraries to use modern information and communication technologies
for improving their services. These factors are outlined below in the proper
context :
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a. Exponential growth in information. Information explosion is another term

used to describe the phenomenon of a large quantity of information being
produced in the form of various documents. Not only printed documents, today
much of information is being produced in non-print documents and on the
networks.
b. Increase in number of users. Barring public libraries which have been
neglected by the state and hence in decline in many parts of India, library users
have increased in number. Not only that, information requirements of users have
also grown and diversified.
c. Static or declining library budgets. Marginal increase in library budgets
in currency terms in real terms sometimes comes out to be less budgetary support
for libraries than previous times. Library budgets have not grown at the rate the
prices of documents have grown.
4.6 Advantages of Library Automation :
The library automation has the following advantages :
1. Larger data can be handled with ease and accuracy
2. Operate at great speed and promptness
3. Labour saving
4. High rate and better quality in performance
5 Cost effective
6. Ease in functioning
7. Avoids/eliminates duplication of work
8. Greater manipulation possible
4.7 Objectives of Library Automation :
In the light of these developments, a library needs to chalk out a programme
for efficient and effective management of its services through the use of ICTs.
Though library automation programmes started out in many libraries in India as
ad-hoc developments which were regularized later, erficiency and effectiveness
in library services can be brought out by detailing the objectives of a ‘library
automation programme.’ These objetives can be :
– I dent ifyi ng areas/ f unctions wi thi n a library whose ef f i ci ency and
effectiveness is to be improved
– Providing new services
– Relieving professional staff of the routine and repetitive tasks
– Improving cost-efficiency in library operations identified above. When
discussing cost-efficiency, this must not be understood that by using ICTs, the
resulting costs of the operations/services would be necessarily less than those
before the use of ICTs.
Here, it must be emphasized that library automation in itself for a
‘traditional library’ is quite an expensive affair, it not only involves one time
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expenditure on computer parts (hardware), but besides that many other costs
such as on software, data entry, data storage, maintenance, upgradation, etc.
4.8 Application of Automation in libraries
Before moving further, let us now identify areas/functions/operations/
services w here aut om at ion, or the use of comput ers and ot her relat ed
technologies and technology products can be applied. Such areas/functions/
operations services can be categorized in many ways but one useful categorization
in Indian context is as follows :
a. For housekeeping operations
b. For information retrieval
c. For content analysis
d. For management information and reporting in each of the three areas above
and in general.
Another categorization listing ‘Basic functions of a library management
system” is provided by Rowley (1448, pp. 314-15). This categorization is similar
to the one mentioned above but functions are given in much detail and deals
with networking aspects also, is reproduced below :
“Basic functions of a library management system.”
Ordering and Acquisitions
– Ordering
– Receipting
– Claiming
– Fund accounting
– Enquiries (about the status of orders)
– Reports and statistics (about orders)
Cataloguing
– Data Entry
– Authority control
– Downloading (of records from other databases)
OPAC and other catalogue forms
– Online access
– Public Access Interface
– Other Catalogue forms
– Internet access
– Access from remote users over the Internet
Circulation Control
– Setting parameters (to reflect loan policies, opening times, etc.)
– Issue
– Return
– Renewal
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– Fines
– Reservations
– Short-term loans
– Borrower file maintenance
– Enquiries (concerning borrower or the status of items)
– Notices
– Reports and statistics (about the utilization of stock)
Serials Control
– Ordering (placing and renewing subscriptions)
– Receipting (of individual issues)
– Claiming
– Binding (control of items in binding)
– Fund accounting
– Cataloguing (of new titles)
– Circulation control (if items are issued or circulated)
– Inquiries (related to serials)
– Reports and statistics
Management Information
– Various reports and statistics
– Tools and analysis of statistical information
Inter library loans
– (Similar to circulation control but usually with fewer options)
– Entry
– Issue
– Return
– Fines
– Borrower file maintenance
– Enquiries
– Reports and statistics
Community information
– Data Entry
– Online access
– Public Access interface
However, in the following pages the details would be discussed in terms of the
first categorization, particularly of the housekeeping operations and a little of
management information.
4.8.1 Housekeeping operations : Traditional libraries are generally involved in many
functions which are done in the background rather than dealing directly with the
public. These are termed as housekeeping operations described below, though one of
them, circulation, deals extensively with the users and is not a background job but a
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front office area that provides one of the most heavily used services in many libraries.
The application areas for housekeeping are as follows :
– Acquisition
– Periodicals management
– Cataloguing
– Circulation
4.8.1.1 Library automation in acquisition : Acquisition is one of the first jobs
in a library. Large and medium sized libraries have such sections as book
selection section, book selection and acquisition section, or sometimes only
acquisition section or in some modern libraries are being termed as collection
development section. By whatever name such a section/unit within a library is
designated, the functions are generally, apart from book selection, acquiring
books and other materials (other, than periodical publications). This involves
preparing records of books on order, purchase orders, correspondence with book
suppliers and publishers, advance payments, checking for duplication, receiving
books ordered, etc.
These f unc t i ons can be cat egori zed i nt o tw o broad cat egori es as
administrative and managerial ones, and routine and clerical ones. All these
activities and functions require generation of and recording of new information
for the library. Recording of it in a traditional library consumes a lot of time
particularly when such tasks are done repetitively- for example, bibliographic
details of books are entered several times at the time of order reminders, etc.
Computers are assigned to such tasks to achieve the following :
– Speedy processing of book orders and receipts
– Speedy accessioning
– Better administration over budgetary resources
– Saving of time in searching records on paper
– Reliving of time of professionals for important and urgent professional tasks.
4.8.1.2 Library automation in Periodicals Management : Most of the libraries
acquire newspapers, magazines, and/or journals besides other periodical
publications as serials, conference proceedings of learned societies etc. The
term serials control is also used to describe this larger function of establishing
policies, procedures and operations for the management of the acquisition and
display of periodicals in a library. There are various problems associated with
periodical publications which are not encountered while acquiring books. Hence
the acquisition function of periodicals is generally with periodicals section in a
library and not the acquisition section. Some of these problems are :
– Delays in publishing
– Change of title and/or sponsoring body and/or frequency and/or volume
numbers
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– Combined issues of periodicals.

– Additional and special materials, such as, supplements, special issues.
– Additional issues, indexes etc.
– Loss/misplacement of issues in transit
Users’ inquiries about the periodicals can be broadly categorized as follows :
– About a particular periodicals title-inquiries such as whether subscribed
presently, before, ever, if yes, which years, rate of annual subscription,
etc.
– About periodicals based on subject approach
– About specific issues or special and additional materials
The functions of a periodical section in a library that can be automated
are therefore as follows :
– Placing orders for new titles,
– Monitoring expiry of subscriptions and sending renewal/standing orders.
– Registration of issues arrived in a library
– Sending reminders for overdue issues
– Preparing lists of periodicals subject wise, vendor wise, according to local
parameters such as academic department/unit wise for academic libraries
– Maintain records related to payments and other expenditures by fund
– Preparation of routing slips for journal issues
– Preparation of lists of periodicals to be bound
– Updating of holding list
4.8.1.3 Library automation in cataloguing : Cataloguing is one of the most
important behind the doors function in libraries intended to create tools
(catalogues) that are to be used if not every time, but most of the times by most
of the users. Effective users of such tools help in utilization of a library’s resources
and services. Computers were initially introduced in libraries for cataloguing
purposes, e.g. MARC project. Its present uses have been extensively listed by
Rowley under two headings of (a) Cataloguing, and (b) OPAC and other catalogue
forms. These have been reproduced above The basic use of computers in
cataloguing is for reducingthe data-entry effort. Once bibliographic details of
document are fit into the system, the data can be used for generating catalogue
cards, as well as getting output in given electronic forms, e.g. the Online Public
Access Catalogae (OPAC). In many cases libraries in their initial stages have only
electronic catalogues without those available online.
Production of book catalogues of new arrivals is also possible. Book cards and
spine labels can also be produced using the same data that was entered at an earlier
stage in technical or circulation or acquisition sections.
4.8.1.4 Library automation in circulation : Libraries control circulation by keeping
records in order to achieve optimum availability, and therefore use, of its reading
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 68 Paper-LIBB1209T

materials. These records pertain to the following :

– Materials ready available for loan and where located within a library
– What items are on loan, to whom, and when are likely to be next available
– Items on loan user wise, subject wise, or by other categories according to local
variation
– Materials overdue and related overdue charges, if any.
Besides these, automated circulation systems in libraries perform functions
to meet the following requirements :
– Preparation of overdue and recall notices for lent out items
– Facilitation of renewals
– Collection of issue statistics
– Identification and trapping of reserved books upon their return
– Helping in calculation and collection of overdue charges
– Notification of over borrowing and other borrower details
– Becoming reliable substitutes for manual records
In a large multi site library, refinements of these basic functions of issue,
return, overdue charges and reservations include the following, according to
Rowley (1448, p.322):
– Multi-site provision, with each site having its own-stock, borrowers and
associated circulation parameters
– Definition of loan periods
– Location definition of patron records
– Recalls or hold on items, editions, and titles
– Printing of check-in receipts
– A variety of categories of stock and borrowers, each with its own library-
defined circulation parameters
– Fine payment, accompanied by a record of the details of payment, such
as date, workstation and operator, supplemented by printed receipts.
Besides these housekeeping operations, which when become automated
no longer remain only housekeeping one but are active in provision of service.
In fact the division of activities into two watertight compartments of ‘technical
services’ and ‘user services’ in case of traditional libraries does not hold good in
case of automated libraries. Users come to or contact the library to get information
stored in books and documents. Automated systems help the library staff and
the users in saving of their time in organizing and finding information. The context
of the five laws of library science given by Ranganathan, particularly the fourth
law, i.e., ‘Save the time of reader’ becomes clear. When automated libraries
effectively help each and every user in finding the required documents through
OPAC/electronic catalogue, users immediately come to know as to which items
are available on which shelf for loan and are issued through an automated
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circulation system. Those not available on shelf are reserved and previously
loaned ones are renewed. Those not acquired by library are then recommended
by user through an automated system or are got through an interlibrary loan,
request for which can be made again through automated system. In libraries
other than public libraries, where users belong to a particular organization, e.g.,
a school, college, university, or a research centre, for many the activities
described above, users need not come to the library. Many activities can be
performed on the computers in their departments or at their desk through a
local area network (LAN) within their campus where library databases including
catalogue are available via LAN.
4.8.2 Information retrieval : We use this category for retrieving information stored
in electronic form which are called ‘information services’ or computerized
information services’, but essentially these are uses of computer technology for
providing current awareness (CAS) and selective dissemination of information
(SDI) services. These are discussed in the next chapter.
4.8.3 Content Analysis : In this category computers are not used for routine
clerical, repetitive and administrative tasks but for the intellectual tasks of
indexing and abstracting. Since these tasks require considerable man hours
and are not fully amenable to automation, the role of computers is to help the
abstractor or indexer in the mental process is limited. However, in a few libraries
computers are being extensively used for this purpose successfully.
4.8.4 Management information and reporting : Automated libraries are as
complex if not more, as the traditional libraries as far as their management is
concerned. Library managers need information in a timely manner to make
decisions. Besides, library managers need to report on general and specific
functions and activities carried out in their libraries to the library authorities.
For this purpose whatever functions in a library are automated, a report
generation function is generally added in the software in which a few general
formats for reports can be specified. These reports are of immense value to-top
and middle level library managers, as well as to operational level staff in taking
policy decisions and in providing services.
For example, status regarding availability of financial resources according
to various funds and academic departments in a university library during middle
of financial year is extremely useful in book selection and acquisition for the
rest of the year. In manual systems, collection of such information requires
considerable time, whereas in automated sysem, this information can be
generated within very less time. provided provisions for this are incorporated in
the software. Libraries generally start, from housekeeping operations in the
beginning of their automation programs and later add management information
function for each of the functional subdivisions in housekeeping. However,
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majority of the integrated softwares for library management that are available
commercially presently do have such modules for report generation (as well as
for statistics of various transactions) on many such parameters as the one described
above. Details of such would be discussed while discussing library softwares in
next chapters.
4.9 Summary : This chapter discuss to need and importance of mini computer
related technologies in libraries. Further is identifies factors and objectives for
library automation programme and then identifies various areas in detant for
automation of a library.
4.10 Self Check Exercise :
(1) Explain briefly the need for automation of a library?
(2) Identify in areas cataloguing function for automation?
(3) List the objectives of the automation programme of a library?
4.11 References and further reading :
1. Dowlin, Kenneth E. (1484) The electronic library: the promise and the
process. New York: Neal-Schuman
2. Haravu, L.J. (2004) Library automation : New Delhi :
3. Kumar, PSG (1487) Computerization of Indian libraries. Delhi : BR
Publishing Corporation
4. Prasher, R.G., editor (2003) Indian libraries in IT environment. Ludhiana;
Medallion Press.
5. Ravichnadra Rao, I.K. (1442) Library automation 2nd edition. New Delhi :
Wiley Eastern
6. Rowley. Jennifer (1448) The electronic library London: Library Association.
This is the fourth edition of the book which appeared under the title
“Computers for libraries” in first three editions in 1480, 1485 and 1443.
7 Saryanarayana. NR (2003) A manual of library automation and networking.
2nd edition. Lucknow: New Royal Book Co.
BACHELOR OF LIBRARY & PAPER–LIBB1209T
INFORMATION SCIENCE INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY : BASICS
LESSON NO. 1.5 AUTHOR : DR. KULWINDER SINGH
AND DR. AJIT SINGH
INFORMATION RETRIEVAL: SEARCH ENGINES AND BOOLEAN OPERATORS

Conventional Information Retrieval (IR) has the specified goal of retrieving

relevant information to what user wants, while minimizing the amount of irrelevant
information retrieved.
The description of what information is of interest is often referred to as
‘user’s profile’ a rudimentary kind of user model of ‘user’s interest’. One such
popular method is to provide a set of terms to describe their subject interests.
Even with a clear idea of what factors are important for predicting information
interest there is no guarantee that these factors can be identified easily.
Information Retrieval Models are primarily focused on the comparison
process. The three major alternatives for comparison are Boolean, Vector Space
and Probabilities retrievals. The first of these is based on ‘exact match’ principles
and other two on the concept of ‘best match’.
The first model is the core of discussion of this lesson with reference to
retrieval of information.
Objective
After the study of the material you will be able to :
(i) Identify the critical factors involved in the information retrieval
process;
(ii) Know the problems concerning the expression of information needs
by the users; and
(iii) Acquire experience in the development of models for information
retrieval process.
Structure
5.1. Introduction
5.2. Meaning of I. R.
5.3. Definitions of I.R.
5.4. Components of I.R.
5.4.1 Database
5.4.2 Information base
5.4.3 Retrieval Techniques
5.5 Search Engines
5.6. Boolean Search Model
5.6.1. Boolean Query formulation
71
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5.6.2. Limitation of Boolean searching

5.6. Conclusion
5.7. Self-Check Exercise
5.8. References and Further Readings
5.9. Answers to the Self-Check Exercise
5.1. Introduction
The basic issues of Information Retrieval (IR) process is an attempt to
identity a structure of knowledge and its components that exhibit flexibility for
inquirer’s understanding and assimilation. Information is a human resource which
when assimilated by the society become knowledge. Such knowledge is a resource
with ability to consolidate the valuable results of human thinking and civilization
through different time. It is totality of understanding nature and its features and
improved quality of human society. Because of this reason and due to human
curiosity there is a continuous cultivation of human mind for increasing
knowledge.
The human mind is physiological and psychological the same since the
first homospien was born. But the growth of knowledge has been increasing in
volume, variety dimensions and directions. The vast store of knowledge has been
organized by human society in an external memory in the form of variety of source
and we have to retrieve pertinent source from this vast sea to bridge a gap in
knowledge by way of information retrieval.
5.2. Meaning of IR
Information Retrieval (IR) is a process of selecting information from a store
or database. It primarily helps a person who needs to get some information in
his activities problem solving decision-making production service, etc.
5.3. Definitions of I.R
It was Calvin Mooers who coined the phrase ‘Information Retrieval’ in
1950. He was much concerned with the crux of problem of recognition of pertinent
need of users and to supply matching document as expeditiously as possible.
He describe it as “searching and retrieval of information” from storage according
to specification by subject. Dictionary meaning of the word retrieval is “to get
back something lost or mislaid.”
‘Retrieval’ in the context of Library science which mean to discover and
bring the documents in whrch scientific information is embedded. Therefore,
Shera defined it as “the process of locating and selecting data relevant to given
requirement.”
According to Vickery, “retrieval is essentially concerned with the structure
and operation of devices to select documentary information from a store or
collection of documentary information in response to search questions.”
In the field of library computerization for retrieval following are the
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milestones:
Work based on IBM-701 at U.S. Naval Ordnance Test Station in 1954.
Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System (MEDLARS) in 1964.
Online reference retrieval system DIALOG
Another important Landmark in the area of information’s retrieval system
during the period 1959-70 was the work of Luhn. In 1961 he used computers to
produce Keyword-in-Context (KWIC).
5.4. Components of IR
In the modern computer-based information retrieval services, we have
three basic components-database; the information seeker; and the repertoire of
techniques, models and processes which attempt to bridge the gap between
searcher and the data base.
5.4.1. Database
It is designed to take-in information and information sources acquired for
the specific purpose of serving users.
A database has a logical and physical organization. It is an arrangement
based on user’s approach. Today there are several softwares, which can organise
information. According to international standard some are CDS/ ISIS, MINISIS,
TULIPS, LIBSYS, ORACLE, BRAS and BASES etc.
The physical storage of information can be made on Magnetic Disks,
Drums, Floppies, Optical Media, CD-ROM, WROM and many other materials.
5.4.2 Information Base (Seeker of Information)
Information Storage and Retrieval System locate and present information
to the users, based on the query presented by the seeker to the system. This
query may indicate precisely the characteristics of information to be retrieved,
or it may express as approximation of information need, indicating merely an
initial guess as to the characteristics of the information to be retrieved.
Information Storage and Retrieval System must be able to receive different kinds
of queries and answers in different ways retrieving individual facts or groups of
potentially relevant terms.
5.4.2.1. Structured Query Language (SQL)
Some information storage and retrieval systems are limited to finding those
facts or doc uments contai ning characterist ics speci fied by query. Such
information storage and retrieval systems are often referred to as database
systems or database as Structured Query Language (SQL) or forms variant of it
recognised by the system under consideration.
5.4.3. Retrieval Techniques
The organization of information and the development of various techniques
to retrieve information has been a major area of research and with the development
in computer technology, interest in this area has been renewed through greater
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 74 Paper-LIBB1209T

emphasis on the computerized information retrieval systems.

The required techniques can be broadly categorized into exact match and
partial match techniques and the latter can be divided into individual or network
techniques and these can be further broken down to accommodate specific
technique, such as, cluster, probabilistic, vector space and so on.
The technique most widely used is the exact match retrieval. It is
implemented as Boolean, full text or string searching.
5.5 Search Engine:
A web search engine is an interactive tool to help people locate information
available in the WWW. Web search engines are actually databases that contain reference
to thousand of resources.
There are many search engines available on the web. A search engine is an
interface between the user and the underlying database. The interface presents the
user with a place to type in a search string, which may be a word, phrase, date or some
other criterion, and a way to submit the request.
The search engine runs the search string against the database, returns a list of
resources that match the criteria and display the results of the user.
How search engine works:
Most web search engines use automated tools and programs to gather resources.
These tools often referred to as worms, spiders, crawlers and robots, search thousand
of information world wide, collect information and store information in the database.
When they find new and updated pages, they copy this information back home
to be included in an updated version of the index at the search engine site. The spider
will also follow any new links which it finds and repeat the process until it can not find
any more new pages, at which point it will retrace its step and follow a new route.
This has a number of implications as far as the searcher is concerned. Given
the size of the World Wide Web, this is a full-time job, and even the fastest computers
have trouble keeping up with the flood of new pages onto the web. This has been
overcome to a certain extent in that website authors can contact search engines to
inform them of new or updated pages which should be included in the indexes.
A search engine cannot possibly contain every piece of information that is on
the WWW; therefore, search engine will not include very available web resource. In
addition, because search engine collects resources differently, the same query can be
typed into several search engines is likely to produce differently results.
Types of Search Engines:
There are basically five types of search engines available to you:
1. Free-text search engine
Free text search engines are very easy to describe. You can simply search for
any single keyword, a number of words or in some cases a phrase. You are not limited
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in any way as to your choice–you may wish to search for the name of a company, a line
of poetry, a number, a person’s name, a foreign language term, just about anything.
This approach has both advantages and disadvantages, as you would expect.
Free-text search engines are very useful if you know exactly what you are looking for,
or if you are looking for a concept which can be defined in a small number of words.
They are less useful if you want a broad overview of a subject, or are searching in an
area that you don’t know very well and consequently have no idea as to the best terms
to use.
2. Index or directory based search engines
These search engines take a rather different approach to providing you with
information on the sites that you might wish to visit. Their emphasis is on classifying
information under a series of major subject headings, and then subdividing these into
a tree structure of more specific headings and sites are listed as appropriate in this
directory structure. If this approach sounds familiar, that is, because it is as anyone
who as ever used a library classification scheme will know. The advantage of this
approach is obvious as the headings and subheadings can be used to guide the users
through the vast amount of information.
3. Multi or Meta search engines
The next type of search engine is not really a search engine at all, since a multi-
search engine does not actually search anything itself. Instead it takes your query and
passes it on to a selected group of search engines. Once the results start coming in
from these individual search engines, a multi-search engine displays the result on the
screen. The more advanced engine will collate the results, removing duplicate and put
them in some sort of sensible order.
Multi-search engines are useful if you want to try and obtain a comprehensive
listing of websites that cover a particular subject. Individual search engines may well
not be fully comprehensive, and one may index sites that another has missed and
vice-versa.
3. Natural language search engines
This is a very small category with only very few engines; the most popular is probably
Ask Jeeves at http//www.aj.com. Search engines in this category will take your search
terms and will attempt to map them to other terms as well, so a search for ‘tax revenue’
will look also for financial, business and economic information.
They can be very useful if you are having real problems finding information; for
example, was able to find a list of gases that are partially soluble in water by asking the
question ‘which gases are partially soluble in water?’ I doubt that I would have been
able to find that information as quickly or as easily using any other search engine.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 76 Paper-LIBB1209T

4. Resource or Site-specific search engines

The final category of search engine is perhaps the largest, but paradoxically the least
used, probably as a result of their diversity. A resource specific engine may well have
been created simply to search one particular resource, such as the Bible, a dictionary
or an encyclopedia. There is very little which can be said about these search engines,
since they are all very different to look at and to use.
One type of resource-specific search engine which is worth mentioning here is
little detail is what is generally referred to as ‘people finder’ or ‘people searcher’. These
engines will, as the name implies, find people on the internet. You obviously need to
know a little bit about the person you are looking for, such as their name, where they
come from and any other information you have available. A people searcher will then
attempt to locate individuals in its database that match the information you have
provided and will list them for you, thus allowing you to contact them. Usually, the
Email address is given, but in some cases you can also discover their geographical
address and even phone number.
List of Some useful Search Engines:
1. Alta Vista
Alta Vista was created in 1995 by digital equipment corporation, and was
originally designed to index the entire internet. It is a very fast, up-to-date search
service of the entire full-text of web pages and articles. It searches for exact phrases,
word(s), Boolean operators (and/or, not, near); URL’s addresses, page titles and related
links. To ensure the most current database contents, Alta Vista uses a web spider
program to routinely search every web page. Pages that do not change often are checked
for updates less frequently than pages that changes often.
Alta Vista is a search engine; it helps users to find great deal of information on
the Internet. Individuals can search for what they need by typing in the keyword or
words they are looking for information about.
2. Yahoo
Yahoo is a fine search engine. Yahoo offers its visitors a wide range of services
that are organized by categories. Some examples of categories that can be searched
include Business and Economy, News and Media, Health, Government and Science
just to name a few. Yahoo also offers links to Email, messenger, jobs, and even shopping.
The user also has the option of choosing an advanced search or a search of the most
popular sites. The page is arranged in a very colorful and easily maneuverable setup.
The site is published by Yahoo Inc. and was copyrighted by this company in 2003.
Its homepage contains links to entertainment, shopping, current news, sports,
weather, music and more. There is also a directory enabling users to search for
information by categories. “Yahoo” is a site that provides a plethora of services. It is
best known for its search engine; however, you can access a multitude of other things,
with their main categories being Shop, Find, Connect, Organize, Fun, and Info. The
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 77 Paper-LIBB1209T

layout of the site is cluttered, yet not hard to use. There are many links for search
categories, services, products, news, and more, however, all the links of the like kinds
are grouped together, making the site easy to navigate.
3. Google
“Google” is the premier search tool on the Internet. “Google” allow visitors to select a
category and search for results based on a word or phrase entered. Categories include
the Web, Images, Groups, Directory and News.
Google is a search engine; it helps users to find great deal of information on the
Internet. Individuals can search for what they need by typing in the keyword or words
they are looking for information about. The search can also be made more specific if
users decide to do an advanced search. This would allow them to pick certain words
that the source they are searching for must contain and other words it must omit.
Google is one of the most complete search engines on the Internet today. When
the site is first accessed, the page is very plain, the main part being a text box with a
flashing cursor. After entering a search expression, Google returns a list of hyperlinks
to relative Web pages. Each hyperlink is accompanied by the URL of that page. Links at
the bottom of each page take you to pages on company information, advertising
information, search solutions, and services and tools.
4. Lycos
It is a popular search engine on the internet. Lycos is the largest catalogue,
which include 90% of the entire web. It’s “spiders” are constantly scanning the internet,
automatically keeping tracks of new documents that appear, as well as changes and
deletions to documents that already exist. Lycos provides the fastest possible search
with the widest retrieval of information on the net. Currently, it catalogues three kinds
of files: HTTP, Gopher and FTP files. The search can be performed by keyword(s) or
simple Boolean (and/or), with options of loose or strong match and the number of
displayed hits. The summary-information of each page helps to focus the search. “Point
communications” owned by Lycos, offers a list of most popular web’s sites, with review
and ratings.
5. Ask Jeeves
“Ask Jeeves” is a search engine on the Internet. By entering a question, word,
or phrase and clicking on the search button, users can receive results that most closely
match their entry. The home page includes this search bar, as well as links to news
and shopping. In addition, there are buttons at the bottom of the page for Interesting
Queries, Breaking News, Browse by Subject, and AJ Kids. There is also an option to
add the search feature of “Ask Jeeves” to the toolbar of your browser, which provides
convenient searching without the hassle of first going to the homepage of the website.
This site is designed to provide convenient searches, news, and shopping. Its primary
audience includes Internet users everywhere. The site is published by Ask Jeeves,
Inc. and was copyrighted by this company in 2003.
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6. Infoseek
Infoseek is another popular search engine. It allows users choose the best
search mode depending on the level of search assistance they require. Two Info seek
search engines are offered as part of Info seek service : general and advanced. General
offers comprehensive query results. It is especially good if you have a general idea of
what you are seeking, but you do not have specific details. Advanced (search options
link) is intended for experienced searchers who know what they want and how they get
it quickly. One way to narrow your search to places other than web pages with Info
seek is by using its drop-down menu.
As with most search engines, the returns that most closely match your search
results are cited first. To narrow your search even further, Infoseek offers you the
choice of searching only within the results. Like many search engines, Infoseek return
your results in terms of the percentage of its accuracy, with the highest likely return
results first.
7. Excite
The first concept based navigational tool, which searches web pages and the
past two weeks of Usenet postings. Search by a keyword or concept (in plain English).
Excite finds not only sites and articles in response to a keyword, but also relevant
pages connected by a concept. In addition to Netsearch, Excite’s Netreviews provides
a catalogue of reviewed sites organized by subject, and current news from Reuters.
8. Web Crawler
It has fast and simple search of indexed web pages. Also provides a list of most
popular web sites and information on web statistics. The search is by a keyword, string
of words, or, and, not, any. It searches the entire net everyday. Also, you can browse
through category.
5.6. Boolean search model
George Boole (1815-1864) devised a system of symbolic logic in which he
used three operators, viz. +, x and - to combine statements in symbolic form.
John Venn later expressed Boolean logic relationships through what are known
as Venn diagrams. The three operators of Boolean logic are the logical sum (+),
logical product (x) and logical difference (-). Information retrieval systems allow
the users to express their queries by using these operators.
Logical product or AND logic allows the searcher to specify the coincidence
of two or more concepts. For example, in order to ask for information on
‘computers and information retrieval’ the user may formulate the search statement
as
(COMPUTERS) AND INFORMATION RETRIEVAL.
Logical sum or OR logic allows the searcher to specify alternatives among
search terms ‘(or concepts). For example, with the query statement.
(COMPUTERS) OR INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
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the searcher indicates that items on either of these two topics, or both,
will serve the purpose.
Logical difference or NOT logic provides facilities to exclude items from a
set. For example, with the search statement
(INFORMATION RETRIEVAL AND NOT (DBMS)
the user narrows his subject, in this case specifying that he or she does
not require information on DBMS.
These three operators may be combined in one search statement, e.g.
(INFORMATION RETRIEVAL OR INFORMATION SCIENCE) AND (ONLINE
OR COMPUTERS) AND (DEVELOPING COUNTRIES OR THIRD WORLD) AND NOT
(DBMS)
However, when the operators are combined, the resulting search statement
can become quite complex. Venn diagrams can be helpful in demonstrating
Boolean logical relationships. There are several ways of discussing and
representing set operations and basic Boolean logic.
5.6.1. Boolean query formulation
A text retrieval system should provide for query formulation by using the
Boolean AND, OR and NOT operators, and also provide nested Boolean searching.
Boolean search facilities allow a user to combine search terms in a given search
prescription, with certain conditions imposed. These conditions specify whether
more than one search term should simultaneously be present in the desired
records, whether anyone of some chosen words should be present, or whether
one or more terms should be present while another term should not be present
in the desired records, and so on. Nested Boolean search facilities allow more
complex conditions to be imposed along with the search terms. The following
search statements permitted in BRS/ Search software illustrate the use of Boolean
operators.
FISH AND CHIPS

AND

Fish Chips
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will retrieve all records with the search terms FISH and CHIPS occurring
in the same record;
FISH OR CHIPS

OR

Fish Chips

will retrieve all those records where either of the search terms occur;
FISH NOT CHIPS
NOT

Fish Chips

will retrieve all those records where the search term FISH occurs and at the
same time the term CHIPS does not occur;
FISHXOR CHIPS
will retrieve all those records where either of the search terms occur but
not both.
Text retrieval software may use different conventions for denoting the
different Boolean operators. For example, in STATUS,
FISH + CHIPS ?
is equivalent to the ‘FISH AND CHIPS’ of the previous example, and
FISH, CHIPS ?
is equivalent to ‘FISH or CHIPS’. The following is an example of a nested
Boolean search expression allowed in Micro-CDS /ISIS:
LIBRARY * (NETWORK + TELECOMMUNICATION)
which will retrieve all those records where the terms LIBRARY and
NETWORK occur, and also those records where the terms LIBRARY and
TELECOMMUNICATION occur.
All text retrieval systems, including online search services like DIALOG,
and CD-ROM databases like LISA Plus, provide Boolean search facilities. Let us
try to understand how a Boolean search takes place from a file organization
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 81 Paper-LIBB1209T

point of view:
* For Boolean OR queries, the system first finds hits for each search
term and them matches the output sets to find out those records that
contain both or either of the search terms.
* For Boolean AND queries, the system produces one set for each
term is produced and then the results are matched to find out those
record numbers that are common in each set.
* For Boolean NOT queries, a set(s) is produced with the. search
term(s) and another for the NOT terrri(s), and then the items which
appear in the former set but not in the NOT set are retrieved.
However, as a number of sets are to be produced by the retrieval system,
complex Boolean search expressions comprising a number of search terms
combined with appropriate Boolean operators, may be quite time-consuming.
5.6.2. Limitations of Boolean searching
Although Boolean searching has been used by almost all the information
retrieval systems for quite some time, it has certain limitations. The first relates
to the formulation of search statements. It has been noted that users are not
able to formulate an exact search statement by the combination of AND, OR and
NOT operators, especially when several query terms are involved. In such cases
either the search statement becomes too narrow or too broad. Boolean searching,
therefore, often calls for a trained intermediary.
The second limitation relates to the number of retrieved items. It has
been noted that users cannot predict a priori exactly how many items are to be
retrieved to satisfy a given query. If the search statement is broad, the number
of retrieved items may sometimes be several hundreds and thus it may be quite
difficult to find out the exact information required. On the other hand, a given
search may retrieve very few items, if the search statement is too narrow, in
which case the user may miss some relevant items.
The third limitation of Boolean searching is that it identifies an item as
relevant by finding out whether a given query term is present or not in a given
record in the database. Thus, all retrieved items are considered to be of equal
importance, however, a given concept may be discussed in different documents
with differing emphasis or weight there is no mechanism available in Boolean
searching to determine this. In other words, the retrieved items cannot be ranked
in decreasing order of relevance, for example.
It is therefore necessary to pay more attention to the provision of facilities that
would enable the end-user to search in a more effective manner. Two different methods
have been suggested for this purpose. The first is called best-match searching, also
known as nearest neighbor or ranked output searching. These systems are designed to
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 82 Paper-LIBB1209T

produce ranked output through the application of statistical techniques. There are
also other systems that use Boolean searches but with the help of front-end systems
or interfaces, provide guidances to the users in conducting the search in an effective
manner. These systems allow the user to put the query in natural language, and are,
therefore, called natural language interfaces.
5.7. Conclusion
Information Retrieval Process (IRP) presents the relationship between user and a
document as independent variables. The psychological characteristics of user have
implications in information retrieval processes and practices. The subjective as well as
the interpretive nature of relevance poses a serious problem in the evaluation of efficiency
of information retrieval process. It might be quoted that cognitive modeling flexible search
responses and qualitative representation would add value to information retrieval.
The application of Boolean factor to information retrieval systems, however, is not
standard. There are differences in the processing order in which statements are combined.
Some systems set the priority as NOT, AND, OR, whereas in other systems AND may take
precedence over OR U is extremely important that the correct Boolean search logic be
used since the processing priority allocated to each Boolean operator will dictate the way
in which the computer program will construe a search specification. For example, A AND
B OR C AND D is capable of several interpretations. If the processing order is AND followed
by OR, the processing will be [A AND B] OR [C AND D), but if the processing order is OR
followed by AND, the processing order will be A AND [B OR C] AND D.
5.8. Self Check Exercise
Q. 1. How will you define Information Retrieval Process?
Q. 2. Enumerate the different limitations of Boolean searching.
Note: Check your answers with the answers given at the end of the lesson.
5.9. References and Further Readings
Guha, B : Documentation and information services, techniques and
systems. 2nd ed. Calcutta: World Press, 1983.
Haravu,L.J. : Library automation: Design, principles and practices. New
Delhi: Allied, 2004.
Kemp, D.A. : Current awareness services. London: Clive Bingley, 1979.
Luhn. H.Peter : Selective dissemination of new scientific information with
aid of electronic processing equipment. American: Document.
12 (4), 1961.
Singh, S.P. : Automation in Libraries. Delhi: Metropolitan, 1975.
Riaz, M : Modem techniques of documentation and information work.
Lahore : Qadira Books, 1988.
5.10. Answers to Self-Check Exercise
Q.1. Given the definitions of IR by different authors.

Q.2. Explain the Limitations of Bolean searching.

BACHELOR OF LIBRARY AND PAPER - LIBB1209T
INFORMATION SCIENCE INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY : BASICS
LESSON NO. 1.6 AUTHOR : DR. KULWINDER SINGH
DR. AMANDEEP SINGH MARWAHA

COMPUTER NETWORKS : CONCEPT, CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

NETWORK ON THE BASIS OF SIZE (LAN, MAN AND WAN) AND TOPOLOGIES
AND ADVANTAGES OF NETWORKS
Structure of the Lesson
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Concept and Classification of Computer Networks
6.3 Local Area Network
6.3.1 LAN Topology
6.3.2 LAN Access Method
6.3.3 LAN Hardware
6.3.4 LAN Software/Operating Systems
6.4 Wide Area Network
6.4.1 Communication Switching Techniques
6.4.2 WAN Devices/Hardware
6.4.3 Types of Wide Area Networks
6.5 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
6.6 Topologies
6.7 Advantages of Networks
6.8 Self check Exercise
6.9 Suggested Readings
OBJECTIVES : This lesson will make the learner familiar with the various network
types.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Today, Computer networks form the backbone of most enterprises big or small
around the world. Computer networks allow people remote to the computer to access
the information available to that computer. Computer networks are being used to provide
resource sharing between systems separated from a few feet to thousands of kilometers.
This technology is leading many corporations to take advantages of the reduced price
and increased performance in the workplace. In this lesson we will discuss networking
and how it plays an important role in information exchange. Impact of networking be it
LAN or WAN and data communication has been felt across the globe, in various sectors
such as education, medicine, transport, etc. This trend of information sharing in most
83
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 84 Paper-LIBB1209T
sophisticated manner has completely revolutionised the concept of communication. It
brings with it increased access to people in different fields.
6.2 CONCEPT AND CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Communication using computer has brought a revolution in the world of
Information Technology, particularly in the field of personal computer. We have always
heard of networking or the term network. A network is a way or means of transmitting
or receiving (exchange) information from one or more sources.
As an example, car salesmen, after years in the business, have developed a
network of associates. When the car salesman need to locate a car to make a sale, the
car salesman calls out to his network to retrieve information on the location of the car.
Employment agents also develop a network”. Their customers become their networks.
Employment agents will frequently keep in touch with their clientele for possible
openings or to locate a candidate for an opening. Without the capability of networking,
these two people would have a difficult time. It is the same in computing. Networks
provide the means for locating and transporting information.
In computing networks, the origin of the information request utilises the services
of a network to locate and return the information. This is done with addresses. In the
two previous examples of the car salesman and the employment agent, a telephone
number can be considered the address of their associate or client. Addresses in
computer networking are used in the same manner. These addresses identify the
network resource. There are two popular architectures for networking-hierarchical and
peer.
Peer networking does not need pre-defined network addressing. Instead, each
resource on the network is seen as a peer. Each network resource is a peer to the
other network resources. When a new network resource joins the network it introduces
itself and notifies its peer of any other network resources that it knows about - peer
networks are open and share network information.
The entire computer network can be classified into three board categories.
(a) LAN (Local Area Network)
(b) WAN (Wide Area Network)
(c) MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
6.3 LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
As number of systems grows within an organisation, a need is felt for sharing
expensive resource and exchanging data and information between systems. This need
of information exchange and resource sharing within an organisation has resulted in
development of Local Area Network or LAN.
A LAN is a data communication network, which connects many computers or
workstations (computers terminal, printer etc. and permits exchange of data and
information among them, within a localised area, typically confined to a building, or a
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 85 Paper-BLIS-108

cluster of buildings. The distance between two communication points connected on

the same LAN channels, is usually upto 02-05 kms.
LANs are not rigidly defined but tend to share most of all of the following
characteristics :
(a) All the connected devices in the network share the transmission media.
(b) Each device connected in the network can either operate standalone or in the
network.
(c) Area covered is small.
(d) Data transfer rates are high, usually 1 Mbps-100. (Million of bits per second)
6.3.1 LAN Topology
A network topology refers to the physical layout of the network in which all the
devices are connected. This includes all the hardware that makes up the network. The
points of connection to the network by the stations are called Nodes or link stations.
There are several types of topographical design and strategies used to implement LAN.
The majority of these are based on three types of topologies :
Star Topology
Bus Topology
Ring Topology
6.3.2 LAN Access Method
A discipline must be imposed on devices connected to the network to ensure a
controlled access to the media. Access methods are the means or ways by which stations
actually gain the use of the common channel to transmit messages. The right to transmit
is an issue only in broadcast where workstations share a single channel.
Many techniques have been proposed, but two of these are commonly used.
(i) Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
(ii) Token passing
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD access method is used with bus networks. The bus operates in a
Multiple Access (MA) mode. A node is allowed to transmit on the bus, if it senses that
the medium is free (carrier sense). Occasionally two or more nodes may simultaneously
sense that the medium is free and begin to transmit. This creates a collision, as the
contents of transmitted information frames will collide resulting in corruption of the
information frame. This collision is detected (collision detect) by the transmitting node.
The two (or more) nodes involved then wait for a further short random time interval
before trying to retransmit a frame once again.
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 86 Paper-LIBB1209T
Token Passing
Another way of controlling access to a shared medium is by the use of a control
(permission) token. The control token is passed from one node to another according to
a defined set of rules understood and adhered to by all nodes. A node may transmit a
frame when it is in possession of the token and after it had transmitted the frame, it
passes the token to the next device in a predetermined sequence.
In token passing, a logical ring to all nodes connected to the physical medium is
first established and a single token is generated; the control token passes from one
node to another traversing the logical ring. The token keeps on circulating the logical
ring until it is received by a node waiting to send an information frame. After receipt of
the token, waiting station transmits the waiting frames on the physical medium after
which it passes the control token to the next node in the logical ring.
For token passing, the physical medium need not be a ring topology; it can be
used to control access to a bus network also.
6.3.3 LAN Hardware
As we have seen so far, to realise a LAN process, several functions are to be
performed. These are so specialised in nature that they require hardware specially
built for such purpose. Here we will discuss briefly the basic hardware components of
LAN, these are :
(a) Transmission Channel
The transmission channel may be simplex, half duplex or full duplex.
(b) Network Interface Units (NIU)
Network interface units connect each device in the LAN network to shared
transmission device. It contains the rules or logic to access the LAN. NIU is also used
to implement LAN protocols and for device attachments. Its function depends on the
type of topology used in LAN. In microcomputers, NIU may be installed as an add-on
card.
(c) Servers
One of the major benefits of implementation of LAN is sharing expensive
resources such as storage devices, printer etc. This is achieved through providing
servers on the LAN. It is a dedicated computer, which control one or more resources.
This contains both hardware and software interface for LAN. Three major categories of
servers used in LANs are :
(i) File Server
(ii) Printer Server
(iii) Modem Server
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 87 Paper-BLIS-108

In a networking file server is used to share storage space for files, Besides
providing storage space for files in a LAN environment, it is used for taking periodical
backup, and also to provide gateway to other servers within and between LANs. Similarly
printer server is used to handle printing works of all workstation connected in the
network In LAN environment also modem is required to get connected to other network
or simply to use a telephone. A modem server is used to share few telephone lines and
modems by all connected workstations in a network.
6.3.4 LAN Software/Operating System
As the name suggests, LAN Operating System is required to operate on the LAN
system, manage the tremendous work load with a number of various types of server
attached to it. It has basically two aspect (i) Server software (ii) workstation software. As
in case of other multi-user operating systems, LAN operating system also facilitates
the sharing of expensive resources such as printer, storage space etc. among all LAN
users provides security for data and permits connection to other networks. There are
various types of LAN operating system for example Novel Netware. WINDOWS NT, etc.
6.4 WIDE AREA NETWORK
As the name suggests, WAN spread across countries and continents, satellites
being one of the transmission media. A Wide Area Network or WAN, is a network that
links separate geographical locations. A WAN can be a public system such as the
Public Switched Telephone Network (the PSTN) or one of the various packet switched
services provided by the public telecommunication authorities. WANs can also use
most other types of circuit including satellite networks, ISDN, Value Added Networks
(VANs/VADs).
The network can be a private system made up from a network of circuits leased
form the local Telephone Company or set up using public systems as virtual private
networks. A Virtual Private Network is one which operates in the same way as a private
network but which uses public switched services for the transmission of information.
The main distinguishing feature between a WAN and LAN is that, the LAN is
under the complete control of the owner, whereas the WAN needs the involvement of
another authority like the Telephone Company. LANs are also able to handle very high
data transfer at low cost because of the limited area covered. LANs have a lower error
rate than WANS.
6.4.1 Communication Switching Techniques
In WAN, two computing devices are not directly connected. A network of switching
nodes provides a transfer path between the two devices. The process of transferring
data blocks from one node to another is called data switching. There are three switching
techniques commonly employed, and these are :
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 88 Paper-LIBB1209T
Circuit Switching
In circuit switching there is a dedicated communication path between the sending
and receiving devices. The dedicated path is a connected sequence of links between
switching nodes. A conventional telephone network, where a dedicated path is set
between the caller and the caller party for the duration of a telephone call is an example
of circuit switching.
Communication viz. circuit switching involves three steps : Circuit establishment;
data transfer; and circuit termination.
Circuit switching is mainly used for voice telephone network, but is not all that
effective for data communication networks, as channel capacities are not fully utilised,
as data communication equipments do not generate data continuously.
Message Switching
Message switching is an alternative switching technique, where it is not necessary
to establish a dedicate path between the sending and receiving devices. In Message
Switching, the sending device appends the destination address to the message and
passes it to the network; the message is then passed through the network from one
node to another till it reaches the intended destination. Each switching node receives a
message, stores it briefly and then transmits it to the next node. Examples of a message
are electronic mails, computer files, telegrams and transaction queries and responses.
A complete exchange may consist of several messages. The basic disadvantage of
message switching is the variable delay at intermediate switching nodes.
Packet Switching
Packet Switching combines the advantages of message and circuit switching.
Packet Switching is functionally similar to message switching, in which data is
transmitted in block, stored by the first switching node it meets in the network and is
forwarded to the next and subsequent downstream nodes until it reaches the
destination. The length of data block is limited in a packet switching network. Typical
maximum length of packets is between 128 bytes to 4096 bytes. There are two
approaches to packet switching.
* Datagram
* Virtual circuit
In datagram approach, each packet is treated independently and may follow a
different path through the network. Packets may be re-ordered, dropped or delivered
in wrong sequence. The communication protocols provide the error recovery and
sequencing of packets at the receiving device.
In virtual circuit approach, a fixed logical path, through the network from the
sender to the receiver is established before any packets are sent. This path remains
unchanged for duration of the session. This is quite like circuit switching, but no
Bachelor of Library and Information Science 89 Paper-BLIS-108

resources are reserved along the path. Packets are buffered at intermediate nodes
awaiting transmission.
6.4.2 WAN Devices/Hardware
The switching techniques utilise the routing technology for data transfer. Routing
is responsible for searching a path between two computing devices that wish to
communicate and for forwarding the data packets on this path. Devices such as bridges,
router and gateways provide this routing function.
While discussing the WAN devices we referred to X.25; what is it? X. 25 is a set
of recommendation by International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative Committee
for packet switched network. You can refer to further readings for more details.
6.4.3 Types of Wide Area Networks
The essential purpose of Wide Area Networks, regardless of the size or technology
used, is to link separate locations in order to move data around. A WAN allows these
locations to access shared computer resources and provides the essential infrastructure
for developing widespread distributed computing systems. We will now discuss the
different types of WAN, which are commonly used.
Public Networks
Public Networks are those networks which are installed and run by the
telecommunication authorities and are made available to any organisation or individual
who subscribe it. Examples include Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN), Public
Switched Data Networks (PSDN), Value Added Services (VANs/VADs) and the Integrated
Services Digital Networks (ISDN). We would be discussing the main features of these
services.
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
The features of the PSTN are its low speed, the analog nature of transmission, a
restricted bandwidth and its widespread availability. As PSTN is designed for
telephones, modems are required when it is used for data communication.
The PSTN is most useful in wide area data communication systems as an adjunct
to other mechanisms. It is seldom advisable to use PSTN as the sole communications
medium for building a network system. Costs are high, as data connections last for a
considerable time. Also, the links set up are unreliable and can terminate without
warning.
PSTN connections are usually easy to obtain at short notice, and are widely
available and cover almost every location where people live and work. PSTN is most
useful for occasional user or as backup to private circuits. It is also used for facsimile
(FAX) machines.
Public Switched Data Networks (PSDN)
The term PSDN covers a number of technologies, although currently it is limited
to Public Packet Switched Networks available to the public. The main features of all
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PSDNs are their high level of reliability and the high quality of the connections provided.
They can support both low and high speeds at appropriate costs.
Like the PSTN, a PSDN is very useful and adjunct to a private network for
backup and occasional access purposes. It can also be used to link computer systems
and networks of one organisation to several other organisations. PSDN is very popular
for connecting public and private mail systems to implement electronic mail services
with other companies.
Value Added Services (VANs/VADs)
In Value Added Services, the provider of such services must process, store and
manipulate the data that is carried on the network, that is, add value to it. The technique
can be used in specific types of business in which it is advantageous to be able to
share information with other companies in the same line.
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is one area for Value Added Services in which
two trading partners exchange trading documents such as purchase orders, invoices,
transportation etc. using electronic means. In India, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd. is a
service provider.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
The ISDN is a networking concept providing for the integration of voice, video
and data services using digital transmission media and combining both circuit and
packet switching techniques. The motivating force behind ISDN is that telephone
networks around the world have been making a ion towards utilising digital transmission
facilities for many years.
Users in shops or small offices can use their digital connection to Telephone
Company for transmitting both voice and data over the same twisted pair cable which
connects their telephone. As information from the telephone/PC/ Stereo/TV/PABX
are all seen as bit streams by the networks switch, they can be switched and transported
by the same network.
Private Networks
The basic technique used in all forms of private WAN is to use private (or more
usually leased) circuits to link the locations to be served by the network. Between
these fixed points the owner of the network has complete freedom to use the circuits
in any way they want. They can use the circuits to carry large quantities of data or for
high speed transmissions.
6.5 Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
A Metropolitan Area .Network (MAN) is one of a number of types of networks. A
MAN is a relatively new class of network. There are three important features which
discriminate MANs from LANs or WANs.
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The network size falls intermediate between LANs and WANs. A MAN typically
covers an area of between 5 and 50km diameter. Many MANs cover an area the size of
a city, although in some cases MANs may be as small as a group of buildings or as
large as the city.
A MAN is not generally owned by a single organisation. The MAN, its
communications links and equipment are generally owned by either a consortium of
users or by a single network provider who sells the service to the users. This level of
service provided to each user must therefore be negotiated with the MAN operator,
and some performance guarantees are normally specified.
A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources
(similar to a large LAN). It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to
other networks using a link to a WAN.
A typical use of MANs to provide shared access to a wide area network.
Some technologies used for this purpose are ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode),FDDI (fiber-distributed data interface) and SMDS (Switched Multimegabit
Data Service). These older technologies are in the process of being displaced by
Ethernet-based MANs (e.g. Metro Ethernet) in most areas. MAN links between LANs
have been built without cables using either microwave, radio, or infra-red, free-space
optical communication links.
DQDB, Distributed Queue Dual Bus, is the Metropolitan Area Network standard
for data communication. It specified in the IEEE 802.6 standard. Using DQDB, networks
can be up to 30 miles long and operate at speeds of 34 to 155 Mbit/s.
6.6 Topologies
6.6.1 Network Topologies
The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out, either physically or logically.
A topology can be considered as the network’s shape. It is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links. There are five basic topologies: Bus, Ring, Star, Tree, and Mesh.
6.6.2 Bus Topology
Bus topology uses a common bus or backbone (a single cable) to connect all devices
with terminators at both ends. The backbone acts as a shared communication medium and
each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) is attached to it with an interface
connector. Whenever a message is to be transmitted on the network, it is passed back and
forth along the cable, past the stations (computers) and between the two terminators, from
one end of the network to the other. As the message passes each station, the station checks the
message’s destination address. If the address in the message matches the station’s address,
the station receives the message. If the addresses do not match, the bus carries the message to
the next station, and so on. Figure 16.4 illustrates how devices such as file servers,
workstations, and printers are connected to the linear cable or the backbone.
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Figure 6.6.2
Advantages of Bus Topology
 Connecting a computer or peripheral to a linear bus is easy.
 This topology requires least amount of cabling to connect the computers and, therefore,
less expensive than other cabling arrangement.
 It is easy to extend a bus since two cables can be joined into one longer cable with a
connector.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

 Entire network shuts down if there is a failure in the backbone.
 Heavy traffic can slow down a bus because computers on such networks do not
coordinate with each other to reserve time to transmit.

6.6.3 Ring Topology

In ring topology, computers are placed on a Circle of cable without any terminated
ends since there are no unconnected ends. Every node has exactly two neighbours for
communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction
(clockwise or counterclockwise) until it reaches its destination. Each node in the ring
incorporates a repeater. When a node receives a signal intended for another device, its
repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along the wire.
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Figure 6.6.3 Ring Topology

Advantage of Ring Topology
 Ring topology is easy to install and reconfigure.
 Every computer is given equal access to the ring. Hence, no single computer can
monopolise the network.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

 Failure in any cable or node breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
 Maximum ring length and number of nodes are limited.

6.6.4 Star Topology

In star topology, devices are not directly linked to each other but they are connected
via a centralised network component known as hub or concentrator. The hub acts as a central
controller and if a node wants to send data to another node, it boosts up the message and
sends the message to the intended node. This topology commonly uses twisted pair cable,
however, coaxial cable or fiber optic cable can also be used.
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Server Printer

Figure 6.6.4 Star Topology

Advantages of Star Topology
 Star topology is easy to install and wire.
 The network is not disrupted even if a node fails or is removed from the network.
 Fault detection and removal of faulty parts is easier in star topology.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

 It requires a longer length of cable.
 If the hub fails, nodes attached to it are disabled.
 The cost of the hub makes the network expensive as compared to bus and ring topology.

6.6.5 Tree Topology

A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists
of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a bus backbone cable. Not every
node plugs directly to the central hub. The majority of nodes connect to a secondary hub that
in turn is connected to the central hub. Each secondary hub in this topology functions as the
originating point of a branch to which other nodes connect.
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Figure 6.6.5 Tree Topology

Advantages of Tree Topology

 The distance to which a signal can travel increases as the signal passes through a
chain of hubs.
 Tree topology allows isolating and prioritising communications from different nodes.
 Tree topology allows for easy expansion of an existing network, which enable
organisations to configure a network to meet their needs.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

 If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
 It is more difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

16.2.5 Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every node has a dedicated point--to-point link to every other node.
Messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths from source to
destination. A fully connected mesh network has n(n-l)/2 physical links to link n devices. For
example, if an organisation has 5 nodes and wants to implement a mesh topology, 5(5-1 )/2,
that is, 10 links are required. In addition, to accommodate that many links, every device on
the network must have n-l communication (input/output) ports.
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Figure 16.8 Mesh Topology

Advantages of Mesh Topology
 The use of large number of links eliminates network congestion.
 If one link becomes unusable, it does not disable the entire system.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

 The amount of required cabling is very large.
 As every node is connected to the other, installation and reconfiguration is very
difficult.
 The amount of hardware required in this type of topology can make it expensive to
implement.
6.7 Advantages of Networks

Speed: Sharing and transferring files within Networks are very rapid. Thus saving
time, while maintaining the integrity of the file.
Cost: Individually licensed copies of many popular software programs can be
costly. Networkable versions are available at considerable savings. Shared programs, on a
network allows for easier upgrading of the program on one single file server, instead of
upgrading individual workstations.
Security: Sensitive files and programs on a network are passwords protected
(established for specific directories to restrict access to authorized users) or designated as
“copy inhibit,” so that you do not have to worry about illegal copying of programs.
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Centralized Software Management: Software can be loaded on one computer

(the file server) eliminating that need to spend time and energy installing updates and
tracking files on independent computers throughout the building.
Resource Sharing: Resources such as, printers, fax machines and modems can be
shared.
Electronic Mail: E-mail aids in personal and professional communication.
Electronic mail on a LAN can enable staff to communicate within the building having tot to
leave their desk.
Flexible Access: Access their files from computers throughout the firm.
Workgroup Computing: Workgroup software (such as Microsoft BackOffice)
allows many users to work on a document or project concurrently.
6.8 SELF CHECK EXERCISE
Q.1 Write a detailed note on LAN.
Q.2 List down the various types of WAN.
6.9 SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Andrew S Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks.”
2. ED Titel, “Computer Networking.”
3. William Stallings, “Data Communications."

Type Setting :
Department of Distance Education, Punjabi University, Patiala.
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