GOENKA COLLEGE OF COMMERCE & BUSINESS

ADMINISTRATION

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES (ENVS)

PROJECT
ON

STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, FISH,

BIRDS, MAMMALS AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF

IDENTIFICATION.
BY

NAME: MD MOTIUR RAHMAN

REGISTRATION NO: 145-1111-0214-21

UNIVERSITY ROLL NO: 211145-21-0048

COLLEGE ROLL NO: 358 SECTION: B

SEMESTER: II YEAR: 2022

COURSE: B.COM HONOURS

 SUPERVISOR’S CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. MD MOTIUR RAHMAN a student of B.Com
Honours in Accounting & Finance of GOENKA COLLEGE OF
COMMERCE & BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION under the University of
Calcutta has worked under my supervision and guidance for his
Project Work and prepared a Project Report with the title STUDY OF
COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, FISH, BIRDS, MAMMALS AND BASIC
PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION which he is submitting, is his
genuine and original work to the best of my knowledge.

Signature

Name: Prof. E. Haque

Date: Designation:

2
 STUDENT’S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the Project Work with the title STUDY OF COMMON
PLANTS, INSECTS, FISH, BIRDS, MAMMALS AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
IDENTIFICATION submitted by me for the partial fulfilment of the degree of
B.Com. Honours in Accounting & Finance under the University of Calcutta is
my original work and has not been submitted earlier to any other University
/Institution for the fulfilment of the requirement for any course of study. I also
declare that no chapter of this manuscript in whole or in part has been
incorporated in this report from any earlier work done by others or by me.
However, extracts of any literature which has been used for this report has
been duly acknowledged providing details of such literature in the references.

Signature

Name: Md. Motiur Rahman

Date: Regn. No: 145-1111-0214-21

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I WOULD LIKE TO EXPRESS MY SPECIAL THANKS OF GRATITUDE
TO MY PRINCIPAL DR.ABIJIT DATTA AS WELL AS TO MY
DEPARTMENTAL TEACHERS WHO GAVE ME THE GOLDEN
OPPORTUNITY TO DO THIS WONDERFUL PROJECT ON THE TOPIC
"STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS, INSECTS, FISH,BIRDS, MAMMALS
AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION " WHICH ALSO
HELPED ME IN DOING A LOT OF RESEARCH AND I CAME TO KNOW
ABOUT SO MANY NEW THINGS I AM REALLY THANKFUL TO
THEM.SECONDLY, I WOULD ALSO LIKE TO THANK MY PARENTS
AND FRIENDS WHO HELPED ME A LOT IN FINISHING THIS
PROJECT WITHIN LIMITED TIME.

4
 INDEX

SL.NO TOPIC PAGE NO

1 INTRODUCTION 6
2 THE GREAT COUCAL 7-11
3 THE SPOTTED DOVE 11-14
4 AZADIRACHTA INDICA 14-19
5 HOLY BASIL 20-24
6 HONEY BEE 25-27
7 BUTTERFLIES 28-31
8 CAT 32-35
9 KOI 36-38
10 CONCLUSION 39
11 BIBLIOGRAPHY 40

5
 INTRODUCTION

ENVIRONMENT STUDIES DEALS WITH EVERY ISSUE THAT AFFECTS AN

ORGANISM. IT IS ESSENTIALLY MULTI-DISCIPLINARY APPROACH THAT BRINGS
ABOUT AN APPRECIATION OF NATURAL WORK AND HUMAN IMPACTS ON ITS
INTEGRITY. IT IS AN APPLIED SCIENCE AS IT SEEKS PRACTICAL ANSWERS TO
MAKING HUMAN CIVILIZATION SUSTAINABLE ON THE EARTH’S FINITE
RESOURCES.

A DIVERSE VARIETY OF LIVING ORGANISMS (LIFE FORMS) CAN BE FOUND IN

THE BIOSPHERE ON EARTH, AND PROPERTIES COMMON TO THESE PLANTS,
ANIMALS, INSECTS, BIRDS, ARCHAEA, AND BACTERIA ARE A CARBON- AND
WATER-BASED CELLULAR FORM WITH COMPLEX ORGANIZATION AND
HERITABLE GENETIC INFORMATION. LIVING ORGANISMS UNDERGO
METABOLISM, MAINTAIN HOMEOSTASIS, POSSESS A CAPACITY TO GROW,
RESPOND TO STIMULI, REPRODUCE AND, THROUGH NATURAL SELECTION,
ADAPT TO THEIR ENVIRONMENT IN SUCCESSIVE GENERATIONS. MORE
COMPLEX LIVING ORGANISMS CAN COMMUNICATE THROUGH VARIOUS
MEANS

IN THIS PROJECT I WOULD BE LISTING SOME OF THE COMMON PLANTS,

INSECTS, FISH, BIRDS AND MAMMALS WHICH ARE FOUND IN MY LOCALITY
AND DO A DETAILED STUDY ON THE BASIS OF IDENTIFICATION OF THESE
ORGANISMS AND ALSO CLASSIFY WHAT SPECIES THEY BELONG TO AND THE
DISTRIBUTION OF THEIR HABITAT.

I HAVE CHOSEN MY LOCALITY (NEWTOWN) AS MY LOCATION OF STUDY, I

HAD VISITED TWO LOCAL PARKS, ECO PARK AND RABINDRA TIRTHA PARK
AND WAS LUCKY ENOUGH TO SPOT MANY BIRDS, INSECTS, PLANTS, FISH,
ETC. AND I HAVE MADE THIS PROJECT BASED ON MY OBSERVATION OF
THEM AND THE WILLINGNESS TO GET TO KNOW MORE ABOUT MY
SURROUNDINGS.

6
 LIST OF COMMON BIRDS, FISH AND MAMMALS.

THE GREATER COUCAL

The greater coucal or crow pheasant (Centropus sinensis), is a large non-parasitic member
of the cuckoo order of birds, the Cuculiformes. A widespread resident in the Indian
Subcontinent and Southeast Asia, it is divided into several subspecies, some being treated
as full species. They are large, crow-like with a long tail and coppery brown wings and
found in a wide range of habitats from jungle to cultivation and urban gardens. They are
weak fliers, and are often seen clambering about in vegetation or walking on the ground as
they forage for insects, eggs and nestlings of other birds. They have a familiar deep
resonant call which is associated with omens in many parts of its range.

7
BIONOMIAL

KINGDOM: ANIMALIA
PHYLUM: CHORDATA
CLASS: AVES
ORDER: CUCULIFORMES
FAMILY: CUCULIDAE
GENUS: CENTROPUS
SPECIES: C. SINENSIS

Description
This is a large species of cuckoo at 48 cm. The head is black, upper mantle and underside
are black glossed with purple. The back and wings are chestnut brown. There are no pale
shaft streaks on the coverts. The eyes are ruby red. Juveniles are duller black with spots on
the crown and there are whitish bars on the underside and tail. There are several
geographic races and some of these populations are sometimes treated as full species.
Earlier treatments included the brown coucal (C. (s.) andamanensis) under this name.
Rasmussen & Anderton (2005) suggest that the race parroti may be a full species – the
southern coucal which is found in peninsular India (northern boundary unclear). The race
intermedius of the Assam and Bangladesh region is smaller than the nominate race found in
the sub-Himalayan zone. Songs of the races are said to vary considerably. Race parroti of
southern India has a black head and the underparts glossed blue and has the forehead, face
and throat more brownish.The sexes are similar in plumage but females are slightly larger.

Leucicistic specimens have been observed

8
BEHAVIOR AND ECOLOGY

The greater coucal is a large bird

which takes a wide range of insects,
caterpillars, snails and small
vertebrates such as the Saw-scaled
vipers. They are also known to eat
bird eggs, nestlings, fruits and seeds.
In Tamil Nadu they were found to
feed predominantly on snails Helix
vittata. They are also known to feed
on the toxic fruits of Cascabela
thevetia (Yellow Oleander).In oil palm
cultivation, they have been noted as an avian pest due to their habit of eating the fleshy
mesocarps of the ripe fruits.

They sunbathe in the mornings singly or in pairs on the top of vegetation with their wings
spread out. The territory of a nesting pair has been found in southern India to be 0.9 to 7.2
ha. They are most active in the warm hours of the morning and in the late afternoon.

The calls are a booming low coop-coop-coops repeated and with variations and some duets
between individuals. When duetting the female has a lower pitched call. Other calls include
a rapid rattling “lotok, lotok …” and a harsh scolding “skeeaaaw” and a hissing Threat call

BREEDING
The breeding season is after the monsoon in southern India but varies in other parts of its
range but chiefly June to
September. Greater coucals
are monogamous, and the
courtship display involves
chases on the ground and
the male brings food gifts for
the female. The female
lowers her tail and droops
her wings to signal
acceptance. The nest is built
mostly by the male over
about three to eight
days. The nest is a deep cup

9
with a dome in dense vegetation inside tangles of creepers, bamboo clump
or Pandanus crowns. They can be built as high as 6m above the ground and the typical
clutch is 3–5 eggs. The eggs (of size 36–28 mm weighing 14.8 g ) are chalky white with a
yellow glaze when laid that wears off. Both the male and the female take part in nest
building. They lay 2 to 4 eggs that hatch after 15–16 days of incubation. The chicks take
18–22 days to fledge. A study in southern India found that 77% of the eggs hatched and
67% fledged. Nests with eggs were sometimes abandoned or marauded by the Indian
jungle crow Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

The nominate race is

found from the Indus
Valley through the sub-
Himalayan and Gangetic
plains to Nepal, Assam
and the Bhutan foothills
into southern China
(Guangxi, Zhejiang,
Fujian).

The young when hatched have black skin and white hairy feathers (termed as
trichoptiles) forming a fringe over the eye and beak.The centre of the belly is
pinkish and the upper mandible is black with a pink edge. The iris is brown,
gape yellow and feet dark brown-gray. The juvenile of race parroti is
unmarked dull black on the underside (contra barred in the northern races)
and much darker, dusky chestnut on the wings. Race bubutus found in
Southeast Asia has a distinct call. Individuals from the Western Ghats are very
similar in size to the lesser coucal Centropus bengalensis but the latter has a
stubbier bill, shorter tail, wing tips extending beyond the tertials and a
chestnut wing lining, dark eyes and a tail with green/bronze sheen.Females of

10
the race parroti develop dusky or sooty wing coverts between November and
January and the northern boundary of the race is along the Punjab plains
where it forms intermediates with the northern forms.

THE SPOTTED DOVE

THE SPOTTED DOVE (SPILOPELIA CHINENSIS) IS A SMALL AND SOMEWHAT

LONG-TAILED PIGEON THAT IS A COMMON RESIDENT BREEDING BIRD
ACROSS ITS NATIVE RANGE ON THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT AND IN
SOUTHEAST ASIA. THE SPECIES HAS BEEN INTRODUCED TO MANY PARTS OF
THE WORLD AND FERAL POPULATIONS HAVE BECOME ESTABLISHED.

BIONOMIAL
KINGDOM: ANIMALIA
PHYLUM: CHORDATA
CLASS: AVES
ORDER: COLUMBIFORMES
FAMILY: COLUMBIDAE
GENUS: SPILOPIA
SPECIES: S. CHINESIS

11
DESCRIPTION
The ground colour of this long and
slim dove is rosy buff below
shading into grey on the head and
belly. There is a half collar on the
back and sides of the neck made of
black feathers that bifurcate and
have white spots at the two tips.
The median coverts have brown
feathers tipped with rufous spots in
the Indian and Sri Lankan
subspecies which are divided at the
tip by a widening grey shaft streak.
The wing feathers are dark brown with grey edges. The centre of the abdomen
and vent are white. The outer tail feathers are tipped in white and become
visible when the bird takes off. Sexes are similar, but juveniles are duller than
adults and do not acquire the neck spots until they are mature. The length
ranges from 28 to 32 centimetres (11.2 to 12.8 inches).

This species was formerly included in the genus Streptopelia with other turtle-
doves, but studies suggest that they differ from typical members of that genus.
This dove is long tailed buff brown with a white-spotted black collar patch on
the back and sides of the neck. The tail tips are white and the wing coverts
have light buff spots.
There are considerable plumage variations across populations within its wide
range. The species is found in light forests and gardens as well as in urban
areas. They fly from the ground with an explosive flutter and will sometimes
glide down to a perch. It is also called the mountain dove, pearl-necked
dove, lace-necked dove, and spotted turtle-dove.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

The spotted dove in its native range in Asia is found across a range of habitats
including woodland, scrub, farmland and habitation. In India it tends to be
found in the moister regions, with the laughing dove (S. senegalensis)

12
appearing more frequently in drier areas. These doves are mostly found on the
ground where they forage for
seeds and grain or on low
vegetation.

The species has become

established in many areas
outside its native range. These
areas include Hawaii, southern
California, Mauritius, Australia
and New Zealand.

In Australia they were

introduced into Melbourne in
the 1860s and have since
spread but there is insufficient evidence that they compete with native doves.
They are now found in streets, parks, gardens, agricultural areas, and tropical
scrubs in diverse locations throughout eastern Australia and around the cities
and major towns across southern Australia. The original populations appear to
be S. c. chinensis and S. c. tigrina in varying proportions.

BEHAVIOUR AND ECOLOGY

Spotted doves move around in pairs or
small group as they forage on the
ground for grass seeds, grains, fallen
fruits and seeds of other plants. They
may however take insects occasionally
and have been recorded feeding on
winged termites. The flight is quick with
regular beats and an occasional sharp
flick of the wings. A display flight
involves taking off at a steep angle with
a loud clapping of the wing and then
slowly gliding down with the tail spread
out. The breeding season is spread out
in warm regions but tends to be in
summer in the temperate ranges. In
Hawaii, they breed all year round, as do
all three other introduced species of
doves. Males coo, bow and make aerial

13
displays in courtship. In southern Australia, they breed mostly from September
to January, and in the north in autumn. They nest mainly in low vegetation,
building a flimsy cup of twigs in which two whitish eggs are laid. Nests are
sometimes placed on the ground or on buildings and other structures. Both
parents take part in building the nest, incubating and feeding the young. The
eggs hatch after about 13 days and fledge after a fortnight. More than one
brood may be raised.
The vocalizations of the spotted dove include cooing softly with a Krookruk-
krukroo... kroo with the number of terminal kroos varying in the Indian
population and absent in tigrina, chinensis and other populations to the east.
The species has been extending its range in many parts of the world.
Populations may sometimes rise and fall rapidly, within a span of about five
years. In the Philippines, the species may be outcompeting. Their habit of
flushing into the air when disturbed makes them a hazard on airfields, often
colliding with aircraft and sometimes causing damage.

AZADIRACHTA INDICA

Azadirachta indica, commonly known as neem, nimtree or Indian lilac. is a tree

in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the
genus Azadirachta, and is native to the Indian subcontinent and most of the
countries in Africa. It is typically grown in tropical and semi-tropical regions.

14
Neem trees also grow on islands in southern Iran. Its fruits and seeds are the
source of neem oil.

DESCRIPTION
Neem is a fast-growing tree that can reach a height of 15–20 metres (49–
66 ft), and rarely 35–40 m (115–131 ft). It is deciduous, shedding many of its
leaves during the dry winter months. The branches are wide and spreading.
The fairly dense crown is roundish and may reach a diameter of 20–25 m (66–
82 ft). The neem tree is similar in appearance to its relative,
the chinaberry (Melia azedarach).
The opposite, pinnate leaves are 20–40 cm (8–16 in) long, with 20 to 30
medium to dark green leaflets
about 3–8 cm long. The terminal
leaflet often is missing.
The petioles are short.
White and fragrant flowers are
arranged in more-or-less
drooping axillary panicles which are
up to 25 cm (10 in) long.
The inflorescences, which branch up
to the third degree, bear from 250 to
300 flowers. An individual flower
is 5–6 mm long and 8–11 mm
wide. Protandrous, bisexual flowers
and male flowers exist on the same
individual tree.
The fruit is a smooth (glabrous), olive-like drupe which varies in shape from
elongate oval to nearly roundish, and when ripe is 14–28 mm by 10-15 mm .
The fruit skin (exocarp) is thin and the bitter-sweet pulp (mesocarp) is
yellowish-white and very fibrous. The mesocarp is 3–5 mm thick. The white,
hard inner shell (endocarp) of the fruit encloses one, rarely two, or three,
elongated seeds (kernels) having a brown seed coat.

15
 The neem tree is often confused with a
similar looking tree called bakain. Bakain
also has toothed leaflets and similar looking
fruit. One difference is that neem leaves
are pinnate but bakain leaves are twice- and
thrice-
pinnate.

Pollen grains of Azadirachta indica

BIONOMIAL
KINGDOM : PLANTAE

CLADE : TRACHEOPHYTES

ORDER : SAPINDATES

FAMILY : MELLACEAE

GENUS : AZADIRACHTA

SPECIES : A. INDICA

CLADE : ANGIOSPERMS

CLADE : EUDICOTS

ECOLOGY
THE NEEM TREE IS NOTED FOR ITS DROUGHT RESISTANCE. NORMALLY IT
THRIVES IN AREAS WITH SUB-ARID TO SUB-HUMID CONDITIONS, WITH AN
ANNUAL RAINFALL OF 400–1,200 MM (16–47 IN). IT CAN GROW IN REGIONS

16
WITH AN ANNUAL RAINFALL BELOW 400 MM, BUT IN SUCH CASES IT
DEPENDS LARGELY ON GROUND WATER LEVELS. NEEM CAN GROW IN MANY
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL, BUT IT THRIVES BEST ON WELL DRAINED DEEP
AND SANDY SOILS. IT IS A TYPICAL TROPICAL TO SUBTROPICAL TREE AND
EXISTS AT ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURES OF 21–32 °C (70–90 °F). IT CAN
TOLERATE HIGH TO VERY HIGH TEMPERATURES AND DOES NOT TOLERATE
TEMPERATURE BELOW 5 °C (41 °F). NEEM IS ONE OF A VERY FEW SHADE-
GIVING TREES THAT THRIVE IN DROUGHT-PRONE AREAS E.G. THE DRY
COASTAL, SOUTHERN DISTRICTS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN. THE TREES ARE
NOT AT ALL DELICATE ABOUT WATER QUALITY AND THRIVE ON THE MEREST
TRICKLE OF WATER, WHATEVER THE QUALITY. IN INDIA AND TROPICAL
COUNTRIES WHERE THE INDIAN DIASPORA HAS REACHED, IT IS VERY
COMMON TO SEE NEEM TREES USED FOR SHADE LINING STREETS, AROUND
TEMPLES, SCHOOLS AND OTHER SUCH PUBLIC BUILDINGS OR IN MOST
PEOPLE’S BACK YARDS. IN VERY DRY AREAS THE TREES ARE PLANTED ON
LARGE TRACTS OF LAND.

NEEM IS CONSIDERED AS A WEED IN MANY AREAS, INCLUDING SOME PARTS

OF THE MIDDLE EAST, MOST OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA INCLUDING WEST
AFRICA AND INDIAN OCEAN STATES, AND SOME PARTS OF AUSTRALIA.

17
ECOLOGICALLY, IT SURVIVES WELL IN SIMILAR ENVIRONMENTS TO ITS OWN,
BUT ITS WEED POTENTIAL HAS NOT BEEN FULLY ASSESSED.

IN APRIL 2015, A. INDICA WAS DECLARED A CLASS B AND C WEED IN THE

NORTHERN TERRITORY, AUSTRALIA, MEANING ITS GROWTH AND SPREAD
MUST BE CONTROLLED AND PLANTS OR PROPAGULES ARE NOT ALLOWED
TO BE BROUGHT INTO THE
NT. IT IS ILLEGAL TO BUY,
SELL, OR TRANSPORT THE
PLANTS OR SEEDS. ITS
DECLARATION AS A WEED
CAME IN RESPONSE TO ITS
INVASION OF WATERWAYS
IN THE “TOP END” OF THE
TERRITORY.

AFTER BEING INTRODUCED

INTO AUSTRALIA, POSSIBLY
IN THE 1940S, A. INDICA
WAS ORIGINALLY PLANTED
IN THE NORTHERN TERRITORY TO PROVIDE SHADE FOR CATTLE. TRIAL
PLANTATIONS WERE ESTABLISHED BETWEEN THE 1960S AND 1980S IN
DARWIN, QUEENSLAND, AND WESTERN AUSTRALIA, BUT THE AUSTRALIAN
NEEM INDUSTRY DID NOT PROVE VIABLE. THE TREE HAS NOW SPREAD INTO
THE SAVANNA, PARTICULARLY AROUND WATERWAYS, AND NATURALISED
POPULATIONS EXIST IN SEVERAL AREAS.

USES
Neem oil has the ability to cause some forms of toxic encephalopathy and
ophthalmopathy if consumed in any quantity.Applications of neem oil in the
preparation of polymeric resins have been documented in recent reports. The
synthesis of various alkyd resins from neem oil is reported using a

18
monoglyceride (MG) route and their utilization for the preparation of PU
coatings.The alkyds are prepared from reaction of conventional divalent acid
materials like phthalic and maleic anhydrides with MG of neem oil.Neem is a
key ingredient in non-pesticidal management (NPM), providing a natural
alternative to synthetic pesticides. Neem seeds are ground into powder that is
soaked overnight in water and sprayed on the crop. To be effective, it must be
applied repeatedly, at least every ten days. Neem does not directly kill insects.
It acts as an anti-feedant,
repellent, and egg-laying
deterrent and thus protects the
crop from damage. The insects
starve and die within a few days.
Neem also suppresses the
subsequent hatching of their
eggs. Neem-based fertilizers have
been effective against southern
armyworm. Neem cake may be
used as a fertilizer.

Neem oil has been shown to

avert termite attack as an
ecofriendly and economical
agent.Products made from neem trees have been used in the traditional
medicine of India for centuries,but there is insufficient clinical evidence to
indicate any benefits of using neem for medicinal purposes.In adults, no
specific doses have been established, and short-term use of neem appears to
be safe, while long-term use may harm the kidneys or liver; in small children,
neem oil is toxic and can lead to death. Neem may also cause miscarriages,
infertility, and low blood sugar

19
 HOLY BASIL(OCIMUM TENUIFLORUM)

Ocimum tenuiflorum, commonly known as holy basil, tulsi or tulasi,is an

aromatic perennial plant in the family Lamiaceae. It is native to the Indian
subcontinent and widespread as a cultivated plant throughout the Southeast
Asian tropics.Tulsi is cultivated for religious and traditional medicine purposes,
and also for its essential oil. It is widely used as a herbal tea, commonly used
in Ayurveda, and has a place within the Vaishnava tradition of Hinduism, in
which devotees perform worship involving holy basil plants or leaves.

The variety of Ocimum tenuiflorum used in Thai cuisine is referred to as Thai

holy basil and is the key herb in phat kaphrao, a stir-fry dish;it is not the same
as Thai basil, which is a variety of Ocimum basilicum. In Cambodia, it is known
as mreah-prov

BIONOMIAL
20
 KINGDOM: PLANTAE

CLADE: TRACHEOPHYTES

CLADE: ANGIOSPERMS

CLADE: EUDICOTS

ORDER: LAMIALES

FAMILY: LAMIACEAE

GENUS: OCIMUM

SPECIES: O. TENUIFLORUM

DESCRIPTION
Ocimum sanctum L. (Tulsi) is an erect, much branched sub-shrub 30-60 cm tall,
with simple opposite green or purple leaves that are strongly scented and
hairy stems. Leaves have petiole and are ovate, up to 5 cm long, usually
somewhat toothed. Flowers are purplish in elongate racemes in close whorls.
Tulsi is native throughout the world tropics and widespread as a cultivated
plant and an escaped weed. It is cultivated for religious and medicinal
purposes and for its essential oil. Tulsi is an important symbol in many Hindu
religious traditions, which link the plant with Goddess figure. The name ‘Tulsi
in Sanskrit means ‘the incomparable one’. The presence of a Tulsi plant
symbolizes the religious bend of a Hindu family.The holy basil plant is a small

21
annual or short-lived perennial shrub, up to 1 metre (3.3 feet) in height. The
stems are hairy and bear simple toothed
or entire leaves oppositely along the
stem. The fragrant leaves are green or
purple, depending on the variety. The
small purple or white tubular flowers
have green or purple sepals and are
borne in terminal spikes. The fruits are
nutlets and produce numerous seedsoly
basil

Holy basil, (Ocimum tenuiflorum), also

called tulsi or tulasi, flowering plant of
the mint family (Lamiaceae) grown for its
aromatic leaves. Holy basil is native to
the Indian subcontinent and grows throughout Southeast Asia. The plant is
widely used in Ayurvedic and folk medicine, often as an herbal tea for a variety
of ailments, and is considered sacred in Hinduism. It is also used as a culinary
herb with a pungent flavour that intensifies with cooking. It is reminiscent of
clove, Italian basil (Ocimum basilicum), and mint and has a peppery spiciness. It
is considered an agricultural weed and an invasive species in some areas
outside its native range

USES & SIGNIFICANCE

Tulsi (Sanskrit: Surasa) has been used in Ayurvedic and Siddha practices for its
supposed treatment of diseases.For centuries, the dried leaves have been
mixed with stored grains to repel insectsThe essential oil may have nematicidal
properties against Tylenchulus semipenetrans, Meloidogyne javanica, Anguina
tritici, and Heterodera cajani.Water disinfection using O. tenuiflorum extracts
was tested by Bhattacharjee et al 2013 and Sadul et al 2009. Both found an
alcoholic extract to be more effective than aqueous or leaf juice. Sundaramurthi

22
et al 2012 finds the result to be safe to drink, and additionally to be
antimicrobial. A constituent analysis by Sadul found alkaloids, steroids, and
tannins in the aqueous, and alkaloids and steroids only in the alcoholic extract.

Tulsi is a sacred plant for Hindus,

particularly the Vaishnavite sect. It is
worshipped as the avatar of
Lakshmi,[citation needed] and may
be planted in front yards of Hindu
houses or Hanuman temples. The
ritual lighting of lamps each evening
during Kartik includes the worship
of the tulsi plant.Vaishnavas
followers of Vishnu are known as
"those who bear the tulsi around
the neck”.

Tulsi Vivah is a ceremonial festival performed between Prabodhini Ekadashi

(the 11th or 12th lunar day of the bright fortnight of the Hindu month of Kartik)
and Kartik Pournima (the full moon of the month).

In the Kati Bihu festival celebrated in Assam, people light earthen lamps (diya)
at the foot of the household tulasi plants and pray.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

DNA BARCODES OF VARIOUS BIOGEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATES OF TULSI FROM
THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT ARE NOW AVAILABLE. IN A LARGE-SCALE
PHYLOGEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF THIS SPECIES CONDUCTED USING
CHLOROPLAST GENOME SEQUENCES, A GROUP OF RESEARCHERS FROM
CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF PUNJAB, BATHINDA, HAVE FOUND THAT THIS
PLANT ORIGINATES FROM NORTH-CENTRAL INDIA.[7]

23
 THIS BASIL HAS NOW ESCAPED FROM
CULTIVATION AND HAS NATURALISED
INTO A COSMOPOLITAN
DISTRIBUTION.THE THREE MAIN
MORPHOTYPES CULTIVATED IN INDIA AND
NEPAL ARE RAM TULSI (THE MOST
COMMON TYPE, WITH BROAD BRIGHT
GREEN LEAVES THAT ARE SLIGHTLY
SWEET), THE LESS COMMON PURPLISH
GREEN-LEAVED (KRISHNA OR SHYAM
TULSI) AND THE COMMON WILD VANA
TULSI (E.G., OCIMUM GRATISSIMUTHE GENOME OF THE TULSI PLANT HAS
BEEN SEQUENCED AND REPORTED AS A DRAFT, ESTIMATED TO BE 612
MEGA BASES, WITH RESULTS SHOWING GENES FOR BIOSYNTHESIS OF
ANTHOCYANINS IN SHYAMA TULSI, URSOLIC ACID AND EUGENOL IN RAMA
TULSI.

24
 HONEY BEE

A HONEY BEE (ALSO SPELLED HONEYBEE) IS A EUSOCIAL FLYING INSECT

WITHIN THE GENUS APIS OF THE BEE CLADE, ALL NATIVE TO EURASIA. THEY
ARE KNOWN FOR THEIR CONSTRUCTION OF PERENNIAL COLONIAL NESTS
FROM WAX, THE LARGE SIZE OF THEIR COLONIES, AND SURPLUS
PRODUCTION AND STORAGE OF HONEY, DISTINGUISHING THEIR HIVES AS A
PRIZED FORAGING TARGET OF MANY ANIMALS, INCLUDING HONEY BADGERS,
BEARS AND HUMAN HUNTER-GATHERERS. ONLY EIGHT SURVIVING SPECIES
OF HONEY BEE ARE RECOGNIZED, WITH A TOTAL OF 43 SUBSPECIES,
THOUGH HISTORICALLY 7 TO 11 SPECIES ARE RECOGNIZED. HONEY BEES
REPRESENT ONLY A SMALL FRACTION OF THE ROUGHLY 20,000 KNOWN
SPECIES OF BEES.

BIONOMIAL
KINGDOM: ANIMALIA
PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA
CLASS: INSECTA
ORDER: HYMENOPTERA
FAMILY: APIDAE
CLADE: CORBICULATA

25
ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Honey bees appear to have their center of origin in South and Southeast
Asia (including the Philippines), as all the extant species except Apis
mellifera are native to that region. Notably, living representatives of the earliest
lineages to diverge (Apis florea and Apis andreniformis) have their center of
origin there.
The first Apis bees appear in
the fossil record at the Eocene-
Oligocene boundary (34 mya), in
European deposits. The origin of
these prehistoric honey bees does
not necessarily indicate Europe as
the place of origin of the genus,
only that the bees were present in
Europe by that time. Few fossil
deposits are known from South Asia,
the suspected region of honey bee
origin, and fewer still have been
thoroughly studied.
No Apis species existed in the New World during human times before the
introduction of A. mellifera by Europeans. Only one fossil species is
documented from the New World, Apis nearctica, known from a single
14 million-year-old specimen from Nevada.
The close relatives of modern honey bees – e.g., bumblebees and stingless
bees – are also social to some degree, and social behaviour seems
a plesiomorphic trait that predates the origin of the genus. Among the extant
members of Apis, the more basal species make single, exposed combs, while
the more recently evolved species nest in cavities and have multiple combs,
which has greatly facilitated their domestication.

POLLINATION
Of all the honey bee species, only A. mellifera has been used extensively for
commercial pollination of fruit and vegetable crops. The scale of these

26
 pollination services is
commonly measured in the
billions of dollars, credited
with adding about 9% to
the value of crops across
the world. However,
despite contributing
substantially to crop
pollination, there is debate
about the potential spillover to natural landscapes and competition between
managed honey bees and many of the ~20,000 species of wild pollinators.

Species of Apis are generalist floral visitors, and pollinate many

species of flowering plants, but because of their “generalized”
nature, they do so inefficiently. Without specialized adaptations for
specific flowers, their ability to
reach pollen and nectar is
often limited. What’s more,
their tendency to visit all
species in a given area means
that the pollen they carry for
any one species is often very
diluted. As such, they can
provide some pollination to
many plants, especially non-native crops, but most native plants
have some native pollinator that is far more effective at pollinating
that species.When honey bees are present as an invasive species in
an area, they compete for flowers with native pollinators, which
can actually push out the native species.

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 BUTTERFLIES

BUTTERFLIES ARE INSECTS IN THE MACROLEPIDOPTERAN CLADE

RHOPALOCERA FROM THE ORDER LEPIDOPTERA, WHICH ALSO INCLUDES
MOTHS. ADULT BUTTERFLIES HAVE LARGE, OFTEN BRIGHTLY COLOURED
WINGS, AND CONSPICUOUS, FLUTTERING FLIGHT. THE GROUP COMPRISES
THE LARGE SUPERFAMILY PAPILIONOIDEA, WHICH CONTAINS AT LEAST ONE
FORMER GROUP, THE SKIPPERS (FORMERLY THE SUPERFAMILY
“HESPERIOIDEA”), AND THE MOST RECENT ANALYSES SUGGEST IT ALSO
CONTAINS THE MOTH-BUTTERFLIES (FORMERLY THE SUPERFAMILY
“HEDYLOIDEA”). BUTTERFLY FOSSILS DATE TO THE PALEOCENE, ABOUT 56
MILLION YEARS AGO.BUTTERFLIES HAVE A FOUR-STAGE LIFE CYCLE, AS LIKE
MOST INSECTS THEY UNDERGO COMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS. WINGED
ADULTS LAY EGGS ON THE FOOD PLANT ON WHICH THEIR LARVAE, KNOWN
AS CATERPILLARS, WILL FEED. THE CATERPILLARS GROW, SOMETIMES VERY
RAPIDLY, AND WHEN FULLY DEVELOPED, PUPATE IN A CHRYSALIS. WHEN
METAMORPHOSIS IS COMPLETE, THE PUPAL SKIN SPLITS, THE ADULT INSECT
CLIMBS OUT, AND AFTER ITS WINGS HAVE EXPANDED AND DRIED, IT FLIES
OFF. SOME BUTTERFLIES, ESPECIALLY IN THE TROPICS, HAVE SEVERAL

28
GENERATIONS IN A YEAR, WHILE OTHERS HAVE A SINGLE GENERATION, AND
A FEW IN COLD LOCATIONS MAY TAKE SEVERAL YEARS TO PASS THROUGH
THEIR ENTIRE LIFE CYCLE.

BIONOMIAL
KINGDOM: ANIMALIA

PHYLUM: ARTHROPODA

CLASS: INSECTA

ORDER: LEPIDOPTERA

SUBORDER: RHOPALOCERA

DESCRIPTION
Butterflies are often polymorphic, and many species make use of camouflage,
mimicry, and aposematism to evade their predators.Some, like the monarch
and the painted lady, migrate over long distances. Many butterflies are
attacked by parasites or parasitoids,
including wasps, protozoans, flies, and
other invertebrates, or are preyed upon by
other organisms. Some species are
pests because in their larval stages they
can damage domestic crops or trees;
other species are agents of pollination of
some plants. Larvae of a few butterflies
(e.g., harvesters) eat harmful insects, and a few are predators of ants, while
others live as mutualists in association with ants. Culturally, butterflies are a
popular motif in the visual and literary arts. The Smithsonian Institution says

29
“butterflies are certainly one of the most appealing creatures in nature”.The
Oxford English Dictionary derives the word straightforwardly from Old English
butorflēoge, butter-fly; similar names in
Old Dutch and Old High German show
that the name is ancient, but modern
Dutch and German use different words
(vlinder and Schmetterling) and the
common name often varies substantially
between otherwise closely-related
languages. A possible source of the
name is the bright yellow male of the
brimstone (Gonepteryx rhamni); another is that butterflies were on the wing in
meadows during the spring and summer butter season while the grass was
growing.

DISTRIBUTION AND MIGRATION

Butterflies are distributed worldwide except Antarctica, totalling some 18,500
species.Of these, 775 are Nearctic; 7,700 Neotropical; 1,575 Palearctic; 3,650
Afrotropical; and 4,800 are distributed
across the combined Oriental and
Australian/Oceania regions. The
monarch butterfly is native to the
Americas, but in the nineteenth
century or before, spread across the
world, and is now found in Australia,
New Zealand, other parts of Oceania,
and the Iberian Peninsula. It is not
clear how it dispersed; adults may have been blown by the wind or larvae or
pupae may have been accidentally transported by humans, but the presence of
suitable host plants in their new environment was a necessity for their
successful establishment.

30
Many butterflies, such as the painted lady, monarch, and several danaine
migrate for long distances. These
migrations take place over a
number of generations and no
single individual completes the
whole trip. The eastern North
American population of monarchs
can travel thousands of miles
south-west to overwintering sites
in Mexico. There is a reverse
migration in the spring.It has recently been shown that the British painted lady
undertakes a 9,000-mile round trip in a series of steps by up to six successive
generations, from tropical Africa to the Arctic Circle — almost double the
length of the famous migrations undertaken by monarch. Spectacular large-
scale migrations associated with the monsoon are seen in peninsular India.
Migrations have been studied in more recent times using wing tags and also
using stable hydrogen isotopes.

Butterflies navigate using a time-

compensated sun compass. They can see
polarized light and therefore orient even in
cloudy conditions. The polarized light near
the ultraviolet spectrum appears to be
particularly important. Many migratory
butterflies live in semi-arid areas where
breeding seasons are short. The life
histories of their host plants also influence butterfly behaviour.

31
 CATS

THE CAT (FELIS CATUS) IS A DOMESTIC SPECIES OF SMALL CARNIVOROUS

MAMMAL. IT IS THE ONLY DOMESTICATED SPECIES IN THE FAMILY FELIDAE
AND IS OFTEN REFERRED TO AS THE DOMESTIC CAT TO DISTINGUISH IT
FROM THE WILD MEMBERS OF THE FAMILY. A CAT CAN EITHER BE A HOUSE
CAT, A FARM CAT OR A FERAL CAT; THE LATTER RANGES FREELY AND
AVOIDS HUMAN CONTACT.DOMESTIC CATS ARE VALUED BY HUMANS FOR
COMPANIONSHIP AND THEIR ABILITY TO KILL RODENTS. ABOUT 60 CAT
BREEDS ARE RECOGNIZED BY VARIOUS CAT REGISTRIES.

DESCRIPTION
THE CAT IS SIMILAR IN ANATOMY TO THE OTHER FELID SPECIES: IT HAS A
STRONG FLEXIBLE BODY, QUICK
REFLEXES, SHARP TEETH AND
RETRACTABLE CLAWS ADAPTED TO
KILLING SMALL PREY. ITS NIGHT
VISION AND SENSE OF SMELL ARE
WELL DEVELOPED. CAT
COMMUNICATION INCLUDES
VOCALIZATIONS LIKE MEOWING,
PURRING, TRILLING, HISSING,
GROWLING AND GRUNTING AS WELL AS
CAT-SPECIFIC BODY LANGUAGE. A
PREDATOR THAT IS MOST ACTIVE AT
DAWN AND DUSK (CREPUSCULAR),
THE CAT IS A SOLITARY HUNTER BUT A
SOCIAL SPECIES. IT CAN HEAR SOUNDS TOO FAINT OR TOO HIGH IN

32
FREQUENCY FOR HUMAN EARS, SUCH AS THOSE MADE BY MICE AND OTHER
SMALL MAMMALS.CATS ALSO SECRETE AND PERCEIVE PHEROMONES

FEMALE DOMESTIC CATS CAN HAVE

KITTENS FROM SPRING TO LATE
AUTUMN, WITH LITTER SIZES OFTEN
RANGING FROM TWO TO FIVE
KITTENS. DOMESTIC CATS ARE BRED
AND SHOWN AT EVENTS AS
REGISTERED PEDIGREED CATS, A
HOBBY KNOWN AS CAT FANCY.
POPULATION CONTROL OF CATS
MAY BE EFFECTED BY SPAYING AND
NEUTERING, BUT THEIR
PROLIFERATION AND THE ABANDONMENT OF PETS HAS RESULTED IN LARGE
NUMBERS OF FERAL CATS WORLDWIDE, CONTRIBUTING TO THE EXTINCTION
OF ENTIRE BIRD, MAMMAL, AND REPTILE SPECIES.

IT WAS LONG THOUGHT THAT CAT DOMESTICATION BEGAN IN ANCIENT

EGYPT, WHERE CATS WERE VENERATED FROM AROUND 3100 BC, BUT
RECENT ADVANCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY AND GENETICS HAVE SHOWN THAT
THEIR DOMESTICATION OCCURRED IN WESTERN ASIA AROUND 7500 BC.AS
OF 2021, THERE WERE AN ESTIMATED 220 MILLION OWNED AND 480
MILLION STRAY CATS IN THE WORLD.AS OF 2017, THE DOMESTIC CAT WAS
THE SECOND MOST POPULAR PET IN THE UNITED STATES, WITH 95.6
MILLION CATS OWNED AND AROUND 42 MILLION HOUSEHOLDS OWN AT
LEAST ONE CAT.IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, 26% OF ADULTS HAVE A CAT
WITH AN ESTIMATED POPULATION OF 10.9 MILLION PET CATS AS OF 2020.

BIONOMIAL
KINGDOM: ANIMALIA
CLASS: CHORDATA
ORDER: MAMMALIA
SUBORDER: CARNIVORA
FAMILY: FELIFORMIA
SUBFAMILY: FELIDAE
GENUS: FELIS
SPECIES: F. CATUS

33
ECOLOGY

OUTDOOR CATS ARE ACTIVE BOTH

DAY AND NIGHT, ALTHOUGH THEY
TEND TO BE SLIGHTLY MORE ACTIVE
AT NIGHT.DOMESTIC CATS SPEND THE
MAJORITY OF THEIR TIME IN THE
VICINITY OF THEIR HOMES BUT CAN
RANGE MANY HUNDREDS OF METERS
FROM THIS CENTRAL POINT. THEY
ESTABLISH TERRITORIES THAT VARY
CONSIDERABLY IN SIZE, IN ONE STUDY
RANGING FROM 7 TO 28 HECTARES
(17–69 ACRES).THE TIMING OF CATS’
ACTIVITY IS QUITE FLEXIBLE AND
VARIED, WHICH MEANS HOUSE CATS
MAY BE MORE ACTIVE IN THE MORNING AND EVENING, AS A RESPONSE TO
GREATER HUMAN ACTIVITY AT THESE TIMES.

CATS CONSERVE ENERGY BY SLEEPING MORE THAN MOST ANIMALS,

ESPECIALLY AS THEY GROW OLDER. THE DAILY DURATION OF SLEEP VARIES,
USUALLY BETWEEN 12 AND 16 HOURS, WITH 13 AND 14 BEING THE
AVERAGE. SOME CATS CAN SLEEP AS MUCH AS 20 HOURS. THE TERM “CAT
NAP” FOR A SHORT REST REFERS TO THE CAT’S TENDENCY TO FALL ASLEEP
(LIGHTLY) FOR A BRIEF PERIOD. WHILE ASLEEP, CATS EXPERIENCE SHORT
PERIODS OF RAPID EYE MOVEMENT SLEEP OFTEN ACCOMPANIED BY
MUSCLE TWITCHES, WHICH SUGGESTS THEY ARE DREAMING.

BEHAVIOR
CATS ARE COMMON PETS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, AND THEIR
WORLDWIDE POPULATION AS OF 2007 EXCEEDED 500 MILLION. CATS HAVE
BEEN USED FOR MILLENNIA TO CONTROL RODENTS, NOTABLY AROUND
GRAIN STORES AND ABOARD SHIPS,
AND BOTH USES EXTEND TO THE
PRESENT DAY.

AS WELL AS BEING KEPT AS PETS,

CATS ARE ALSO USED IN THE
INTERNATIONAL FUR TRADE AND
LEATHER INDUSTRIES FOR MAKING
COATS, HATS, BLANKETS, AND
STUFFED TOYS;AND SHOES,
GLOVES, AND MUSICAL
INSTRUMENTS RESPECTIVELY(ABOUT 24 CATS ARE NEEDED TO MAKE A CAT-
FUR COAT).THIS USE HAS BEEN OUTLAWED IN THE UNITED STATES SINCE

34
2000 AND IN THE EUROPEAN UNION (AS WELL AS THE UNITED KINGDOM)
SINCE 2007.

CAT PELTS HAVE BEEN USED FOR

SUPERSTITIOUS PURPOSES AS PART OF
THE PRACTICE OF WITCHCRAFT,AND
ARE STILL MADE INTO BLANKETS IN
SWITZERLAND AS TRADITIONAL
MEDICINE THOUGHT TO CURE
RHEUMATISM. A FEW ATTEMPTS TO
BUILD A CAT CENSUS HAVE BEEN
MADE OVER THE YEARS, BOTH
THROUGH ASSOCIATIONS OR
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS (SUCH AS THAT OF
THE CANADIAN FEDERATION OF HUMANE SOCIETIES) AND OVER THE
INTERNET, BUT SUCH A TASK DOES NOT SEEM SIMPLE TO ACHIEVE.

HABITAT
THE DOMESTIC CAT IS A COSMOPOLITAN SPECIES AND OCCURS ACROSS
MUCH OF THE WORLD. IT IS ADAPTABLE AND NOW PRESENT ON ALL
CONTINENTS EXCEPT ANTARCTICA, AND ON 118 OF THE 131 MAIN GROUPS
OF ISLANDS, EVEN ON THE ISOLATED KERGUELEN ISLANDS.DUE TO ITS
ABILITY TO THRIVE IN ALMOST ANY TERRESTRIAL HABITAT, IT IS AMONG THE
WORLD’S MOST INVASIVE SPECIES. IT LIVES ON SMALL ISLANDS WITH NO
HUMAN INHABITANTS.FERAL CATS CAN LIVE IN FORESTS, GRASSLANDS,
TUNDRA, COASTAL AREAS, AGRICULTURAL LAND, SCRUBLANDS, URBAN
AREAS, AND WETLANDS.

THE UNWANTEDNESS THAT LEADS TO THE DOMESTIC CAT BEING TREATED

AS AN INVASIVE SPECIES IS TWOFOLD. ON ONE HAND, AS IT IS LITTLE
ALTERED FROM THE WILDCAT, IT CAN READILY INTERBREED WITH THE
WILDCAT. THIS HYBRIDIZATION POSES A DANGER TO THE GENETIC
DISTINCTIVENESS OF SOME WILDCAT POPULATIONS, PARTICULARLY IN
SCOTLAND AND HUNGARY, POSSIBLY
ALSO THE IBERIAN PENINSULA, AND
WHERE PROTECTED NATURAL AREAS
ARE IN CLOSE PROXIMITY TO HUMAN-
DOMINATED LANDSCAPES, SUCH AS
KRUGER NATIONAL PARK IN SOUTH
AFRICA.ON THE OTHER HAND, AND
PERHAPS MORE OBVIOUSLY, ITS
INTRODUCTION TO PLACES WHERE NO
NATIVE FELINES ARE PRESENT
CONTRIBUTES TO THE DECLINE OF
NATIVE SPECIES.

35
 KOI

Koi or more specifically nishikigoi, literally “brocaded carp”), are colored

varieties of the Amur carp (Cyprinus rubrofuscus) that are kept for decorative
purposes in outdoor koi ponds or water gardens.Koi is an informal name for
the colored variants of C. rubrofuscus kept for ornamental purposes. There are
many varieties of ornamental koi, originating from breeding that began in
Niigata, Japan in the early 19th century.Several varieties are recognized by the
Japanese, distinguished by coloration, patterning, and scalation. Some of the
major colors are white, black, red, orange, yellow, blue, brown and cream,
besides metallic shades like gold and silver-white (‘platinum’) scales. The most
popular category of koi is the Gosanke, which is made up of the Kōhaku,
Taishō Sanshoku and Shōwa Sanshoku varieties. Koi are also popular in many
countries in the equatorial region, where outdoor water gardens are popular.In
Sri Lanka, interior courtyards most often have one or several fish ponds
dedicated to koi

36
BIONOMIAL
KINGDOM: ANIMALIA

PHYLUM: CHORDATA

CLASS: ACTINOPTERYGII

ORDER: CYPRINIFORMES

FAMILY: CRPRINIDAE

GENUS: CYPRINUS

SPECIES: C. RUBROFOSCUR

VARIETY: C. R. VAR. “KOI”

DESCRIPTION
Carp are a large group of fish originally found
in Central Europe and Asia. Various carp
species were originally domesticated in East
Asia, where they were used as food fish. Carp
are coldwater fish, and their ability to survive
and adapt to many climates and water
conditions allowed the domesticated species to
be propagated to many new locations,
including Japan. Natural color mutations of
these carp would have occurred across all
populations.

37
BREEDING
WHEN KOI NATURALLY BREED ON THEIR
OWN THEY TEND TO SPAWN IN THE
SPRING AND SUMMER SEASONS. THE
MALE WILL START FOLLOWING THE
FEMALE, SWIMMING RIGHT BEHIND HER
AND NUDGING HER. AFTER THE FEMALE
KOI RELEASES HER EGGS THEY SINK TO
THE BOTTOM OF THE POND AND STAY THERE. A STICKY OUTER SHELL
AROUND THE EGG HELPS KEEP IT IN PLACE SO IT DOES NOT FLOAT AROUND.
ALTHOUGH THE FEMALE CAN PRODUCE MANY SPAWNS, MANY OF THE FRY
DO NOT SURVIVE DUE TO BEING EATEN BY OTHERS. ON AVERAGE IF THE
EGG SURVIVES AROUND 4–7 DAYS THE FRY WILL BE HATCHED FROM THE
EGG.

DISTRIBUTION AND HABITAT

IT ORIGINATES FROM ASIA AND PARTS OF EUROPE, ALTHOUGH IT HAS BEEN
TAKEN TO ALMOST EVERY CONTINENT. KOI FISH INHABIT STAGNANT OR IN
FLUID WATER. IT’S ALSO VERY COMMON TO FIND IT IN MANY AQUARIUMS OR
PONDS.KOI HAVE BEEN ACCIDENTALLY OR DELIBERATELY RELEASED INTO
THE WILD IN EVERY CONTINENT EXCEPT
ANTARCTICA. THEY QUICKLY REVERT TO THE
NATURAL COLORATION OF AN AMUR CARP WITHIN
A FEW GENERATIONS. IN MANY AREAS, THEY ARE
CONSIDERED AN INVASIVE SPECIES AND A PEST.
IN THE STATES OF QUEENSLAND AND NEW SOUTH
WALES IN AUSTRALIA, THEY ARE CONSIDERED
NOXIOUS FISH

38
 CONCLUSION

THE ECOSYSTEMS OF THE NATURAL WORLD SUPPORT THE WEB OF LIFE.

ENERGY FLOWS FROM THE SUN, AND ONE SPECIES’ WASTE IS ANOTHER
SPECIES’ FOOD. MATTER CYCLES THROUGH ECOSYSTEMS, CREATING A
BALANCE. LIKE ALL OTHER LIVING THINGS, HUMANS DEPEND ON
ECOSYSTEMS TO PROVIDE THEIR NEEDS FOR SURVIVAL AND TO RECYCLE
WASTES. MOST BIODIVERSITY RESOURCES ARE CONSUMED BY HUMANS, SO
IT IS THEIR PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITY TO PRESERVE AND PROTECT
BIODIVERSITY TO PROTECT THE EARTH. THE RICHNESS OF THE SPECIES, THE
ECOSYSTEM, THE ENVIRONMENT AND THE SUSTAINABLE GROWTH OF LIFE
ON EARTH IS IMPORTANT.BIODIVERSITY IS A CONCEPT THAT HAS NO
GENERAL DEFINITION. USUALLY IT IS USED IN A CONTEXT THAT STRESSES
THE NEED FOR ATTENTION ON OUR LIVING ENVIRONMENT AND THE
SUSTAINABLE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES.BIODIVERSITY CAN BE DIVIDED
IN DIFFERENT TYPES SUCH AS HABITAT, SPECIES AND GENETIC DIVERSITY.AS
HUMANS LIVE MORE AND MORE IN MAN-MADE SURROUNDINGS – I.E., CITIES
– HE RISKS HARMING HIMSELF BY BUILDING AND ACTING IN IGNORANCE OF
NATURAL PROCESSES.” BEYOND THIS MAN-NATURE BENEFIT, URBAN OPEN
SPACES ALSO SERVE AS ISLANDS OF NATURE, PROMOTING BIODIVERSITY
AND PROVIDING A HOME FOR NATURAL SPECIES IN ENVIRONMENTS THAT
ARE OTHERWISE UNINHABITABLE DUE TO CITY DEVELOPMENT IN A SENSE,
BY HAVING THE OPPORTUNITY TO BE WITHIN A NATURAL URBAN GREEN
SPACE PEOPLE GAIN A HIGHER APPRECIATION FOR THE NATURE AROUND
THEM.

39
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

IN THE COMPLETION OF THIS PROJECT “STUDY OF COMMON PLANTS,

INSECTS, FISH,BIRDS, MAMMALS AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION
“ I TOOK REFERENCES FROM VARIOUS ONLINE SOURCES, WHICH ARE AS
FOLLOWS:

➢ WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM
➢ WWW.GOOGLE.COM
➢ WWW.QUORA.COM
➢ WWW.PINTEREST.COM
➢ WWW.NATURE.COM
➢ WWW.ANIMALFACTS.COM

40