Computer Network

Module -1
Computer network
● Computer Network is a group of computers
connected with each other through wires, optical fibres
or optical links so that various devices can interact with
each other through a network.
● The aim of the computer network is the sharing of
resources among various devices.
● In the case of computer network technology, there are
several types of networks that vary from simple to
complex level.
Computer network
Applications
1. Resource Sharing
Resource sharing is an application of a computer network. Resource sharing
means you can share one Hardware and Software among multiple users.
Hardware includes printers, Disks, Fax Machines, etc. Computing devices. And
Software includes Atom, Oracle VM Virtual Box, Postman, Android Studio, etc.

2. Information Sharing
Using a Computer network, we can share Information over the network, and it
provides Search capabilities such as WWW. Over the network, a single
information can be shared among the many users over the internet.
Applications
3. Communication
Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast, electronic funds transfer
system etc.

4. Entertainment Industry
In Entertainment industry also uses computer networks widely. Some of the
Entertainment industries are Video on demand, Multiperson real-time simulation games,
movie/TV programs, etc.

5. Access to Remote Databases

Computer networks allow us to access the Remote Database of the various applications
by the end-users. Some applications are Reservation for Hotels, Airplane Booking,
Home Banking, Automated Newspaper, Automated Library etc.
Applications
6. Home applications
There are many common uses of the computer network are as home applications. For
example, you can consider user-to-user communication, access to remote instruction,
electronic commerce, and entertainment. Another way is managing bank accounts,
transferring money to some other banks, paying bills electronically. A computer network
arranges a robust connection mechanism between users.

7. Business applications
The result of business application here is resource sharing. And the purpose of resource
sharing is that without moving to the physical location of the resource, all the data, plans,
and tools can be shared to any network user. Most of the companies are doing business
electronically with other companies and with other clients worldwide with the help of a
Applications
8. Mobile users
The rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile devices
like notebook computers and PDAs (personal digital assistants). Here
mobile users/device means portable device. The computer network is
widely used in new-age technology like smartwatches, wearable devices,
tablets, online transactions, purchasing or selling products online, etc.

9. Social media
Social media is also a great example of a computer network application. It
helps people to share and receive any information related to political,
ethical, and social issues.
Basic networking devices
Basic networking devices
NIC(National interface card)
NIC is a device that helps the computer to communicate with another device.
It is a physical card or chip,which contains MAC addresses,helps to identify
the device on the network.The network interface card contains the hardware
addresses, the data-link layer protocol use this address to identify the system
on the network so that it transfers the data to the correct destination.
There are two types of NIC: wireless NIC and wired NIC.

● Wireless NIC: All the modern laptops use the wireless NIC. In Wireless NIC,
a connection is made using the antenna that employs the radio wave
technology.
● Wired NIC: Cables use the wired NIC to transfer the data over the medium.
Basic networking devices
Hub
Hub is a central device that splits the network connection into multiple
devices. When computer requests for information from a computer, it sends
the request to the Hub. Hub distributes this request to all the interconnected
computers.

Switches
Switch is a networking device that groups all the devices over the network to
transfer the data to another device. A switch is better than Hub as it does not
broadcast the message over the network, i.e., it sends the message to the
device for which it belongs to. Therefore, we can say that switch sends the
message directly from source to the destination.
Basic networking devices
Cables and connectors
Cable is a transmission media that transmits the communication signals. There
are three types of cables:

● Twisted pair cable:

● It is a high-speed cable that transmits the data over 1Gbps or more.Consists
of two insulated copper wires arranged in spiral pattern to minimize the
electromagnetic interference between adjacent pairs.
● Coaxial cable:

● Coaxial cable resembles like a TV installation cable. Coaxial cable is more

expensive than twisted pair cable, but it provides the high data transmission
Basic networking devices
Cables and connectors
● Fibre optic cable: Fibre optic cable is a high-speed cable that transmits the
data using light beams. It provides high data transmission speed as compared
to other cables. It is more expensive as compared to other cables, so it is
installed at the government level.
● Single-mode Fiber (SMF): Used for long-distance communication, it allows a single mode of light to
propagate.
● Multi-mode Fiber (MMF): Suitable for shorter distances, it allows multiple modes of light to
propagate.
Basic networking devices
Router
Router is a device that connects the LAN to the internet. The router is
mainly used to connect the distinct networks or connect the internet to
multiple computers.

Modem
A modem (short for modulator-demodulator) is a device that plays a
critical role in computer networks by facilitating the transmission of data
over different communication mediums. Modems are commonly used to
connect to the Internet, where they serve as the interface between a
computer or network and the Internet service provider (ISP)
Repeater
Repeaters are defined as a networking device that is used to amplify and
generate the incoming signal.
Repeater is to increase the networking distance by increasing the strength
and quality of signals.
It provides with transfer of data with more security and over a long
distance.
Uses Of Computer Network

● Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as

programs, printers, and data among the users on the network without the
requirement of the physical location of the resource and user.
● Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client
model. A server is a central computer used to store the information and
maintained by the system administrator. Clients are the machines used to
access the information stored in the server remotely.
● Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication
medium among the users. For example, a company contains more than one
computer has an email system which the employees use for daily
communication.
● E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do
the business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their
business over the internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.
Network Topologies
Topology ?
● Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of network devices and
the way they are interconnected.
● It defines how data flows within a network and how devices communicate with
each other.
● Types of network topologies
➢ Bus Topology
➢ Ring Topology
➢ Star Topology
➢ Mesh Topology
➢ Tree Topology
➢ Hybrid Topology
 Bus Topology

● It is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected

to a single cable.
● Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
● It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology because if the
backbone fails the topology crashes.
Advantages:
● If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are
required.
● Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support upto
10 Mbps.
● The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small
networks.

Disadvantage:

● If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
● A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling
● If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then the signals of both the nodes
collide with each other.
● Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
● Security is very low
 Mesh Topology
● In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.
● The protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol)
● It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central point of
communication
● Used for wireless network
● Ex:Internet
● Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each
other in a mesh topology, the total number of ports that are
required by each device is N-1.
The total number of ports required = N * (N-1).
● Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other
in a mesh topology, then the total number of dedicated links
required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2.
Advantages:
● The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown will not affect the
communication between connected computers.
● Communication is very fast between the nodes
● Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages:
● The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number
of devices.
● The cost of maintenance is high.
● In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces the efficiency of the
network.
 Star Topology
● All the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
● If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables
required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
● Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number
of ports required is N.
● Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
● Point to point connection between hosts and hub.
Advantages:
● It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
● Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
● Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

Disadvantages:
● If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the
whole system will crash down.
● The cost of installation is high.
 Ring Topology
● Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
● A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes
● The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
● In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is used by the workstations to
transmit the data.
The most common access method of ring topology is token
passing.
Token passing: It is a network access method in which
a token is passed from one node to another node.
Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Advantages:
● Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore, the installation cost is very
low.
● It is a more reliable network because the communication system is not dependent on the single
host computer.
● The data transmission is high-speed.

Disadvantages:
● The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
● Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
● The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
● Less secure
 Tree Topology
● Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.

● This topology is the variation of the Star topology.

Advantages:
● It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the distance
that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
● In tree topology, the whole network is divided into segments known as star networks which
can be easily managed and maintained.
● We can add new devices to the existing network.
● Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology
● The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire network.

Disadvantages:
● If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
● The cost is high because of the cabling.
● If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
 Hybrid Topology
● The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
● A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the data.
Advantages:
● This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the requirements of the
organization.
● Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices without affecting the
functionality of the existing network.

Disadvantages:
● It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
● Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
● The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and
network devices.
 Types of Network
● LAN (local Area Networks)
● WAN(Wide Area Networks)
● MAN(Metropolitan Area Networks)
 Local Area Networks
○ Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area such
as building, office.
○ LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a communication
medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
○ It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network adapters, and
ethernet cables.
○ Local Area Network provides higher security.

Functions of LAN:

● Resource sharing
● Communication
● Centralized data management
● Security
Local Area Networks
Local Area Networks
 Local Area Networks
Example-A local area network (LAN) is a network
contained within a small geographic area, usually
within the same building. Home WiFi networks and
small business networks are common examples of
LANs.
 Metropolitan Area Networks
● A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a type of network that covers a larger
geographical area than a Local Area Network (LAN) but is smaller than a Wide Area
Network (WAN). MANs typically span a city or a large campus and are designed to
provide high-speed connectivity and communication services within that metropolitan
area.
● MANs provide higher data transfer rates compared to LANs, making them suitable for
connecting multiple locations within a metropolitan area.
● Interconnected LAN.
● Fiber-optic cables are commonly used in MANs due to their high data transfer rates and
reliability over longer distances.
Applications:
● Educational Institutions
● Healthcare Systems
● Government Services
Metropolitan Area Networks
 Metropolitan Area Networks
Example-

● Cable TV network.
● Telephone networks.
 Wide Area Network
● A WAN (Wide Area Network) is to connect multiple smaller Local Area
Networks (LANs). It is a computer network designed. WANs can help in
communication, the sharing of information, and much more between
systems or devices from around the world through a WAN provider
● WAN stands for Wide Area Network. It is a computer network that covers
a large geographical area consisting of two or more LANs or MANs.
These networks are established with leased telecommunication circuits,
in which two sides which are connected have routers that connect the
LAN of both sides together in a network to facilitate communication.
Wide Area Network
 Wide Area Network
Example-A bank, including its branch offices
and ATM machines, is an example of an
organization using a WAN. The branches may be
in multiple U.S. states, or even global locations,
but they are all linked through various secure
connections. Both bank employees and customers
are users.
 Network Reference Model

● OSI (Open System Interconnection)

● TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol)
 OSI Reference Model
● This model is based on a proposal developed by the
International Standards Organization (ISO) as a first step
toward international standardization of the protocols used in
the various layers.
● The model is called the ISO OSI (Open Systems
Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with
connecting open systems—that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems.
Physical Layer:
● The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel.
● It is concerned with the actual physical attachment to the network i.e. it deals with the
means of connecting two nodes in a network.
● These design issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical, and timing interfaces, as
well as the physical transmission medium, which lies below the physical layer.

Functions of the Physical Layer:

● The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent
per second.
● Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected
devices.
Data Link Layer:
● The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a
line that appears free of undetected transmission errors
● It accomplishes this task by having the sender break up the input data into data
frames and transmit the frames sequentially. If the service is reliable, the receiver
confirms correct receipt of each frame by sending back an acknowledgement frame.
Functions:
● Framing: It is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set
of bits that are meaningful to the receiver.
● Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses
(MAC addresses) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
● Error control: it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
● Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the
MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the
channel at a given time.
Network Layer:
● Controls the operation of the subnet.
● Manages logical addressing and routing of data packets between different
networks.
● Determines the best path for data to travel from source to destination using
routing protocols.
Function:
● Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
● Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.
Transport Layer:
● The transport layer is a true end-to-end layer; it carries data all the way from
the source to the destination
● The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the
session layer, and, ultimately, to the users of the network. The most popular
type of transport connection is an error-free point-to-point channel that
delivers messages or bytes in the order in which they were sent.
Function:
● Ensures end-to-end communication, providing error detection, correction, and flow
control.
● Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
Session Layer:
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions
between them.

Function:
● dialog control (keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit),
● token management (preventing two parties from attempting the same critical
operation simultaneously), and
● synchronization (checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to pick up
from where they left off in the event of a crash and subsequent recovery)
Presentation Layer:
● Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted

Function
● Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or
code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known
as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
● Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.
Application Layer:
● The application layer contains a variety of protocols, one widely used
application protocol is HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol), which is the
basis for the World Wide Web. When a browser wants a Web page, it sends
the name of the page it wants to the server hosting the page using HTTP. The
server then sends the page back.
TCP/IP Reference Model
● The main work of TCP/IP is to transfer the data of a computer from one device to
another. The main condition of this process is to make data reliable and accurate
so that the receiver will receive the same information which is sent by the sender.
● The basic difference between TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP
(Internet Protocol) is in the transmission of data. In simple words, IP finds the
destination of the mail and TCP has the work to send and receive the mail.
Link Layer:
● Corresponds roughly to the combination of the OSI model's Physical and
Data Link layers.
● Responsible for the physical connection to the network and the framing of
data for transmission.
● Examples of protocols at this layer include Ethernet, Wi-Fi (802.11), and
PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol).
Internet Layer:
● Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have
them travel independently to the destination (potentially on a different
network). They may even arrive in a completely different order than
they were sent, in which case it is the job of higher layers to rearrange
them, if in-order delivery is desired.
● The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called
IP (Internet Protocol), plus a companion protocol called ICMP
(Internet Control Message Protocol) that helps it function.
● The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are
supposed to go.
Transport Layer:
● Ensures end-to-end communication and provides error detection, correction,
and flow control.
● Key protocols at this layer include Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) for
reliable, connection-oriented communication and User Datagram Protocol
(UDP) for unreliable, connectionless communication.

Application Layer:
● Combines functions of the OSI model's Session, Presentation, and Application
layers.
● Provides network services directly to end-users and applications.
Design Issues of Layers
A number of design issues exist for the layer to layer approach of computer networks. Some
of the main design issues are as follows −

Reliability
Network channels and components may be unreliable, resulting in loss of bits while data
transfer. So, an important design issue is to make sure that the information transferred is not
distorted.

Scalability
Networks are continuously evolving. The sizes are continually increasing leading to
congestion. Also, when new technologies are applied to the added components, it may lead
to incompatibility issues. Hence, the design should be done so that the networks are
scalable and can accommodate such additions and alterations.
Design Issues of Layers
Addressing
At a particular time, innumerable messages are being transferred between
large numbers of computers. So, a naming or addressing system should exist
so that each layer can identify the sender and receivers of each message.

Error Control
Unreliable channels introduce a number of errors in the data streams that are
communicated. So, the layers need to agree upon common error detection
and error correction methods so as to protect data packets while they are
transferred.
Design Issues of Layers
Flow Control
If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher than the rate at
which data is received by the receiver, there are chances of overflowing the
receiver. So, a proper flow control mechanism needs to be implemented.

Resource Allocation
CN provide services in the form of network resources to the end users. The
main design issue is to allocate and deallocate resources to processes. The
allocation/deallocation should occur so that minimal interference among the
hosts occurs and there is optimal usage of the resources.
Design Issues of Layers
Statistical Multiplexing-It is not feasible to allocate a dedicated path for each
message while it is being transferred from the source to the destination. So, the data channel
needs to be multiplexed, so as to allocate a fraction of the bandwidth or time to each host.

Routing-There may be multiple paths from the source to the destination. Routing
involves choosing an optimal path among all possible paths, in terms of cost and time. There
are several routing algorithms that are used in network systems.

Security-A major factor of data communication is to defend it against threats like

eavesdropping and surreptitious alteration of messages. So, there should be adequate
mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access to data through authentication and
cryptography.
Transmission media
Guided Media:

In this type of media, signal energy is enclosed and guided within a solid medium. The
guided media is used either for point-to-point links or a shared link with various
connections. In guided media, interference is generated by emissions in the adjacent
cables. Proper shielding of guided media is required to reduce the interference issue.

Unguided Media:

In the unguided media, the signal energy propagates through a wireless medium.
Wireless media is used for radio broadcasting in all directions. Microwave links are
chosen for long-distance broadcasting transmission unguided media. Interference is
also a problem in unguided media, overlapping frequency bands from competing
signals can alter or eliminate a signal.
 Guided Media
● Twisted Pairs
● Coaxial Cable
● Fiber Optics
 Twisted Pairs
● A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires, typically about 1 mm
thick. The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA
molecule. Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine
antenna.
● A twisted pair consists of two conductors each with its own plastic
insulation,twisted together to form a single media.
● The twists between wires are helpful in reducing noise(electromagnetic
interference) and crosstalk
● Application of the twisted pair is the telephone system
● Twisted pairs can be used for transmitting either analog or digital information
 Coaxial Cable
● It has better shielding and greater bandwidth than unshielded twisted
pairs, so it can span longer distances at higher speeds.
● The shield minimizes electrical and radio frequency interference.
● Used by the cable television industry.
 Fiber Optics
● A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
form of light.
● Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through channel.
● A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or
plastic.
 Unguided Media
● Electromagnetic radiation is a form of energy that is all
around us and takes many forms,such as radio
waves,microwaves,X-rays and gamma rays.
Radio Waves:
● Radio waves are Electromagnetic waves that have wavelengths between 1
millimeter and 100 kilometers.
● Radio frequency is easy to generate because its has large wavelength and can
travel along distance.
● Radio waves are generated by radio transmitters and received by radio
receivers.
● Radio stations transmit radio waves using transmitters,which are received by
the receiver installed in our devices.Both transmitters and receivers use
antennas to radiate or capture radio signals.
● Radio waves are omnidirectional.
Microwaves
● Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in nearly straight lines and can therefore be
narrowly focused.
● Unlike radio waves,microwaves are unidirectional, in which the sending and
receiving antennas need to be aligned.
● Microwaves are widely used for point to point communications because their small
wavelength,which means that the signal is focused into a narrow beam.
Additionally,each antenna must be within line of sight of the next antenna.
● It is used for satellite communication,navigation,radar,remote sensing and other short
distance communication systems.
Infrared
● Unguided infrared waves are widely used for short-range communication.
● The remote controls used for televisions, VCRs, and stereos all use infrared
communication. They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build but
have a major drawback: they do not pass through solid objects.
● It means that an infrared system in one room of a building will not interfere
with a similar system in adjacent rooms or buildings: you cannot control your
neighbor’s television with your remote control.
Transmission media
Guided media Unguided Media
The guided media is also called wired The unguided media is also called wireless
communication or bounded transmission media. communication or unbounded transmission media.

For a shorter distance, this is the best option. For longer distances, this method is used.

It is unable to pass through walls. It can pass through walls.

The signal energy propagates through wires in The signal energy propagates through the air in
guided media. unguided media.

Guided media is used for point-to-point Unguided media is generally suited for radio
communication. broadcasting in all directions.
Transmission media
Guided media Unguided Media
It is cost-effective. It is expensive.

Discrete network topologies are formed by the Continuous network topologies are formed by the
guided media. unguided media.

Signals are in the form of voltage, current, or Signals are in the form of electromagnetic waves
photons in the guided media. in unguided media.

Examples of guided media are twisted pair wires, Examples of unguided media are microwave or
coaxial cables, and optical fiber cables. radio links and infrared light.

By adding more wires, the transmission capacity It is not possible to obtain additional capacity in
can be increased in guided media. unguided media.

It sends out a signal that indicates which way to go. It does not indicate which way to travel.
 Switching
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The
switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one
communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques
Circuit Switching
● Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path
between sender and receiver.
● In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
● Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
● A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
● In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data,
voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back
the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After
receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
● Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
● Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Circuit Switching
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
● Circuit establishment
● Data transfer
● Circuit Disconnect
Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies:

Space Division Switches:

● Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a single
transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a physically separate
set of crosspoints.
● Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A
crossbar switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be
enabled or disabled by a control unit.
● The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For example, Xilinx
crossbar switch using FPGAs.
● Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and nonblocking
switches.
Circuit Switching
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:

● Crossbar Switch
● Multistage Switch

Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The
crossbar switch has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.

Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:

The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased.

Therefore, it becomes very expensive for a large switch. The solution to this is to
use a multistage switch.
Circuit Switching
Multistage Switch
● Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the smaller
units and then interconnecting them.
● It reduces the number of crosspoints.
● If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

● In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is

dedicated.
● It has fixed bandwidth.
Circuit Switching
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
● Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the
speed of data transmission.
● It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds
during which no data can be transmitted.
● It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated
path is required for each connection.
● It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no
data is transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
● In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can
be transferred even if the channel is free.
Message Switching
● Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is
transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at
which it is stored and forwarded.
● In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated
path between the sender and receiver.
● The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching
provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate
nodes based on the information available in the message.
● Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide
the most efficient routes.
● Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the
next node. This type of network is known as store and forward network.
● Message switching treats each message as an independent entity
Message Switching
Message Switching
Advantages Of Message Switching
● Data channels are shared among the communicating
devices that improve the efficiency of using available
bandwidth.
● Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is
temporarily stored in the nodes.
● Message priority can be used to manage the network.
● The size of the message which is sent over the network can
be varied. Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.
Message Switching
Disadvantages Of Message Switching
● The message switches must be equipped with
sufficient storage to enable them to store the
messages until the message is forwarded.
● The Long delay can occur due to the storing and
forwarding facility provided by the message
switching technique.
Packet Switching
● The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is
sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
● The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets
are given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
● Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.
● Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible.
● All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
● If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
resend the message.
● If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment
Packet Switching
Packet Switching
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

● It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information
about the destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to
the correct destination.
● The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
● In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
● Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
● Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Packet Switching
Virtual Circuit Switching
● Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as
connection-oriented switching.
● In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned
route is established before the messages are sent.
● Call request and call accept packets are used to
establish the connection between sender and receiver.
● In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical
connection.
Packet Switching
Packet Switching
● In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and
receiver respectively. 1 and 2 are the nodes.
● Call request and call accept packets are used to
establish a connection between the sender and receiver.
● When a route is established, data will be transferred.
● After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is
sent by the receiver that the message has been
received.
● If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear
signal is sent for the termination.
Packet Switching
Advantages Of Packet Switching:

● Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not

require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost-effective technique.
● Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
● Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require
any established path prior to the transmission, and many users can use
the same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of
available bandwidth very efficiently.
Packet Switching
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
● Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in
those applications that require low delay and
high-quality services.
● The protocols used in a packet switching technique are
very complex and requires high implementation cost.
● If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it
requires retransmission of lost packets. It can also lead
to the loss of critical information if errors are not
recovered.
Packet Switching
Switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are generally set up on a
per-call basis and are disconnected when the call is
terminated; however, a permanent virtual circuit (PVC) can
be established as an option to provide a dedicated circuit
link between two facilities.
Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach