FUNDAMENTAL

SKILLS AND
POLYMER SCIENCE

PLASTICS
TECHNICIAN’S
TOOLBOX®
®
THE SOCIETY OF
PLASTICS ENGINEERS
Technical Editors
Dr. Allison R. Calhoun
Jerry Golmanavich
Fundamental Skills and Polymer Science
Design concept and production by

RonJon Publishing
1001 S. Mayhill Rd.
Denton, TX 76208
(800) 383–3060
www.ronjonpublishing.com

Copyright © 2004, Society of Plastics Engineers. All rights reserved.

ISBN 0-9727180-3-6

Published in the United States of America, Brookfield, CT by the Society of Plastics Engineers.

All rights reserved. No part of this guide may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information retrieval and storage sys-
tem, for any purpose without the written permission of the Society of Plastics Engineers.

Please Note: Although the information in this guide has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable,
no warranty, expressed or implied, can be made as to its completeness or accuracy.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to
press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or
omissions or any obligation to update information as it may change. The publisher makes no warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

Design, processing methods, equipment, environment and other variables affect product and mechanical per-
formance and production. Inasmuch, the Society of Plastics Engineers has no control over those variables or
the use to which others may use the material and, therefore, cannot assume responsibility for loss or damages
suffered through reliance on any information contained in this guide.

Professional judgment and expertise of the user must take precedence over the information provided herein.

No representation or warranty is given or implied as to whether the use of any methods described in this book
may infringe on any patents of any third parties.

The Society of Plastics Engineers

PO Box 403
14 Fairfield Drive
Brookfield, CT 06804
Phone: (203) 775-0471
Fax: (203) 740-2671
http://www.4spe.org

®
FUNDAMENTALS OF
MACHINE
OPERATIONS

PLASTICS
TECHNICIAN’S
TOOLBOX®
®
THE SOCIETY OF
PLASTICS ENGINEERS
Technical Editors
Dr. Allison R. Calhoun
Jerry Golmanavich
FUNDAMENTALS OF MACHINE OPERATIONS
Design concept and production by

RonJon Publishing
1001 S. Mayhill Rd.
Denton, TX 76208
(800) 383–3060
www.ronjonpublishing.com

Copyright © 2004, Society of Plastics Engineers. All rights reserved.

ISBN 0-9727180-4-4

Published in the United States of America, Brookfield, CT by the Society of Plastics Engineers.

All rights reserved. No part of this guide may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information retrieval and storage sys-
tem, for any purpose without the written permission of the Society of Plastics Engineers.

Please Note: Although the information in this guide has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable,
no warranty, expressed or implied, can be made as to its completeness or accuracy.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to
press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or
omissions or any obligation to update information as it may change. The publisher makes no warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

Design, processing methods, equipment, environment and other variables affect product and mechanical per-
formance and production. Inasmuch, the Society of Plastics Engineers has no control over those variables or
the use to which others may use the material and, therefore, cannot assume responsibility for loss or damages
suffered through reliance on any information contained in this guide.

Professional judgment and expertise of the user must take precedence over the information provided herein.

No representation or warranty is given or implied as to whether the use of any methods described in this book
may infringe on any patents of any third parties.

The Society of Plastics Engineers

PO Box 403
14 Fairfield Drive
Brookfield, CT 06804
Phone: (203) 775-0471
Fax: (203) 740-2671
http://www.4spe.org

®
 GLOSSARY

PLASTICS
TECHNICIAN’S
TOOLBOX®
®
THE SOCIETY OF
PLASTICS ENGINEERS

Technical Editors
Dr. Allison R. Calhoun
Jerry Golmanavich
Glossary
Design concept and production by

RonJon Publishing
1001 S. Mayhill Rd.
Denton, TX 76208
(800) 383–3060
www.ronjonpublishing.com

Copyright © 2004, Society of Plastics Engineers. All rights reserved.

ISBN 0-9727180-5-2

Published in the United States of America, Brookfield, CT by the Society of Plastics Engineers.

All rights reserved. No part of this guide may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information retrieval and storage sys-
tem, for any purpose without the written permission of the Society of Plastics Engineers.

Please Note: Although the information in this guide has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable,
no warranty, expressed or implied, can be made as to its completeness or accuracy.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to
press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or
omissions or any obligation to update information as it may change. The publisher makes no warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

Design, processing methods, equipment, environment and other variables affect product and mechanical per-
formance and production. Inasmuch, the Society of Plastics Engineers has no control over those variables or
the use to which others may use the material and, therefore, cannot assume responsibility for loss or damages
suffered through reliance on any information contained in this guide.

Professional judgment and expertise of the user must take precedence over the information provided herein.

No representation or warranty is given or implied as to whether the use of any methods described in this book
may infringe on any patents of any third parties.

The Society of Plastics Engineers

PO Box 403
14 Fairfield Drive
Brookfield, CT 06804
Phone: (203) 775-0471
Fax: (203) 740-2671
http://www.4spe.org

2
®
INJECTION MOLDING -
MACHINERY

PLASTICS
TECHNICIAN’S
TOOLBOX®

THE SOCIETY OF
®
PLASTICS ENGINEERS

Technical Editor
Jerry Golmanavich
INJECTION MOLDING - MACHINERY
Design concept and production by

RonJon Publishing
1001 S. Mayhill Rd.
Denton, TX 76208
(800) 383–3060
www.ronjonpublishing.com

Copyright © 2002, Society of Plastics Engineers. All rights reserved.

ISBN 0-9716435-5-5

Published in the United States of America, Brookfield, CT by the Society of Plastics Engineers.

All rights reserved. No part of this guide may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information retrieval and storage sys-
tem, for any purpose without the written permission of the Society of Plastics Engineers.

Please Note: Although the information in this guide has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable,
no warranty, expressed or implied, can be made as to its completeness or accuracy.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to
press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or
omissions or any obligation to update information as it may change. The publisher makes no warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

Design, processing methods, equipment, environment and other variables affect product and mechanical per-
formance and production. Inasmuch, the Society of Plastics Engineers has no control over those variables or
the use to which others may use the material and, therefore, cannot assume responsibility for loss or damages
suffered through reliance on any information contained in this guide.

Professional judgment and expertise of the user must take precedence over the information provided herein.

No representation or warranty is given or implied as to whether the use of any methods described in this book
may infringe on any patents of any third parties.

The Society of Plastics Engineers

PO Box 403
14 Fairfield Drive
Brookfield, CT 06804
Phone: (203) 775-0471
Fax: (203) 740-2671
http://www.4spe.org

2
®
 INJECTION
MOLDING - MOLDS

PLASTICS
TECHNICIAN’S
TOOLBOX®

THE SOCIETY OF
®
PLASTICS ENGINEERS

Technical Editor
Jerry Golmanavich
INJECTION MOLDING - MOLDS
Design concept and production by

RonJon Publishing
1001 S. Mayhill Rd.
Denton, TX 76208
(800) 383–3060
www.ronjonpublishing.com

Copyright © 2002, Society of Plastics Engineers. All rights reserved.

ISBN 0-9716435-6-3

Published in the United States of America, Brookfield, CT by the Society of Plastics Engineers.

All rights reserved. No part of this guide may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information retrieval and storage sys-
tem, for any purpose without the written permission of the Society of Plastics Engineers.

Please Note: Although the information in this guide has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable,
no warranty, expressed or implied, can be made as to its completeness or accuracy.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to
press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or
omissions or any obligation to update information as it may change. The publisher makes no warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

Design, processing methods, equipment, environment and other variables affect product and mechanical per-
formance and production. Inasmuch, the Society of Plastics Engineers has no control over those variables or
the use to which others may use the material and, therefore, cannot assume responsibility for loss or damages
suffered through reliance on any information contained in this guide.

Professional judgment and expertise of the user must take precedence over the information provided herein.

No representation or warranty is given or implied as to whether the use of any methods described in this book
may infringe on any patents of any third parties.

The Society of Plastics Engineers

PO Box 403
14 Fairfield Drive
Brookfield, CT 06804
Phone: (203) 775-0471
Fax: (203) 740-2671
http://www.4spe.org

®
 INJECTION
MOLDING -
PROCESSING AND
TROUBLESHOOTING

PLASTICS
TECHNICIAN’S
TOOLBOX® ®

THE SOCIETY OF
PLASTICS ENGINEERS

Technical Editor
Jerry Golmanavich
INJECTION MOLDING -
PROCESSING AND TROUBLESHOOTING
Design concept and production by

RonJon Publishing
1001 S. Mayhill Rd.
Denton, TX 76208
(800) 383–3060
www.ronjonpublishing.com

Copyright © 2002, Society of Plastics Engineers. All rights reserved.

ISBN 0-9716435-7-1

Published in the United States of America, Brookfield, CT by the Society of Plastics Engineers.

All rights reserved. No part of this guide may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information retrieval and storage sys-
tem, for any purpose without the written permission of the Society of Plastics Engineers.

Please Note: Although the information in this guide has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable,
no warranty, expressed or implied, can be made as to its completeness or accuracy.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to
press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or
omissions or any obligation to update information as it may change. The publisher makes no warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

Design, processing methods, equipment, environment and other variables affect product and mechanical per-
formance and production. Inasmuch, the Society of Plastics Engineers has no control over those variables or
the use to which others may use the material and, therefore, cannot assume responsibility for loss or damages
suffered through reliance on any information contained in this guide.

Professional judgment and expertise of the user must take precedence over the information provided herein.

No representation or warranty is given or implied as to whether the use of any methods described in this book
may infringe on any patents of any third parties.

The Society of Plastics Engineers

PO Box 403
14 Fairfield Drive
Brookfield, CT 06804
Phone: (203) 775-0471
Fax: (203) 740-2671
http://www.4spe.org

®
FOREWORD
®

The Society of Plastics Engineers is pleased

to deliver the Plastics Technician’s The Toolbox Steering Committee, composed
Toolbox®—Extrusion, the new process of dedicated SPE members, was instrumental in
specific companion to the Plastics securing the collective talents of twenty qualified
Technician’s Toolbox®—Injection Molding. authors and industry professionals to develop the
Fundamental Skills and Polymer Science Fundamental Drawers. The core topics provide an
(Drawer 1), Fundamentals of Machine Operations invaluable framework of knowledge that will
(Drawer 2), and the Glossary of Plastics Terms benefit technicians during their careers.
(Drawer 3) are essential components of both the With 20,000 practicing plastics engineers,
Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®—Injection SPE is the largest organization of its kind
Molding, and the Plastics Technician’s worldwide. Further information on SPE’s
Toolbox®—Extrusion. conferences, technical journals, seminars,
Dr. Allison Calhoun and SPE Honored divisions, sections, and education and training
Service Member Jerry Golmanavich, co-technical products is available from the Society at 14
editors for Fundamental Drawers 1, 2, and 3, Fairfield Drive, Brookfield, CT 06804, U.S.A.;
crafted the chapters into an easy-to-understand http://www.4spe.org.
format, affording technicians the opportunity to
learn at their own pace.
Susan E. Oderwald
Executive Director
Society of Plastics Engineers

iii
 Next Page

FOREWORD
®

The Society of Plastics Engineers is pleased Whitman College, WA. She has presented at SPE’s
to deliver the Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®— VINYLTEC conference, co-authored several
Injection Molding—the first in a series. This papers, and has four patents pending. Jerry
extensive collection of practical, on-the-job Golmanavich received his BSME from the Newark
material is the culmination of two years work. It College of Engineering and an MSIE from Purdue
captures the depth and breadth of what the University. Jerry authored technical papers at
technician needs to know to bring American several ANTECs and is a Past President and
manufacturing up to the next level. Councilor of the Nebraska Section of SPE. He
worked at Western Electric Co., Lucent
Written by over 40 SPE members and industry
Technologies, and AT&T Network Cable Systems.
experts, this resource is all-inclusive, fundamental,
He has a patent and one pending and developed a
and one-of-a-kind. The outstanding organization
Technician Training Apprenticeship Program for
and in-depth presentation reflect the extensive
Master Technicians at Lucent Technologies.
backgrounds of the authors, whose technical
competence pervades all SPE activities—books, The Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® is our
journals, seminars, and technical conferences. flagship publication that showcases SPE member-
Each author shares their own unique experience ship talent and boasts unparalleled technical
and expertise, while relating information in a content. We thank you for purchasing the Toolbox
personal, easy-to-understand manner. There is and are confident that your investment will raise
something of value to all technician levels. Basic the performance level on the shop floor.
material is presented for novice technicians, while The invaluable resource of some 25,000
more advanced material is offered to challenge the practicing plastics engineers has made SPE the
master technician level. largest organization of its kind worldwide. Further
Eminently qualified Technical Editors, Dr. information on SPE’s conferences, technical
Allison Calhoun and Mr. Jerry Golmanavich, were journals, seminars, divisions, sections and
outstanding at bringing many chapters into a education and training products is available from
readable and informative compilation. Allison the Society at 14 Fairfield Drive, Brookfield, CT
received her Ph.D. from the University of Georgia. 06804, U.S.A.; http://www.4spe.org.
Allison worked at Imerys’ Pigments and Additives Michael R. Cappelletti
Division, held a faculty position at Mercer Executive Director
University, and is currently a faculty member at Society of Plastics Engineers

iii
 Previous Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
®

The Society of Plastics Engineers Jon Ratzlaff, Chevron Phillips Chemical

acknowledges the accomplishments of the Company LP
Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® Steering
Dr. Ranganath Shastri, The Dow Chemical
Committee and Contributing Authors who
Company
championed the development of Fundamental
Drawers 1–3, vital components of both the Timothy W. Womer, Xaloy-NCI
Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® – Extrusion and
Dr. Allison Calhoun and SPE Honored
the Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® – Injection
Service Member Jerry Golmanavich served as co-
Molding.
technical editors of the Toolbox Fundamental
The Fundamental Drawers consist of Drawers. They worked diligently to deliver the
quality-driven content in an easy-to-use format.
1. Fundamental Skills and Polymer Science
The contributing content experts, armed with
2. Fundamentals of Machine Operations, and academic degrees and years of practical
experience, authored valuable chapters.
3. Glossary of Plastics Terms. These drawers
provide technicians with indispensable SPE acknowledges Chevron Phillips
knowledge that enhances job performance. Chemical Company LP for granting permission to
use their Glossary of Plastics Terms, Fourth
DISTINGUISHED STEERING Edition. We are grateful to these companies,
COMMITTEE MEMBERS publishers and universities for sharing the talents
Dr. Allison R. Calhoun, Whitman College of their staff and for giving SPE permission to use
(Technical Editor) their artwork: A. Routsis Associates, Avaya,
Inc., Butterworth-Heineman Publishers, Dan Foss
Jeff Dininger, Sr., Visteon Automotive Electronic Drives, Dow Chemical Company,
Systems Ferris State University, Hanser-Gardner
Jerry Golmanavich (Chair & Technical Publications, Hunkar Laboratories, Inc., John
Editor), Master Molding Technician Program, Wiley & Sons, Inc., McMaster University,
Lucent Technologies/Avaya Paulson Training Systems, Pearson Education,
Penn State University, Pennsylvania College of
Norman C. Lee, Attractive Design Limited Technology, Polydynamics, Inc., RJG and
Elias (Alex) Mora, Formula Plastics, Inc. Associates, Society of the Plastics Industry,

v
Society of Plastics Engineers

Swagelok Co., Thomson Learning, UMass with the assistance of Laurie McDougal, Training
Lowell, Vickers, Inc, Whitman College. Coordinator.
Thanks to RonJon Publishing for a job well The Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®
done, and especially to Ron, Sandy and Nick for demonstrates the collaboration of a diverse
their direction and support of this project. group of plastics professionals who believe the
need for technician training is critical to the
Training Products Manager Nancy Herdegen, productivity of the plastics industry. We
SPE Headquarters, served as Project Manager recognize and thank these professionals.

THANK YOU
Contributing Authors
Allison Calhoun Alison Maynard
Kirk Cantor Andy Routsis
Jae Choi Nick R. Schott
John Colluccini Ranganath Shastri
Peter Everts Robert Speirs
Robert E. Farrell David Strutt
Harold Giles Hugh Patrick Toner
Jerry Golmanavich John Vlachopoulos
Susan Howe John R. Wagner, Jr.
Dale Lucas Ed Zimmerman

The Society of Plastics Engineers Training and Education Department

vi
®
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
®

The development of the Plastics Technician’s We recognize these Plastics Technician’s

Toolbox®—Injection Molding, was championed Toolbox® Distinguished Steering Committee
by a well-rounded Steering Committee committed members:
to meeting the critical needs of the technician. Dr. Allison R. Calhoun, Whitman College
They were tasked with building the framework of Jeff Dininger, Sr., Visteon Automotive
the Toolbox, defining the table of contents, Systems
recommending qualified authors and establishing
Jerry Golmanavich (Chair), Master Molding
a review process. Over the past two years, these
Technician Program, Avaya
Steering Committee members have devoted
countless hours to this product. Each section of Norman C. Lee, Attractive Design Limited
the Toolbox was thoroughly discussed, Elias (Alex) Mora, Formula Plastics, Inc.
deliberated on, and reviewed to make this product Jon Ratzlaff, Chevron Phillips Chemical
an invaluable foundation for the technician. Many Corporation
authored chapters in addition to their Steering Dr. Ranganath Shastri, The Dow Chemical
Committee responsibilities. From the onset of the Company
concept, these plastics professionals rallied to the
Timothy W. Womer, New Castle Industries
challenge without hesitation. They saw a venue
that, unlike any other available, provided value to Two members of the Steering Committee led
both the SPE membership and to the plastics the charge and worked exhaustively as Technical
industry at large. Editors: Jerry Golmanavich and Allison Calhoun.
They assumed leadership roles that soared beyond
SPE is indebted to the Steering Committee commitment. Allison and Jerry co-edited the
members for their allegiance, commitment, and Fundamentals drawers, and Jerry was sole editor
diligence. These dedicated professionals have of the Injection Molding drawers. These two
gone above and beyond to deliver this one-of-a- champions labored exhaustively and persevered
kind resource that has raised the bar for technician through a myriad of author manuscripts, graphs,
training. Jerry Golmanavich did a great job as tables, equations and images. They grappled with
commander-in-chief while Nancy Herdegen and computer glitches, mega files that shut down their
Laurie McDougal, SPE Plastics Education computers, a gazillion e-mails and CD-ROMs,
Services, managed the timeline and logistics of weekly conference calls, electronic editing,
this massive venture. publishing specifications, copyright issues and

vii
Society of Plastics Engineers

lurking deadlines. In addition to giving thousands Edition. We are grateful to the following
of hours to this effort, they authored chapters. The companies for sharing the talents of their
resolve to reach beyond their scope of responsi- employees as Toolbox authors, for giving SPE
bilities is testimony to their desire to publish the permission to use their artwork and for their
highest-quality resource that technicians will use assistance: AEC, Inc., Alliance Gas Systems, Inc.,
as a workbench for years to come. A. Routsis Associates, Avaya, Inc., Barber-
The contributing content experts, armed with Colman Company, Beaumont Runner
academic degrees, years of practical experience Technologies, Inc., Butterworth-Heinemann,
and a desire to share knowledge, worked hard to Conair Group, Delmar Publishing, Dow
deliver their best possible product. The authors’ Automotive, The Dow Chemical Company, Engel
savvy reflects expertise in the processing Canada, Inc., Hanser-Gardner Publications,
environment, and in particular, working with Hunkar Laboratories, Inc., Husky Injection
technicians. Authors were challenged to build a Molding Systems Ltd., Imerys Pigments and
benchmark like no other in the industry, share Additives, J. Wiley & Sons, Krauss-Maffei, Inc.,
their expertise as educators and practitioners, and Milacron, Inc., New Castle Industries, Parker
convey what the technician needs to know on-the- Hannefin Corp., Paulson Training Programs, Inc.,
job. All were willing, enthusiastic and passionate Pearson Education, Polymers Center of
about their work. SPE received high quality Excellence, PolyOne Corp., Precise Technology,
chapters from these plastics professionals that now Inc., Prentice-Hall, RJG Technologies, RTP
combined, provide a powerful compilation of Company, Society of the Plastics Industry, Spirex
practical knowledge within the industry. Corp., Swagelok Co., Ticona LLC, and Thompson
We also appreciate the efforts of several of our Learning.
authors who reviewed peer chapters. In particular, We express our sympathy to the family of
we wish to acknowledge Professors Dave Kazmer,
Harold Giles, who passed away one month after
Kirk Cantor and Nick Schott. Many thanks to
finishing his fine chapter on Design of
these individuals for their assistance: Ernie
Experiments.
Coleman, Jack Contessa, Bob Dealey, Jeff Ditzler,
Steve Heuke, Len Mroz, Chris Outlaw, Ken Special thanks to Nick Inglish, Peggy Sipp,
Russell, Brian Scappaticci, Mark Sporsyz, Ron and the staff at RonJon Publishing for their time
Walling, Jim Wenskus and Barbara Womer. and talent. Ron and Sandy Jones were particularly
Special mention to Don Allen, Rob Wareham, helpful in sharing their publishing savvy and
Mike Davis, Charlie Rees, and the SPE Injection knowledge.
Molding Division, for their direction and
assistance with the comprehensive The Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® demon-
Troubleshooting Guide. strates the collaboration of a diverse group of
plastics professionals, who believe the need for
Our gratitude to the North Carolina Section of technician training is vital to the productivity and
SPE for their financial assistance and eager growth of the plastics industry. Make no mistake
support.
about it—it took a team of SPE experts, driven by
We wish to acknowledge Chevron-Phillips a dedicated SPE Steering Committee and two
Chemical Company for giving SPE permission to Technical Editors, to make it possible. It is a one-
use their Glossary of Plastics Terms, Fourth of-a-kind workbench. Read. Learn. Enjoy!

viii
®
 Acknowledgments

Thank You to these Distinguished Contributing Authors

James Barrett Dale Lucas
Martin Baumann George Markus
Allison Calhoun Alison Maynard
Kirk Cantor Alex Mora
Randall Charbonneau W. David Outlaw
Z. James Chen Robert Peterson II
Jae Choi Bart Polizotto
John Colluccini Jon Ratzlaff
Robert Dealey
Andy Routsis
Michael De Sa
Lawrence Schmidt
Joseph Dziedzic
Nick R. Schott
Pete Everts
Ranganath Shastri
Robert Farrell
Steven Sinker
Harold Giles
Robert Speirs
Jerry Golmanavich
Roger Steller
Peter Grelle
Ralph Hetke Peter Stoughton
Susan Howe David Strutt
Robert Irwin Hugh Patrick Toner
Kai Jacobsen Steven VanHoeck
Chuck Jones John Vlachopoulos
Robert Kadykowski John Wagner, Jr.
David Kazmer Timothy Womer
Peter Lipp Ed Zimmerman

We recognize, and thank, all the plastics professionals who participated in this endeavor.

Society of Plastics Engineers

ix
®
PREFACE
®

Warning! Use This Toolbox Properly!

This is not meant to be a disclaimer, only a highest quality; therefore they can be expected to
gentle reminder that one should learn how to use last an entire career, if not a lifetime. We have
the tools prior to implementing them. There is spent a considerable amount of time trying to
always some risk involved in having a person determine how to build the premier source of
misunderstand an instruction or principle, then information—something that will be used on a
trying to apply it where it really shouldn’t be daily basis and will contain the required depth to
used. help build a knowledge base for those people
actually in charge of optimizing the process, and
This product of a steering committee and
therefore, are chiefly responsible for the success
group of selected experts must be used in the
or failure of a plastics fabrication facility. There is
proper sequence. A toolbox contains different
risk involved. Several of the people who were
types of tools in different drawers. A toolbox can
asked to contribute “a tool or two” were so
also be used to prop up a piece of furniture
concerned about how the information would be
temporarily while it’s being repaired, or to keep it
interpreted that they decided to decline the
from rocking because one leg is significantly
opportunity to help build this project.
shorter than the other. Most seminar instructors
can relate to horror stories about how something The toolbox breadth is exemplified by the
they had said had been molded into something variations in approaches to certain situations.
completely different, only to be told by the Experience shows that there are usually
student that “the technology doesn’t work!” This exceptions to generalizations, especially in
toolbox contains powerful tools, but one must be forward thinking products such as The Toolbox.
aware that if a nail needs to be pounded, the As with other books, which offer a wide breadth
hammer should be used and not the wrench (even of information, you will often encounter times
though most shade tree mechanics have used where you must throw the book away—and think
wrenches to hit things with). on your feet.
The committee has done its best to make sure If you use the toolbox properly, and if you
that all of the tools are included in the Plastics take the time to apply the principles, the sky
Technician’s Toolbox® and that they are of the becomes the limit. Any technician who has not

v
Society of Plastics Engineers

stepped over the boundaries established by The application of the Tools will be up to the
classroom discussions may never be able to extend reader. With the best technology, an operation is
his learning experience by making educated doomed to failure if any of the key organizations
guesses on the shop floor. The people on the choose to provide less than their best. We do not
frontlines should know more about a particular explain how best to make the team work, only
process than the engineer who shows up “every describe the actions required to address the
once in a while.” Technicians encounter these situation. There is no guarantee with the Toolbox.
situations every day. Improper use of the tools will render them
ineffective so we explain what a tool does and how
The Technician’s Toolbox is not focused on to best use it—in many cases identifying many
any brand name. It gives one a more global look at possible approaches to the same situation. What
where technology stands today. We have spent we stand behind is the high quality of what is in
much time thinking about the minimum the drawers to follow. If used properly, you will
requirements for a technician, but if you start with soon agree that the purchase of the entire Toolbox
drawer one and continue through some of the was a very smart decision. Once you realize how
fundamentals, the breadth of knowledge will lead valuable they are, the tools are yours forever.
you directly toward solving your problems.
One last point must be made. Too often a high-
For the shop administrator, managerial tech solution is proposed for a low-tech problem.
philosophies can turn an operation into a failure in It will be up to you to explore the basics of
spite of the skill level of people enlisted to carry disciplined manufacturing. Equipment which is
out daily tasks. It will be advantageous for not turned on, a limit switch that is not fixed in
supervisors to go through many of the same place, a loose heater band—are just evidence of
drawers designed for technicians! There is workmanship standards which could use some
evidence that many major shop operational improvement. Armed with the discipline, the
problems, which lead to subpar productivity, are desire and the energy to pursue a high-
administrative. For example, blocking cavities (in productivity operation, the only things required
an injection molding shop), inadequate are the tools.
communication, misunderstanding how quality Are you ready to open the first drawer?
systems work, or lack of preventive maintenance,
are all major contributors to poor productivity. Our
focus on segmenting the injection molding process
into a discipline where fill pack and hold are
separate and distinct, makes the amount of time Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®
spent making machine adjustments go down Steering Committee and Technical Editors
dramatically.

vi
®
INTRODUCTION TO
FUNDAMENTALS FOR THE
TECHNICIAN ®

The two fundamental drawers of the Toolbox, and through your cooling medium. You are
Fundamental Skills and Polymer Science and naturally concerned about the quality of the
Fundamentals of Machine Operations, have been material that you produce and the meaning of the
included to provide you with an overview of many quality parameters tested at your site. So, the
of the fields that are relevant to understanding understanding of quality systems and plastics
how plastics do what they do in the process you testing are critical to your understanding of the
are using. The material is applicable to all whole process.
technicians for all processes. For example, when
Since you are also responsible for handling
running an injection molding machine you do not the issues that arise during production, you should
just push the “on” button, pour in the raw be aware of methods for solving problems
materials and hold your breath in the brave hope encountered during your day with your process
that nothing goes wrong. You need to possess an and the details of how to know more about your
intimate understanding of your process and your equipment through print reading. And to
materials. This intimate understanding is a huge implement your learnings, you must have the
task to approach from the outside. language of mathematics to assist in your
To begin with, you need to have an historical interpretation and comprehension of the process
reference of how the product and process was you are responsible for. And hovering above it all
built through designed experiments. You should like a large umbrella is the issue of safety—your
also understand the fundamental properties of the success on the job includes every member of your
material you are molding so you need to know a operation making it home safely!
little bit about polymer chemistry and fluid As you see, this understanding requires an
dynamics. You need to understand how the enormous amount of learning! Since it is such an
injection molding equipment works, how a immense undertaking to learn all the facets of
computer is used in manufacturing with your your process, we have designed these
process and how a mold clamps at the pressures it fundamental drawers in this toolbox for you!
does. Therefore, you should understand the Each section is written by professionals who are
principles of electricity, circuitry, computer passionate about their content and who have had
integrated manufacturing and hydraulics. It is experience on the floor, with the material. We
useful to understand how materials cool, so you recommend that you treat the Fundamentals
will need to look at heat transfer from your plastic drawers as a resource. It has been shown, over and

vii
Society of Plastics Engineers

over again, that information is retained and following topics are covered: mathematics,
successfully utilized when there is a specific problem solving, experimental design, polymer
question at hand. (For an analogy—how much do chemistry and testing, quality, and computer
you learn by reading a VCR manual from cover to integrated manufacturing. In the Fundamentals
cover? What about when you are trying to figure of Machine Operations drawer, you will find
out how to record from the television when you information on: safety, heat transfer, print reading,
are watching a different show?) When you have a electricity, fluid dynamics, hydraulics and circuits.
question, read the chapter that is relevant to your There could be many arguments over why a
question. Just a warning, what is likely to happen chapter was put in one drawer and not another, but
is that as you learn more you will discover you this ordering was a compromise made amongst us
have even more questions meaning that you will all with the goal of trying to best arrange the
need to read even more! A vicious cycle—but
information for you, the reader.
imagine the benefits!
The two drawers have been separated into We wish you the best of success with your
Fundamental Skills and Polymer Science and work and your learnings and hope that your time
Fundamentals of Machine Operations on the spent with the Toolbox is both personally and
premise that there are things that are just funda- professionally rewarding.
mental to using plastics and others that are
fundamental to using machines. In the drawer Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®
Fundamental Skills and Polymer Science, the Steering Committee and Technical Editors

viii
®
INTRODUCTION TO
FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS
AND POLYMER SCIENCE ®

We are all, by nature, curious. This is amply systems by approaching each subject from the
demonstrated by the non-stop questioning of a beginning. Each chapter was crafted with the idea
child—“why is the sky blue?”… “what makes an that the reader’s perspective is that of a novice.
airplane fly?”—all good questions! For example, suppose you want to learn about
Unfortunately, as we get older, we tend to assume designing experiments to optimize your process.
that if we don’t know something, it is either We start with the basic components of good
useless information or too difficult to understand, experiments. But we don’t stop there! Once the
otherwise we would have already learned it. How underlying concepts and terminology are
crazy is that? Of course there are things we all explained, we enter the realm of the more
still want and need to learn after we have left challenging concepts and the application of the
school! Our jobs depend on us learning, our information.
success depends on us learning, our
organization’s success depends on us learning! The final goal of each chapter is that you gain
Often, though, the task is daunting. To help you tools to deepen your understanding of your
migrate through learning this material, we have process, production and product. If you are not a
broken the Fundamentals topics into two sections. novice in a specific area, do not be offended by
the concepts at the beginning of the chapter. We
This first section contains tools to assist in highly recommend that you read from the
your underlying understanding of your process. beginning. It never hurts to reinforce your
The whys and hows of process design, material knowledge of a topic or even, sometimes, find
chemistry and behavior and methods of some of your own misunderstandings!
monitoring your process are all explored. The
chapters in this drawer are designed to help
overcome some of the difficulties of learning the Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®
fundamental behavior and properties of our Steering Committee and Technical Editors

ix
INTRODUCTION TO
FUNDAMENTALS OF
MACHINE OPERATIONS ®

The chapters in this drawer are designed to present broad information to assist your learnings.
help you gain a deeper understanding of how Always refer to your operations manuals for the
machinery operates. As in the previous drawer, specifics of your machine!
each chapter was crafted with the idea that the
We highly recommend that you read from the
reader’s perspective is that of a novice. Again we
beginning of each chapter since it will act as a
begin at the beginning and progress to appli-
refresher if you are already familiar with the topic
cations and more complicated material to help
presented. Besides, you might even find some of
you build an understanding of the hows of
your own misunderstandings!
machinery. The final goal of each chapter is that
you gain tools to deepen your understanding of
your machinery and how it operates at a level Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®
beyond “there is the power cord, this is the ‘on’
Steering Committee and Technical Editors
button and don’t stick you hand in there!” As with
all drawers in the Toolbox, we attempted to

ix
INTRODUCTION TO
INJECTION MOLDING -
MACHINERY ®

Have you ever looked into the cockpit of an There may be variations or combinations of what
airplane and tried to count how many controls are is discussed here.
used by the crew? In the 1960s injection molding Next, the injection unit is examined. While
machines looked like large pieces of steel welded the injection unit seems to be a very simple
together and set into motion by hydraulics that device, you will learn most of the factors that
were given commands from mechanical relays in make the design so important, leading to trouble-
a control cabinet. To this day some companies free operation.
frown on technicians opening control cabinets
To complicate the matter (You knew that was
without knowledge of electricity. (If there is
going to happen, didn’t you?) we present a wide
someone trained in this trade, we recommend that
range of control devices that technicians interface
you use him/her.) Since that time operator
with. Your learning experience will be enhanced
interfaces have evolved into much more
by applying your knowledge onto the shop floor.
complicated devices than the control knobs and
The toolbox is written in more of a textbook style,
limit switches they have replaced. The intentions
but may be used as a laboratory guide if you can
of the machinery manufacturers are to allow the
actually stand at a machine and be able to identify
technician to be capable of making the machine
the components discussed. We recommend
behave under the most demanding conditions.
spending time by a machine and asking yourself,
With this evolution come complications. It does
“What makes this happen?” because the time may
not take long to realize that there are many
come that you no longer want that to happen, or
variables in an injection molding machine, and
maybe you would like to change the way that it
some are related—having a pronounced effect on
happens.
productivity.
Very few processes operate without some
This drawer will introduce the technician to auxiliary equipment. We describe a wide range of
the theory behind the operation of the injection available support devices. Technicians should
molding machine. It does not replace the machine know that this machinery is available and
manufacturer’s manual since the details are not understand the principles of operation to keep the
there; however, most of the principles presented process going.
are applied throughout the industry.
The last part of this drawer deals with
We start with the clamp end and describe tiebarless machines and “electric machines.”
many of the clamp designs currently being used. Tiebarless machines offer one of the newer clamp

xi
Society of Plastics Engineers

designs and have some distinct advantages over in their ability to maintain accurate and precise
traditional designs. We explain the principles of positioning of components.
operation and talk about what advantages they Remember to apply the technology out on the
offer. “Ah,” one might argue, “aren’t all molding shop floor. If you understand the information
machines electric?” Those in the know realize that provided within the Toolbox you will recognize
we are introducing machines built with why you are faced with so many variables that
completely different technology from those require technicians’ input—and you should know
operated by hydraulics. Electric machines use how to set the machinery in motion in the most
technology from machine tool design and productive way.
construction. The parameters are somewhat
Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®
different, but the designs are proving themselves
Steering Committee and Technical Editors

xii
®
INTRODUCTION TO
INJECTION MOLDING -
MOLDS ®

Any outsider may conclude that a mold is to determine how the mold will run, and how it
nothing more than a large, heavy piece of metal will be constructed to provide the expected
that opens and closes to complete part of the service. You should be able to identify most of the
injection molding process. Modern part designs mold components, their design features and their
ask for precision never before required and intended use to prevent them from being
therefore demand a mold that is even more damaged. The chapters are divided by function so
precise. you can pick and choose the ones that are most
As with the machinery drawer, we will relevant to your job. The index points out all of
introduce factors that will help you understand the major topics such as collapsible cores and
why molds are so expensive and what a technician stack molds. Our section on Hot Runner molds is
can do to assist in their maintenance. Their lives broken down even further and includes sections
are placed into your hands. on stack molds and multimaterial molding. You
should give some thought to including other
Mold design starts with part design. Faced chapters since they may lead to productivity
with part designs that may be considered improvements, or they may be necessary if a
unreasonable or impractical, a technician should different type of mold design is introduced to
understand what some of the factors are that limit your shop.
his/her ability to fine-tune the process. The
sequence in this drawer is to walk you through a The Toolbox maintains its focus on
project as it advances. Technicians often find technicians and presents many examples from the
themselves working with engineers who are shop floor. In many cases the styles of the authors
assigned the task to introduce products in the are more of a conversational tone. One advantage
quickest way. For this reason we describe the of this technique is that the reader may see where
main attributes of molds built for short life spans. the topic is going, and in some cases see the
Next, we explain some of the thinking behind answers to questions that may arise as he/she
molds with large numbers of cavities with the reads.
expectations of running high volumes of parts The technician needs to come away from this
over several years. drawer with the knowledge of mold components
Once the economics are determined, the mold and operations, as well the role of a technician in
design is completed. We pay close attention to maintaining molds. We recommend that every
detail when we disclose most of the factors used technician should get to know a reliable

xiii
Society of Plastics Engineers Next Page

moldmaker and establish a good working Molds can be extremely expensive to build
relationship. If it’s possible, the respective and repair. We think this drawer will take most of
moldmaker should be invited to the shop floor to the mystery out of why molds are built the way
see how his mold is being operated, and if it’s they are, and give the knowledge required by a
convenient, to observe a problematic condition technician to do his/her job effectively.
first hand. We have provided a list of common Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®
problems related directly to molds and many Steering Committee and Technical Editors
possible solutions.

“Lets think about the sequence of making a part.

First, you start with a part design. Then you…
• define what kind of volume you need and the type of mold that fits the
part requirements
• create a mold design for the part
• build the mold for the part and
• inject material into the mold.
Material goes through the runners, then the gate, and into the part.
It is vented, and then cooled and ejected.
And then you look at the problems you have created… and wonder why you
didn’t read the Technician’s Toolbox so you could have avoided all the
problems.”
W. David Outlaw
Toolbox Author
Precise Technology, Inc.

xiv
®
 Previous Page

INTRODUCTION TO
INJECTION MOLDING –
PROCESSING &
TROUBLESHOOTING ®

A complete technician would have a strong 16 hours later. Frequently, no one knows who did
command of the technologies previously what or why.
presented in the Injection Molding Drawer as well We present what we believe to be best
as the Fundamentals presented in Drawer 1. These practices of the industry, but in some cases
considerations are taken into account with the introduce alternate techniques. We recognize the
Processing drawer. We stop and define concepts skill level of technicians in any shop will vary and
not discussed previously but rely on the some personnel will be more comfortable using
knowledge base of the technician to advance other approaches. The goal would be to establish
through these topics, some of which we consider consensus—that is, asking all technicians to do
advanced technologies. Anyone who understands their jobs the same way—to make your operation
and has practiced the previous offerings (molds, most productive. Too much time is spent trying to
machines, design of experiments, quality, etc.) is solve mysteries and counteracting adjustments
well prepared to examine how these factors are made to machinery just because it is running with
used together as one begins to learn injection parameters different from those you set during
molding processing. your shift.
We start with the most complex and less well Safety comes first. If you do not know how to
understood concepts of how plastic flows in the operate a safe facility, you should stop right here!
injection molding process. This area is still in the Consider that:
discovery stage and looks ripe for experimen- 1. All employees should be equipped with a
tation to explain some of the relationships we can safe workstation and job assignment.
demonstrate in practice but not explain with
diagrams and formulas. 2. Machinery and molds must be treated
properly to give the most efficient process
Because technicians are faced with setting so reliably—we must use our heads.
many machine parameters and many of them are
3. Good judgment is frequently required.
interrelated, there are numerous ways to achieve a
However, there is no way to be prepared
common goal—good products. This may be the
for all possible types of events.
factor explaining the popular notion that machine
parameters may change between the time you 4. Develop good working relationships in
leave them and when you return to work—often your workplace.

xiii
Society of Plastics Engineers

Make friends with a moldmaker, electrician, • Acetals—materials that require special

machinist, pipefitter and other support personnel. considerations
Perhaps most importantly, treat your machine
operators as customers. Demands from people • A comparison of Engineering to
requiring your attention can cause your day to be Commodity resins
especially long. If your customers are happy, you We end this Toolbox by introducing the newer
will likely be happier! technologies of Computer Flow Simulations,
After learning how plastic flows, you can Multi-Injection molding, MuCell, and Gas-
make decisions required to properly set up Assisted Injection Molding.
equipment. We first explain some of the tools that The final chapter is our Troubleshooting
are required for any technician to do the job. We Guide. Here we rely on the technician’s familiarity
explain the loading and unloading of molds and with everything we’ve presented up to here.
offer some tips to achieve consistent and efficient Armed with this knowledge you will be able to
performance. Next, we set the machine parameters identify a problem, evaluate solutions (note that
and produce parts. Mold maintenance follows the there is always more than one), and understand the
shut down procedures since this is typically where mechanisms that contributed to the problem.
technicians can help themselves and their
moldmakers locate and correct problems. Knowing the cause can lead to prevention of
Optimizing a molding process is challenging further occurrences. Without the technology base
and can be done in several ways. We provide presented in the previous drawers, a technician can
insights to some philosophies used in various easily become lost in the explanations and even
molding operations and suggest how these direct a take the wrong steps to the solution, causing a
technician toward management’s goal. Sometimes worsening of the situation. In the worst case, an
compromises must be made. Here, your input is unsafe condition will result. In other words, if you
required. For your assistance we present tips for don’t have a reasonable grasp of injection molding
technicians and supervisors involved in technology, you don’t belong here.
processing. Most of these come from experiences The committee is proud to present our first
on the shop floor. Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®—Injection
After providing the general guidelines that Molding. There are already discussions underway
apply to most applications, we address some regarding additions for the next version. We think
special circumstances that were singled out due to we’ve accomplished the task. It’s taken quite a bit
their importance: of time, but the best results usually take a little
longer. Now, it’s up to you to properly apply this
• Polymer drying (which is where many
knowledge. You’ll be amazed at what can be
molding problems start)
accomplished!
• Glass-filled materials and the differences in
how they should be handled Plastics Technician’s Toolbox®
Steering Committee and Technical Editors
• Heat sensitive materials which focuses on
PVC but applies elsewhere

xiv
®
FUNDAMENTAL SKILLS
AND POLYMER SCIENCE
AUTHORS ®

ALLISON CALHOUN
Allison Calhoun received her bachelor’s degree in Biology Education and her doctoral
degree in Physical Chemistry from the University of Georgia. During her graduate
program she received awards for excellence in teaching. She worked at Imerys in the
Pigments and Additives division for five years with responsibilities ranging from new
product development, technical service and plant support to laboratory management.
During that time her focus was on the use of mineral additives in polymer applications. In
this capacity, she presented twice at SPE’s VINYLTEC conference on the use of calcium
carbonate in rigid PVC. She is currently a faculty member at Whitman College in Walla
Walla, Washington in the Chemistry department teaching introductory and physical
chemistry with a research focus on polymer additive systems.
(Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® Steering Committee Member, Author and Technical
Editor)

KIRK CANTOR
Kirk Cantor is a professor of Plastics and Polymer Engineering Technology at
Pennsylvania College of Technology, where he has been since 1990. He holds a B.S. in
aerospace engineering from University of Maryland and a M.S. and Ph.D. in Polymer
Science from Pennsylvania State University. Mr. Cantor’s primary areas of expertise are
polymer extrusion and educational software for the plastics industry. He has written many
articles and has developed several computer-based training programs, including a blown
film simulator.

J A E H. C H O I
Jae H. Choi is a consulting member of technical staff and manager of Product and
Technology Reliability Laboratory at Avaya Inc. in Denver. Dr. Choi develops test
methods applied for polymeric materials, components and communication product
reliabilities. He has more than 30 years experience in the field of plastics testing,
processing, product design, and manufacturing. He had worked at DAP, AT&T Bell
Laboratories, and Lucent Technologies before he joined Avaya in 2000. Dr. Choi
received a Ph.D. in polymer science from the University of Akron.

143
Society of Plastics Engineers

HAROLD F. GILES
Harold F. Giles received his Ph.D. from Duke University in Physical-Inorganic Chemistry
in 1973 and went to work for E. I. Dupont in textile fibers. Three years later, he joined the
Plastics and Coating Division of Mobay (Bayer) Chemical Corporation in R&D to scale
up the Bayblend Technology and develop new materials. In 1978 Mr. Giles moved to
R&D at GE Plastics. In 1990 Mr. Giles transferred to Azdel as part of the GE/PPG joint
venture. In 1996 he went to work for the Polymers Extension Program at the UNC-
Charlotte where he taught 1, 2, and 3-day seminars to the plastics industry in all aspects of
Extrusion and Design of Experiments. Upon leaving UNCC, Mr. Giles started his own
consulting company (H & E Consulting) to the plastics industry. Mr. Giles worked for
PPG Industries in the development of fiber glass and thermoplastic composites. Harold
had more than 30 patents and numerous publications. Deceased, October 2001.

JERRY GOLMANAVICH
Jerry Golmanavich worked in injection molding for 30 years with Western Electric Co.,
AT&T Network Cable Systems, and Lucent Technologies. His work with Western Electric
in Baltimore led to his first experience with computer flow simulations using a program
developed by the Engineering Research Center to balance a runner system in 1973. After
moving to Omaha he obtained a patent for AT&T for a basic processing technique, and he
wrote the first quality manual for the molding operation of approximately 100 machines.
As a member of Technical Staff for Lucent Technologies he has applied for another patent
and developed one of very few Technician Training Apprenticeship Programs. He has
authored technical papers at seven ANTECs in six different divisions. He has a BSME
from the Newark College of Engineering and a MSIE from Purdue. He is a Past President
and Councilor of the Nebraska Section of SPE. Jerry dedicates his work on the Toolbox to
his wife Betty and a long-time co-worker Don Donze.
(Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® Steering Committee Chair, Author and Technical Editor)

DALE LUCAS
Dale Lucas, a graduate of Kent State University, worked as a process and tooling engineer
with United Technologies, E. S. Division, in Indiana, a Tier 1 automotive product supplier.
He was facilitator of the Computer Integrated Manufacturing System for eight years. Mr.
Lucas has been the Director of Training and Corporate Development with Hunkar
Laboratories, Inc. since 1991 and is heavily involved with developing new program
specifications for Smart Manufacturing Technologies in the plastics molding industry.

ALISON MAYNARD
Alison Maynard has a degree in Industrial Engineering from the University of Nebraska-
Lincoln and a master’s in Industrial Engineering from Purdue University. Alison began
her career at Valmont Industries in Valley, Neb., where she held many positions including
ergonomic specialist, supervisor for the Large Pole Assembly Department, as well as
industrial engineering supervisor. Currently Alison is a quality engineer in the Injection
Molding Department for Avaya Inc

144
®
 Fundamental Skills and Polymer Science

DR. RANGANATH SHASTRI

Dr. Ranganath Shastri is the Global Knowledge Management Steward, Styrenics and
Engineered Products Business Group at The Dow Chemical Company. He is responsible
for knowledge management including technical data management and communication for
Dow Plastics products. He is also responsible for materials science support for new
business development in engineering plastics. He holds a B.E. (Chem. Eng.) degree from
University of Mysore, India, M.S. in Chemical Engineering and Ph.D. in Materials
Science from University of Cincinnati. He has been with The Dow Chemical Company
for the past 18 years.
Dr. Shastri is actively involved in technical standards development for plastics, notably
product design. For the past 7 years he has been a U.S. delegate to the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), Technical Committee TC61, representing U.S.
interests on the subcommittee on Acquisition and Representation of Comparable Data. Dr.
Shastri also represents the U.S. on the International Advisory Group on Data Presentation
Standards (AGDPS). He has authored over 50 technical publications and holds 16 patents.
(Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® Steering Committee Member and Author)

R O B E R T G . S P E I R S III
Robert G. Speirs III graduated from the University of Massachusetts at Lowell, receiving
both a Bachelor of Science and Master of Science in Plastics Engineering. Currently he is
working toward a Ph.D. of Engineering from the same institution. Industrial work
experience includes positions at Dow Chemical Co., Baxter Travenol Laboratories, and
Kay Fries Chemicals (Dynamit Noble group) in engineering, performing functions such
as product design, technical services and market development. Currently he is an associate
professor at Ferris State University in Big Rapids, Mich., teaching in the Plastics
Engineering Technology program, where he teaches Product Design, Materials Selection,
and Advanced Plastics Processing. Bob has been doing injection molding research in
process variable measurement and control with specific emphasis on in-process viscosity
analysis.

J O H N R. W A G N E R J R .
John Wagner received his B.S. and M.S. in Chemical Engineering from the University of
Notre Dame. His career started with B. F. Goodrich Co. in Louisville, Kentucky, where he
worked on PVC resin manufacture and processing from 1965 to 1968. Mr. Wagner then
worked at Mobil Chemical Films division from 1968 to 1998 where he developed
biaxially oriented polypropylene films for the food packaging industry, earning 22 patents
relating to OPP film and PECVD technology. He joined SPE in 1969, has been an
Extrusion Division Board member since 1984, and was elected a Fellow in 1998. He
served on various Extrusion Division committees, was the Extrusion Division Board
Chair in 1996, and became board treasurer in 2001. Mr. Wagner is currently a director of
Crescent Associates, Inc., a consulting firm specializing in packaging film and labels.

145
®
FUNDAMENTALS OF
MACHINE OPERATIONS
AUTHORS ®

J O H N D. C O L L U C C I N I
John D. Colluccini is an education consultant and adjunct faculty member at UMass Lowell.
He holds three engineering degrees from UMass Lowell; two of which are in mechanical
engineering. John has over 20 years of teaching experience and is a former full-time faculty
member at UMass Lowell and Fitchburg State College. He has taught many industrial training
seminars at company sites such as Gillette, Lucent, and Hasbro. Two of John’s seminars are
Injection Molding Hydraulics and Statistical Process Control. His articles have appeared in
Mechanical Engineering magazine and Modern Materials Handling. He is a member of SPE
and ASME.

PETE EVERTS
Pete Everts began working in fluid power in 1984. Pete has experience in training, textbook/
technical writing, video and CBT scripting, tradeshow production, technical seminars and
international public relations for fluid power manufacturers, users and distributors. He
currently operates Certified Training Associates, a fluid power training company with full
hydraulic/electrohydraulic lab facilities in Rochester Hills, Michigan.

ROBERT FARRELL
Robert Farrell has 19 years of industrial experience with companies that design and build
injection molding and blow molding machines. Mr. Farrell has held various positions
including design engineer, project engineer, manager of engineering, and vice president of
engineering. He has five patents relating to plastics processing equipment. In 1988, Mr.
Farrell left industry to help develop a baccalaureate program in plastics engineering
technology at Penn State University in Erie. This program has grown from an enrollment of
four students in 1988 to over 200 students. He teaches courses on plastics processing and
designing plastics processing equipment. Mr. Farrell holds a Bachelor of Science degree in
Mechanical Engineering, a Masters of Business Administration, and he is completing the
requirements for a Doctor of Engineering in plastics engineering. He has numerous articles
published about equipment and processing issues.

107
Society of Plastics Engineers

S U S A N R. H O W E
Susan R. Howe is a senior technical editor with the Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. (SPI).
She has over 18 years of experience in the chemical and plastics industry and in their
respective trade associations. In her capacity at SPI, Ms. Howe directs industry response to
legislative and regulatory occupational safety, health, and product safety proposals. She
coordinates industry’s codes and standards activities, provides technical expertise for
occupational safety and health issues, and serves as a technical resource for the association.

ANDY ROUTSIS
Andy Routsis, President of A. Routsis Associates, received his Bachelor of Science degree in
plastics engineering in 1980, and is an alumnus and adjunct professor at the University of
Massachusetts at Lowell, Plastics Engineering Department. He has worked with all levels of
processing, tooling, and design personnel. A. Routsis Associates, founded by Mr. Routsis in
1982, has provided training, on-site support and plastics engineering technical support for all
aspects of plastics part design and production. They have pioneered the use of 3-D animation
and CD-ROM technology for training in the plastics industry.

D R . N I C K R. S C H O T T
Dr. Nick R. Schott is a Professor and Chairman of the Plastics Engineering Department at the
University of Massachusetts, Lowell. He received his education in Chemical Engineering
(B.S., Ch.E. 1965 at University of California Berkeley, and M.S. 1968, Ph.D. 1971 from
University of Arizona). Dr. Schott also started the Institute for Plastics Innovation (IPI), a
research consortium affiliated with the university that conducts research related to plastics
manufacturing. He was the director of the IPI from 1989-1994. Dr. Schott is a Fellow of the
Society of Plastics Engineers, and a member of AIChE and ACS. He teaches courses in
injection mold design, process control and instrumentation and is conducting research in the
areas of plastics processing, material modification, design and compounding.

DR. DAVID STRUTT

Dr. David Strutt earned his Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Waterloo in
1998, in the area of simulation of mixing in reactive flows of polypropylene in co-rotating
twin screw extruders. He is currently employed at Polydynamics, Inc., in Hamilton, Ontario,
Canada, as head of technical services and software R&D.

108
®
 Fundamentals of Machine Operations

HUGH PATRICK TONER

Hugh Patrick Toner is an independent consultant with over 40 years experience in the plastics
industry. Prior to becoming a consultant, Mr. Toner was Vice President of Technical Affairs
for the Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. (SPI). He was responsible for direction or
oversight of all of SPI’s technical and regulatory activities including codes, standards,
certification and health, safety and environmental activities.

JOHN VLACHOPOULOS
John Vlachopoulos is Professor of Chemical Engineering and Director of the Centre for
Advanced Polymer Processing and Design (CAPPA-D) at McMaster University, Hamilton,
Ontario, Canada. He earned his Dipl.Ing. from NTU, Athens, Greece and an M.S. and D.Sc.
from Washington University, St. Louis, Mo. He is the author of approximately 200
publications on various aspects of plastics processing, frequently lectures at conferences and
seminars, and serves as consultant to industry worldwide. He established and is President of
Polydynamics, Inc., a company involved in software research, development and marketing.
John was elected an SPE Fellow and received the SPE Education Award in 2001.

ED ZIMMERMAN
Ed Zimmerman began working for a hydraulic distributor in 1979, servicing a customer base
of OEMs, machine rebuilders, and injection molders. As systems began to evolve throughout
the 1980s, the need for basic, hands-on training was undeniable. In 1988 he began Industrial
Hydraulic Training. Now he devotes 100% of class time to people from a single company,
using their circuits, to discuss their machines. The concept of training process techs in
maintenance, to understand the hydraulic systems, continues to improve productivity.

109
®
INJECTION MOLDING:
MACHINERY
AUTHORS ®

MICHAEL DE SA
Michael De Sa graduated in May 2001 from the University of Massachusetts Lowell with
a Bachelors degree in Plastics Engineering. Upon graduation Michael began working as a
sales engineer for Krauss-Maffei Corporation and is responsible for sales in New
England.

J O S E P H H. D Z I E D Z I C
Joseph H. Dziedzic is manager of product and systems development for AEC, Inc. in
Wood Dale, Illinois. He is responsible for the company’s product development and
marketing activities for material handling and process cooling product lines. AEC
produces auxiliary processing equipment for injection molding, extrusion, and other
processes. Mr. Dziedzic has over 14 years of experience designing equipment and
systems for plastic processors. He began his career at ACE in 1987 after receiving a
B.S.M.E. from the University of Illinois-Chicago. Joe holds several patents for plastics
processing equipment.

RALPH HETKE
Ralph Hetke is a graduate of the University of Waterloo (Ontario, Canada) with a B.S.
degree in Mechanical Engineering and a graduate of McGill University (Montreal,
Quebec, Canada) with an M.B.A. degree. He has held design and development positions
with various corporations in the automotive and aerospace sectors, which include diesel
engine and alternate fuel system development, turbo prop engine customer support
engineering, and missile system component development. Since joining Engel Canada
Inc. in 1994, Mr. Hetke has managed the injection molding machine design department
and currently holds the position of Vice President Engineering.

73
Society of Plastics Engineers

BOB KADYKOWSKI
Bob Kadykowski has been involved in the plastics industry for 41 years in various
capacities. He has been involved in electric injection molding machines since the
introduction of the ACT series in 1985 by Ferromatik Milacron. Through his early
missionary work with the product and his experience, he is able to provide insight into the
future of this technology. He has presented the history of all-electric injection molding
machines and the technology at various SPE meetings nationally. He continues to be
active in the development and marketing of the all-electric injection molding machine for
Ferromatik Milacron North America.

PETER LIPP
After Peter Lipp completed his electrical engineering degree in Reutlingen/Germany he
worked for 10 years for AEG-Telefunken, a large German-based electrical firm. During
this time Mr. Lipp spent time in South Africa, Mozambique, Egypt, Nigeria, and Saudi
Arabia managing construction and start-ups of manufacturing and power plants. He
joined Krauss-Maffei in Germany as service manager in 1985. He moved to the U.S. to
establish the technical support group for the newly formed U.S. injection molding
division in 1987. With his vast knowledge in electronics, hydraulics, mechanics, and
processing, in 1997 he moved from engineering into sales and became Krauss-Maffei’s
regional sales manager for the Southeastern U.S. and Texas. In 2001 he was promoted to
national sales manager.

R O B E R T B. P E T E R S O N II
Robert B. Peterson II earned his A.S. degree in plastics engineering technology and his
B.S. in management with an operations interest in 2001 from Penn State Erie-Behrend
College. Robert currently works for Krauss-Maffei Corporation as a sales engineer.

BART POLIZOTTO
Bart Polizotto is a product manager at Eurotherm/Barber-Colman. He holds a B.S. in
Electrical Engineering from Valparaiso University and an M.B.A. from Loyola
University. Bart’s expertise is in industrial control solutions for injection molding, blow
molding and extrusion machines. He also has extensive computer experience from having
worked as manager of product support at Zenith Data Systems.

T I M O T H Y W. W O M E R
Timothy W. Womer is the Vice President of Manufacturing and Engineering for New
Castle Industries, Incorporated. Previously Mr. Womer had his own successful consulting
business. Mr. Womer also held executive technical positions with Spirex Corp., Conair
Group, and NRM Corporation, and has been involved in the plastics industry for over 25
years. He attended Penn State University and graduated from Youngstown State
University with a Mechanical Engineering degree. Tim has several patents in the areas of
screw design, plasticating components, and plasticating processes. He is an active
member of the SPE Extrusion Division. (Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® Steering
Committee Member and Author)

74
®
INJECTION MOLDING:
MOLDS
AUTHORS ®

J A M E S T. B A R R E T T
James T. Barrett joined Husky in March of 1997 as a field service engineer with Husky’s Los
Angeles region. Jim moved on to become a project engineer where he worked with Husky area
managers on numerous projects including work cell design and integration. Assuming the role of
hot runner specialist in 1999, Jim worked with customers in the application and layout of Husky
hot runner systems, design review, resin testing and analysis, molding concepts and production
planning. Jim has been the area manager for Husky Atlanta covering the Florida/Caribbean
territory since June of 2000 where he works with the complete line of Husky products and
services.

MARTIN BAUMANN
Martin Baumann is sales and marketing manager for Husky Injection Molding Systems—hot
runners. Martin has been with Husky for over eight years, working as hot runner project engineer
and hot runner service manager. Since 1998, he heads the hot runner sales and marketing team in
Milton, VT. Martin was born and educated in Germany. He has an engineering degree in plastic
technology and a degree in international marketing.

BOB DEALEY
Bob Dealey operates Dealey’s Mold Engineering, a plastics management, marketing and
technical consulting firm, where he consults to the plastics industry. A career long SPE member
with Honored Member status. He is a Past President of both the Mold Making and Mold Design
Division and the I.T. Quarnstrom Foundation. He was named SPE Mold Designer of the Year in
1994. He chairs the SME PMMA mold making committee and is the Mold Design Seminar
instructor for SPE.

209
Society of Plastics Engineers

ROBERT IRWIN
Robert Irwin obtained a degree in materials and metallurgical engineering from Queen’s
University, Kingston, Canada, in 1993. Rob has worked at Husky Injection Molding Systems for
nine years in various aspects of hot runners and mold technologies. His roles in project
engineering, global business development, and managing engineering teams have exposed him to
a wide range of molding applications. Rob is currently the product manager for mold base
technologies at Husky’s Vermont manufacturing facility.

CHUCK JONES
Chuck Jones has spent 31years in plastics. After 21 years in thermoset and thermoplastic
injection molding as an engineering manager, he moved into custom molding as plant manager of
a privately held company, where he doubled sales over a three year period; and also worked as a
plastics engineer for AMP, Inc. He is currently the Director of Training for the Polymers Center
of Excellence in Charlotte, NC. Chuck is a U.S. Army veteran and resident of Gaston County,
NC. He has technical degrees in electronic and industrial engineering.

GEORGE MARKUS
George Markus has thirty-two years of experience in product and mold design and hands-on
process and analysis in thermoplastic injection molding. The degreed plastics engineer has
authored numerous technical articles and chapters for engineering books. Mr. Markus holds
patents and a co-invention with a Fortune 20 company. He specializes in precision molding and
product development, mold flow, tolerance, shrinkage, warpage and cooling analysis, process
design and consulting, training for process engineers, and molding DOE.

W. D A V I D O U T L A W
W. David Outlaw, plant manager for Precise Technology Inc., has more than 30 years of
experience in injection molding, mold making, and product development. In the past he has
served as an engineering manager to one of the largest mold makers in the southeastern United
States, holding the positions of product development manager and technical manager. It was
during these tenures that he developed and implemented mold making seminars for his
companies’ customers that are still used today.

210
®
INJECTION MOLDING:
PROCESSING AND
TROUBLESHOOTING
AUTHORS ®

RANDALL L. CHARBONNEAU
Randall L. Charbonneau is technical service manager at RTP Company, Winona, MN. He
has more than 30 years of experience in injection molding and tooling design and routinely
works with customers to resolve issues involving usage of engineering thermoplastic
compounds. He has authored numerous articles and presented several seminars on injection
molding of reinforced thermoplastic materials. His educational background includes a
bachelor’s degree in Business from Orange Coast College.

Z. J A M E S C H E N
Z. James Chen holds a Ph.D. degree in chemical engineering from the University of
Connecticut (1995), M.S. degree in chemical engineering from Michigan Technological
University (1991), and B.S. degree in polymer science and engineering from East China
University of Science and Technology (1987). He is a senior development scientist at Ticona
LLC, responsible for Celcon polyacetal product developments. Prior to joining Ticona, he
was a license product technology manager at Univation Technologies responsible for
polyolefin technology management. He was also a project scientist at Union Carbide
Corporation responsible for polyethylene product developments.

BOB DEALEY
Bob Dealey operates Dealey’s Mold Engineering, a plastics management, marketing and
technical consulting firm, where he consults to the plastics industry. A career long SPE
member with Honored Member status. He is a Past President of both the Mold Making and
Mold Design Division and the I.T. Quarnstrom Foundation. He was named SPE Mold
Designer of the Year in 1994. He chairs the SME PMMA mold making committee and is the
Mold Design Seminar instructor for SPE.

193
Society of Plastics Engineers

JEFF DININGER
Jeff Dininger, Sr. is a manufacturing engineer and training coordinator at Visteon
Automotive Systems (formally part of Ford Motor Company) in Sandusky, Ohio. He has 14
years experience teaching plastics processing in injection molding, design of plastic
products, design of plastic injection molds, investment casting molds, jigs, and machining
fixtures for the aircraft, aerospace, and automotive industries. He earned a B.S. in industrial
technology and education from Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio.
(Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® Steering Committee Member)

JERRY GOLMANAVICH
Jerry Golmanavich worked in injection molding for 30 years with Western Electric Co.,
AT&T Network Cable Systems, and Lucent Technologies. His work with Western Electric in
Baltimore led to his first experience with computer flow simulations using a program
developed by the Engineering Research Center to balance a runner system in 1973. After
moving to Omaha he obtained a patent for AT&T for a basic processing technique, and he
wrote the first quality manual for the molding operation of approximately 100 machines. As
a member of Technical Staff for Lucent Technologies he has applied for another patent and
developed one of very few Technician Training Apprenticeship Programs. He has authored
technical papers at seven ANTECs in six different divisions. He has a BSME from the
Newark College of Engineering and a MSIE from Purdue. He is a Past President and
Councilor of the Nebraska Section of SPE. Jerry dedicates his work on the Toolbox to his
wife Betty and a long-time co-worker Don Donze.
(Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® Steering Committee Chair, Author and Technical Editor)

P E T E R F. G R E L L E
Peter F. Grelle is a senior specialist in the Automotive Technical Service and Development
Group of Dow Automotive, based in Auburn Hills, Mich. He joined Dow in 1989 after
working with the Monsanto Company, the Winchester Group of Olin Corporation, and
Wellman, Inc. Plastics Division. Mr. Grelle received his B.S. in Plastics Engineering from
the University of Massachusetts at Lowell in 1980. He holds four U.S. and international
patents in plastics product design, and has authored and coauthored more than 30
publications in the areas of plastics part design, plastics materials, structural foam molding,
recycling, and plastics process technology.

KAI JACOBSEN
Kai Jacobsen graduated from Technical University, Iserlohn, Germany in 1993. Specializing
in plastics processing, his career began as a process engineer for Magna International Inc.,
later moving on to engineering/development manager. Kai moved to Engel in 1998, and
currently holds the position of manager, Machine Sales & Technologies. His responsibilities
include machine sales for Engel Canada’s small and medium tonnage product line, and the
development of new technologies and technology partnering programs.

194
®
 Injection Molding: Processing and Troubleshooting

D A V I D O. K A Z M E R
David O. Kazmer, P.E., Ph.D., graduate of Stanford University, is currently an Associate
Professor in the Department of Plastics Engineering at UMass Lowell. Dr. Kazmer is a
specialist in new molding process development, simulation technologies, and design for
manufacturing methods. His experience includes academia and applied research.

N O R M A N C. L E E
Norman C. Lee, P.E., graduated from Northampton College of Technology (UK) with Higher
National Diploma in mechanical engineering. He is a Professional Engineer in the state of
California, Fellow of Institute of Materials (UK), Certified Manufacturing Engineer (SME),
and Certified Plastics Technologist (SPE). Norman held various positions in product and
process design and development in an over forty-year career culminating as vice president of
research and development with Zarn, Inc., Reidsville, NC. Currently, Norman is directing his
own consulting services, World Wide Blow Moulding Services and also Attractive Design
Ltd. Norman initiated the Plastics Recycling Division for SPE over 10 years ago and is a
Director Emeritus. He did pioneer work in the use of post consumer waste plastics of
polyethylene materials in final products, worked to develop test standards of blow molded
trash collection containers and served on the ANSI committee to establish industry
standards. He is an active member of the SPE Blow Molding Division Board of Directors
and is the editor of Plastic Blow Molding Handbook and author of Blow Molding Design
Guide and Understanding Blow Molding. He has 20 patents in the field of blow molding.
Norman conducts seminars and in-plant training programs for the blow molding industry.
(Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® Steering Committee Member)

E L I A S (A L E X ) M O R A
Elias (Alex) Mora attended Chaffey College at Alta Loma, Calif. He served an
apprenticeship in injection molding sponsored by SPE and the state of California through the
Los Angeles Trade Technical College. Mr. Mora has managed an injection molding company
since 1973. In 1984, he opened Formula Plastics, an injection molding company that
currently has 12 machines in Ontario, Calif. In 1987, he opened a second molding company
in Tecate, Mexico, as part of the miquiladora program. Polimeros Formula de Tecate
currently has 40 injection molding machines. In 1995, a third plant was opened, Moldeo de
Plasticos. Alex has taught injection molding since 1976 at the college level for vocational
education students, and has developed an “In-Plant Training Program” for employees
operating injection molding machines. He served as a Vice President on the 2001-2002 SPE
Executive Committee. (Plastics Technician’s Toolbox® Steering Committee Member and
Author)

JON RATZLAFF
Jon Ratzlaff has been involved in the plastics industry for over 16 years with experience in
injection molding, rotational molding, compounding, and blown and cast film. He is a
graduate of Oklahoma State University with a B.S. in chemical engineering and has
experience in manufacturing, quality, R&D, product/market development, and technical
service. He is currently a Sr. Plastics Engineer at Chevron Phillips Chemical Company. His
experience includes time in the Middle East, South Asia, and Europe. He is a long-standing
member of SPE and a past speaker/moderator at numerous SPE events. He is a past
Chairman of the SPE Bartlesville-Tulsa chapter, Chairman of the Rotational Molding
Division of SPE and is active with the SPE Injection Molding Division. (Plastics
Technician’s Toolbox® Steering Committee Member and Author)

195
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

L A W R E N C E R. S C H M I D T
Lawrence R. Schmidt is president of LR Schmidt Associates, an engineering consulting firm
specializing in technology assessment, advanced process/product designs, and training. His
classic injection mold-filling visualization studies with color tracers are widely used for
illustrating the complexities of plastic flow in channels and cavities. Dr. Schmidt’s industrial
experience spans more than 30 years, including 22 years at General Electric Corporate R&D
Center where he managed the polymer engineering programs. He received chemical
engineering degrees from Ohio University, Washington University, and the University of
Colorado. Dr. Schmidt was elected a Fellow of the Society of Plastics Engineers in 1990.

STEPHEN SINKER
Stephen Sinker earned a B.S. in chemistry from Rutgers University in 1972 and a Masters in
organic chemistry from Rutgers University in 1978. Steve held various positions at Firestone
and Johnson & Johnson prior to joining Celanese Plastics Company, the predecessor to
Ticona, in 1978. At Celanese/Ticona, he held several positions in product development in
acetal and polyester thermoplastics before assuming the position of technical product
specialist for Celcn acetal copolymer, the position he still holds as a development associate.
In addition to SPE, Steve is also a member of ACS, ASM International, ASTM International
Committee D20 on Plastics, ISO TC61 on Plastics, and SAE Plastics Committee. At ASTM
D20, Steve is Section Chairman of D20.15.18 on polyoxymethylene (acetal) thermoplastic
materials, and chairman of subcommittees D20.09 on specimen preparation and D20.61, US
Technical Advisory Group to ISI TC61 (TAG61). At ISO TC61, he is the convenor of ISO/
TC61/SC9/WG21 on polyoxymethylene (acetal) thermoplastics and leader of the US
delegation.

R O G E R A. S T E L L E R
Roger A. Steller is a senior application development engineer working on new molding
appliance applications for Whirlpool, Maytag, Frigidaire, Speed Queen, and Amana. He has
30 years of experience with BFGoodrich/Geon/PolyOne. He is a tool and die maker and
served his apprenticeship in Akron, Ohio. He has 7 years of experience building prototype
molds for BFGoodrich Chemical, Aerospace, Tire, and Industrial Products Division at the
R&D Center in Brecksville, Ohio; 8 years as chief designer at BFGoodrich Missile &
Marine Products Division, designing large compression molds for missile fuel cell insulators
for rocket motors for MX and Pershing II missiles; one year as senior engineering designer
at BFGoodrich De-Icers, designing electrical and pneumatic de-icers for commercial and
military aircrafts and 14 years in technical service/technical sales, designing injection molds,
training personnel at mold shops, and working on related equipment and processing issues to
help resolve customer issues.

196
®
 Injection Molding: Processing and Troubleshooting

PETE STOUGHTON
Pete Stoughton is the product sales manager for Dehumidifying Dryers at the Conair Group.
He has been employed at Conair for over 24 years. During that time he has worked in
technical services, technical sales, and product management. Mr. Stoughton is a board
member of the Extrusion Division of SPE and has presented several technical papers
pertaining to material handling and dehumidifying drying at ANTEC, PRO-CON and SME
conferences.

STEVEN VANHOECK
Steven VanHoeck is Vice President and a founding principal of Alliance Gas Systems, a
leading supplier of gas-assist and water-assist molding technology in North America, located
in Chesterfield Twp., MI. In addition to more than 33 years in the plastics industry, he has
been active in the field of gas-assisted injection molding since 1988, and has concentrated
his activities to product design and process implementation of gas-injection technology with
molders, designers, tool builders and OEMs. After graduating from Wayne State University
in Detroit, MI, he entered the plastics industry in thermoforming in 1968. Further
professional pursuits involved process and product development for thermoformed and
stamped plastics; injection molding and finishing as manager of estimating and alternative
manufacturing methods at Detroit Plastic Molding (1979-1990). Gas-assist technology
became a full time activity in 1993 with Gain Technologies. VanHoeck was the driving force
behind launching Alliance Gas Systems in 1997.

197
®
Contents

Foreword (Volumes 1, 2, 3) ..................................................................................................... xiii

Foreword (Volumes 4, 5, 6) ..................................................................................................... xiv

Acknowledgments (Volumes 1, 2, 3) ....................................................................................... xv

Acknowledgments (Volumes 4, 5, 6) ....................................................................................... xvii

Preface (Volumes 4, 5, 6) ........................................................................................................ xx

Introduction to Fundamentals for the Technician (Volumes 1, 2) ............................................ xxii

Introduction to Fundamental Skills and Polymer Science ........................................................ xxiv

Introduction to Fundamentals of Machine Operations ............................................................. xxv

Introduction to Injection Molding – Machinery ......................................................................... xxvi

Introduction to Injection Molding – Molds ................................................................................ xxviii

Introduction to Injection Molding – Processing & Troubleshooting .......................................... xxx

Authors
Fundamental Skills and Polymer Science ................................................................................... xxxii
Fundamentals of Machine Operations ......................................................................................... xxxv
Injection Molding – Machinery ..................................................................................................... xxxviii
Injection Molding – Molds ............................................................................................................ xl
Injection Molding – Processing and Troubleshooting .................................................................. xlii

Volume 1. Fundamental Skills and Polymer Science

1.1 Math 1 .......................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1-1
1.1.2 Algebra Fundamentals ................................................................................................ 1-1
1.1.3 Conversion Factors ..................................................................................................... 1-4
1.1.4 Scientific Notation ........................................................................................................ 1-6
1.1.5 Significant Figures ....................................................................................................... 1-7
1.1.6 Application of the Algebra ........................................................................................... 1-7

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. xlvii
xlviii Contents

1.1.7 Geometry Fundamentals ............................................................................................. 1-9

1.1.8 Selected Trigonometric Functions ............................................................................... 1-10
1.1.9 Summations ................................................................................................................ 1-11
1.1.10 Factorials ..................................................................................................................... 1-12
1.1.11 An Introduction to Differential Equations and Integration ............................................ 1-12
1.1.12 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 1-14
1.2 Charts and Graphs ...................................................................................................................... 1-15
1.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1-15
1.2.2 General Guidelines ...................................................................................................... 1-16
1.2.3 Graphical Tools ........................................................................................................... 1-16
1.2.4 A Note about Collecting Data and Creating Graphs .................................................... 1-19
1.2.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 1-19
1.3 Math 2 .......................................................................................................................................... 1-21
1.3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1-21
1.3.2 Data Collection and Analysis ....................................................................................... 1-21
1.3.3 Probability Model ......................................................................................................... 1-29
1.3.4 Statistical Quality Control Methods ............................................................................. 1-32
1.3.5 Statistical Process Control Problem-solving Tools ...................................................... 1-33
1.4 Problem-solving Skills ................................................................................................................. 1-35
1.4.1 Root Cause Analysis ................................................................................................... 1-35
1.4.2 Sources of Problems ................................................................................................... 1-35
1.4.3 Think in Terms of the “Plastics Experience” ................................................................ 1-36
1.4.4 Controlling/Avoiding Problems .................................................................................... 1-37
1.4.5 Problem-solving Tools ................................................................................................. 1-38
1.4.6 Secret of Success ....................................................................................................... 1-40
1.4.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 1-42
1.5 Design of Experiments ................................................................................................................ 1-43
1.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1-44
1.5.2 The DOE Process ....................................................................................................... 1-45
1.5.3 Experimental Designs ................................................................................................. 1-48
1.5.4 Data Interpretation ....................................................................................................... 1-49
1.5.5 Factorial or Screening Experiments ............................................................................ 1-51
1.5.6 Response Surface ....................................................................................................... 1-53
1.5.7 Mixture Experiments .................................................................................................... 1-56
1.5.8 Fully Worked Examples ............................................................................................... 1-58
1.6 Polymer Basics ............................................................................................................................ 1-67
1.6.1 Chemistry .................................................................................................................... 1-67
1.6.2 What Is a Polymer? ..................................................................................................... 1-67
1.6.3 The Two Classes of Polymers ..................................................................................... 1-68

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 Contents xlix

1.6.4 Thermoplastic Polymers .............................................................................................. 1-69

1.6.5 Polymer Rheology ....................................................................................................... 1-71
1.6.6 Properties as a Function of Thermoplastic Polymer Chemistry .................................. 1-72
1.6.7 Plastics Additives ........................................................................................................ 1-75
1.7 Plastics Testing ........................................................................................................................... 1-79
1.7.1 Why Test Plastics? ...................................................................................................... 1-79
1.7.2 What to Test? .............................................................................................................. 1-79
1.7.3 General Test Standards .............................................................................................. 1-82
1.7.4 Material Standards ...................................................................................................... 1-85
1.7.5 Testing Procedures ..................................................................................................... 1-90
1.7.6 Misunderstood and Misused Properties ...................................................................... 1-99
1.7.7 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 1-100
1.8 Quality ......................................................................................................................................... 1-115
1.8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1-115
1.8.2 Good or Bad? .............................................................................................................. 1-116
1.8.3 Setting the Stage for Quality ....................................................................................... 1-116
1.8.4 Roles and Responsibilities .......................................................................................... 1-117
1.8.5 Quality during Initial Start-up of an Injection Mold ....................................................... 1-117
1.8.6 Establishing Quality Guidelines for the Product .......................................................... 1-119
1.8.7 Training ....................................................................................................................... 1-121
1.8.8 Recurring Start-ups ..................................................................................................... 1-122
1.8.9 Handling Nonconforming Product ............................................................................... 1-122
1.8.10 Ensuring Quality in the Long Term .............................................................................. 1-122
1.8.11 Monitoring Systems ..................................................................................................... 1-125
1.8.12 A Note about Certification ........................................................................................... 1-126
1.8.13 Where Do We Go from Here? ..................................................................................... 1-126
1.8.14 Further Discussion for the Interested Reader ............................................................. 1-127
1.8.15 Appendix ..................................................................................................................... 1-127
1.8.16 Job Change Request Card/Start-up Card ................................................................... 1-128
1.9 Computer-integrated Manufacturing ............................................................................................ 1-131
1.9.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1-131
1.9.2 Setting Up Quality Systems ......................................................................................... 1-132
1.9.3 Smart Manufacturing Systems versus Monitoring Systems ........................................ 1-141

Volume 2. Fundamentals of Machine Operations

2.1 Safety .......................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1.1 A Technician’s Commitment to Safety ........................................................................ 2-1
2.1.2 Machinery Safety ......................................................................................................... 2-3
2.1.3 Control of Hazardous Energy (Lockout/Tagout) .......................................................... 2-10

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

l Contents

2.1.4 The OSHA Hazard Communication Standard, Material Safety Data Sheets, and
Labels .......................................................................................................................... 2-13
2.1.5 Personal Safety Protection .......................................................................................... 2-15
2.1.6 Materials Handling and Housekeeping ........................................................................ 2-18
2.2 Heat Transfer ............................................................................................................................... 2-21
2.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 2-21
2.2.2 Basic Concepts ........................................................................................................... 2-21
2.2.3 Heat Transfer Modes ................................................................................................... 2-22
2.2.4 Heat Exchangers ......................................................................................................... 2-28
2.2.5 Special Heat Transfer Problems in Plastics Processing ............................................. 2-29
2.2.6 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 2-31
2.2.7 Appendix ..................................................................................................................... 2-33
2.3 Print Reading ............................................................................................................................... 2-35
2.3.1 General Layout ............................................................................................................ 2-35
2.3.2 Part Drawing and Mold Drawing Reading ................................................................... 2-37
2.3.3 Hydraulic Diagrams ..................................................................................................... 2-40
2.4 Electricity ..................................................................................................................................... 2-43
2.4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 2-43
2.4.2 Historical Background ................................................................................................. 2-43
2.4.3 Conductors, Nonconductors, and Semiconductors ..................................................... 2-45
2.4.4 Electric Power ............................................................................................................. 2-46
2.4.5 Direct Current and Alternating Current ........................................................................ 2-46
2.4.6 Three Basic Electrical Elements .................................................................................. 2-48
2.4.7 DC Circuits .................................................................................................................. 2-51
2.4.8 AC Circuits .................................................................................................................. 2-52
2.4.9 Common Electrical Devices Found in Molding Shops ................................................. 2-54
2.5 Fluid Dynamics ............................................................................................................................ 2-61
2.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 2-61
2.5.2 Fluid Dynamics ............................................................................................................ 2-62
2.5.3 Fluids in Motion ........................................................................................................... 2-62
2.5.4 Characterizing Fluids ................................................................................................... 2-62
2.5.5 Characterizing Fluid Flow ............................................................................................ 2-62
2.5.6 Conveying Fluids ......................................................................................................... 2-63
2.5.7 Blowers and Pumps .................................................................................................... 2-71
2.5.8 Measuring Flow ........................................................................................................... 2-72
2.5.9 The Application of Fluid Flow Concepts ...................................................................... 2-73
2.5.10 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 2-76
2.5.11 Appendix ..................................................................................................................... 2-76

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 Contents li

2.6 Hydraulic Basics .......................................................................................................................... 2-79

2.6.1 Objective ..................................................................................................................... 2-79
2.6.2 Basic Hydraulics Principles ......................................................................................... 2-79
2.6.3 Actuator Velocity: Theory and Formulae ..................................................................... 2-80
2.6.4 Pumps: Pumping Principles ........................................................................................ 2-82
2.6.5 Fluid Conductors ......................................................................................................... 2-84
2.6.6 General Guidelines for Fluid Conductors .................................................................... 2-85
2.6.7 Flow Controls .............................................................................................................. 2-85
2.6.8 Pressure Controls ........................................................................................................ 2-87
2.6.9 Pressure Controls Summary ....................................................................................... 2-88
2.6.10 Directional Controls ..................................................................................................... 2-89
2.6.11 Fluid Handling and Filtration ........................................................................................ 2-89
2.6.12 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 2-90
2.7 Electromechanical Circuits .......................................................................................................... 2-91
2.7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 2-91
2.7.2 Terminology ................................................................................................................. 2-91
2.7.3 NFPA versus NFPA ..................................................................................................... 2-91
2.7.4 Standard Relays .......................................................................................................... 2-93
2.7.5 Folding Circuit ............................................................................................................. 2-94
2.7.6 Simple Control Circuit .................................................................................................. 2-94
2.7.7 Latching versus Regular Relay ................................................................................... 2-95
2.7.8 Time-delay Relays ....................................................................................................... 2-96
2.7.9 Sequential Action ........................................................................................................ 2-96
2.7.10 Clamp and Work .......................................................................................................... 2-98
2.7.11 Relays to PLCs to PCs ................................................................................................ 2-99
2.8 Hydraulic Circuits ......................................................................................................................... 2-101
2.8.1 Chapter Objective ........................................................................................................ 2-101
2.8.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 2-101
2.8.3 Screws ......................................................................................................................... 2-103
2.8.4 Pressure ...................................................................................................................... 2-104
2.8.5 Clamp Close and Mold Protection ............................................................................... 2-105
2.8.6 Core Pull and Ejector Circuits ..................................................................................... 2-106

Volume 3. Glossary
a-stage to Average Molecular Weight (Viscosity Method) ........................................................... 3-1
B-stage to Butylene Plastics ........................................................................................................ 3-4
C-stage to Cylindrical .................................................................................................................. 3-6
Dash-pot to Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) ...................................................................... 3-12
Effective Thread Turns to Extrusion Coating ............................................................................... 3-14

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

lii Contents

Fabricate to Fuse ......................................................................................................................... 3-15

G’ to Gutta-percha ....................................................................................................................... 3-19
Halocarbon Plastics to Hygroscopic ............................................................................................ 3-20
Immiscible to Izod Impact Test .................................................................................................... 3-21
Jacket to Jute .............................................................................................................................. 3-23
Kirksite to K-value of PVC ........................................................................................................... 3-23
Label Panel to Luminous Transmittance ..................................................................................... 3-24
Macerate to Mw (Weight-average Molecular Weight) .................................................................. 3-25
Neck to Nylon .............................................................................................................................. 3-27
Oblong to Oxygen Index .............................................................................................................. 3-28
Paneling to Pyrometer ................................................................................................................. 3-29
Quench (Thermoplastics) to Quench-tank Extrusion ................................................................... 3-35
Rabinowitsch Correction to Runner ............................................................................................. 3-35
Sag to Syntatic Foam .................................................................................................................. 3-38
Tab Gated to Turning Table ........................................................................................................ 3-44
Ultimate Strength to UV Stabilizer (Ultraviolet) ............................................................................ 3-45
Vacuum Forming to Vulcanization ............................................................................................... 3-46
Waist to Wrinkle ........................................................................................................................... 3-47
Young’s Modulus of Elasticity to Yield Value (Yield Strength) ..................................................... 3-48
Zero Shear Viscosity ................................................................................................................... 3-48
References .................................................................................................................................. 3-48

Volume 4. Injection Molding – Machinery

4.1 Clamp End ................................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.1 Mechanical Clamping Unit ........................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.2 All Electric Clamping Unit ............................................................................................ 4-2
4.1.3 Hydraulic Clamping Unit .............................................................................................. 4-2
4.1.4 Hydromechanical Clamping Unit ................................................................................. 4-2
4.1.5 Die Height and Clamp Force ....................................................................................... 4-3
4.1.6 Projected Area and Tonnage Required ....................................................................... 4-3
4.1.7 Knockout Pattern ......................................................................................................... 4-4
4.1.8 Clamp Function during Machine Cycle ........................................................................ 4-4
4.1.9 Mold Protection ........................................................................................................... 4-6
4.1.10 Platen Care and Parallelism ........................................................................................ 4-7
4.2 The Injection Unit ......................................................................................................................... 4-11
4.2.1 The Screw – “The Heart of the Machine” .................................................................... 4-11
4.2.2 Injection Unit Sizing ..................................................................................................... 4-14
4.2.3 Length to Diameter (L/D) Ratio ................................................................................... 4-14
4.2.4 Compression Ratio ...................................................................................................... 4-14

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 Contents liii

4.2.5 Plasticating Rate ......................................................................................................... 4-16

4.2.6 Injection Rate .............................................................................................................. 4-16
4.2.7 The Barrel .................................................................................................................... 4-16
4.2.8 Nonreturn Valve Assembly .......................................................................................... 4-19
4.2.9 The Nozzle .................................................................................................................. 4-20
4.2.10 Other Significant Factors ............................................................................................. 4-21
4.2.11 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 4-22
4.3 Controls ....................................................................................................................................... 4-23
4.3.1 Understanding the Machine Sequence ....................................................................... 4-23
4.3.2 Type of Control Devices .............................................................................................. 4-26
4.3.3 Closed-loop Injection Process Control ........................................................................ 4-32
4.3.4 Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................... 4-33
4.4 Auxiliary Equipment ..................................................................................................................... 4-35
4.4.1 Trends in Auxiliary Equipment ..................................................................................... 4-35
4.4.2 Trends in Conveying Equipment ................................................................................. 4-35
4.4.3 Trends in Blending ...................................................................................................... 4-36
4.4.4 Trends in Drying .......................................................................................................... 4-37
4.4.5 Trends in Auxiliary Controls ........................................................................................ 4-38
4.4.6 Controls ....................................................................................................................... 4-38
4.4.7 Conveying ................................................................................................................... 4-40
4.4.8 Drying Systems ........................................................................................................... 4-44
4.4.9 Blenders and Additive Feeders ................................................................................... 4-48
4.4.10 Process Heating and Cooling ...................................................................................... 4-50
4.4.11 Automated Part Removal, Separation, and Secondary Process Automation ............. 4-54
4.4.12 Granulation Equipment ................................................................................................ 4-57
4.4.13 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 4-60
4.5 Tiebarless Machines .................................................................................................................... 4-61
4.5.1 Chapter Objective ........................................................................................................ 4-61
4.5.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 4-61
4.5.3 History ......................................................................................................................... 4-61
4.5.4 Clamp Basics .............................................................................................................. 4-62
4.5.5 How the Tiebarless Clamp Functions .......................................................................... 4-62
4.5.6 Comparison of Clamp Types ....................................................................................... 4-64
4.5.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 4-66
4.6 Electric Machines ........................................................................................................................ 4-67
4.6.1 History ......................................................................................................................... 4-67
4.6.2 Major Design Considerations ...................................................................................... 4-67
4.6.3 Servo Drive Development ........................................................................................... 4-68
4.6.4 Energy Savings ........................................................................................................... 4-68

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

liv Contents

4.6.5 Hydraulic/Electric Differences ..................................................................................... 4-69

4.6.6 Artificial Intelligence Advances .................................................................................... 4-70
4.6.7 Control Systems .......................................................................................................... 4-71
4.6.8 Industry Trends ........................................................................................................... 4-72

Volume 5. Injection Molding – Molds

5.1 Part Design .................................................................................................................................. 5-1
5.1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 5-1
5.1.2 Determining Part Shape .............................................................................................. 5-2
5.1.3 Ribs ............................................................................................................................. 5-7
5.1.4 Corners and Fillets ...................................................................................................... 5-9
5.1.5 Bosses ......................................................................................................................... 5-9
5.1.6 Holes ........................................................................................................................... 5-9
5.1.7 Threads ....................................................................................................................... 5-10
5.1.8 Undercuts .................................................................................................................... 5-11
Standard Mold Definitions, Categories, and Classifications .................................................................. 5-13
5.2 Mold Categorization by Volume ................................................................................................... 5-15
5.2.1 Prototype Mold ............................................................................................................ 5-15
5.2.2 Unit Mold ..................................................................................................................... 5-15
5.2.3 Family Mold ................................................................................................................. 5-16
5.2.4 High-volume Molds ...................................................................................................... 5-16
5.3 Common Mold Classifications ..................................................................................................... 5-19
5.3.1 Two-plate ..................................................................................................................... 5-19
5.3.2 Three-plate .................................................................................................................. 5-20
5.3.3 Stripper Plate with No Pin Ejection .............................................................................. 5-21
5.3.4 Stack Mold ................................................................................................................... 5-21
5.3.5 Cam Action Molds ....................................................................................................... 5-22
5.3.6 Unscrewing Molds ....................................................................................................... 5-23
5.3.7 Hot Runner Mold ......................................................................................................... 5-23
5.4 Mold Base Standard Components ............................................................................................... 5-25
5.4.1 Mold Base Terminology ............................................................................................... 5-25
5.4.2 Stationary Mold Plate Terminology ............................................................................. 5-26
5.4.3 Moving Mold Plate Terminology .................................................................................. 5-26
5.4.4 Mounting and Handling Features of the Mold Base .................................................... 5-27
5.4.5 Standard Injection Components .................................................................................. 5-29
5.4.6 Standard Ejection Components ................................................................................... 5-30
5.4.7 Standard Cooling Components ................................................................................... 5-32
5.4.8 Standard Fasteners ..................................................................................................... 5-32
5.4.9 Standard Alignment Components ............................................................................... 5-34

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 Contents lv

5.5 Mold Design ................................................................................................................................. 5-37

5.5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 5-37
5.5.2 Plastic Part Data .......................................................................................................... 5-37
5.5.3 Mold Design Views ...................................................................................................... 5-38
5.5.4 View Projection ............................................................................................................ 5-39
5.5.5 Drawing Conventions .................................................................................................. 5-39
5.5.6 Long Cross-section ..................................................................................................... 5-39
5.5.7 Short Cross-section ..................................................................................................... 5-40
5.5.8 Mold Design and Component Conventions ................................................................. 5-40
5.5.9 Parting Lines ............................................................................................................... 5-41
5.5.10 Establishing the Mold Cavity and Core ....................................................................... 5-42
5.5.11 Mold Core Side ............................................................................................................ 5-42
5.5.12 Draft ............................................................................................................................. 5-42
5.5.13 Mold Surface Finishes ................................................................................................. 5-43
5.5.14 Mold Cavity Side ......................................................................................................... 5-43
5.5.15 Developing Cavity Size ............................................................................................... 5-44
5.5.16 Mold Temperature Control .......................................................................................... 5-44
5.5.17 Mold Steels and Materials ........................................................................................... 5-46
5.5.18 Number of Cavities ...................................................................................................... 5-47
5.5.19 Number of Cavities Analysis ....................................................................................... 5-47
5.5.20 Determining Number of Cavities/Cores per Insert ....................................................... 5-48
5.5.21 Insert Shapes and Mounting Methods ......................................................................... 5-49
5.5.22 Forming Part Detail ..................................................................................................... 5-51
5.5.23 Ejection of the Part ...................................................................................................... 5-54
5.5.24 Mold Bases .................................................................................................................. 5-57
5.5.25 Unit Molds ................................................................................................................... 5-58
5.5.26 Cavity Layout ............................................................................................................... 5-58
5.5.27 Mold Guiding Systems ................................................................................................ 5-59
5.5.28 Mold Locators .............................................................................................................. 5-60
5.5.29 Sprue Bushings ........................................................................................................... 5-61
5.5.30 Runner Systems .......................................................................................................... 5-62
5.5.31 Gates ........................................................................................................................... 5-63
5.5.32 Vents ........................................................................................................................... 5-63
5.5.33 Material Shrinkage ...................................................................................................... 5-64
5.5.34 Mold Handling ............................................................................................................. 5-65
5.5.35 Mold Safety Strap ........................................................................................................ 5-66
5.5.36 Engraving or Stamping of the Mold or Components ................................................... 5-66
5.5.37 Bill of Materials ............................................................................................................ 5-67
5.5.38 Mold Design Check List ............................................................................................... 5-67

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

lvi Contents

5.5.39 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 5-68

5.5.40 Mold Design Checklist ................................................................................................. 5-69
5.6 Mold Construction ........................................................................................................................ 5-73
5.6.1 Planning and Designing .............................................................................................. 5-73
5.6.2 Typical Mold Making Shop Machinery ......................................................................... 5-75
5.6.3 Manual Machines ........................................................................................................ 5-76
5.6.4 Numerical Control Machines ....................................................................................... 5-76
5.6.5 Common Tolerances in the Mold Base ....................................................................... 5-77
Runners ................................................................................................................................................. 5-83
5.7 Cold Runner Design Process ...................................................................................................... 5-85
5.7.1 The Sprue Bushing ...................................................................................................... 5-86
5.7.2 Sprue Size and Cold Slug ........................................................................................... 5-86
5.7.3 Runner Layouts ........................................................................................................... 5-87
5.7.4 Runner Size and Shapes ............................................................................................ 5-90
5.7.5 Runner Cross-sectional Shape ................................................................................... 5-91
5.7.6 Runner Size ................................................................................................................. 5-91
5.7.7 Verify and Adjust the Sizes of the Runner and Sprue ................................................. 5-93
5.8 Cold Runner Gate Design ........................................................................................................... 5-95
5.8.1 Gate Function .............................................................................................................. 5-95
5.8.2 What are the Most Common Types of Gates? ............................................................ 5-97
5.8.3 Gate Construction Consistency ................................................................................... 5-99
5.8.4 Robust Design ............................................................................................................. 5-100
5.9 Cold Runner Gate Types ............................................................................................................. 5-101
5.9.1 Things to Remember ................................................................................................... 5-101
5.9.2 Gate Types Examples ................................................................................................. 5-102
Hot Runner Systems .............................................................................................................................. 5-107
5.10 Hot Runner Technology Section .................................................................................................. 5-109
5.10.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 5-109
5.11 Selecting a Hot Runner System .................................................................................................. 5-111
5.11.1 Hot Runners – Selecting the Right System for the Application ................................... 5-111
5.11.2 Melt Channel Sizing .................................................................................................... 5-112
5.12 Valve Gating Versus Thermal Gating .......................................................................................... 5-115
5.12.1 Thermal Gating Technology ........................................................................................ 5-115
5.12.2 Valve Gate Technology ............................................................................................... 5-116
5.12.3 Cycle Time Reduction ................................................................................................. 5-116
5.12.4 Sequential Valve Gating .............................................................................................. 5-116
5.12.5 Thinwall Molding .......................................................................................................... 5-117
5.12.6 Gate Styles .................................................................................................................. 5-117
5.12.7 Resin Compatibility ...................................................................................................... 5-118

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 Contents lvii

5.13 Implementation of the Hot Runner System into the Mold ............................................................ 5-119
5.13.1 Mating the Hot Runner to the Mold ............................................................................. 5-119
5.13.2 Improved Gate Quality ................................................................................................ 5-119
5.13.3 Reduced Cycle Time ................................................................................................... 5-120
5.13.4 Minimized Mold Wear .................................................................................................. 5-120
5.14 Hot Runner Plate Design ............................................................................................................. 5-123
5.14.1 Manifold Plate Design ................................................................................................. 5-123
5.14.2 Use of Pillars ............................................................................................................... 5-124
5.14.3 Condensation Channels .............................................................................................. 5-124
5.14.4 Backing Plate .............................................................................................................. 5-124
5.14.5 Plate Deflection ........................................................................................................... 5-125
5.14.6 Plate Cooling ............................................................................................................... 5-125
5.14.7 Plate Material .............................................................................................................. 5-126
5.14.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 5-126
5.15 Why Temperature Control Matters .............................................................................................. 5-127
5.15.1 Part Quality .................................................................................................................. 5-127
5.15.2 Operating Window ....................................................................................................... 5-127
2
5.15.3 PID versus PID Control .............................................................................................. 5-128
5.15.4 Hot Runner Protection and Efficient Start-ups ............................................................ 5-128
5.15.5 Quick, Safe Start-ups and Operation .......................................................................... 5-128
5.15.6 Heater Protection ........................................................................................................ 5-129
5.16 Hot Runner Standardization ........................................................................................................ 5-131
5.16.1 The Traditional Mold Building Process ........................................................................ 5-131
5.16.2 A New Approach – Configurable Hot Runners ............................................................ 5-131
5.17 Leakage Prevention and Maintenance ........................................................................................ 5-135
5.17.1 Nozzle Design Options to Prevent Leakage ................................................................ 5-136
5.17.2 How to Detect a Leak .................................................................................................. 5-137
5.17.3 Summary: How to Prevent Leaks ................................................................................ 5-138
5.18 Advanced Technologies .............................................................................................................. 5-139
Hot Runners – the Key to Multimaterial Applications .................................................................. 5-139
5.18.1 Multicolor Application – Cosmetic Part (12 + 12 Cavity Mold) ..................................... 5-140
5.18.2 Multimaterial Application – Fastener PA – TPE (4 + 4 Cavity Mold) ........................... 5-140
Stack Molding – Hot Runner Technology .................................................................................... 5-141
5.18.3 Center Support and Alignment .................................................................................... 5-141
5.18.4 Resin Transfer ............................................................................................................. 5-141
5.18.5 A Variety of Choices for Stack Molding Needs ............................................................ 5-142
5.19 Water Cooling .............................................................................................................................. 5-145
5.19.1 Computerized Optimization of MTC ............................................................................ 5-145
5.19.2 Effect of Cooling on Bottom Line ................................................................................. 5-148

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

lviii Contents

5.19.3 The Coolant Source .................................................................................................... 5-148

5.19.4 Guidelines for Technicians .......................................................................................... 5-149
5.19.5 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 5-151
5.20 Venting ........................................................................................................................................ 5-153
5.20.1 The Best Strategy for Achieving Adequate Mold Venting ........................................... 5-153
5.20.2 What Is the Purpose of a Vent? .................................................................................. 5-153
5.20.3 What Is a Vent? ........................................................................................................... 5-154
5.20.4 Why Do We Need to Let the Air and Gas Out? ........................................................... 5-154
5.20.5 Where is the Best Place for Vents to be Located? ...................................................... 5-154
5.20.6 How Do We Put Vents in? ........................................................................................... 5-155
5.20.7 When Do We Put the Vents in? ................................................................................... 5-155
5.20.8 What Size Should They Be? ....................................................................................... 5-155
5.20.9 Variables in the Process of Venting ............................................................................ 5-157
5.20.10 Some Special Information to Help Dispel Some Old Wives Tales about
Venting ........................................................................................................................ 5-158
5.20.11 Other Vent Requirements ............................................................................................ 5-159
Ejection .................................................................................................................................................. 5-161
5.21 Standard Two-plate Mold Pin Ejection Components ................................................................... 5-163
5.21.1 Ejector Pins .................................................................................................................. 5-164
5.21.2 Ejector Sleeves ........................................................................................................... 5-165
5.21.3 Ejector Blades ............................................................................................................. 5-166
5.21.4 Location of Pins ........................................................................................................... 5-166
5.21.5 Hardness of Pins ......................................................................................................... 5-167
5.21.6 Shouldered Pins .......................................................................................................... 5-167
5.21.7 Fit Lengths ................................................................................................................... 5-167
5.21.8 Clearances .................................................................................................................. 5-167
5.21.9 Chamfers ..................................................................................................................... 5-167
5.21.10 Contoured Pins ............................................................................................................ 5-167
5.21.11 Return Pins with Thumb Nail Spring ........................................................................... 5-168
5.21.12 Stop Pins ..................................................................................................................... 5-168
5.21.13 Knock-out Extensions .................................................................................................. 5-168
5.21.14 Guided Ejector Systems .............................................................................................. 5-169
5.21.15 Water ........................................................................................................................... 5-169
5.21.16 Vents ........................................................................................................................... 5-170
5.21.17 Lubrication ................................................................................................................... 5-170
5.21.18 Lubrication Techniques ............................................................................................... 5-171
5.22 Stripper Plate Components ......................................................................................................... 5-173
5.22.1 Stripper Ejection .......................................................................................................... 5-173
5.22.2 The Round Part Factor ................................................................................................ 5-173

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 Contents lix

5.22.3 Stripper Plate Ejection ................................................................................................. 5-173

5.22.4 Definitions and Functions ............................................................................................ 5-174
5.22.5 Three-plate Runner Systems ...................................................................................... 5-176
5.22.6 Definitions and Functions ............................................................................................ 5-176
Dealing with Undercuts .......................................................................................................................... 5-179
5.23 Mold Plate Sequencing and Lifters .............................................................................................. 5-181
5.24 Side Actions ................................................................................................................................. 5-183
5.24.1 Cam Components ....................................................................................................... 5-183
5.24.2 Slide Retention ............................................................................................................ 5-184
5.24.3 Slide Protection ........................................................................................................... 5-184
5.24.4 Purchased Hydraulic Cylinders ................................................................................... 5-184
5.25 Unscrewing Mechanisms ............................................................................................................. 5-185
5.25.1 There Are Primarily Two Types of Unscrewing Molds ................................................ 5-185
5.26 Collapsible Cores ....................................................................................................................... 5-187
5.26.1 Pros and Cons of Collapsible Cores ........................................................................... 5-189
5.27 Mold Related Problems ............................................................................................................... 5-191
5.27.1 Flash ............................................................................................................................ 5-191
5.27.2 Burns ........................................................................................................................... 5-198
5.27.3 Flow Lines ................................................................................................................... 5-200
5.27.4 Warpage ...................................................................................................................... 5-201
5.27.5 Surface Appearances .................................................................................................. 5-203
5.27.6 Sinks ............................................................................................................................ 5-205
5.27.7 Short Shots/Nonfills ..................................................................................................... 5-206
5.27.8 Gate Imperfections ...................................................................................................... 5-207

Volume 6. Injection Molding – Processing and Troubleshooting

6.1 Plastic Flow ................................................................................................................................. 6-1
6.1.1 Basic Flows ................................................................................................................. 6-1
6.1.2 Jetting .......................................................................................................................... 6-2
6.1.3 Transient Flow ............................................................................................................. 6-3
6.1.4 Barrel Fluid Flow ......................................................................................................... 6-4
6.1.5 Cavity Flows in Injection Molding ................................................................................ 6-4
6.1.6 Fountain Flow .............................................................................................................. 6-5
6.1.7 Flow in Edge-gated Cavities ........................................................................................ 6-6
6.1.8 Flow in Center-gated Cavities ..................................................................................... 6-7
6.1.9 Barrel-cavity Fluid Element Mapping ........................................................................... 6-9
6.1.10 Hesitation Flows .......................................................................................................... 6-9
6.1.11 Influence of Flow and Heat Transfer on Morphology .................................................. 6-12

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

lx Contents

6.2 Molding: Machine Start Up and Shut Down Procedures ............................................................. 6-15
6.2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 6-15
6.2.2 Tools ............................................................................................................................ 6-15
6.2.3 Getting the Mold Ready ............................................................................................... 6-17
6.2.4 Special Case: Loading the Mold in Halves .................................................................. 6-20
6.2.5 Cooling Media (Water/Oil/Hot/Cold) ............................................................................ 6-21
6.2.6 Shut Down (and Start-up) Procedures ........................................................................ 6-25
6.3 Mold Maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 6-31
6.3.1 Preventive Maintenance .............................................................................................. 6-31
6.3.2 In-press Maintenance Procedures .............................................................................. 6-31
6.3.3 Procedures and Forms ................................................................................................ 6-43
6.4 Optimizing the Molding Process .................................................................................................. 6-47
6.4.1 Productivity Tools ........................................................................................................ 6-47
6.4.2 What about the Clamp? ............................................................................................... 6-52
6.4.3 General Comments ..................................................................................................... 6-53
6.4.4 Using a Monitoring System ......................................................................................... 6-53
6.4.5 Process Control ........................................................................................................... 6-54
6.4.6 What to Do When the Process Changes ..................................................................... 6-59
6.4.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 6-62
6.5 Tips for Supervisors and Technicians ......................................................................................... 6-63
6.6 Polymer Drying ............................................................................................................................ 6-67
6.6.1 Why Dry Plastic Pellets before Processing? ............................................................... 6-67
6.6.2 Moisture Problems ...................................................................................................... 6-67
6.6.3 Drying Nonhygroscopic Polymers ............................................................................... 6-68
6.6.4 Hygroscopic Polymers ................................................................................................. 6-68
6.6.5 Drying Hygroscopic Polymers ..................................................................................... 6-69
6.6.6 The Dehumidifying Dryer ............................................................................................. 6-69
6.6.7 Principles of Operation ................................................................................................ 6-69
6.6.8 The “On Stream” Drying Air Circuit ............................................................................. 6-69
6.6.9 Regeneration Air Circuit .............................................................................................. 6-71
6.6.10 Desiccant Cooling ....................................................................................................... 6-72
6.6.11 Desiccant Dryer Designs ............................................................................................. 6-72
6.6.12 Dryer Troubleshooting Chart ....................................................................................... 6-75
6.7 Glass-filled Materials ................................................................................................................... 6-77
6.7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 6-77
6.7.2 Effects on Gate and Runner Design ............................................................................ 6-77
6.7.3 Effects on Machine Sizing ........................................................................................... 6-77
6.7.4 Changes in Processing Parameters ............................................................................ 6-78

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 Contents lxi

6.8 Heat-sensitive Materials .............................................................................................................. 6-81

6.8.1 Screw Terminology ...................................................................................................... 6-83
6.8.2 Screw Geometry .......................................................................................................... 6-83
6.9 Acetals ......................................................................................................................................... 6-87
6.9.1 General Guidelines ...................................................................................................... 6-87
6.9.2 Injection Molding Equipment and Mold Design ........................................................... 6-88
6.9.3 Processing Start Up and Shutdown ............................................................................ 6-90
6.9.4 Typical Molding Conditions ......................................................................................... 6-91
6.9.5 Quality Control of Molded Parts .................................................................................. 6-93
6.10 Injection Molding Engineering Thermoplastics in Comparison to Commodity Materials ............. 6-95
6.10.1 Drying of Plastics: Commodity versus Engineering Thermoplastics ........................... 6-95
6.10.2 Material Process Melt Temperature: Commodity versus Engineering
Thermoplastics ............................................................................................................ 6-97
6.10.3 Injection Molding Machine Screw Type: Commodity versus Engineering
Thermoplastics ............................................................................................................ 6-98
6.10.4 Purging of Material from Barrel: Commodity versus Engineering
Thermoplastics ............................................................................................................ 6-98
6.10.5 Mold Temperature: Commodity versus Engineering Thermoplastics .......................... 6-99
6.11 Computer Flow Simulations ......................................................................................................... 6-101
6.11.1 Chapter Objective ........................................................................................................ 6-101
6.11.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 6-101
6.11.3 What Is Flow Analysis? ............................................................................................... 6-101
6.11.4 Why Use a Flow Analysis? .......................................................................................... 6-102
6.11.5 Running a Flow Analysis ............................................................................................. 6-103
6.11.6 Interpreting Results ..................................................................................................... 6-105
6.11.7 Best Practices ............................................................................................................. 6-108
6.11.8 Flow Analysis Worksheet ............................................................................................ 6-110
6.12 Multi-injection Molding ................................................................................................................. 6-113
6.12.1 Objective ..................................................................................................................... 6-113
6.12.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 6-113
6.12.3 Process Variations ...................................................................................................... 6-114
6.12.4 Bonding Strength ......................................................................................................... 6-115
6.12.5 Material Combinations and Application Examples ...................................................... 6-118
6.12.6 Process Variants and Mold Technology ...................................................................... 6-120
6.12.7 Machine Technology ................................................................................................... 6-123
6.12.8 Trends ......................................................................................................................... 6-124
®
6.13 The MuCell Process .................................................................................................................. 6-125
6.13.1 Chapter Objective ........................................................................................................ 6-125
6.13.2 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 6-125

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

lxii Contents

6.13.3 Foaming Process ........................................................................................................ 6-126

6.13.4 Fine, Homogeneous Cell Structure ............................................................................. 6-127
6.13.5 Process Steps ............................................................................................................. 6-127
6.13.6 Additional Machine Equipment .................................................................................... 6-127
6.13.7 Process Capabilities of Microcellular Foam Molding ................................................... 6-128
6.13.8 Controlling Weight Reduction and Cell Size by Processing Conditions ...................... 6-130
6.13.9 Application Examples/Review ..................................................................................... 6-132
6.13.10 Future Developments .................................................................................................. 6-133
6.13.11 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 6-134
6.13.12 Acknowledgment ......................................................................................................... 6-134
6.14 Gas Assisted Injection Molding ................................................................................................... 6-135
6.14.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 6-135
6.14.2 Process Definition ....................................................................................................... 6-135
6.14.3 Process Methods and Variations ................................................................................. 6-135
6.14.4 Partial Fill versus Evacuation Method Techniques ...................................................... 6-137
6.14.5 Injection Mold Considerations ..................................................................................... 6-138
6.14.6 Gas Assist Systems and Controls ............................................................................... 6-139
6.14.7 System Installation and Connections .......................................................................... 6-141
6.14.8 Process Start Up ......................................................................................................... 6-143
6.14.9 Process Troubleshooting ............................................................................................. 6-144
6.14.10 Emerging Process Developments ............................................................................... 6-145
6.15 Troubleshooting ........................................................................................................................... 6-151
6.15.1 Preface ........................................................................................................................ 6-151
6.15.2 Making Decisions ........................................................................................................ 6-151
6.15.3 Solutions ...................................................................................................................... 6-152
6.15.4 Priorities ...................................................................................................................... 6-152
Processing Problems ................................................................................................................... 6-155
6.15.5 Drool ............................................................................................................................ 6-155
6.15.6 Drool Solutions ............................................................................................................ 6-155
6.15.7 Nozzle/Tip Frozen ....................................................................................................... 6-156
6.15.8 Nozzle/Tip Frozen Solutions ....................................................................................... 6-156
6.15.9 Slow Cycle Times: Pressure Limited ........................................................................... 6-157
6.15.10 Pressure Limited Solutions .......................................................................................... 6-158
6.15.11 Slow Cycle Times: Screw Limited (Slow Plasticating) ................................................. 6-158
6.15.12 Screw Limited (Slow Plasticating) Solutions ............................................................... 6-158
6.15.13 Sticking: Part(s) ........................................................................................................... 6-159
6.15.14 Sticking: Parts Solutions .............................................................................................. 6-159
6.15.15 Sprue (Sticking or Breaking) ....................................................................................... 6-161
6.15.16 Sticking Sprue Solutions ............................................................................................. 6-161

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 Contents lxiii

6.15.17 Sweating/Corrosion of Tool ......................................................................................... 6-162

6.15.18 Sweating/Corrosion of Tool Solutions ......................................................................... 6-162
Part Defects – Visible .................................................................................................................. 6-163
6.15.19 Black Specks (Dark Spots) .......................................................................................... 6-163
6.15.20 Black Specks (Dark Spots) Solutions .......................................................................... 6-163
6.15.21 Blush/Gate Blemish/Smear ......................................................................................... 6-164
6.15.22 Blush/Gate Blemish/Smear Solutions ......................................................................... 6-165
6.15.23 Bubbles/Blisters ........................................................................................................... 6-165
6.15.24 Bubbles/Blisters Solutions ........................................................................................... 6-166
6.15.25 Burns/Dieseling/Black Surface .................................................................................... 6-167
6.15.26 Burns/Dieseling/Black Surface Solutions .................................................................... 6-167
6.15.27 Cloudy or Hazy (Clear Parts Only) .............................................................................. 6-168
6.15.28 Cloudy or Hazy Solutions ............................................................................................ 6-168
6.15.29 Color Distribution Poor ................................................................................................ 6-169
6.15.30 Color Distribution Poor Solutions ................................................................................ 6-170
6.15.31 Cold Slugs ................................................................................................................... 6-170
6.15.32 Cold Slugs Solutions ................................................................................................... 6-171
6.15.33 Crazing, Stress Whitening ........................................................................................... 6-171
6.15.34 Crazing, Stress Whitening Solutions ........................................................................... 6-172
6.15.35 Delamination ............................................................................................................... 6-173
6.15.36 Delamination Solutions ................................................................................................ 6-173
6.15.37 Ejector Marks/Holes .................................................................................................... 6-173
6.15.38 Ejector Marks/Holes Solutions .................................................................................... 6-174
6.15.39 Gloss: Low and High ................................................................................................... 6-174
6.15.40 Gloss Solutions ........................................................................................................... 6-175
6.15.41 Flash ............................................................................................................................ 6-175
6.15.42 Flash on 1st Stage ...................................................................................................... 6-175
6.15.43 Flash on 2nd Stage ..................................................................................................... 6-175
6.15.44 Flash Solutions ............................................................................................................ 6-176
6.15.45 Flow Lines ................................................................................................................... 6-177
6.15.46 Flow Lines Solutions ................................................................................................... 6-177
6.15.47 Grooves/Ripples .......................................................................................................... 6-177
6.15.48 Grooves/Ripples Solutions .......................................................................................... 6-178
6.15.49 J-hooks ....................................................................................................................... 6-178
6.15.50 J-hooks Solutions ....................................................................................................... 6-178
6.15.51 Jetting .......................................................................................................................... 6-178
6.15.52 Jetting Solutions .......................................................................................................... 6-179
6.15.53 Short Shots (Nonfills, Underfills) ................................................................................. 6-179
6.15.54 Definition ..................................................................................................................... 6-179

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

lxiv Contents

6.15.55 Root Causes ................................................................................................................ 6-179

6.15.56 Short Shots Solutions .................................................................................................. 6-180
6.15.57 Sinks ............................................................................................................................ 6-180
6.15.58 Sinks Solutions ............................................................................................................ 6-181
6.15.59 Streak: Black/Brown Streaks and White Streaks ........................................................ 6-181
6.15.60 Brown/Black Streaks Solutions ................................................................................... 6-182
6.15.61 Splay/Silver Streaks .................................................................................................... 6-183
6.15.62 Silver Streaks/Splay Solutions .................................................................................... 6-183
6.15.63 Glass Fiber Streaks ..................................................................................................... 6-184
6.15.64 Glass Fiber Streaks Solutions ..................................................................................... 6-184
6.15.65 Strings / Stringers / Wisps ........................................................................................... 6-184
6.15.66 Strings / Wisps Solutions ............................................................................................. 6-185
6.15.67 Nonmelts, Windows ..................................................................................................... 6-185
6.15.68 Non-melts / Windows Solutions ................................................................................... 6-185
6.15.69 Warpage / Deformation ............................................................................................... 6-185
6.15.70 Warpage / Deformation Solutions ............................................................................... 6-186
6.15.71 Weld Lines, Knit Lines ................................................................................................. 6-187
6.15.72 Weld Lines Solutions ................................................................................................... 6-188
Part Defects: Nonvisible/Internal ................................................................................................. 6-188
6.15.73 Bubbles in Colored Parts (See Visible: Bubbles/Blisters) ........................................... 6-188
6.15.74 Brittleness, Stress Cracks ........................................................................................... 6-188
6.15.75 Brittleness, Stress Cracks Solutions ........................................................................... 6-189
6.15.76 Dimensions Unstable (Weight or Shrinkage) .............................................................. 6-189
6.15.77 Dimensions Unstable Solutions ................................................................................... 6-190
6.15.78 Voids ........................................................................................................................... 6-191
6.15.79 Voids Solutions ............................................................................................................ 6-191

Indexes
Index (Volume 1) ......................................................................................................................... 1-147
Index (Volume 2) ......................................................................................................................... 2-111
Index (Volume 4) ......................................................................................................................... 4-75
Index (Volume 5) ......................................................................................................................... 5-211
Index (Volume 6) ......................................................................................................................... 6-199

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

MATH 1
JERRY GOLMANAVICH

INTRODUCTION What follows are some basic rules for solving

equations and some explanations about notation.
Mathematics may keep many people from
Expressions
applying for technician positions because some of
the advanced concepts are abstract or do not An expression is a mathematical statement
represent situations from “real life.” There are that uses numbers, variables or both. The
times when a technician must assist an engineer following are examples of expressions:
or supervisor and so requires some basic 7
knowledge of math operations. Many of the x
following concepts may be useful even outside 5-3
the workplace. As we go along, we give examples
x-4
of the application of these teachings. If
understood, they allow a better understanding of 2(5+x)
the physics, hydraulics, and statistics that are Expressions can appear in several ways and
presented in other chapters of the Toolbox. still be the same; for example:
a × b = ab = a•b = (a)b. Each of these
ALGEBRA FUNDAMENTALS represents a times b. Just as in multiplication,
division has many representations. For example,
Algebra is the language of engineering and
you can write a divided by b the following ways:
the sciences; it is a way to apply mathematical
a ÷ b = a/b = a(1/b).
concepts when we do not really know the value of
a variable. A variable is a symbol that represents a Equations
number. Letters such as s, x, and y are used for An equation is a mathematical statement
variables. Looking at formulas or algebraic showing that two numbers or expressions are
equations therefore can be confusing because, equal. The following are examples of equations:
instead of numbers, letters or symbols are used to 4=4
represent the variables we do not know. Before x=2
you can jump into the mathematics involved in
t-12 = 65
understanding your processes, you must
understand the language and rules used in 4x = 20
working with numbers or algebraic equations.

1
Society of Plastics Engineers

Order of Operations Here’s a word problem. How much is 9

When trying to simplify or solve equations, divided by 1/3 ?
there is a specific order that you have to follow. It 9
-------- = 9 × 3 = 27
is known as the rule of order of operations. You  1---
always solve what is inside Parentheses first, then  3
Exponents, then Multiplication and Division, then Powers and Exponents
Addition and Subtraction. An easy way to
Although most of us are very familiar with
remember this rule is the phrase “Please Excuse
addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division,
My Dear Aunt Sally,” in which the first letter of
exponents (or powers) are less frequently used in
each word is the same as the first letter for the
everyday life. Thus, there can be confusion about
operation.
how to work with them. A power is just a shorthand
Fractions notation of saying that a number needs to be
A “math-a-phobe” would say that a major multiplied by itself a given number of times. As an
source for confusion is fractions. In our society, example of this, Y = 22 means that to know what Y
we use fractions occasionally—relying mostly on is you multiply 2 by itself, 2× 2 = 4, so Y = 4.
percentages or decimals, with the exception of If Y = 23, then Y would equal 2 × 2 × 2, which
English system tools. So, it seems reasonable to is 8. The expression 23 is called a power of 2. The
review the basic rules of fractions. Some expression 23 has a base of 2 and 3 is an exponent
fundamentals of fractions follow. of the power of 2.
 a--- +  --c- = a-----------
+c
- But, not all equations are that easy. When
 b  b b solving algebraic equations, especially, you will
need to solve equations that look like Y = a2a3.
 a--- +  --c- = ------------------
ad + bc
- Knowing what we know about exponents, you
 b  d bd
could rewrite this as Y = a × a × a × a × a, which is
 a--- ×  --c- = -----
ac Y = a5. So, instead of going through all the trouble
-
 b  d bd of the middle step, you can use a simple rule:
Examples: When you multiply a number to an exponent
by the same number to an exponent, the value will
7 2 9 be the base number to the sum of the exponents.
--- + --- = --- = 3
3 3 3 For example:
7 2 (3 × 7) + (2 × 4) 29 Xy × Xz = Xy+z
--- + --- = ---------------------------------------- = ------
4 3 4×3 12 X3 × X 4 = X3+4 = X7
 7---  2--- = 14
------ For division, it works differently. Let’s say that
 4  3 12 you have Y= a5/a2. If you wrote this out longhand,
Dividing by a fraction is the same as it would be Y = (a × a × a × a × a)/(a × a). You can
multiplying by the reciprocal of the fraction. The then simplify the expression to Y = a × a × a,
reciprocal of a fraction is when the top and the which is Y = a3.
bottom numbers switch places; for example, the The rule, then, is: “When you divide
reciprocal of 2/3 is 3/2 . So, dividing something by exponentials having the same base, the value will
1/ is the same as multiplying by 2 because it is the be the base number raised to the power of the
2
reciprocal. (Note: If you multiply a number by its numerator minus the power of the denominator.”
reciprocal, the answer is 1. For example, 3( 1/3 ) = 1. For example:
( 5/4 )( 4/5 ) = 1; so 3 is the reciprocal of 1/3 and 4/5 is y 7
X y–z X 7–4 3
the reciprocal of 5/4 .) ------z = X -----4- = X = X
X X
2
®
 Math 1

Linear Equations (3. Simplify the answer:)

With the basics out of the way, we can talk x = -3
about equations. As described before, an equation
Quadratic Equations
is a statement showing that two numbers or
expressions are equal. Equations are useful for Although linear equations are used to solve
relating numbers and variables. Ordinarily there is many problems, there are instances where the
a variable that we need to solve for. The solution to linear model does not work well. In those cases,
the equation is then the number that makes the quadratic equations are better suited to handling
equation true when we substitute the variable with the problem. Quadratic equations have this form:
its value. The following are examples of equations. ax2 + bx + c = 0
For example: However, there are two standard methods you
can use.
y+6 = 14-y; y = 4. When we substitute the
number 4 for the variable y, the equation is true. Method 1. Set the entire equation to zero (as
seen above) and factor the left side of the
4+6 = 14-4; 10 = 10.
equation. (Note: You may need to review
Equations like these, where it is necessary to factoring of polynomials, not covered in the
solve for a single, simple variable such as y, rather Toolbox.)
than y2 or x/y, are called linear equations.
Example:
There are a few basic rules to use when
Solve the quadratic equation x2 = 3x + 18
solving equations:
Step 1: Set the equation to 0 by subtracting 3x
1. Collect like terms by adding or subtracting and 18 from the right side.
the terms from both sides of the equation
(getting all numbers by themselves and all x2 – 3x – 18 = 0
variables with their coefficient (multiplier/ Step 2: Factoring the left side of the equation
divider) by themselves on opposite sides of yields
the equation). (x-6)(x+3) = 0
2. Work to get the variable all by itself by Either (x-6)=0 or (x+3) = 0
multiplying/dividing by the coefficients on Therefore, x = 6 and x = -3
the variable.
Try substituting each value of x into the
3. Simplify the number if possible. original equation. That is a proof.
It is important to remember to follow your Method 2. Apply the quadratic formula. The
rules for order of operations. Let’s do a few quadratic formula formally stated is:
examples. ax2 + bx + c = 0
4x + 27 = 15 The quadratic formula for the above equation
(1. Collect all like terms:) looks like this:
2
4x + 27 = 15 – b ± b – 4ac
x = --------------------------------------
-27 -27 2a
4x = -12 So, the answers would be

(2. Work to get the variable all by itself:) ( – ( 3 ) ± 9 – ( 4 ( – 18 ) ) )

x = -----------------------------------------------------------
2
4x = -12
( 3 ± 9 + 72 ) (3 ± 9) 12 – 6
÷4 ÷4 = --------------------------------- = ----------------- = ------, ------
2 2 2 2
– 12
x = --------- Or, x = 6 and –3.
4
3
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

This is as far as we will go with equations to inches, he talks millimeters—you talk pounds per
higher powers. One simple relationship to hour, she talks kilograms per hour. Because of the
remember is that if the unknown x is raised to a many different units of measurement used
power, the number of solutions for x will be that throughout the world, we all must know how to
power. So, for an equation with x3, there will be convert to a common system, or else, how can we
three answers. If a typical result from a designed
all talk? Most countries use the metric system. The
experiment is calculated, it can be seen that the
United States standardized on the English system
likely outcome will be that the unknown is raised
to a power and, therefore, can be solved for many years ago and, despite many threats to the
multiple answers. contrary, never implemented the metric system.

CONVERSION FACTORS To perform a conversion, you need to know

the unit you are starting with (for example, a
Liters, meters, gallons, feet, yards, tons, tonnes,
Fahrenheit, Celsius, ft-lb., mPa (millipascals), psi— meter), the unit you are trying to get to (for
what a tangled web we enter when we start talking example, inches), and the conversion factor. We
across disciplines and country borders and between have listed in the following table some common
companies! Try talking about the size of your conversions that may be required in the normal
American-made extruder in Germany—you talk tour of duty in a plastics processing operation.

Length Multiplied by Gives Multiplied by Gives

m × 3.28 = ft. × 0.3048 = m

m × 39.37 = in. × 0.02540 = m

mm × 0.03937 = in. × 25.4 = mm

mm × 1000 = µm (micron) × .001 = mm

Area

cm2 × 0.155 = in.2 × 6.452 = cm2

mm2 × 0.00155 = in.2 × 645.2 = mm2

Volume

m3 × 264.17 = gallon (US) × 0.00378 = m3

m3 × 35.31 = ft.3 × 0.02832 = m3

cm3 × 0.06102 = in.3 × 16.387 = m3

liter × 1.057 = qt × 0.946 = liter

Mass

g × 0.002204 = lbm × 453.6 = g

kg × 2.2046 = lbm × 0.4536 = kg

kg × 0.0011 = ton (short) × 907. = kg

4
®
 Math 1

Pressure and Stress

Pa × 1.450 × 10-4 = lbf/in.2 × 6895. = Pa

kPa × 0.1450 = lbf/in.2 × 6.895 = kPa

MPa × 145.0 = lbf/in.2 × 0.006895 = mPa

kgf/cm2 × 14.22 = lbf/in.2 × 0.07031 = kgf/cm2

N/mm2 × 1.0 = mPa × 1.0 = N/mm2

Pa × 10 = dyne/cm2 × 0.1 = Pa

Pa × 0.007501 = mm Hg × 133.3 = Pa

Pa × 0.004019 = in. H2O × 248.8 = Pa

kPa × 7.501 = torr × 0.1333 = kPa

torr × 1.0 = mm Hg × 1.0 = torr

MPa × 9.869 = atm × 0.1013 = mPa

MPa × 10 = bar × 0.1 = mPa

Energy

J × 0.0009478 = Btu* × 1055. = J

ft lbf × 0.001286 = Btu* × 778. = ft lbf

J × 0.2388 = cal × 4.187 = J

J × 1.0 × 107 = erg × 1.0 × 10-7 = J

J × 2.778 × 10-7 = kWh × 3.600 × 10-6 = J

J × 1.0 = W•s × 1.0 = J

J × 0.7375 = ft lbf × 1.356 = J

cal × 0.00397 = Btu* × 252. = cal

*The Btu and calorie are defined in several ways. The commonly used international table definition is used here.

Temperature Conversions are as follows. the conversion, you can use the unit factor
Degrees Fahrenheit = ( 9/5 )(C) + 32 method. In unit factoring, you figure out the units
of your unknown and work with your conversion
Degrees Celsius = ( 5/9 )(F-32) factors until you get to those units.
(Note: Although Celsius is the correct term, In the example, you want inches, so
centigrade is still sometimes used.)
Number of inches = 0.7 meters × 39.37 inches/meter
Let’s say you know that the length of your
barrel in an injection molding machine is 0.7 m. = 27.56 inches
Someone asks for that specific piece of Let’s do a couple of conversions to check our
information but wants to know it in inches. To do formulas. What is the temperature, in Celsius, at

5
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

which water boils, knowing that the boiling point • Step 2: Determine how many places the
in °F is 212°F? decimal point needs to be moved to return to
the original number and in what direction.
In this case, the decimal point needs to
5
C = --- × ( F – 32 ) move 3 places to the right. You now have the
9 information you need to express this
Substituting 212 for F, we get: number as scientific notation.
5 5 • Step 3: Write down the number you
C = --- × ( 212 – 32 ) = --- × 180 = 100
9 9 expressed between 1 and 10. In this case:
What is the freezing point of water in 3.789.
Fahrenheit? We know that the freezing point is • Step 4: Write down “× 10” making the
0°C on a Celsius thermometer. expression 3.789 × 10.
9
F = --- × C + 32 Substituting 0 for C, we get: • Step 5: Use the number of places you
5
moved the decimal point from Step 2 as the
9
F = --- × 0 + 32 = 0 + 32 = 32 exponent of 10, i.e., 3.789 × 103.
5
• Step 6: Use the direction you found in Step
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION 2 to determine the sign of the exponent of
At times, it becomes necessary to convert 10. If you move the decimal point to the
numbers from standard notation to what is called right to get back to the original number, the
scientific notation. Scientists developed scientific exponent is positive…to the left, it is
notation to abbreviate extremely large or small negative.
numbers. This method can take on several forms;
Another example: The number 123 can be
however, the principle is the same. Scientific
represented as 1.23 × 102, or 1.23 times 10
notation represents values as a number between 1
squared or 1.23 times 100.
and 10 multiplied by 10 to some power. [Note: Any
number raised to the 0 (zero) power is equal to 1.] Calculators may show this as 1.23 E2. The
right-hand number can be called “the power of
Why do we need scientific notation?
ten” or “exponent” (hence, the E in front of it). It
One example is for calculators. If you multiply is also useful to express small numbers in
1,234,567 by 1,234,567, would you have enough scientific notation. For example, .0123456 could
spaces to list the entire answer? Another example is be written as: 1.23456 × 10-2, or, 1.23456 E-2.
if everyone in the United States owned an equal
portion of the Washington monument, how much Other Examples of Scientific Notation
would that be? (1 divided by 280,000,000,
100. = 1 × 102
approximately 0.00000000357—which is not an
easy number to write!) 1000. = 1 × 103

How to Convert from Standard Notation 1,000,000. = 1 × 106

to Scientific Notation
0.100 = 1 × 10-1
Convert the number 3789 to scientific notation.
The decimal point in this number is after the 9. 0.00000100 = 1 × 10-6

• Step 1: Determine where to place the These last numbers show why scientific notation
decimal point to express this number as a is useful—it is much easier to write 1.23 × 109 than
number between 1 and 10. To do this the 1,230,000,000. Also, very small numbers can be
decimal point is placed between the 3 and displayed conveniently (see the coefficient of thermal
the 7, or 3.789. expansion of steel below).

6
®
 Math 1

Addition and Subtraction Using the purpose of placing the decimal point (i.e.,
Scientific Notation identifying that the leftmost digit2 is in the
Just as when we use fractions, when we add hundred thousands place). The number 0.0897
and subtract we must make sure that the units of has three significant digits; the purpose of the zero
what we work with are the same, that is, the is to hold the decimal point. The number 804,000
numbers manipulated must be expressed in such a has three significant figures; the function of the
way that the exponents are the same. zero between the 8 and the 4 is not to hold the
For example, 1.23 E5 +1.23 E6 =? We can decimal point.
change the second expression to 12.3 E5, and add When performing calculations, it is important
it to 1.23 E5 for a total of 13.53 E5, or 1.353 E6. to be reasonable about how accurate a number can
This is the same as adding 123,000 + be. It is considered unreasonable in most cases to
1,230,000 = 1,353,000, but with scientific consider the result of a calculation to be more
notation you do not have to worry about keeping “significant” than the number of significant
track of all the zeros. Just remember, when adding figures in the least precise number in the
or subtracting the exponent should be the same calculation.
for any number involved in the operation. For example, if you are multiplying 25 g/cm
Multiplication and Division Using times 2.35 cm, the result should be expressed as
Scientific Notation 58 g because the number in the calculation with
When multiplying scientific numbers, the fewest significant figures is 25, having 2
multiply the numbers then “add” the exponents significant figures.
together. Let’s look at this scenario: try cutting a pizza
852 E2 × 11 E2 = 9372 E4 or 9.372 E7 into eight “identical” slices. First I cut the pizza in
half, and then cut each half in half, then cut each
If you look at this another way, the equation
half of a half of a half in half again. Are all the
can become 8.52 E4 × 1.1 E3 = 9.37 E7. Is this
pieces identical? Not when I do it. So, if you don’t
easier?
start with two equal “halves” you won’t have four
Dividing works in the same way, but the equal “quarters,” nor “eight” identical slices. If
exponent of the denominator should be subtracted you’re lucky, you’ll get first choice and pick the
from the exponent of the numerator. largest of the “identical” slices. The point is, if
9.372 E7 ÷ 1.1 E3 = 8.52 E4 you start out with a certain level of accuracy, as
you perform calculations regarding your original
or 852 E2
numbers, you cannot achieve a greater accuracy
or 85,200 than when you started.
What if the denominator were smaller than 1, Let’s cut our pizza into seven slices:
such as 1.1 E-2 or 0.011? 1/7= 0.1428 or 14.28%. Can you cut the pie that
Then, 9.372 E7 ÷ 1.1 E-2 = 8.52 E9 precisely? How about 14%? How about “around
10%?” That is probably the way it would come out.
or 8,520,000,000.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES APPLICATION OF

THE ALGEBRA
What is a significant figure? It is a number
(including zero) used not just for the purpose of Thermal Expansion and Shrinkage
holding a decimal point that tells you how well Plastics processing operations are generally
you know a number. For example, the moon is heat transfer systems. A factor that can loom as
238,000 miles from the earth. There are three significant is the thermal expansion of
significant digits—2,3,8; the zeroes are used for components. At the same time, we must consider

7
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

that plastics generally shrink. Here, we look at an factor. The above example would then look like
example of expansion and an example of 1/0.993= 1.007049345417925478348439. The
shrinkage. shrinkage over this dimension would be
A typical coefficient of expansion for steel is 0.007049345417925478348439, which when
6 × 10-6 (or 0.000006, approximately). The units subtracted from the original dimension would be
are per degree Fahrenheit (in./in. or cm/cm). It is a 1.0000000. (The shrinkage value presented here is
straightforward operation to calculate the amount carried out to so many decimal places only to
of expansion by using the following formula: illustrate the accuracy of the technique.
Previously, it should have become clear that, using
δ = α × ∆T × L the concept of “significant figures,” the number of
decimal places would be reduced dramatically.
where δ = expansion due to temperature change
Considering the fact that shrinkage factors are
α = coefficient of thermal expansion normally given in a range, such as 0.005-0.008 in.
∆T = difference between temperatures per inch, three decimal places would be a
L = length over which the expansion will be representative number.)
calculated Further Discussion
For example if a mold has a height of 20 in. Say you had a steel ring with an inside diameter
and is heated from 70° to 170°F the equation of 5.000 in. and outside diameter of 6.000 in. You
would look like this: then try to pass through the ring a steel ball whose
δ = 0.000006 × (170-70) × 20 = 0.012 inches diameter is 5.001 in. The ball will not go (unless it
Let’s use scientific notation: is hit with a large enough hammer).

d = (6 × 10-6) × (170-70) × (20) 5.001

= 12000 × 10-6
= 1.2 × 10-2 inches
Other handy coefficients for thermal
expansion are beryllium copper = 9.8 × 10-6
(approximate) per degree Fahrenheit and
5.000
aluminum = 13 × 10-6 (approximate) per degree
Fahrenheit. For other specific materials, the
material supplier’s catalogue should be used.
Calculating plastic shrinkage into the size of a
cavity can be tricky to do correctly. One way to If the ring is heated, will the inside diameter
obtain a good approximation, although technically become smaller due to the expansion of the ring
incorrect, is to take the desired dimension and thickness? Or, will the inside diameter grow along
multiply by 1 plus the appropriate shrinkage with the outside diameter, so if it was heated
factor. As an example, for a polycarbonate part enough, the (unheated) ball would now fall through?
expected to shrink 0.007 in. per inch, a 1-in. cavity The answer is that the inside diameter grows
would be made to 1.007. The actual shrinkage with the outside diameter, and thus it becomes
encountered would be 1.007 × (0.007)= 0.007049; larger and the ball will pass through. The converse
hence, the part would already be less than the is also true. As plastic shrinks, the piece that is
nominal dimension if the shrinkage turned out to made from the plastic becomes smaller. The holes
be correct. do not shrink away from the core pins or male
A better technique is to take the desired details. The demonstration of the ball and ring was
dimension and divide it by 1 minus the shrinkage performed for me in high school physics class. It is

8
®
 Math 1

vivid and made a believer of me. The mathematics

support what happens, but some principles may
violate your intuition under certain circumstances.

GEOMETRY FUNDAMENTALS Example: Using supplier data for an injection

molding machine, what is the maximum injection
(Note: If π is not available on your calculator,
velocity of an injection molding screw in inches
you can use 3.141592 or even 3.14 to give a good
per second?
approximation.)
Figure 1. Injection molding machine.
Geometry is the study of shapes and how to
calculate their attributes. In plastics processing, Supplier data:
knowing geometry may enhance a technician’s Injection rate = 22.8 in.3/sec
problem-solving skills. Equipment such as Screw diameter = 1.625 in.
extruders, injection molding machines, and molds
Calculation:
are filled with geometric shapes such as circles,
spheres, and cylinders. We provide the following Projected area of the screw = πr2
references and then look at an example that uses = 3.14 × (1.625/2)2
some of these relationships. = 2.07 in.2
Calculating Area Velocity equals (22.8 in.3/sec)/(2.07 in.2) =
10.9 in./sec
Circle
In this particular example, the machine
Circumference = 2 πr (where r = radius)
controller allowed a maximum of only 9.9 in./sec,
Circumference = πd (where d = diameter) suggesting that the velocity would be limited by
Area = πr2 the setpoint.
Note: The formulas show that the Calculating Volume
circumference is related to the radius (or diameter). Rectangular Prism
Think about this. In a plastic processing operation V= a × b × c
there may be concern about “surface feet per
minute.” When a screw rotates, the speed is
normally given in revolutions per minute, or RPM. c
If you picked a point on the outer surface of a screw,
then to determine surface feet per minute the RPM
should be multiplied by the circumference, or
SFM=(circumference)(RPM). For a 1-in. diameter b
screw rotating at 60 RPM, the surface feet per a
minute would be 188.4 in./min. (60 × π × 1 inch).
For a 2-in. diameter screw, the SFM would be Cylinder
double that!
V= (πr2)(h)
Square or rectangle
r
Area = length × height
Triangle
h
Area = ( 1/2 ) base × height or ( 1/2 ) height × base

Now that we know how to calculate areas, we

can apply the technology.

9
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Pyramid side opposite the identified angle and the word

V= ( 1/3 )Ah “adjacent” refers to the length of the side next to
the identified angle.

h
side Z
side X
A
angle X
A = area of base side Y

Using the three sides X, Y, and Z, six ratios are

Cone
possible. These ratios define six trigonometric
V = ( 1/3 )π(r2)h functions: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
and cosecant. We take a closer look at the sine,
cosine, and tangent functions.
Sine of an angle of a right triangle equals the
h opposite side divided by the hypotenuse (the
longest side):
Sine∠X = side X/side Z
r Cosine of an angle of a right triangle equals
the adjacent side divided by the hypotenuse:
Cosine∠X = side Y/side Z
Sphere
Tangent of an angle of a right triangle equals
V = ( 4/3 )π(r3) the opposite side divided by the adjacent:
Tangent∠X = side X/side Y
Examples:
Side X=3, Side Y=4, Side Z=5
r Sine∠X= side X/side Z = 3/5 = 0.6
Cosine∠X = side Y/side Z = 4/5 = 0.8
Tangent∠X = side X/side Y = 3/4 = 0.75
Also, (side X)2 + (side Y)2 = (side Z)2
SELECTED Proof: 9 + 16 = 25
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS So, where would we need to know this? Our
The word “trigonometry” is from the Greek example looks at draft angles. One handy
words meaning “triangle measurement.” As relationship to remember is that for small angles
relationships between the sides and angles of (e.g., 5° or less) the sine and tangent are very
triangles were discovered, the study of similar. The sine and tangent of 1° are
trigonometry developed. We examine here some approximately 0.0175. This means that for every
of these basic relationships. inch of “draw” (or depth) of a part with 1° draft,
Note that in the following examples that the the “small” dimension will change about 0.0175.
word “opposite” is used to mean the length of the For 2 in. of draw, the change will be 0.035. A part

10
®
 Math 1

that has a wall thickness of 0.070 in. but has a draft

angle on one side and 2 in. of height will now have This simple relationship comes in handy on
a “minimum wall thickness” of 0.035 in. A the shop floor when looking into changing angles
technician in an injection molding operation will to improve productivity.
most likely encounter mold components called
horn pins or cam pins, and wedge blocks. What D1
these components do is move mold features in a
direction perpendicular to the movement caused
by the hydraulic ram. If you know the angle and Draft
the distance the mold is opened, you can calculate angle
the distance the detail will be moved by using a
“scientific calculator” or trigonometric table. For
calculators, the sequence of button pushes might
be “1”, then “sin”; then the answer will likely be
approximately 0.0175. As this number is
proportional, it does not really matter if you are
multiplying inches, millimeters, or feet, so long as
all your measurements are in the same system.
Below we show an example of an injection D2
mold pin. When plastic flows around the pin, the
result is a hole in the plastic part. Typically, to Figure 2. Injection mold pin: draft angle example.
remove the pin from the hole more easily, a draft
angle is included. If the pin height and diameters
SUMMATIONS
D1 and D2 are known, the draft angle can be It is convenient to represent a series of
calculated using the tangent function. numbers in a compressed form know as
summation notation. This is especially handy in
( D2 – D1 ) statistics, as you will see later in the Toolbox. The
-------------------------- = double the tangent of the draft
height angle Greek letter sigma (S) is used to indicate a sum.
5

∑ --3-
n = 1--- + 2--- + 3--- + 4--- + 5---
Additionally, if you know the pin height, draft
3 3 3 3 3
angle, and D2, then D1 can be calculated. For a n=1
small angle (less than 5°), a very good (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) 15
= --------------------------------------------- = ------ = 5
approximation can be obtained using the 3 3
procedure outlined above. The summation is read: “What is the sum of
For example, if D2 = 1 cm, the height is 10 all “n/3” if you add all the n’s from 1 to 5?” For
cm and the draft angle is 1°, then the approximate high-level calculations, such as used in designed
value of D1 would be experiments, the experiments could be much
D2 – [(10)(0.0175)(2)(1)] = 1 – 0.35 = 0.65 cm more complicated than the “n/3” used here, which
is why it is common to use computer programs to
(Note that in this example the height, angle, calculate values for a range of numbers.
and the 0.0175 value are multiplied by 2 because
Another example:
the draft will apply on both sides or all the way
around the pin.) 4

To carry this one last step, if the draft angle ∑ --5x- =

were 0.5∞, then the answer is x=1

D2 – [(10)(.0175(2)(1/2)] = 1 – 0.175 = 0.825 cm ∑ 1--5- + 2--5- + 3--5- + 4--5- = 10

------ = 2
5
11
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

If we changed the expression to the following: AN INTRODUCTION TO

9
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
∑ --5x- AND INTEGRATION
x=6
Differential Equations
The calculation becomes Differential equations are used in many cases
without one even realizing it. When a function is
∑ --5- + --5- + --5- + --5-
6 7 8 9 30
= ------ = 6 differentiated, what is calculated is the rate of
5
change of one variable in relation to another. For
So, it is much easier to represent this example, the rate of change of distance with
calculation using a summation symbol. respect to time is velocity or speed.
FACTORIALS Let’s look at one brief example.
Factorials are an easy way to write a series of
consecutive numbers, starting with 1, that will be
multiplied by each other. Factorials could be used
in calculating values for designing experiments,
probabilities, and, as a result, quality calculations.
A simple example of how factorials could be used
is to determine the number of combinations of a
series of numbers.
The factorial of a positive number is the
product of all numbers less than or equal to it. Say
This graph demonstrates the following
you had the numbers 1, 2, and 3. In how many
relationship: s is distance, V is velocity, a is
ways could you arrange these numbers?
acceleration, and t is elapsed time.
123, 132, 213, 231, 312, 321—six combinations s = (V0t) + ( 1/2 )(at2)
The factorial of a number, n, is written as n! For If you dropped an object out of the window,
example, this could be written as 3! or 3 × 2 × 1 = 6. we use 32 ft./sec/sec as the acceleration of gravity,
Four factorial would be 4! or 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24. and initial velocity would be zero. If we wanted to
These numbers could be arranged in 24 different determine what the velocity of the object was after
orders (proving this could be left to the reader). a certain time period, we would differentiate the
Extending this theory a great deal would be to formula with respect to time and the equation
calculate how many different ways can a set of would become:
bingo balls be arranged: 75! Or 75 × 74 × 73 × 72 (ds/dt) = V = V0 + (at)
and so on. You can see how the number of
Let’s try this with some numbers. If we
combinations can grow very rapidly.
wanted to calculate the distance traveled and the
When designing experiments, some velocity obtained after 5 sec, the equations
techniques use factorials to determine how many become:
combinations of variables there could be to
s = (0 × 5) + ( 1/2 )(32)(52) = 0 + (16)(25) = 400 ft
determine how many test runs should be made.
These might be called factorial experiments. The V = 0 + (32)(5)= 160 ft/sec
only reason we illustrate this is to show how If we look at the chart, we could determine the
complicated calculations can be in this aspect of acceleration by calculating the slope of the
plastics processing and that they are usually left to velocity line in relation to time. Calculating
a computer program. backward from our example:

12
®
 Math 1

160 ft/sec 32 ft/sec

----------------------- = -------------------- position, with a 1, shows that this number (100) is
5 sec sec greater than 99.
Integration
In base 10, the most right-hand column is
Integration is essentially the opposite referred to as the “ones” column, the next is the
operation of differentiation and can be used to “tens” column, the third the “hundreds” column,
calculate the “area under the curve” to determine the fourth the “thousands” column, etc. For
the summation of one factor related to another. If example, the number 1,234 comprises four ones,
we wanted to determine our distance, we could three tens, two hundreds, and one thousands. This
calculate the integral, or area under the curve, can also be thought of this way in scientific
which would look like this: notation:
(160 ft/sec) × (5 sec) ( 1/2 ) (because the triangle is 103 102 101 100
half the area of the square) = 400 ft
1 2 3 4
The uses of the differentiation are plentiful. The binary system works similarly. However,
Integrals are now being used to try to compare instead of base 10, you are working in base 2 and
measures of work or other functions calculated there are only two numbers: 0 and 1.
from charts that are automatically drawn by
monitoring systems and other equipment. It will Look at the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4: In binary
be up to the technician to determine the practical notation, they would look like 1, 10, 11, and 100,
use of these data. respectively.
The number 1 in base 2 is still 1:
Binary Systems
23 22 21 20
The system typically used for mathematics is
the decimal system, using a base of 10 numbers, 0 0 0 0 1
through 9. It is quite handy to understand binary The number 2 in base 2 is 10:
systems because they are the basis for digital 23 22 21 20
operations and therefore are used to create
0 0 1 0
computer operating systems. A binary system has
only two numbers—0 and 1. A key consideration The number 3 in base 2 is 11:
for binary systems is that the positions that have 23 22 21 20
numbers occupying them can have many different 0 0 1 1
representations. One would be off versus on.
The number 4 in base 2 is 100:
Digital electronics and digital television and
camcorders boast of having the most accurate and 23 22 21 20
sharp pictures. One application in injection 0 1 0 0
molding is digital hydraulics, which is an accurate Here are additional examples of numbers in
technique used to control pressures and velocities. base 10 converted to binary:
Let’s look at the binary system first and then apply
Decimal Binary
the theory to an injection molding application.
8 1000
The decimal system has 10 options for any
position in a number—0 through 9. For a number 16 10000
greater than 9, another position is used, to the left. 32 100000
So, adding 1 to 9 gives 10. The right-hand 64 1000000
position shows 0, but the entire number is denoted
128 10000000
by two positions and the leftmost of the two digits
holds the place of tens. Adding 1 to 99 gives 100. 72 (64 + 8) 1001000
Now, the two rightmost positions are 0, but a third 160 (128 + 32) 10100000

13
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

If each of the 1’s represented a valve in a of 18 psi. If this were the case, what would the
hydraulic system that is hooked up in series, the number ‘1111111’ stand for?
way pressure settings could be changed is by
changing the binary instruction: a ‘1’ would open SUMMARY
the valve; a ‘0’ would close it. Let’s say each valve
has a series value of 10 psi. The pressure values Armed with the understanding of the
for the above examples would be 160, 320, 640, principles just discussed, a technician should be
1280, 1600, 80, and 720, respectively. able to perform many calculations involving
If the series value, or step, were 15 psi instead attributes of many plastic processes, or at least
of 10, each value would increase by 50%. understand what may be performed by computer
So why would one design a system like this? or calculator. Although some concepts may seem
Precision. What would be sacrificed? If the steps abstract, applications of the mathematics allow us
were 10 psi, one could not expect the system to to measure values so that we can determine how
give 95 psi, or 1257 psi: They would have to be well we might be performing or if any changes we
multiples of 10. The accuracy would not be as have made have resulted in improvement. We
great, but the precision would be there. suggest that all technicians should equip
At least one molding machine manufacturer themselves with scientific calculators and start
has produced machines where the steps consisted applying these principles.

14
®
CHARTS AND GRAPHS
KIRK M. CANTOR

INTRODUCTION more effective way. Now, consider the following

graph of the race data above:
This section covers creating and using charts 31:00
and graphs, tools that we use to present data. You
Race Time (min:sec)

28:00
will learn about different types of graphical tools,
25:00
when to use them, and how to create and present
them effectively. 22:00

19:00
Consider the following data that document the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
times of a cross-country runner’s first 20 five- Race Number
kilometer (5-km) races: Figure 2. Cross-country runner’s times:
First 20 Races.
30:22 24:02 23:10 22:37

28:05 24:15 22:58 22:19 Figure 2 makes it much easier to evaluate our
runner’s performance than do the “raw” data
25:49 23:47 22:49 22:25 presented in Figure 1. We can now quickly identify
25:50 23:20 22:40 22:12 many findings that are difficult to establish by
observing the raw data alone. For example, it is
24:35 26:45 23:02 22:17
now clear that our runner showed improvement
over this period, based on a decreasing average
Figure 1. First twenty race times.
race time. Further, the graph shows us that the
Not very interesting, is it? Worse, it is not very improvement tended to be more rapid in the early
informative. There may be some trends in the data of races whereas the average gain was only slight in
Figure 1, but it would require more time and the later races. It appears that 22 min. is a plateau
patience than most of us have to find them. Even if for our runner that will require some change,
we did, we still would probably miss some other possibly in training, to surpass. Finally, we see that
insights about our runner that the data can provide. something abnormal happened during the 10th
Presenting data in this way defeats the purpose of race, perhaps an illness or injury.
our collecting it in the first place, because we obtain This example highlights the effectiveness of
data to inform us about a process or an outcome. If using graphical tools to present data. Not only are
data are to be useful, we need to present them in a these tools easier to read than raw data alone, but

15
Society of Plastics Engineers

they generally provide much more information present figures in the order in which they are
about and insight into the process or outcome discussed in the text.
being measured. Let’s explore how best to use Be careful not to overshadow a graph’s
these tools. message by the excessive use of fonts, colors, or
other effects. Computers have made it very easy
GENERAL GUIDELINES
these days to overdo style. Consider each feature
Applying a few general guidelines will help
that does not help to convey the intended message
ensure that your graphs communicate the proper
to be expendable. Also, remember that if a
information to the reader. Three points are
document will be copied, you will probably need
discussed here:
to use patterns for identification of symbols
1. Use accurate labeling instead of colors; color copying is not the
2. Number and refer to all figures in standard.
documents
GRAPHICAL TOOLS
3. Do not overdo fonts, colors, and Numerous types of graphs and charts are
special effects available for presentation of data. Six of the most
Accurate labeling is important. Too often one popular types are discussed here:
creates a graph or chart that makes its point to the
author but not to the rest of the readers; this is
• Tables
because there is supporting information that the • Bar graphs
author knows but fails to pass it along to the • Line graphs
reader. Supporting information should be placed
in a title, labels on axes (including measurement • Scatter plots
units), and a legend, when two or more data sets • Pie charts
are included. Other information may also be
helpful in aiding interpretation, such as test • Pictures
conditions (temperature, speed, etc.) or descriptive Tables
notes. Of course, avoid a cluttered look. A table presents data in row-and-column
When including graphical data in documents, format, as shown in Figure 1. As mentioned, tables
be sure to number each figure to assist the reader are usually difficult to read, but sometimes must
in locating figures as they are referenced in the be included to provide the reader with as much
text. For example, the graph of race times above is information as possible. For example, some
numbered Figure 2. The paragraph following this readers may be interested in analyzing the raw
graph discusses it by first drawing the reader’s data for themselves. When tables are used, it is
attention to its location (Figure 2). A related point: often helpful to provide some statistical analysis to
discuss each figure that is included in a document. aid the reader’s interpretation. Simply adding
Any figure worth including should be identified averages and standard deviations is an easy way to
and explained. Finally, be sure to number and do this, as shown in Figure 3.

Standard
Hour 1 Hour 2 Hour 3 Hour 4 Hour 5 Average
Deviation

Line 1 375 377 379 376 373 376.0 2.24

Line 2 371 373 379 383 380 377.2 5.02

Line 3 375 375 376 377 376 375.8 0.84

Figure 3. Hourly Extrusion melt temperature readings (°F) Pennsylvania Plant.

16
®
 Charts and Graphs

Bar Graphs Notice how the scale on the gate diameter

Bar graphs, also called column graphs, are axis begins at 0.030, instead of 0.000 in. This
used to present the difference in value of various makes greater use of the graph area so that it is
categories. For example, Figure 4 compares the easier to read.
cost of four commodity plastics. We see that the Scatter Plots
four material types represent the different
categories. Each category has a bar, or in this case A scatter plot is a very powerful tool because
with two data sets, a pair of bars. A legend is of its use in data analysis as well as data
included to identify the two data sets: high volume presentation. We use this type of graph to show
purchase prices and low volume purchase prices. how a measured response (also called the
Notice the use of patterns in the bars (instead of dependent variable) is affected by changes in a
color) when presented in black and white. control parameter (also called the independent
variable). The relationship between these two
High Volume
0.7 variables may provide great insight into
0.6 Low Volume
performance, efficiency, cost, and other critical
0.5
0.4
process measurements.
0.3
0.2
As an example, consider two variables that
0.1 affect cycle time for an injection molding operation:
0 injection speed and mold temperature. Figure 6
LDPE PP PS PVC
shows a relationship between cycle time and
Figure 4. Cost of commodity plastics. injection speed, and Figure 7 shows a relationship
between cycle time and mold temperature. These
Sometimes bar graphs are misused to present data would be collected in an experiment where the
numerical data instead of categorical data. Use control variables were changed and the cycle time
line graphs or scatter plots for numerical data. measured after each change.
Line Graphs 20

Mold Temperature = 70 °F
Cycle Time (s)

A line graph is used to present trends in data, 15

often as a function of time. This type of graph is

10
used when there is even spacing (in time,
numerical order, etc.) between data points. For 5
example, Figure 2 is a line graph showing the
runner’s progress during the first 20 races. 0

Another example is shown in Figure 5, where we 0 2 4 6

document wear in an injection mold gate over a 1-

Injection Speed (in./s)
year period.
Figure 6. Cycle Time vs. Injection Speed
0.060

Although fairly simple, these graphs can

Gate Diameter (in)

0.050 provide a lot of information. Figure 6 tells us that

there is a decreasing relationship between the two
0.040 variables, i.e., when we increase injection speed,
cycle time decreases. The relationship is close to
0.030 linear over the range of speeds tested. In other
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

words, a straight line will connect almost all the

points on our scatter plot. Knowing this helps us
Figure 5. Injection mold gate diameter. predict a cycle time for injection speeds that were

17
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

20
25
Cycle Time (s)

y-axis Label
15 20

15
10

10
5
5

0
Injection Speed = 3 in/s
0
0 30 60 90 120
1 2 3 4 5 6

Mold Temperature (°F) x-axis Label

Figure 7. Cycle Time vs. Mold Temperature. Figure 9. Incorrect x-axis scaling.
not in our test. Finally, the difference in cycle relationship in this data, whereas Figure 9
times over our test range is about 2 sec. incorrectly shows an exponential relationship
because of the error in scaling the x-axis.
Figure 7 can be interpreted similarly. In
contrast to injection speed, mold temperature One final feature important to the use of
shows an increasing relationship with cycle time. scatter plots is the ability to create mathematical
The relationship is also fairly linear, and the cycle models, also called trendlines. The linear
time changes by about 8 sec. over our test range. A relationship discussed above is one model that
comparison of the two graphs yields an interesting may fit a set of data; other models include
finding: Because the cycle time scales are identical exponential, polynomial, and power. These
and the line of data points is steeper in Figure 7, models are very helpful in predicting an outcome
we can conclude from this experiment that mold for a set of conditions that have not been
temperature has a greater affect on cycle time than experimentally tested. For example, Figure 10
does injection speed. Finally, notice that notes shows a scatter plot of viscosity data collected on
regarding test conditions were used in Figures 6 a capillary rheometer. Included with the data is a
and 7. power model curve and its corresponding
equation. The R2 value gives an indication of how
Take a brief look at how the scatter plots are well the model fits the actual data points, where
constructed. The independent variable (i.e., the one 1.000 is a perfect fit. This model allows us to
that is controlled) is always placed on the horizontal predict (calculate) the viscosity at any shear rate.
axis (also called the x-axis). The dependent variable 200
is always on the vertical (y) axis. Both axes are
Viscosity (Pascal•sec)

y = 4827.4x -0. 6413

scaled proportionately (see Figure 8), not simply 150
R2 = 0.9941
numbered by the values of the data points collected 100
(see Figure 9). Figure 8 shows the correct linear
25 Figure 8. Correct scaling of axes. 50

20 0
y-axis Label

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000

15
Shear Rate (1/s)
10
Figure 10. Capillary rheometer data
5 for polyethylene.
0
Pie Charts
0 5 10 15 20 25

x-axis Label Pie charts are used to present the relative value
of each category within an entire set of categories.
Figure 8. Correct scaling of axes. For example, Figure 11 shows the reasons for

18
®
 Charts and Graphs

17% Collection and Analysis. However, a few

Material Changeover
38% comments are appropriate here. The important
Screen Change
10% point is that regardless of how attractive a graph is
Heater Band Failure
Downstream Equipment
or how well it communicates to the reader, the
14% message is only as good as the data used to create
Other
21%
it. Therefore, proper methods should always be
Figure 11. Extrusion line 1 downtime
during past 12 months. followed during the collection of data. A few
topics vital to this discipline include instrument
downtime on an extrusion line over the past year.
accuracy and calibration, statistical sampling, test
Notice that the sum of all the categories is equal
specimen preparation, and experiment
to the total amount for the set, in this case, 100%
repeatability.
of downtime. This graph could be used to
determine areas where it would be best to place Although many first learned to create graphs
resources in an effort to reduce downtime. by hand, the capability and availability of
computer software today has made that skill
Pictures
almost obsolete. The speed, accuracy, large array
Pictures come in the form of photographs, of features, and neatness of display and printouts
computer-generated images, schematic diagrams, that computer software offers make it an easy
hand sketches, etc. These tools are extremely choice for graphics creation. All the graphs in this
effective in conveying a message (you know, “a section were created using Microsoft Excel
picture is worth…”). Sometimes we feel that to be software.
technical we need to limit ourselves to big words,
data, and graphs. Even the most technical reader,
however, appreciates the value of understanding
the message clearly through an image rather than
by reading more words. As an example, consider
Inlet Outlet
a gear pump. Most people, when first learning
about these devices, assume the direction of
rotation incorrectly. It would take a fair amount of
writing to explain the proper rotation in a way that
would ensure that the reader understands and
Figure 12. Gear pump rotation.
remembers. However, Figure 12 provides enough
information for most learners to understand the
principle for life. CONCLUSION
This section has covered the creation and use
A NOTE ABOUT COLLECTING of graphical tools. Some general guidelines were
DATA AND CREATING GRAPHS followed by detailed descriptions of several types
Little has been said up to this point regarding of graphs used for the presentation and analysis of
the actual data that are presented in these graphs. data. In summary, when these tools are made and
Data collection is really a completely separate utilized properly, they offer the best method for
subject and is covered in an entire section of this communicating to the reader an intended message
Toolbox, in the chapter “Math 2,” entitled Data about a set of data.

19
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

20
®
MATH 2
JOHN R. WAGNER, JR.

INTRODUCTION happen based on what has been observed about

The objective of this chapter is to provide you the situation being studied, as measured through
with an understanding of some basic statistical data. Error is the magnitude of the wrongness of
concepts. Like many other disciplines, statistics an answer. Another way to look at it is how right
has a language with its own rules. If you learn the an answer really is.
rules and words then you can have a conversation In this chapter we learn the fundamentals of
about their reasoning. Statisticians have a peculiar data collection and analysis, probability models,
way of describing their world. They tend to talk in and statistical quality control methods. See the
terms of averages, medians, modes, ranges, and Design of Experiments chapter. Designing an
variances with frequent references to normal experiment is an extremely powerful way of
distributions. The net result is that this extremely looking at a problem by creating a structured plan
powerful field is often ignored except by people of attack that applies many statistical analysis
who are in the “know.” tools. This organization helps provide the required
Let us start by looking at a comment about information with a minimum of resources
statistical decision problems by Freund and
Simon1: “Modern statistics with its emphasis on DATA COLLECTION
inference may be looked upon as the art or AND ANALYSIS
science of decision making under uncertainty.” Today we have the capability to collect vast
So, in other words, it is a tool to help one make a amounts of data, often too many data. The key is
decision when one does not have all the data or to convert these data into information. When we
knowledge about the problem. Also, through the understand how the information fits together then
abuse of statistics it is possible to “prove” that the we have a basis for knowledge. It is knowledge
data mean something quite different from what that is the basis for science. In our “information
they actually mean. This abuse has lead to an old age” there is a lot of random and miscellaneous
saying: “There are lies, darn lies, and statistics.” data. These data needs to be understood,
The study of statistics is heavily grounded in analyzed, interpreted, and explained to make them
the concept of odds, probability, and error. Odds useful. The first step is organizing the data into
refer to the likelihood of getting a number again, something useful. For example, if you measure a
such as the odds of rolling a 1 on a six-sided die is bunch of thermocouple voltages and record this,
1 in 6. Probability describes what is likely to the value of the data is very limited. But if you go

21
Society of Plastics Engineers

the next step and convert these readings into In summary, a sample is part of a population.
temperature data, the data have more meaning. It is useful to look at a sample rather than the
The next thing to do is to determine what this entire population because of the sheer work
temperature means with relation to something involved in measuring everything. Imagine having
else, in other words, what it is a function of. So, to measure the thickness of every part you
you could measure the voltage (converting to produce! So, instead you take a sample (say five
temperatures) as a function of the heater band per hour) that you measure from the entire
settings and possibly show that there is a population (all parts produced on your shift.)
correlation. It is this organization of the Let us now look at random samples and
temperature data as a function of something that sampling error. First, more definitions.
converts it into information. The organizing of the
Simple random sample: A sample is called a
information creates knowledge, and the
simple random sample, or a random sample for
organization of knowledge is science.
short, if it is obtained in a way that makes every
Statistics provide several methods for possible sample with the same number of
analyzing data. The data skills described here are observations equally likely to be selected. 2 For
some of the keys to success in your career: example, if you have a bag of jellybeans and reach
• Data collection in to grab one, each jellybean is equally as likely
• Data display to be chosen.
Sampling error: Sampling error is the name
• Data summarization
given to natural variability inherent among
Understanding data collection requires an samples from a population. It is always present
understanding of populations and samples, the when samples are obtained. 2 This means that
importance of random samples, and experiments although you are grabbing random samples they
and data types. do not always fully represent the entire population
As with many languages, one needs to acquire because they are only a small portion of it. An
a vocabulary. So, to begin, let us look at some example of this is trying to describe the entire
definitions. population of New York City in terms of a random
Statistics: A broad discipline that includes sample of people who were all randomly chosen
data analysis; it is concerned with methods for but happen to all live in the Bronx. The data would
collecting, organizing, summarizing, presenting, not accurately represent the entire population of
and analyzing data, as well as making valid the city.
conclusions about the characteristics of the Nonsampling error: Nonsampling error is the
sources from which the data were obtained. name given to inaccuracies and actual errors or
Sample: A portion of the population that is mistakes that can and should be avoided by using
studied to learn about the population..2 sound experimental techniques.2
Population: A collection of individual units When taking a random sample, it is important
(persons, objects, or experimental outcomes) to be sure that each sample is equally likely to be
whose characteristics are to be studied. 2 selected. When collecting a 10-unit random
Bias: A statistical bias is a systematic sample from a 1000-part lot, you cannot take all
tendency of a sample or method of analysis to give 10 samples off the same production unit, one after
estimates of population characteristics that are another. This is not a random sample; it can tell
either larger on the average (positive bias) or you only what is happening on that piece of
smaller on the average (negative bias) than the equipment at that time.
actual average of the characteristic being There are three common methods for selecting
estimated.2 a random sample:

22
®
 Math 2

• A drawing Sample space: The sample space of an

• A random number table experiment is the collection (or set) of all possible
outcomes of the experiment.2
• Commercial statistical software
So, an experiment is any time when one
A drawing is just what it sounds like. If the
collects data. The observed result of the
population is 20 units labeled in consecutive
experiment is the outcome. An event is when
order, and you wish to take a 3-unit sample, you
there are several outcomes that are considered
place the numbers 1 through 20 in a hat and pull
together. The sample space is every outcome that
out 3 numbers and then test those samples.
is possible from the experiment.
Many statistics books have random number
tables and instructions as to how to use the table to Random variable: A random variable is a rule
generate the random number list. When using this for assigning real numbers to the outcomes of an
method, you still assign numbers to your samples experiment.2
and then use the numbers given in the table. Quantitative data: How much or how many
Commercial software (e.g., Minitab) is a and are measured on a numerical scale.2 These are
convenient way to get a random number list. continuous data, meaning they can have decimals.
Computer software was used to generate five Examples would be temperature, length, strength,
random numbers from a list of 1 to 100 five times time, or number of defective parts in a lot.
(Table 1). As you can see from Table 1, there is no Qualitative data: Identify or name some
pattern in the random list. One important quality, category, or characteristic.2 Examples
consideration in using software to generate a would be some attribute on a scale of 1 to 10,
random number list is that the software will such as name, color, or credit card number.
generate a different random number list each time Although a numerical scale and credit card
it calculates the list and that no number is numbers are represented numerically, they do not
repeated in generating the list. The terminology is tell how much or how many.
“to sample without replacement.”
Here are some more important definitions.
A B C D E Statisticians distinguish between the population
mean and the sample mean. They do this by using
93 53 94 29 92
Greek letters for the population and Arabic letters
16 49 81 83 85 for a sample. The population mean is called µ
89 27 69 24 67 (mu) and its standard deviation is called σ
(sigma). A sample mean is X with an over bar or
88 40 43 44 63 X, and a sample standard deviation is s.
83 36 7 84 43 Sample mean: (X bar or X): The sample mean
Table 1. Five sets (A-E) of random numbers generated is a statistic that measures the central value of a
from a list of 1 to 100. sample set. A common word for the mean is the
Now, let us look at experiments and data average. For a sample, its mean is designated by X
types. Again, some definitions. or X bar (this is an X with an over bar). If there
are two bars over the top, or X , then it is X bar
Experiment: Any planned process by which
bar and it is an average of averages. There is a
observations are made and/or data are collected.2
computational difference between the population
Outcome: The outcome of an experiment is standard deviation and the sample standard
any possible result of the experiment.2 deviation. That difference is seen in the following
Event: One or more outcomes considered as a two definitions and equations. It is whether the
group.2 sum of the square of the differences between the

23
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

A B C D E Average ( X )

Sample #1 53.76 39.47 65.67 46.14 42.01

Sample #2 42.36 42.37 36.32 61.78 27.28

Sample #3 54.64 54.19 53.93 80.40 35.40

Sample #4 48.46 62.41 63.58 40.50 48.43

Sample #5 61.78 41.20 58.70 50.19 63.58

Average (X) 52.20 47.93 55.64 55.80 43.34 50.98

Standard deviation (s) 7.26 9.96 11.72 15.81 13.77 11.70

Table 2. Averages based on random numbers from Table 1.

individual X’s and the average or mean is divided with an average of 50 and a standard deviation of 10,
by n or 1-n. one would not get an average of 50 for each sample.
Sample standard deviation (s): This is a
Table 2 shows the results of a computer
statistic that measures the amount of variability
simulation. A column of 100 rows was filled with a
within a sample. It is computed using the
random number from a population with an average
following equation:
of 50 and standard deviation of 10 (µ = 50, σ =10).
1 n The five samples were selected based on the
------------ ∑ ( X i – X )
2
s =
n–1 random numbers in Table 1. As you can see, the
i=1
average (X) of the five samples ranges from 43.34
In this formula (and the one following), n refers to 55.80. The average of the averages is 50.98,
to how many data points are in the sample (if you which is closer to the true average of 50. This
measured 20 parts, n would be 20). Xi is the ith data concept of averages of averages being closer to the
point and X is the average value for X. The ∑ sign true population mean is called the central limit
is used to indicate that you add together all the theorem.
(Xi - X)2 terms from each data point.
Population standard deviation (σ): This is a To further illustrate the value of large samples,
statistic that measures the amount of variability the following two histograms, Figures 1 and 2,
within a population. It is defined by the following were prepared. The first is from the list of 100
equation: samples from a population with µ = 50, σ =10.
n The second histogram is from a list of 1000
1
∑ (Xi – X )
2
σ = --- samples. From these two histograms you can see
n that with only 100 samples the distribution does
n=1
Sample variance: The sample variance, s2, is not look normal, even though it is from a normal
the square of the sample standard deviation, s. population, and that with 1000 samples the
Sample median: X0.5 is the middle observation distribution looks more normal. This difference is
when the sample is ordered from smallest to what sampling error means.
largest. If the number of observations is even, then The most common method of displaying data
the median is the average of the two middle characteristics is to use a histogram. One
observations. disadvantage of a histogram is that it does not retain
Knowing these terms, let us go back to the idea the identity of the individual data. The other problem
of a random sample. If one were to take five with histograms is that they can look different
samples, as directed by Table 1, from a population depending on how they are constructed. The use of

24
®
 Math 2

1 and 2 with a new sample average and standard

deviation calculated for the 100 samples.
When looking at the histograms in Figures 3-
6 remember that these data come from a normal
population. Figures 3, 4, and 6 have the same
horizontal axis scale (40 - 60) so that you can get
a visual comparison among the three histograms.
On Figure 5, the horizontal axis ranges from 35 to
75, which makes a visual comparison of the wider
Figure 1. Histogram of 100 samples from a
population with µ = 50 and σ = 10. variation more difficult.
commercial statistical analysis programs, however,
has made this less of a problem.

Figure 3. Histogram of data set 2.

Figure 2. Histogram of 1000 samples from a popu-
lation with µ = 50 and σ = 10
Comparing Figures 3 and 4, we see the shift
in the average and the different appearance of the
As seen in Figures 1 and 2, histograms work histogram distribution that can occur when taking
better when there is a large amount of data. Let us only 50 samples from a normal population with
look at some different histograms and how to the same standard deviation. In Figure 6, we see
three peaks in the distribution, and we know that
interpret them. The histograms in Figures 3 to 6
this histogram is made up of two different
are made from the data sets in Table 3. A random
samples taken from two normal populations
sample of 50 data points was generated from the whose average or mean are three standard
population mean (µ or mu) and standard deviation deviations apart. Notice the nonnormal character
(SD, σ) listed in the table. Then, the actual sample of the distribution in Figure 6. Histograms are just
average (X) and standard deviation (s) were one of several ways to examine data and to
calculated. The fourth row is the sum of data sets understand their character.

Population Population No. of Sample Sample

Data set mean SD points average SD
(µ or mu) (σ) (n) (X) (s)

1 47 2 50 47.474 2.003

2 53 2 50 52.966 1.997

3 47 20 50 46.22 9.66

1&2 100 50.210 3.422

Table 3. X bar and s for 4 data sets.

25
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Radar charts
• Surface graphs
• Bubble graphs
Cumulative Relative Frequency Graphs
To answer questions such as “what percentage
of the data is below a given value?” it is better to
construct a cumulative relative frequency chart
than a histogram.
The definition of cumulative frequency is the
Figure 4. Histogram of data set 1. number of observation less than or equal to a given
number or class. The cumulative relative
frequency is the cumulative frequency divided by
the number of observation in the sample.2

Figure 5. Histogram of data set 3.

Figure 7. Cumulative Frequency Graph.

Using the data from Table 3, set 1 and 3

(Figure 6), the cumulative frequency graph in
Figure 7 was prepared using MiniTab ver. 13.3.
MiniTab does not have a default graph for
cumulative frequency. To get this graph the
following path was used: Graph> Histogram…>
Options…> Select Cumulative Frequency button
Figure 6. Histogram of data set 1 and 2. and select the number of intervals button; - entered
It is important, when working with data from 100 in the box. By selecting 100 as the intervals
experiments, to understand the best way to one sees the cumulative frequency in 1% steps.
represent those data so that you and others can Although this is not a true cumulative frequency
understand the meaning of the data. Often, this graph, it is a useful approximation. Figure 8 is the
involves simple graphical methods as described data used in preparing Figure 2 (µ = 50, n = 1000)
earlier. Other times, more exotic types of graphs and shows what a normal distribution would look
are used. What follow are descriptions and like in a cumulative relative frequency graph. As
examples of some specific types of graphical you can see, Figure 7 does not look normal. We
methods used in the representation of data: know that it is made up of two distributions whose
standard deviation is 2, and the average is three
• Cumulative relative frequency graphs standard deviations apart. The two end shapes of
• Donut charts Figure 7 are due to the different averages, and the

26
®
 Math 2

Figure 8. Cumulative frequency for Figure 2.

middle shape is from the overlap of the two

distributions. Figure 9. Donut chart of data in Table 4.

Donut Chart changeover or time spent in product changes, and

maintenance or time fixing the machines.
Donut charts are an interesting variation of
the pie chart. They allow one to plot the Shift Up Time Changeover Maintenance
categories of more than one series on the same 12-8 62 3 35
chart. One disadvantage is that donut charts can
get very busy and are hard to read, as can be seen 8-4 68 25 7
in Figure 9, which is a plot of the data in Table 4. 4-12 85 8 10
A second problem is the default color schemes
Table 5. Data for Figure 10.
that Excel uses.
The data are presented in Table 5 and graphed
X Axis Y1 Y2 in Figure 10. This chart can show differences
among the series such as high maintenance on the
1 10 6 12-8 shift and high changeover on the 8-4 shift. It
2 9 5 can also show where categories are similar, such
as up time between the 12-8 and 8-4 shifts.
3 8 4

4 7 2

5 6 2

6 5 4

7 4 5

8 3 6

Table 4. Data for Figure 9.

Donut charts can be very useful when

comparing a few categories from a few or several
series. Let us make up some production data for
three shifts. The shifts are the series. Within each
Figure 10. Donut chart of data in Table 5.
series, we have three categories: up time or
percent time spent in actual production,

27
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

twin-screw extruder characterization. On the

vertical axis is the dependent variable A, which is
the quality measure. The A-axis is the extruder
RPM (revolutions per minute) and the B-axis is
the extrusion rate. On the XY plane is a projection
of the 3D surface using contour lines. Figure 7
was prepared using Stat-Ease Design-Expert
software. Computer software can allow for
improving the viewing angle so one can better see
the response surface character. These graphs are
useful in interpreting results from a DOE or
statistically designed experiment.

Bubble Graph
Figure 11. Radar chart for data in Table 5.
Bubble graphs have the ability to display two
Radar Chart functions in a single data point. The data in Table
Again using the data in Table 5, a radar chart 6 are duplicated from Table 4 and were used to
was prepared using Excel. The data from Figure create Figure 8 with Excel. In this figure we see
11 are a bit busy as the lines cross. For displaying how the dependent variable Y1 is plotted versus
property data where one series is represented by the X-axis and that a second independent variable,
larger numbers than the other series, radar charts Y2, is plotted as the bubble area.
can be effective in showing the differences among
many categories. X-axis Y1 Y2
Surface Graph 1 10 6
Surface graphs are a good way to visualize the
2 9 5
effect of two independent variables on one
dependent variable. Figure 123 is a surface graph 3 8 4
or three-dimensional (3D) representation of a 4 7 2
quality measure from a simulated
5 6 2

6 5 4

7 4 5

8 3 6

Table 6. Data for Figure 13.

For example, if one were to plot the cost of an

action versus the resulting savings, the bubble could
represent the confidence level in the prediction, i.e.,
how sure one was of the outcome. So, if a small
amount of money looked as though it would
generate significant savings, but there was a low
Figure 12. Response surface and contour plot of a confidence level, the bubble would be small and
simulated quality measure vs RPM and Rate. hopefully make the decision easier to make.

28
®
 Math 2

An event is a set of elementary outcomes.

The sample space is the set or collection of all
the elementary outcomes.
We can combine events to make other events,
using logical operations. Logical operations use
the words AND, OR, and NOT.
A AND B is when the event A and the event B
both occur.
A OR B is when the event A or the event B
occurs.
NOT A is when the event A does not occur.
Figure 13. Bubble graph with bubble size as Mathematics is the language we use to talk
second variable.
about the probability definitions and these logical
operations. This language gives us some powerful
PROBABILITY MODEL formulas or rules for manipulating probabilities.
What follows is a description of how we use The following equations are basic to
experimental data to predict the likelihood of understanding probability models.
something happening based on what we know
Addition Rule
about the possible outcomes calculated from
previous sets of data. P (A.OR.B) = P(A) + P(B) - P(A.AND.B)
Probability model: A probability model is a set of
assumptions that leads to the assignment of This formula reads the probability of A or B is
probabilities to each outcome in the sample space. 2 equal to the probability of A plus the probability
of B minus the probability of A and B occurring
Probability of an outcome: The probability of
together. This rule is useful when you want to
an outcome is the long-term relative frequency with
know the probability of either of two different
which that outcome could be expected to occur if
categories occurring when they can sometimes
the experiment were repeated indefinitely.2
occur together.
It should be noted that true probabilities are
A visual Venn Diagra m

never known; they are either assumed or

representation of this 1

estimated. For example, the probability of a coin 0 .8

rule is shown in a Venn 0 .6

toss is assumed to be 50% heads and 50% tails. 0 .4

diagram (Figure 14).

And, if one were to toss multiple coins a large 0 .2

The box is the sample 0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

number of time, one would get approximately

space. The oval is the Figure 14. Venn Diagram
50% heads and 50% tails. The result or outcome
probability that the
of your experiment would be an estimate of the
event A exists in the sample space. The circle is
probability. The true probability could be
the probability that B exists in the sample space.
something different as a result of the geometry or
The fact that the two areas overlap means that A
imbalance of the individual coin.
and B are not mutually exclusive or they can exist
First, go back and review some basic together. From the Venn diagram, one gets a
definitions: visual representation of the addition formula,
A random event is the process of observing which says that to calculate the area enclosed by
the outcome of a chance event. both the oval and the circle one must subtract the
The elementary outcomes are all possible space where they overlap after adding the two
results of the random experiment. areas together.

29
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Special Addition Rule: A and B are Mutually multiplying the two individual probabilities
Exclusive together, or 1/6 × 1/6 = 1/36 , or on average, snake
eyes will occur in 1 in 36 rolls of a pair of dice.
P(A.OR.B) = P(A) + P(B)
Multiplication Rule
This formula reads Venn Dia gram
A and B mutually exclusive

the probability of A or 1
P(A.AND.B) = P(A|B)•P(B)
0.8

B is equal to the 0.6

0.4 This rule reads as the probability of A and B

probability of A plus 0.2
occurring together is equal to the probability of A
the probability of B. 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 .8 1

given B times the probability of B. In this rule, we

Figure 15 is a Venn Figure 15. Venn Diagram have the concept of conditional probability. The
diagram of this
vertical line between A and B is read as “given.”
condition. From this diagram one can see that it is
The formula for conditional probability is
not necessary to subtract the overlap when there is
no overlap. P(A.AND.B)
P(A|B) = -------------------------------
P( B)
Subtraction Rule
The conditional probability rule states the
P(A) = 1 - P(.NOT.A) probability of A given B is equal to the probability
of A and B together divided by the probability of
This formula reads the probability of A is B. Let us look at an example of throwing dice.
equal to 1.0 minus the probability of not being A.
For any one throw of a die, there is a 1 in 6
This is a very useful equation because sometimes
chance that any number will come up. For the roll
we have more information about what something
of two dice, there are 36 elementary outcomes, all
is not rather than what it is. This relationship is a
equally likely. The probability of each individual
result of the fact that probabilities must be
combination of die 1 and die 2 is calculated by the
between 0 and 1. Or, mathematically stated:
special multiplication rule. So, we multiply the
0 ≤ P( A) ≤ 1 odds of each die and get 1/6 times 1/6 , which is
equal to 1 in 36. If we look at a table of the
For example, if we know the probability of A possible outcomes of a roll of two dice, we have
and B and we want to know when A and B do not the following sample space:
occur, then we use the subtraction rule.
Die 1
Special Multiplication Rule
1 2 3 4 5 6
P(A.AND.B) = P(A)•P(B)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
The special multiplication rule is used when A
and B are independent. The rule or equation reads 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
the probability of A and B occurring together is
equal to the probability of A times the probability 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Die 2

of B. An example is in calculating the roll of dice.

4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A question to be answered is “What is the
probability of rolling snake eyes?” As there are six 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
sides on a cube, the probability of a single cube
landing with the 1 on showing is 1 in 6. The 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
probability of the second die showing a 1 is also 1
in 6. To calculate the probability of both dice Although the chance for each combination of
showing a 1 in a single roll is calculated by die 1 and die 2 is 1 in 36, there are multiple chances
to get the number combinations from 3 to 11. We

30
®
 Math 2

use the special addition rule to calculate the odds time for a person without the disease. What is your
on a dice throw for the individual points or sums of chance of actually having the disease if you are in
the two dice to be: this population and get a positive test result?
2 or 12 3 or 11 4 or 10 5 or 9 6 or 8 7 There are two events for this problem:
A. Person has the disease
1 in 36 1 in 18 1 in 12 1 in 9 5 in 36 1 in 6
B. Person tests positive
The odds of passing on the first throw are the In mathematical notation we write:
sum of rolling a 7 or 11, that is, 1 in 6 plus 1 in 18,
or 6 in 36 plus 2 in 36, which is equal to 8 in 36 or P(A) = 0.001 One person in 1000 has the disease
2 in 9. Probability of a positive test, when
P(B|A) = 0.99
To illustrate the use of conditional probability, infected is 0.99
suppose the dice are rolled one at a time. If a 1 Probability of a positive test, when
P(B|NOT A) = 0.02
shows on the first die, what are the odds of rolling healthy is 0.02
snake eyes with the second die roll? This is where
we use conditional probability. The formula is the and we want to know what is the P(A|B) or
probability of A and B divided by the probability the probability of having the disease (A) given (|)
of B. In numbers, it is 1/36 divided by 1/6 , which is that you test positive (B).
equal to 1/6 . We start by dividing the sample space into
 -----
1
- four mutually exclusive events. The following
P(A.AND.B)  36 1 table displays every possible combination of
------------------------------- = ----------- = ---
P( B)  1--- 6 disease state and test result.
 6
Having introduced the concept of conditional A NOT A
probability, it is important to state that although
B A and B NOT A and B
the symbols P(A|B) and P(B|A) look alike, they
are not the same. Consider a case of false NOT B A and NOT B NOT A and NOT B
positives. Suppose a there is a disease that infects
1 of every 1000 people in a population. And, The next step is to find the probabilities of
suppose there is a test for the disease that gives a each event in the table. The probabilities in the
positive result 99% of the time for a person with margins are found by adding across the rows and
the disease and gives a positive result 2% of the down the columns:

A NOT A Sum

B P(A .AND. B) P(NOT A .AND. B) P(B)

NOT B P(A .AND. NOT B) P(NOT A .AND. NOT B) P(NOT B)

P(A) P(NOT A) 1

Now we can use the multiplication rule to compute the following:

P(A .AND. B) = P(B|A) P(A) = (0.99)(0.001) = 0.00099

P(NOT A .AND. B) = P(B|NOT A) P(NOT A) = (0.02)(0.999) = 0.01998

31
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

With these calculations we can fill in the first row in the probability table.

A NOT A Sum

B 0.00099 0.01998 0.02097

NOT B P(A .AND. NOT B) P(NOT A .AND. NOT B) P(NOT B)

Sum 0.001 0.999 1

The next step is to find the remaining The value of understanding this medical
probabilities by subtracting in the columns to get example is that one can see how probability can
the NOT B row. Notice that the sum of the column help to make better decisions in the face of
sums and the sum of the row sums add to 1. The imperfect information and real risks.
filled-in table is as follows:
Disease No disease Sum
A NOT A Sum
Tests Positive 1 20 21
B 0.00099 0.01998 0.02097
Tests Negative 0 979 979
NOT B 0.00001 0.97902 0.97903
1 999 1000
Sum 0.001 0.999 1
STATISTICAL QUALITY
Now we can answer the original question, CONTROL METHODS
which is, if one tests positive what are the chances A successful statistical process control (SPC)
they actually have the disease? program depends on management leadership and a
team approach. All levels of employees need to be
We use the rule for calculating conditional
educated in the process. There needs to be an
probability and find that the probability of A
emphasis on continuous improvement, and program
(having the disease) given B (tested positive) is
successes must be recognized and communicated
P(A .AND. B) 0.00099 throughout the organization. This section goes into
P(A|B) = ---------------------------------- = ------------------- = 0.0475
P( B) 0.02097 the details of the SPC tools implemented to define
and watch a process during production.
Even though the test has a high probability
(0.99) of detecting someone with the disease, The intention here is to provide some insight
because of the 2% probability of a false positive, into the requirements of an appropriate and
less than 5% of those who test positive will effective SPC process. The objective is not to
actually have the disease. The following table teach the SPC setup process but rather to give
insight and knowledge that will help a user of an
shows the numbers if we examine the results from
existing SPC process to use it more appropriately
a population of 1000 people. The 20 false
and effectively.
positives come from the larger healthy group. If
P(NOT A .AND. B) (the probability of not having This section has two objectives:
the disease and testing positive) can be reduced to
• Describe the basic statistical process control
0.1%, then the number of false positives will drop
(SPC) problem-solving tools
to 1 from 20 and the probability of having the
disease when the test is positive rises to 50%. • Describe the interpretation of a control chart

32
®
 Math 2

STATISTICAL Interpreting Control Charts

PROCESS CONTROL Control charts help one distinguish between
P R O B L E M -S O L V I N G T O O L S the chance causes of variation that are an inherent
part of any process and the presence of assignable
Statistical process control is a powerful
causes which put the process out of control.
collection of problem-solving tools useful in
Chance causes come from the natural variability
achieving process stability and improving
or background noise that comes from the
capability through the reduction of variability.4
cumulative effect of many uncontrolled causes.
These process tools are sometimes called ‘the
Assignable causes usually arise from four
magnificent seven’:
sources:
• Histogram (or stem-and-leaf display) • Equipment
• Check sheet • Process conditions
• Pareto chart • Operator errors
• Cause-and-effect diagram • Raw material
• Defect concentration diagram Sometimes the equipment or process design is
• Scatter diagram such that a narrow operating window exists and,
to reduce the inherent variability, better
• Control chart equipment or a revised process is needed to
Histograms are used to gain an understanding reduce the natural variation.
or characterize the data as a picture, showing how The basic control chart is the X and R chart.
many data points have a specific value. The data for Figure 16 are from a commercial
A check sheet is created in the early stages of software tutorial example on X and R charts.
an SPC implementation. The check sheet The numbers on the X line refer to tests for
summarizes either historical or current operating special causes. These special cause tests are based
data about the process under investigation. on the work of Dr. Walter S. Shewhart of the Bell
The Pareto chart helps one to focus on the Telephone Laboratories in the 1920s.
significant few rather than the trivial many. Using
the 80/20 rule, that 80% of the cost of defects is
represented by 20% of the defects, allows one to
focus on the most important problems.
The cause-and-effect diagram is a useful tool
in deciding what corrective action to take when a
problem has been identified.
Defect concentration diagrams are important
problem-solving tools in that they show the defect
patterns and location, thus helping to identify the
Figure 16. X and R chart from MinTab.
defect cause.
Scatter diagrams are used to identify potential The software states that these rules are as
relationships between two variables. follows:
Control charts are used to determine when a 1. One point more than 3 sigmas from
process is or is not in control. center line

33
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

2. Nine points in a row on same side of used to increase the sensitivity of the control
center line charts so that we can detect small process changes
3. Six points in a row, all increasing or all and respond quickly. The disadvantage of adding
decreasing more rules is that we increase the probability for a
false alarm; this is where a signal is generated that
4. Fourteen points in a row, alternating up and the process is out of control when it is really in
down control. This type of error is called a type I error,
5. Two of three points more than 2 sigmas or alpha error. In a type II error or beta error, there
from center line (same side) is no signal to indicate whether the process is out
of control or the process is really out of control.
6. Four of five points more than 1 sigma from
center line (same side) When several sensitizing rules are used
together it is usually a good idea to have a
7. Fifteen points in a row within 1 sigma of
graduated response to an out-of-control signal.
center line (either side)
When an out-of-control signal is detected, then
8. Eight points in a row more than 1 sigma one starts an investigation to find the assignable
from center line (either side) cause and correct it using the available tools.
Rules 1, 5, 6, and 8 are the ‘Western Electric When a successful SPC program exists it is the
Rules.’ For a better understanding of these rules result of management’s commitment and
consult Nelson5 who discusses these rules in more leadership in implementing a team approach. All
detail. levels of employees are educated in the process,
The basic rule for a control chart is rule 1, and there is an emphasis on continuous
where one or more points are outside the 3 sigma improvement. The successes are recognized and
control limits. The supplementary criteria can be communicated throughout the organization.

REFERENCES
1. Freund J. E. and Simon G.A. Modern Elementary Statistics, 8th Ed. P. 170. Prentice-Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ. (1992)
2. Iman R. L. “A Data-Based Approach to Statistics,” Duxbury Press, Belmont, CA (1994)
3. Vlachopoulos J. and Wagner J. R., Jr. eds. The SPE Guide on Extrusion Technology and Troubleshooting,
Society of Plastics Engineers, Brookfield, CT (2001)
4. Montgomery D. C. Introduction to Statistical Quality Control, 3rd ed, p. 130. Wiley, NY (1997)
5. Nelson L. S. The Shewhart Control Chart – Tests for Special Causes, J. of Quality Technology, Vol. 16:
number 4, p. 238. (1984)

34
®
PROBLEM-SOLVING
SKILLS
ROBERT SPEIRS

ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS cause. In the plastics manufacturing environment,

causes can be broken down into six major
Because of the complexity of the machine- categories:
tool-material-design interaction that exists when
manufacturing a plastics part, many challenges 1. Process/machine
which arise in the manufacturing environment are • Is the machine capable?
solved for the near term but often are not
corrected for the long term. How many times has • Is the machine repeatable
a problem arisen where a corrective action took
• Is the machine in “good” repair?
place and resolved the situation only to have the
problem rear its ugly head at a future time? This is • Is the machine/tool sized correctly?
often attributed to not identifying the root cause
of the problem. The root cause can be described
• Have the machine parameters been
established in the center of the operating
as a verified reason for the problem. When this
window?
cause or causes are resolved or eliminated, the
problem will no longer exist. 2. Plastics materials
It requires a lot of patience to get past the • Is the plastic reliable and consistent
need for immediate correction and analyze in (batch-to-batch consistency)?
more depth to identify the appropriate corrective
exercise. A simple analogy often clarifies this
• Is the plastic recipe capable of
maintaining a homogenous blend?
concept. If one had a headache and took aspirin to
relieve the pain, a cause-and-effect experience • Is the plastic the correct material for the
would conclude “take aspirin for a headache.” If application?
the root cause of the headache is repeated impact
with a hammer, wouldn’t it be more prudent to • Is the plastic the correct viscosity for
stop getting hit with the hammer? moldability of the part geometry?
• Has the plastic been compromised
SOURCES OF PROBLEMS (contaminated) before use?
It is often easier to divide a problem into • Has the plastic been stored and handled
segments and analyze each segment as the root (dried) correctly?

35
Society of Plastics Engineers

3. Mold/tool design THINK IN TERMS OF THE

• Has the mold been maintained well and “P L A S T I C S E X P E R I E N C E ”
frequently? An alternative method of finding the root cause
• Has the mold been stored and protected is to think in terms of the plastic experience (how
correctly? the process is affecting the plastic) and not in terms
• Can the tool repeatedly manufacture an of machine process settings. There have been many
acceptable part? occasions where, in a plant, the discussions revolve
around the machine settings and not the plastic
• Is all the auxiliary equipment capable of
variables (what the plastic is experiencing).
repeating consistently without
Consider as an illustration the phrase “heating” the
compromising the part?
mold to 40°C. If 200°C plastic is being placed into
• Is the mold process capable? (balanced a 40°C mold, the plastic is cooling, not “heating.”
fill, correctly gated, adequately vented,
Another perspective may be to think about the
balanced cooling, even ejection,
forced-air heat in your home. Do you know the
adequate part release, appropriate
temperature of the air exiting the furnace? Do you
surface finish, appropriate shrink rate
care? Or is it more important that you enjoy your
for correct dimensions on the part if
23°C room? Do we care about where the machine
processed correctly)
parameters are set (like the heat exiting the
4. Product design furnace) or the plastics experience? Certainly the
• Is the part capable of being made out of resulting plastic experience is far more important
plastics? than the machine settings! Are they related? Of
• Is the part designed for plastics? course, but which should we understand better?
• Have factors such as creep, fatigue, and So, think in terms of the plastics. Ask yourself
time been accounted for? the following questions:
5. Management philosophies 1. Has the viscosity of the plastic changed?
• Has there been a change in workflow in a. Process temperature
the facility?
b. Different batch of polymer
• Have job responsibilities been modified?
c. Change in the plastics preparation in the
• Has there been employee unrest (i.e., process for the machine
union contract, injured associate)?
• Have “cost-saving” measures been d. Addition of additives such as regrind,
implemented in the production facility? lubricants, colorants

6. Working environment 2. Has the pressure the plastic experienced

been changed?
• Has the plant temperature changed?
• Has the storage environment temperature a. Polymer viscosity shifts
changed? b. Change in time to peak pressure due to
• Has the product been abused in machine (hydraulics)
application? c. Lag in pressure application
• Has exposure to chemicals and solvents 3. Has the shear stress (rate) experience
changed (including plant cleaners)?
changed?
• Has the relative humidity changed in the
manufacturing plant or the application a. Rate of plastic movement
environment? b. “System” temperature

36
®
 Problem-Solving Skills

c. Polymer flow channel changed size (due sudden changes in dimension are normally
to wear or repair) associated with gross changes in process settings
or a material lot change. In addition, referencing
4. Has the thermal (cooling rate) experience
original quality acceptance documents can
changed?
determine if the dimension in question moved
a. Tool/mold temperature significantly or subtly, which will offer an
indication of the “change” that occurred.
b. Temperature exposure time
Process setup sheets are another valuable tool in
c. “Postprocess” thermal experience root cause analysis. It is very important that reliable
process parameters be defined when initially starting
d. Water bath temperature
up a new process. All too often, process setters
“wing it,” based on previous experience. The result
C O N T R O L L I N G /A V O I D I N G is a process that is not in the center of the process
PROBLEMS window. Any process drift that could occur in the
Documentation future could cause the product to move out of
specification. It is extremely important that “plastics
There is a perception in manufacturing that
variables” be defined as part of the process sheet. At
the “paperwork” is counterproductive. This idea
the minimum, the plastics viscosity (melt
of course, is incorrect. Many companies have
temperature), plastics pressure history (cavity or
implemented rigorous documentation systems
(e.g., International Organization for head pressure as a function of time), shear rate (rate
Standardization (ISO) or Quality Systems (QS) of molecular flow rate though the die or into the
certification) with great success. Results include mold), and the cooling rate that the plastics part
reduced reject rates, more accurate product, and, experiences (product temperature/mold temperature
most importantly, quicker problem diagnosis and and room temperature as a function of time) must all
resolution. The challenge is to overcome the early be defined.
growing pains and realize the long-term positive
All too often, in the plant the process setters
impact that diligent documentation has on an
are “too good” to review the setup sheet for each
operation. Once embraced by an operation, the
rewards are endless. Diligent documentation is process, preferring to prove their worth by setting
required for quality control, process control, and each process from “scratch.” Although the
raw materials/product handling. process is capable of manufacturing an acceptable
product, the product is different then the
Quality control documents, with particular originally “qualified” parts. This approach could
focus on product control, are essential and are lead to disaster when the product is put in
rarely used to their maximum advantage. If application and fails, sometime in the future,
control documents are kept up to date, they can be
based on the “different” parameters.
excellent problem-solving tools. As an example,
if a product has been manufactured successfully It is suggested that a simple design of
for years and suddenly goes “out” of experiment be developed to consistently define
specification, the troubleshooter can reference process parameters and plastics variables. See the
past quality inspection sheets to determine if the Design of Experiments (DOE) chapter.
product “drifted” or “jumped” out of
specification; this will indicate if a subtle or a Preventive maintenance (PM) is critical
sudden change has occurred. “Drift” is often toward preventing manufacturing problems. PM
associated with wear and machine failure whereas is defined as a system of prevention activities that

37
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Source: http://www.sytsma/tqmtools/cause.html

maintains the machine’s proper operating involved) as possible. In addition, the facilitator
condition. The majority of these activities take should record all comments with an open mind
very little time and normally can be preformed by and prevent all members from disregarding any
the operator. A simple direction sheet describing suggestions.
and pictorially demonstrating the steps to perform
a simple PM procedure should be developed and Once an extensive list has been developed,
the operator or support personnel be trained to unrealistic or extremely unlikely potential causes
perform the function regularly. should be eliminated. Remember all the experts
should openly discuss each cause before it is
P R O B L E M -S O L V I N G T O O L S eliminated from the list. The list of eliminated
Brainstorming is an often-overlooked option causes should not be discarded but kept for future
when attempting to identify the root cause of a reference. When a “realistic” list has been
problem. The group assembled to brainstorm will developed, the potential causes should be grouped
being fresh ideas and perhaps not be caught up in by source. It is suggested that they be grouped into
the details of the problem. To have a productive the six “sources of problems” discussed earlier in
brainstorming meeting, it is important to assemble a this chapter. It becomes beneficial to take this
team of “experts,” some of whom are not directly information and develop a modified “fishbone
involved with the challenge. These experts should (cause-and-effect) diagram.” This diagram allows
each be confident enough to express their opinion. one to observe the problem in an orderly fashion and
Do not assemble too large a group—productivity is summarize the potential root causes. The illustration
inhibited as a group becomes larger. above is a simple cause-and-effect diagram
reviewing why a phone has not been answered.
Managing a brainstorming meeting is not a
difficult challenge but the facilitator must Once the root causes have been reduced to a
remember to allow every one equal time. All manageable number, a Pareto analysis may be
opinions are welcome, and no committee member developed to identify the most probable root
should be intimidated. The facilitator should work cause. A Pareto chart is used to focus on the most
hard at obtaining as many opinions (from all likely root cause, prioritize activity, and analyze

38
®
 Problem-Solving Skills

groups of data. A Pareto chart is simply a answer cannot be identified. During this
“prioritized” histogram; a bar graph is generated step, many of the previously described
from highest occurrence to lowest occurrence. In “problem-solving tools” should be used.
the example below we can observe six reject
3. Contain the symptom. During this step, the
occurrences. A Pareto chart allows us to observe
decision must be made to retain problem
the most frequent (important) issue that will be
goods, 100% inspect, or discard problem
the highest priority to resolve.
goods. This decision should occur immedi-
Scatter diagrams are another useful tool ately and be communicated to the cus-
problem evaluation. A scatter diagram validates tomer. Three essential steps must be
“hunches,” displays a directional relationship achieved :
(positive or negative), and displays the strength of
a relationship. For further information on
• Implement 100% inspection.
graphing tools/techniques, see the chapter on • Identify compromised and contain
Charts and Graphs. shipments.
8D problem solving is a tool that provokes • Confirm effectiveness to customer. It is
problem resolution planning. This tool extremely important that all containment
encourages an eight-step process to manage and activities are verified and validated.
resolve the problem.
4. Find and verify the root cause. During this
1. Develop a team. Assemble a cross-func- step, three additional questions must be
tional team with a strong leader/facilitator continually asked until an answer can not
to address the identified problem. Be sure be derived.
all areas are represented, not just the tech-
nical areas. Also make sure the team has
• Why did the problem occur?
the power and financial resources to imple- • Why didn’t normal quality measures
ment their corrective action(s). identify the variation before it became a
problem?
2. Describe the problem. During this step the
team collects and organizes all relevant • What changed? What is different than
information to provide a common under- before? Select corrective action(s) and
standing. A focused problem statement, verify. Based on the determination of the
which moves the problem from its “symp- root cause analysis, alternative actions are
toms” to the real problem, should be devel- generated. If an accurate analysis has
oped; this can be achieved by using the been done and implemented, however,
“five whys?” (ask why five times or until action should completely eliminate the
you cannot answer). This test suggests that root cause of the problem. Once action is
“why” be continually asked until an implemented, the problem will not occur
Reject occurence
30
Frequency

20
10
0
r
s
ts

irt
y
h

lo
rn
la
or
as

co
Sp

Bu
Sh
Fl

is
D

Flaw

39
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

again. It is important during this step not directs the corrector to the highest priority
to confuse activity with results, strong corrective action.
decision making skills need to be applied. The advantage of an FMEA during the early
The risk of each corrective action must be planning stages of a process/product development
evaluated to select the least painful action. is obvious. If the experts developing the FMEA
5. Select corrective action(s) and verify. observe a weak step that has a high degree of
Based on the determination of the root certainty to failure, the process or product can be
cause analysis alternative actions are gener- modified or redesigned to reduce or eliminate the
ated. But if an accurate analysis has been identified weakness. Unfortunately, all too often
done and implemented action should com- FMEAs are “boilerplated” to a standard and
pletely eliminate the root cause of the prob- specifics are not addressed.
lem. Once implemented the problem will
not occur again. It is important during this SECRET OF SUCCESS
step not confuse activity with results, Patience
strong decision making skills need to be Someone once said, “patience is a virtue.”
applied. The risk of each corrective action When trying to solve problems, it is always
must be evaluated to select the least painful prudent to allow yourself enough time to identify
of the options. the “root cause.” Often when a challenge arises a
6. Implement and validate corrective actions. knee-jerk response ensues without considering the
Once the “best” corrective action is agreed root cause. Taking a deep, cleansing breath and
upon, it must immediately be implemented. considering all the options will result in a more
Once implemented, the corrective action appropriate corrective action. This is particularly
must be validated with an extensive testing true when seemingly simple process problems
and evaluation program. Most production arise: the process engineer adjusts a parameter,
runs require a minimum of 30 days of rig- which seems to temporarily resolve the problem,
orous analysis. only to have the problem, return in the future.
7. Prevent system problems. Review the prob- Problem Planning
lem statement and identify all production It is necessary to have a plan to resolve a
or management systems that allowed the problem. More times than not, problems are
problem to occur. Address and resolve sys- resolved with a shotgun approach: changing many
tem shortcomings to avoid a similar prob- things in no particular order and hoping something
lem from happening in the future. will correct the problem. If a plan were developed
8. Congratulate the team. to attack the problem systematically, the corrective
action could be documented for future reference
Another tool in root cause assessment is
and the root cause could be identified. In industry,
FMEA, Failure Modes Effects Analysis,
often it is major, multimillion dollar problems that
sometimes referred to as DFMEA (Design) and
are planned and managed. If the less significant
PFMEA (Process). FMEAs are simply defining
problems were managed with the same attention to
the potential product or process failure and their
detail, there certainly would be fewer recurring
potential causes before they occur, assigning a
problems.
suspected potential (frequency), and having a
corrective action plan in place before the problem Documentation
occurs. This technique of course, is a great tool as Once a plan has been established, it is very
it relieves a lot of the frantic stress during a important to document all the changes and their
problem resolution because the problem corrector effects on the problem. Major process problems
has a “blueprint” to follow. In addition, an FMEA frequently require days to resolve; during this time

40
®
 Problem-Solving Skills

many different people are involved in filled plastics), the mixing challenges tend to
“troubleshooting” the problem. Of course, a lot of provoke more “drift” in the supplied materials.
repetition ensues. Most of the people have been
“trained” by the same person, which results in The second source of inconsistent raw
similar corrections being attempted. If everyone materials is caused by operations within the
involved documents their efforts in a central consuming plant. These problems are often a
repository, repetition can be significantly reduced. result of mixing procedures in the facility.
Technicians must be able to do this within the Regrind is a necessary evil in plastics
company guidelines. manufacturing. When mixed with the virgin
materials, it can be a root cause of your problem.
Equipment Maintenance How consistent is the particle size of your pellet?
Often the staff that perform the troubleshooting Variations in particle size will result in different
exercise is not equipped to assess the equipment’s thermomechanical experiences in the process that
operational capability. In fact, many assume the could potentially “shift” plastic viscosity or
equipment is operating acceptably. This change the melting characteristics. In fact, at most
assumption could delay finding the root cause. It is major plastics manufacturers, after the pelletizing
necessary to develop an aggressive “preventive operation the pellets are screened to eliminate
maintenance” program for all equipment. If the “fines” (residual powder), which can cause many
equipment is in good working order, this step problems when processed. Changing a granulator
eliminates a major source of problems. When was screen can result in differences in output from a
the hydraulic fluid last changed? When was the last granulator: this perhaps may even solve a problem
time you measured your screw and barrel for wear? with fines, but result in longs, pieces that may
Have all the electrical connections been tightened become lodged in the feed throat. How clean is
and inspected? the grinding equipment? Often materials are
ground without diligent cleaning of the grinders.
Reliable Raw Material
The residual flake from the previous materials can
One of the largest challenges in plastics act as a contaminant for the subsequent materials.
manufacturing today is having reliable, consistent In addition, one must recognize that mixed
raw materials. Challenges with raw materials colorants (solid or liquid) at the machine are also
arise from two sources: supplier consistency and contaminants and that precise mixing procedures
operations within the consuming plant. should be implemented and followed.
Plastics suppliers work very hard and have Controlled Working Environment
many quality systems in place to assure the raw
materials shipped are consistent, within published Plastics fabricators frequently do not
limits. A technician should know what these recognize the sensitivity of the plastics to their
limits are. If they are too wide, they may cause environment. Temperature, moisture (humidity),
processing problems even though the supplier has dirt, and airborne chemicals can all cause
shipped “acceptable” product. The supplier and problems. If the plastic is stored in an
customer should be urged to focus on minimizing uncontrolled temperature environment, the
the variability of the incoming raw material. polymer will have varying levels of stored
These manufacturers also may experience thermal energy; this will increase (or decrease)
mistakes in their manufacturing facilities. the energy required to “melt” the polymer in the
Incorrectly labeled materials or those with process, potentially affecting its viscosity. Once
inadvertent contamination can be shipped. In the plastic part has been made, the storage
addition, when using compounded materials temperature the part(s) experience will affect its
(precolored plastics, plastics blends, reinforced or “cooling rate” and resultant size (dimensions).

41
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Many plastics absorb moisture. When the from the screw and barrel or the automated pellet
humidity is high, the moisture content in the feed system.
plastic increases and more drying is required. If Exposure to chemicals can also be a problem
the moisture level in the polymer is not reduced in the manufacturing plant. Cleaning solutions,
adequately, the moisture will often chemically mold release, air fresheners, and mold greases and
attack the plastic, reducing strength and stiffness. oils can all affect the end product quality. It is not
At the minimum, excessive moisture results in uncommon for a mold release or a mold lubricant
unsightly surface flaws often referred to as that works well for one plastic to have a negative
“splay.” It is very important that we never assume effect on a second. Even mold surface cleaners,
the plastic is dry; we must test to assure we are at which are seemingly wiped away from the mold
the minimum moisture content for the plastics surface, can cause problems for the end product.
being used. The cost associated with determining
the plastic is “wet” at the fabrication process is CONCLUSION
large; the equipment often cannot have another • Think about the plastics experience (in the
material scheduled in the process so the equipment processing environment).
must wait until the materials are dried.
Dirt is another culprit that often is the root
• Have a strong, frequently updated
documentation system
cause of plastic problems. At the bare minimum,
dirt will result in “black specks” (black particulate • Have a planned maintenance program (PM)
embedded/suspended in the plastics matrix) and and the appropriate funding to support it.
cause a visual reject. Also, any particulate • Identify the root cause of the problem and
suspended in the plastics is considered a “stress correct it.
concentrator” and can be a nucleation point. Stress
concentrators act as a focal point for failure, • Identify the root cause and implement
focusing stress applied to the part to a small area, changes to avoid future problems.
concentrating the stress and initiating cracking. • Remember corrective action for one plastic
No dirt or “nonplastics” should be allowed in the may not be appropriate for different plastics.
plastics under any circumstances. Sources of dirt
contamination can be paper or cardboard, dirt • Be aware of all factors that can affect output
from the plant floor, dirt from the rafters, plastics and identify those that may have changed,
that were not cleaned from the process, pens or thus causing a problem.
pencils dropped in the pellets, decomposed • Use these tools properly and solve the
plastics in the fabrication process, and metal chips problem on your first attempt!

42
®
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
HAROLD F. GILES, JR.

Editors’ notes: Designing experiments can haphazard sequence. When the output is studied,
be overly simplified or overly complicated. One some evaluation criteria are put into a computer,
aptitude that can make a technician excel is the and then you know more about your process;
ability to start up a process and keep it at optimum hopefully, what is required to obtain the optimal
levels of productivity. Even the term “optimum output. Before computers, people actually
level of productivity” can be interpreted in several attempted these calculations sitting at a desk,
ways. For one person it may mean maximum trying to develop correlations between variables
output; for the next, maximum quality. Can a by “guessing” at mathematical formulas until one
technician ever expect to achieve both? could be found that could reasonably accurately
In chemistry class, the usual “experiment” predict the outcome. Now it takes a lot less time,
was something like, “What happens when you but the calculations amount to a “black box” that
combine baking soda with vinegar?,” a specific spits out an answer: then, we use the information.
instruction with a predictable outcome. If plastics
processing were that easy, we would not even Recently, many designed experiments have
need to read this chapter. been written about in plastic processing
The technician is faced with countless magazines and technical journals. Too often they
parameters that interact with each other. Adjusting adopt the “Taguchi method,” which attempts to
one factor may produce unexpected outcomes answer questions with fewer experiments. Briefly,
unless every aspect of the process is understood. the strong point of Taguchi experiments is the
More than likely, experiments will be used when ability to include a large number of variables and
problems are encountered; then the difference in look at many simultaneously. Experienced
output can be measured, and success or failure technicians and engineers can probably eliminate
can be determined. a lot of variables and spend the time to do full-
Please read this chapter more than once. What blown experimental designs, including only the
we think will happen is that first you will get the important ones. With fewer variables, the number
impression that we are trying to make a simple of experiments can be reduced. We also
concept difficult. What we are attempting to recommend the procedures included because they
explain is what happens when a process engineer should provide more insight into interactions
comes down to the shop floor with what appears between variables. These factors are typically
to be a long list of things to be changed in a most interactive. Taguchi experiments are based on the

43
Society of Plastics Engineers

same principles as the factorial experiments are very costly and tend to be 90% error and 10%
presented. trial. There are many reasons for this inefficiency:
Please remember, solving problems as a team lack of planning, improper process control, and
usually leads to a better, if not faster, solution. insufficient equilibration of processing conditions.
Designed experiments are a more powerful tool if So, what is the method of design of
a less experienced person can join with an experiments? As stated, it is a systematic approach
experienced person to accomplish the task. taken to fully understand a process or product and
any interactions that may be present. The DOE
INTRODUCTION process is used in planning to define the
Design of experiments, or DOE, has been one experimental parameters, generate the data, and
of the buzzwords in the 1990s in plastic apply statistical methods to analyze the data. It
manufacturing. But, what is it? It is an excellent gives an understanding of the process and allows
method of planning and performing experiments you to predict what would happen under
with the goal of both understanding plastic conditions not actually studied.
processing and optimizing plastic product The “W” questions surrounding DOE are what
development. However, if you ask various people is DOE?…why use DOE?…when is it appropriate
what DOE is, the answers vary dramatically. Some to use DOE?…where is DOE used? Let’s answer
say it means that when running an experiment you these one at a time.
only change one variable at a time, while others
What is DOE? It is a scientific tool to develop
say that you change many variables at the same
new products or processes properly the first time
time. It is, however, a systematic approach taken
or enhance existing products or processes.
to fully understand a process or product and any
interactions that may be present. Why use DOE? Design of experiments is
used to obtain the maximum amount of
What approaches are used in your facility to
information with the minimal amount of
troubleshoot processes, solve problems,
experiments and time. This is accomplished by
understand plastic processing or product behavior,
identifying significant and insignificant
or develop new processes and products? Some
experimental factors or variables and interactions
common experimental approaches:
for any product or process. Plastics processing
• Gut feel typically has lots of variables.
• Seat-of-the pants approach When is it appropriate to use DOE? DOE is
used to solve technical or plant problems where
• Trial and error
more than one control variable or factor is present.
• Shot in the dark In these cases the need exists to fully understand the
• Systematic approach effect of each control variable or the interactions of
control variables on a process or product.
Gut feel plays an important role in developing
an approach to solving a problem as it is based on Where should a DOE be used? In your
past experiences, observations, and knowledge operation! DOE is used to save your company
associated with a given process or product. It gives time and money by providing a more complete
insight into the direction to take when solving a understanding of the problem and the solutions
problem. However, once a direction is established while responding in a rapid and efficient manner.
a systematic approach is the best way to determine Have you ever heard this statement associated
what to do next. Unfortunately, once there is an with your business: “There is never time to do it
issue in the plant most people want an immediate right but always time to do it over”? This is
answer and tend to use the seat-of-the pants, trial- particularly true when dealing with DOE; people
and-error, or shot-in-the-dark approaches. These often think they can solve problems or create a

44
®
 Design of Experiments

process without using a DOE. Frequently, though, • Fixing unstable processes

they end up doing additional work (or running a
• Addressing high reject rates/quality failures
DOE later) to thoroughly figure out what they
should have been doing all along! Not only does • Identifying and fixing the reasons behind
the use of DOE make your company more high customer complaints from either
profitable, it makes the people who know how to performance or consistency problems
use it and interpret the results more valued • Defining the ideal operating window for a
employees. process
T H E DOE P R O C E S S • Obtaining a better understanding of the
The five steps in a DOE process are: current product or processing window to
optimize the process robustness
1. Define the problem
Designing the Experiment
2. Design the experiment
After the problem is defined, the second step
3. Run the experiments and collect the data
in the DOE process is to develop a plan. Unlike
4. Analyze the data using statistics processes that change only one thing (a process
5. Summarize and report the results parameter, a material, etc.) at a time, when using a
DOE many things are changed at the same time.
It is necessary to go through each of these
This may seem haphazard, but it is not. Using this
steps with as much attention to detail as
method correctly gives specific information that is
possible—as with many things, the better the
used to predict what will happen under certain
quality of the input the more valuable the output!
sets of conditions that were not specifically tested.
(Another way to say this is garbage in equals
garbage out!) Independent Variables
Defining the Problem The first step in creating the plan is to
The first step in completing a successful DOE determine the independent variables or factors
is to properly define the problem or project. A associated with the process or product. The
problem in the plastics industry can fall into a independent variables or factors are the
wide range of issues depending on your business parameters that you control or change during the
and work functions within that business. experiment. These changes can be made to
happen by changing settings on equipment or can
This step may seem obvious; however, in sometimes be qualitative: on or off, high or low,
practice this can be quite difficult. In your yes or no.
company, if you ask a roomful of people to
determine what a given problem is, exactly, do Table 1 gives some examples of independent
you think they would all come up with the same variables for extrusion, compression molding,
answer? Typically, there are many different views blow molding, and injection molding.
and opinions ranging from “we already know the Before designing the experiment, you must
answer—we don’t need to work on this” to “we identify all the independent variables that are
need to run full-scale experimentation—drop important. You also have to determine how you
everything else!” It is essential to have a clear, are going to change and control each of these
concise problem statement along with the details variables during the experiment. Some
defining the problem. Combining this with a independent variables, the ones that are not of
brainstormed list of some potential causes leads interest to the problem, remain fixed and are not
the process to the next step, designing the changed during the experimentation. Before
experiment. Some examples of projects that can beginning the experiments, you have to decide
be addressed with DOE are these: how to hold these variables constant. This is as

45
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Injection molding Compression molding Blow molding Extrusion

Barrel temperatures Preheat temperature Barrel temperatures Screw speed
Nozzle temperature Mold temperature Screw speed Barrel temperatures
Injection rate Press speed Hydraulic pressure Adapter temperature
Injection pressure Press force Blow pressure Die temperature
Boost pressure Cool time in tool Timer settings Feed rate (starve fed)
Boost time Charge replacement Heat profile Pulloff speed
Boost position Transfer time Stripper delay Takeoff temperatures
Hold time Melt viscosity Material composition
Hold pressure Melt strength
Screw speed Mold temperature
Mold temperature Adapter temperature
Backpressure Screen pack
Material Vacuum level
Table 1. Examples of independent variables in different plastic processes.
critical as figuring out what variables you are results are for the dependent variables the better
going to change and how you are going to change you will understand how the independent
them! Many an experiment has been ruined variables affect the dependent variables. As an
because the lot of resin changed midstream or the example, if you are making a product in which the
samples were run on different machines. Here is a surface texture is an important property but the
checklist that can help define your experiment. test method used to describe surface texture is a
• Identify all independent variables associated pass/fail, you have only two possible outcomes.
with your process These data will not sufficiently distinguish the
differences between the range of textures that
• Define the factors to be fixed occur in the experiment so it is not enough
• Determine the factors to be varied information to generate good DOE input data. A
better approach is to develop a semiquantitative
• Define the maximum and minimum limits method of rating textures from 1 to 10. Numerous
for each factor being varied
samples from each step of the experiment can be
• Determine the number of experimental judged by a group of people and subjectively
points for each factor varied ranked. These rankings are then averaged to give a
Dependent Variables quantitative description of textures showing how
Dependent variables or factors are what is the samples responded to changes in the
measured when an independent variable is independent variables.
changed. Examples of dependent variables are The reproducibility or precision of the values,
physical properties, surface characteristics, based on measurements of the dependent
dimensional stability or reproducibility, color, and variables, has to be understood before you can use
variation between samples. Typical dependent this information in your decision making. Why is
variables measured for physical properties are this? Every time a measurement is made on a
tensile or flexural properties, impact, heat sample, there is error. The errors arise from the
deflection temperature, creep, fatigue, operator, the measuring equipment, and the
flammability, hardness, etc. In any experimental method itself. This error, which occurs randomly
design, the more quantitative the measurement during a set of measurements, is often reported as

46
®
 Design of Experiments

a standard deviation and needs to be fully and process 2 randomized before going in the
understood. Once it is, you have enough oven. This time the two processes produce
information to decide if the differences you are samples that behave the same.
seeing between two sets of samples are real or just
Why? In this example, it was discovered that
caused by the experimental error.
the power input into the oven is higher on Saturday
In setting up the experimental design, you because there are fewer machines running in the
must answer the following questions before plant. Therefore, on Saturday the oven is actually
starting the testing: hotter. Consequently, the study without
• How many experimental measurements are randomization may have shown that process 2 was
necessary for each response to obtain a different than process 1. In actuality, if some
representative value? A tensile samples from process 1 and process 2 were run on
measurement may require 5 samples while each day, the results would have shown that there is
a subjective test of surface quality may no difference in the process producing the two
require comparison of 20 samples at a materials. Randomization is required to average
given experimental point or set of out any effects from fixed independent variables!
independent variables. The experimental design or layout is a
• How large does the difference in response complete list of all experimental trials and tests
values have to be to ensure one variable is including the different levels of each variable,
different from another or to prove an effect duplicate tests to determine random error, and
is present? Repeat or multiple points within randomization of the experimental order. The
the experimental matrix are required to experimental design defines the experimental
identify the magnitude of the unexplained space and maximum and minimum limits for each
experimental error. independent variable. Consequently, it is
important during the experimental design stage to
• How much variation is present in the data? make sure that the experimental space is large
How to Account for Uncontrollable and enough to predict responses at all points of
Unidentifiable Variables interest. A general rule of thumb is to make the
Finally, in setting up the experiments the design space as large as practical.
individual test runs must be performed in a Data Collection
random order to average out any effects from the
The third step in the DOE process is to go to
variables that cannot be controlled; this helps
the laboratory or the shop floor and run the
eliminate the interpretation of errors in the system
experiments you defined earlier. Before
as significant results. An example of the
beginning, however, all equipment must be
importance of randomizing samples is given next.
running at maximum efficiency. Check your
Example 1 thermocouples, heater bands, gauges, etc. to be
A heating study in which a flat plastic sure that they are functioning properly. This step
reinforced sheet is preheated for compression takes a lot of time but it prevents you from having
molding was set to run on a Friday and Saturday to come back and apologize for the data because
in the same week. Five samples from process 1 you discover later that the equipment was not
were heated the first day and five materials from running properly. Even worse, imagine setting up
process 2 are heated the second day. The data an entire process that fails because one thing that
show that the process 1 samples are much was never discovered was critical to the success
different than the process 2 samples. Let’s of the system! Monitor all the independent
imagine that we could run the experiments variables throughout the experimentation stage to
again—but this time with samples from process 1 make sure that everything is set correctly. It helps

47
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

to make up log sheets for the studies and record importance and select the best operating region
the settings and conditions during each run. In based on their weighted values.
processing studies, allow the equipment to Conclusions from a DOE are based on a
equilibrate (steady out) after changing any statistical analysis of the data, taking into account
processing settings before collecting samples. the confidence limits of the results. Statistics are
Depending on the independent variable being used to verify the reliability of the data and the
changed, the time to come to equilibrium may validity of the tests. The confidence limit predicts,
vary. For example, changing the barrel with a specified level of faith in the result, that a
temperature or screw speed requires a long particular independent variable or interaction has an
stabilization time, because the barrel walls are affect on a particular dependent variable. Most
thick and to make a temperature change to the computer programs generally use the 95%
entire barrel will take a while. Some people confidence limit to determine if an independent
believe screw speed changes are almost factor or interaction makes a significant
instantaneous but they are wrong because the contribution to a specific dependent response. A
amount of shear heating of the polymer is based 95% confidence limit says that, of 100 trials, 95 will
on the screw speed. It requires time for this behave according to the results described. This
difference in shear heating to be transferred confidence limit can be changed from 95% to some
through the barrel walls, allowing the system to other value of choice, depending on your needs.
come to equilibrium. Report the Results
Analyze the Data The final step in any DOE process is to
summarize and report the results. If the results are
The fourth step in the process is to analyze the not reported and documented, they are lost over
data. After the experiments have been completed time, and most people in the company will think that
and all the data collected, it is time to analyze the the work was never done. Consequently, the project
data and figure out which independent factors and will likely be recycled sometime in the future to
interactions significantly affect the dependent establish an understanding of the effect of the
responses. A number of good computer programs independent variables on the process and product.
(Design Expert by State-Ease, Inc.1, Statgraphics
Plus2, CARD3, and JMP4) are available to analyze EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
the data; they can to help you define which There are three general types of experimental
independent variables and interactions are designs: factorial designs, response surfaces, and
significant. These programs also can generate mixture experiments. Each of these are used in
equations that explain the system, plot graphs to particular situations based on your needs.
provide a visual explanation of the data, and predict Factorial designs are used to screen a large
the optimum processing conditions or compositions number of independent variables to determine
for each property measured. One word of caution: if, which variables and interactions are significant to
in your experiment, you looked at five different the process or product. Response surfaces are used
dependent variables, it is unlikely that all five will be when there are only a few independent variables in
optimized under the same set of running conditions. the design and a more complete understanding is
Three of the five properties may be optimized under desired. Mixture experiments are used when you
one set of experimental conditions and the other two are trying to determine the best recipe for a
properties optimized under a different set. In this formulation that has many different components.
situation, it is always a compromise; you must Factorial designs are used when there are
choose a set of operating conditions that gives the many independent variables in the DOE.
best balance of all five properties. The other option Normally, two-level factorial designs are used.
is to weight the five properties according to The level is the setting on the independent

48
®
 Design of Experiments

variables with the two-level design using the Mixture experiments are used to determine
maximum and minimum settings only. For the best combination of ingredients in a many
example, if the temperature of your die on an component systems. An example of this is a
extruder was to be 121°C (250°F) as a minimum flexible PVC (polyvinyl chloride) recipe that
and 143°C (290°F) as a maximum, the levels contains PVC, lubricants, plasticizers, stabilizers,
would be these two temperatures. In a three-level fillers and colorants. In this type of DOE, the ratio
design, a setting halfway between the maximum of each of the ingredients is varied in a controlled
and minimum values is also included, so, for the manner. The data obtained are then used to
example above, 132°C (270°F) is the third setting predict the performance of a number of different
used in the experiments. The number of recipes. The goal of these experiments is to lock
independent variables studied is directly related to in a recipe to maximize the performance for either
the number of experiments required in a full the customers or your own company. Mixture
factorial design. For example, a study that experiments are unique because the concentration
explores the effect of two independent variables of all components in the formulation adds up to
on a process will require 4 test runs. A DOE that 100%. What this means is that when you change a
has three independent variables requires 8
stabilizer from one to three phr (parts per hundred
experiments whereas one that has four
resin) you change the percentage of every other
independent variables requires 16 experiments—
component even though their addition levels stay
and it goes on! As the number of independent
the same.
factors increase, it is sometimes necessary to do
fractional factorial designs where the number of
experiments is decreased by a factor of 2, 4, 8, 16,
DATA INTERPRETATION
or more, and this is done by removing certain Once you have finished all the experiments,
experimental conditions from the design. The the most difficult step is to understand what the
disadvantage of fractional factorial designs is the data mean. Luckily, using a DOE process
loss of some of the information you get in full provides many tools for data interpretation. One
factorial designs. Because of this, your need to of the most powerful ways to understand the data
reduce the time it takes to do the work must be is a statistical model, also called a response
balanced by your need to understand the system model. A statistical model is a mathematical
you are studying. model figured out by a computer program based
The second type of experimental design is on the data from your experiments. This model
called a response surface. A response surface is can be used to predict what will happen between
used after the number of independent factors has any data points (or levels) within the experimental
been reduced from a factorial type design or there space. The model takes into account the actual
are only a few (three, four, or five) independent data and the errors present in the data. With
factors being considered. A response surface is a predictive models or equations generated from
picture of the response of a dependent variable analysis of the response variable data, it is
that is plotted showing what happens as a function possible to predict the response anywhere within
of one or more independent variables. Typically a the experimental space. A warning, however,
response or dependent variable is plotted as a design of experiments does not allow the
function of two independent variables. Response prediction of data outside the experimental limits
surfaces typically replace three-level factorial or design space, so in your experimental set up
designs because fewer experiments are required make sure that you make the limits broad enough
to obtain basically the same information. to cover all your bases.

49
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

90%, 95%, or 99% confidence limits. If the F

value calculated in the ANOVA is greater than the
value in the F tables, the independent factor or
interaction is deemed to be significant at that
probability or confidence limit.
As described earlier, the data are explained in
terms of mathematical models. The types of
models used to explain the data can be written as
algebraic equations such as linear, quadratic, or
cubic equations. Although it is hard to intuitively
understand the meanings of these equations, there
are a few simple concepts. In a system where the
independent variables do not interact with one
another, the data can be explained in a linear
equation, as seen in Equation 1. In this equation,
Figure 1. Different types of effects.
A, B, C, etc. represent the independent variables.
An independent variable is said to have an Linear model response = A + B + C + … (1)
effect on a particular dependent variable if the
difference in the dependent response measured at In systems where the independent variables
the minimum value for the independent variable is affect one another, you have to use a quadratic
different from that measured at the maximum (Equation 2) or cubic model (Equation 3). The
value. Figure 1 shows a plot with a positive effect, terms AB, BC, ABC, etc. represent interactions of
a negative effect, and no effect. A positive effect independent variables A and/or B and/or C.
means that as the setting on an independent Quadratic model response = linear terms + AB +
variable increases, the measured value of the AC + BC +…+ A2 + B2 + C2 (2)
dependent variable also increases. To determine
Cubic model response = quadratic terms + ABC +
which type of effect is present in a system, you
…+ A2B + A2C + B2C + AB2 + AC2 + BC2 + . . . +
average all the data for a given independent
A3 + B3 + C3 +… (3)
variable for which the independent variable is
maximum and all the data from experiments in Because of the large number of terms in a
which the independent variable is minimum. If the cubic model, cubic models are not frequently
two averages are different, the independent factor used. The number of experiments required to fit all
is said to have an effect on that particular the terms in the model is significantly increased.
dependent response. Luckily, 95% of all experiments can be described
To determine if a difference in measured using quadratic equations, so there are few cases
responses is a true measure of a difference in the where a cubic model is needed. As described
process, the data is analyzed using an analysis of earlier, these are mathematical models that are
variance (ANOVA). Analysis of variance is a generated by a computer—so do not be
mathematical method that uses statistical tools to intimidated by thinking, “however do I get to
take into account the data and the errors. It gives that?” because most of us do not have to know
you an understanding of what is a relevant how. The important thing is to understand how to
difference versus a difference in data caused by use this information.
errors through the use of an F test. The F test Models used for mixture experiments are
allows you to determine the significance of an slightly different from those used for factorial or
independent variable on some dependent response response surface designs. The linear model for a
at a specific confidence interval, such as 75%, mixture experiment is the same as the linear model

50
®
 Design of Experiments

used to describe factorial and response surface factor. This translates to 2k experiments where k is
plots and is given by Equation 1. The quadratic the number of independent variables being studied.
model for a mixture experiment is given by Example 2
Equation 4:
Assume a compression molding study is
Quadratic model response = linear + AB + AC + being done with the following three factors:
BC +… (4)
• Preheat temperature: 199°C (390°F) to
Equation 5 shows a special cube model used 227°C (440°F)
with mixture experiments and Equation 6 gives
the cubic model. As said before, these are just • Compression molding machine pressure: 13.8
mathematical manipulations of the data to help us MPa (1 ton/in.2) to 41.4 MPa (3 ton/in.2)
explain the results. • Pressing speed: 0.254 m/min (10 in./min) to
Special cube model response = quadratic + ABC 20.3 m/min (80 in./min)
+… (5) What experiments are required in a full
Cubic model response = special cube + AB(A-B) factorial design to predict the impact strength and
+ AC(A-C) +… (6) tensile properties at any point within the
experimental matrix? What is the number of
The appropriate models are used to plot the experiments? What is the appearance of the
responses and to calculate the dependent experimental space?
responses at points in the experimental matrix
The number of experiments required is 23 = 8.
where experiments were not run.
The experiments are laid out in Table 2 using +1
Summary for the maximum and –1 for the minimum value of
As described here, a DOE is a very powerful each independent variable. The second half of
method that allows you to understand the effects Table 2 shows the actual experimental points.
that independent variables have on measured Figure 2 shows the experimental space with
dependent variables. Through this systematic the individual experimental points located at the
approach to processing issues you can design a corners of the cube. When running the
new product, correct problems, and improve experiments of the DOE, samples are produced
efficiencies throughout your process. Several using the processing conditions at these
worked examples with explanations now follow. experimental points. Response data is generated
First, there are detailed explanations of each type
of DOE (factorial, response surface, and mixture)
that walk you through each step of the setup of the
DOE. After this, there are examples of each kind
of experiment with the computer-generated
results from the experiments.

FACTORIAL OR SCREENING
EXPERIMENTS
Factorial designs are used to screen large
numbers of independent variables to determine
which variables or factors are significant. In a two-
level design (the two levels correspond to the
minimum and maximum value for each
independent variable being studied), every level of Figure 2. Experimental matrix for factorial design
every factor is run with every level of every other example.

51
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Preheat Pressing Preheat Pressing

Pressure, Pressure,
Experiment temperature, speed, temperature, speed,
MPa mPa
°C m/min °C m/min

1 1 1 1 227 41.4 2.03

2 1 1 -1 227 41.4 0.254

3 1 -1 1 227 13.8 2.03

4 1 -1 -1 227 13.8 0.254

5 -1 1 1 199 41.4 2.03

6 -1 1 -1 199 41.4 0.254

7 -1 -1 1 199 13.8 2.03

8 -1 -1 -1 199 13.8 0.254

Table 2. Full factorial design for three independent variables.

for each dependent variable from these samples, the dotted lines drawn in the matrix to help show
and the data is fitted to a model that determines the the location of the experimental points. As the
independent variables and interactions that are number of independent variables increase above
significant. Any curves predicting properties 3k, the experiments in three-level factorial designs
between the experimental points are linear. become both inefficient and impractical. Even
with three independent variables, 27 experiments
To obtain curvature in the response using are impractical when there are better approaches.
factorial experiments it is necessary to do three-
level factorial designs or include center points. In Tables 2 and 3 have shown how to set up the
a three-level factorial design, the levels selected experimental points in two- and three-level
are located at the minimum, maximum, and factorial designs. To lay out a table for a two-level
midpoint value for each independent variable; this factorial design (similar to Table 1) with a large
requires 3k experiments or, in this example, 33 = number of independent variables, use the
27 experiments. Consequently, to go from a two- following procedure:
level to a three-level factorial with three variables • Designate a column for each independent
increases the number of experiments from 8 to 27. variable to be studied, i.e., A, B, C, etc.
To obtain curvature in the response curves, other
experimental approaches are used rather than • n is the number of experiments defined by
n = 2k where k is the number of independent
three-level factorial designs to reduce the number
factors being studied.
of experiments. Table 2 shows the experimental
points in a three-level factorial design with –1 • Set the first n/2 experiments for factor A
representing the minimum value, 0 the midpoint, equal to 1 and the last n/2 experiments equal
and 1 the maximum value for each independent to –1.
variable. This is just a shorthand notation to keep
• Set the first n/4 experiments for factor B
from having to write down each experimental
equal to 1, the next n/4 experiments equal to
point setting and indicate the level for that
–1, the third set of n/4 equal to 1, and the last
experiment. Figure 3 shows the experimental n
/4 equal to –1.
points in the experimental space from Table 2. The
points representing the midpoints of the preheat • Set the first n/8 experiments equal to 1 for
temperatures are represented by the circles with factor C, the next n/8 experiments equal to –1.

52
®
 Design of Experiments

Preheat Pressing
Pressure,
Experiment temperature, speed,
MPa
°C m/min
1 1 1 1
2 1 1 0
3 1 1 -1
4 1 0 1
5 1 0 0
6 1 0 -1
7 1 -1 1
8 1 -1 0
9 1 -1 -1
10 0 1 1
11 0 1 0 Figure 3. Experimental matrix for three-level
factorial design.
12 0 1 -1
of the independent factor and all –1’s with
13 0 0 1
the minimum value.
14 0 0 0
Obviously, as the number of variables
15 0 0 -1
increases so does the number of experiments. With
16 0 -1 1 large numbers of independent variables, fractional
17 0 -1 0 factorials are used to minimize the number of
18 0 -1 -1 experiments and determine which independent
19 -1 1 1 variables are significant for different dependent
20 -1 1 0 responses. Fractional factorials lose some of the
interactions but are necessary to keep the number
21 -1 1 -1
of experiments reasonable. It must be remembered
22 -1 0 1
that two-level factorials are used to screen and
23 -1 0 0 identify the significant independent variables
24 -1 0 -1 contributing to each dependent response. Once the
25 -1 -1 1 critical independent factors are identified,
26 -1 -1 0 additional experimental design work can be done
27 -1 -1 -1 on a smaller scale to understand the significant
factors and interactions in more detail.
Table 3. Experiments in a three-level factorial
design with three independent variables. RESPONSE SURFACE
Keep alternating the 1’s and –1’s, using n/8 A response surface is a geometrical
for the rest of the experiments. representation, or picture, that shows what
happens to a dependent variable as a function of
• If four independent factors are present, use the independent variables. Response surface
n
/16 and n/32 for five independent variables experimental designs are a special type of a
until the table is completely filled. factorial design. In these experiments, a center
point of the matrix is included along with points
• Convert the table to experiments by along the long edges or center points of planes
replacing all 1’s with the maximum value formed by the independent variables. Curves

53
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

representing specific values of the responses or • Compression molding machine pressure: 13.8
dependent variables are plotted as a function of the MPa (1 ton/in.2) to 41.4 Mpa (3 ton/in.2)
independent variables to show how the dependent
variables respond at any point within the
• Pressing speed: 0.254 m/min
(10 in./min) to 20.3 m/min
experimental matrix. These special designs
(80 in./min)
replace the three-level factorial design providing
similar solutions with significantly less Preheat Pressing
Pressure,
experimentation. Three-level factorial designs Experiment temperature, speed,
MPa
°C m/min
with three or more independent factors become
very impractical. As stated previously, a three- 1 199 13.8 0.254
level factorial design with three independent 2 227 13.8 0.254
variables requires 27 experiments while four
independent variables require 81 experiments and 3* 213 27.6 1.14
five independent variables require 243
4 227 41.4 0.254
experiments. Response surfaces provide similar
results with significantly less experimentation. 5* 213 27.6 1.14
Two response surface designs that are particularly
useful are the central composite and Box-Behnken 6 227 13.8 2.03
designs. The central composite requires slightly 7* 213 27.6 1.14
more experimentation.
8 227 41.4 2.03
Example 3
Using the compression molding example 9 199 27.6 1.14
discussed previously and maintaining the same
10 227 27.6 1.14
objective as the three-level factorial design, what
experiments are required to fully determine the 11* 213 27.6 1.14
impact and tensile properties at any processing
12 213 41.4 1.14
condition within the matrix? The independent
variables and their limits are these: 13 213 27.6 0.254
• Preheat temperature: 199°C (390°F) to 14 213 27.6 2.03
227°C (440°F)
15 199 13.8 2.03

16* 213 27.6 1.14

17 213 13.8 1.14

18 199 41.4 2.03

19 299 41.4 0.254

20* 213 27.6 1.14

Table 4. Central composite experimental points.

The central composite design is based on a

two-factorial design with an additional 2k (k = the
number of independent variables) experimental or
star points outside the factorial design at the center
Figure 4. Central composite design. of the independent factor faces. In addition,

54
®
 Design of Experiments

results. The advantage of the central composite is

it expands the experimental space if the star
points are outside the planes made by the
independent variables (with three variables the
faces of the cube). However, in most plastics
processing examples, it is impossible to run the
star points anywhere except in the planes made up
by the independent variables. Consequently, Box-
Behnken designs lend themselves very nicely to
plastic processing problems. Compositions in
Table 5 designated with an asterisk are the
experimental matrix center point replications.
Experiments in Table 5 are in random order ready
Figure 5. Experimental matrix central composite for the experimentation phase.
design.
replicate points are run at the center of the Preheat Pressing
Pressure,
Experiment temperature, speed,
experimental matrix to determine any curvature in °C
MPa
m/min
the response data plus experimental error. Figure
4 shows a generalized central composite design. 1 199 13.8 1.14
With three variables the total number of 2 199 27.6 2.03
experiments is 20: eight vertices plus six star
points plus six replicates of the center point. In 3 199 41.4 1.14
most plastic processing examples, the star points
are moved from outside the plane to the center 4 227 27.6 2.03
points of the faces, otherwise, the processing
5 213 41.4 2.03
conditions are not within the practical operating
range of most plastic equipment. 6* 213 27.6 1.14

Figure 5 and Table 4 show the central 7 213 13.8 2.03

composite design and experimental points for the
compression molding example. The experimental 8 213 13.8 0.254
points, given in Table 4, are randomized with the
9 227 27.6 0.254
replicated center points designated by asterisks.
The experimental points in Table 4 are shown 10 227 27.6 0.254
graphically in Figure 5 with only one of the
replicated center points designated. 11 227 41.4 1.14

Another common response surface is the Box- 12 199 28.6 0.254

Behnken. Instead of using the vertices and star
points, the experimental points are the midpoints 13 213 41.4 0.254
of the edges plus the center point. Using the same
14* 213 27.6 1.14
compression molding example as before, the
experimental points are listed in Table 5 and 15* 213 27.6 1.14
shown in Figure 6. There are a few less
experiments associated with a Box-Behnken 16* 213 27.6 1.14
design. Either a central composite or Box-
Behnken design generates similar models and Table 5. Box-Behnken experimental points

55
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Mixture experiments are used in plastics for these

purposes:
• Optimization of formulation with different
concentration of additives
• Evaluation of multiple fillers within a
plastic resin matrix
• Optimization of filler or reinforcement in
blends of two or more resins
• Developing or optimizing resin blends or
alloys

Figure 6. Experimental matrix box—

• Optimization of stabilizer levels
Behnken design. • Identifying optimum concentrations of flame
Once the experiments are defined, it is time to retardants, impact modifiers, regrind, etc.
go into the laboratory or plant and run the Dependent responses can be physical
experiments under as much control as possible. properties, thermal stability, cost, surface
After the experiments are all run, the samples are aesthetics, processability, etc. The information
tested and their dependent responses measured. gained from a mixture experiment can be used to
Computer programs are available to interpret the do the following:
data and predict dependent responses anywhere • Determine which formulation component
within the experimental matrix based on the model contributes to a particular physical property
equations developed. Based on the models
• Minimize the use of expensive additives by
created, the responses can be predicted within the determining the exact concentration required
experimental space but not outside the
experimental limits. If some of the fixed • Determine the proper concentration of each
independent variables are changed, it is impossible component when a synergy is present, such
to predict what is occurring within the as with halogenated flame retardants and
experimental space because all the information antimony oxide
was gathered with these variables held constant.
This is the reason proper experimental planning is
so critical to assure the experimental results can be
used effectively once the work is complete.

MIXTURE EXPERIMENTS
The last general class of experimental designs
is mixture experiments. As said before, these are a
unique type of response surface because the totals
of all components in the formulation add to 100%.
The independent variables in mixture experiments
are concentrations of components in a
formulation. As the concentration of one
component increases, one or more of the other Figure 7. Triangular coordinates for three
component mixture experiment.
components must decrease in concentration.

56
®
 Design of Experiments

The experimental space with three

components is plotted on triangular coordinate
graph paper (Figure 7). The apex at the top of the
triangle is 100% of component A and the base is
0% of component A. Going from the base of the
triangle to the apex each horizontal line represents
an increase in concentration of component A by
10%. The same correlation can be made with any
other point on the triangle and the opposite side.
With triangular coordinate graph paper the total
concentrations of any composition point within
the experimental space adds up to 100%; this
fulfills the unique requirement for mixture
experiments that the total concentration of all
components totals 100%. Point X in Figure 7 has
a concentration of 20% A, 20% B, and 60% C; Figure 8. Triangular coordinates for three
point Y concentration is 70% A, 20% B, and 10% component mixture experiment.
C; and point Z concentration is 30% A, 40% B, 72%, and IM is 4% and 18%; this defines the
and 30% C. experimental space that is shown as the shaded
Example 4 area in Figure 8. Experimental points are then
As an example, consider a three-component selected at the vertices of the experimental space,
system with resin A, resin B, and an impact midpoints of long edges, an overall centroid, and
modifier (IM). The experimental limits are checkpoints along the axis through the
defined as experimental matrix between the vertices. The
experiments denoted by the w, x, y, and z
• Resin A = 10% - 65% superscripts in Table 6 are duplicate experiments
• Resin B = 38% - 72% to determine the experimental error. In this
example rather than duplicating one point four
• Impact modifier = IM = 4% - 18% times, four different points are duplicated twice to
The objective is to determine the impact determine the experimental error.
properties using an instrumented falling dart As with the response surface, once the
impact test or Dynatup while maintaining a experimental space is established and the
certain level of tensile strength and flexural experiments defined, it is time to go into the
modulus. What experiments are required to laboratory or plant and run the experiments to
determine the optimum concentration of each generate the data for the dependent responses.
component in the final formulation that meets the After the dependent responses are determined,
physical property requirements? What is the input the data into a computer program. The
shape of the experimental space? program will generate the equations and models
Figure 8 shows the experimental space with that will allow you to predict the dependent
the experimental limits and the experiments variable response anywhere within the
required. The numbers next to the experiments in experimental matrix as functions of the
Figure 8 corresponds to the experimental points in independent variables. After the analysis is
Table 6. On the triangular graph paper, the limits complete and the optimum composition selected,
are drawn for the various concentrations. For the new formulation should be run to verify that
example, lines are drawn denoting where the predicted properties are similar to what you
concentration A is 10% and 65%, B is 38% and actually will get.

57
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Experiment Percent A Percent B Percent IM

1 46 47 8
2y 24 72 4
3z 58 38 4
4x 10 72 18
5w 44 38 18
6 41 55 4
7w 44 38 18
8x 10 72 18
9 27 55 18
10 34 55 11
11y 24 72 4
12 51 38 11
13z 58 38 4
14 22 64 14
Table 6. Mixture experiments for three-component example.
The calculations and statistics required to response variable. The temperature profile is fixed
generate predictive equations and models are and will not be changed in the experimentation.
beyond the scope of this chapter. The rest of this The objective of the experiment is to screen the
chapter has specific examples of the three types of injection molding parameters to determine which
experiments, including the results from a factors are significant in controlling the fiber
computer analysis of the data. length. Factors or independent variables to be
studied include: injection rate, hold pressure,
FULLY WORKED EXAMPLES screw speed, backpressure, and mold temperature.
Factorial Design The experimental limits:
The processing conditions in an injection • Injection rate: Fast and slow,
molding operation need to be optimized on a new, qualitative variable
larger injection molding machine. The process is
being moved from a 150- to a 450-ton machine
• Hold pressure: 2.75 MPa (400 psi) to
10.7 MPa (1550 psi)
using larger multiple cavity tools. Physical
properties to be maximized are tensile strength, • Screw speed: 100 to 300 rpm
flexural modulus, and impact strength. • Backpressure: 0.172 Mpa (25 psi) to 1.72
Unfortunately, it is impossible to mold tensile and MPa (250 psi)
impact samples on the large machine because of
the shot size and the relatively small size of • Mold temperature: 65°C (149°F) to 121°C
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) (250°F)
or International Organization for Standardization Using a two-level factorial design to screen
(ISO) parts. However, it has been established that the effect of the process variables, the experiments
the length of the reinforcing fibers in the final part and fiber lengths for each experiment are given in
correlates with the physical properties in question; Table 7. This is a full factorial with 25 (there are
consequently, the objective is to evaluate various five independent factors) or 32 experiments. One
injection molding parameters (independent of the variables, injection rate, is a qualitative
variables) using fiber length as the dependent variable while the other four variables are

58
®
 Design of Experiments

Hold Mold Fiber

Injection Screw speed, Backpressure,
Experiment pressure, temperature, length,
rate rpm MPa
MPa °C mm
1 Slow 2.75 300 1.72 65 2.30
2 Slow 2.75 100 1.72 121 10.9
3 Slow 10.7 300 0.172 65 7.16
4 Fast 10.7 100 1.72 65 7.60
5 Slow 2.75 300 1.72 121 4.60
6 Slow 10.7 300 1.72 65 2.70
7 Fast 10.7 300 1.72 121 4.90
8 Slow 2.75 100 1.72 65 8.00
9 Fast 10.7 100 0.172 121 13.6
10 Fast 2.75 100 0.172 121 14.1
11 Fast 10.7 300 0.172 65 3.40
12 Fast 10.7 100 1.72 121 11.4
13 Fast 2.75 100 1.72 121 10.1
14 Slow 2.75 300 0.172 65 6.80
15 Fast 2.75 100 1.72 65 6.30
16 Slow 10.7 100 0.172 121 13.3
17 Fast 2.75 300 1.72 121 4.40
18 Slow 2.75 300 0.172 121 9.40
19 Fast 2.75 300 0.172 65 3.90
20 Fast 10.7 300 1.72 65 1.40
21 Slow 10.7 100 1.72 121 11.8
22 Slow 2.75 100 0.172 121 12.4
23 Fast 2.75 100 0.172 65 8.70
24 Slow 2.75 100 0.172 65 10.0
25 Slow 10.7 100 0.172 65 10.6
26 Fast 2.75 300 1.72 65 2.10
27 Fast 10.7 100 0.172 65 10.2
28 Slow 10.7 100 1.72 65 8.60
29 Fast 10.7 300 0.172 121 5.70
30 Fast 2.75 300 0.172 121 5.90
31 Slow 10.7 300 0.172 121 10.3
32 Slow 10.7 300 1.72 121 5.40
Table 7. Factorial example: experiments and response.

quantitative. The experiments in Table 7 are 0.19(backpressure) + 0.054(mold

arranged in random order ready for the temperature) – 9.41×103(screw speed)
experimental phase of the program. (backpressure)
Putting the response data obtained from the 2. The model with the fast injection rate is:
experiments in the computer and doing the Fiber length = 10.37 – 0.035(screw speed) –
analysis gives the following results: 0.21(backpressure) + 0.054(mold tempera-
ture) + 3.87×103(screw speed)(backpressure)
1. The model with the slow injection rate is:
Fiber length = 8.19 – 0.014(screw speed) –

59
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Fiber Length, mm
1.72
Injection Rate = Slow
Hold Pressure = 6.72 MPa
4.6
Mold Temperature = 93.0°C

1.33 5.6
Contours show anticipated fiber
Back Pressure, MPa

6.6
length at different screw
7.5 speeds and back pressures.
0.95 8.3 As an example the contour at
7.5 mm fiber length is
9.1
anticipated to provide that fiber
0.56 9.9 length along the entire contour.

10.6

11.1
0.17
100 150 200 250 300

Screw Speed, rpm

Figure 9. Typical response curve for fiber length.
A typical response curve for fiber length independent variables that will produce the
plotted as a function of screw speed and maximum fiber length. A complete analysis of the
backpressure at a slow injection rate with the hold data in this example shows the hold pressure has
pressure set at 6.72 MPa and the mold temperature no effect on the fiber length and the injection rate
set at 93°C is shown in Figure 9. Based on the has very little effect on the fiber length. To
results shown, it is best to operate at both low completely understand the system, a second
screw speed and low backpressure to maximize design of experiments could be done using a
fiber lengths. Numerous graphs at different mold response surface while keeping the hold pressure
temperature, hold pressure, and injection rates are
and injection rate constant. A second smaller DOE
analyzed to determine the best operating range to
varying the independent variables of screw speed,
obtain the maximum fiber length. The statistical
backpressure, and mold temperature will define
analysis shows the hold pressure is not a
the best processing window to produce products
significant factor contributing to the fiber length.
with the longest fiber length.
The interaction of screw speed and backpressure
contribute to the final fiber length. If qualitative Response Surface
factors (injection rate) are used in the design, it is
impossible to do numerical optimization on those Continuing with the injection molding
factors. Two equations are generated because the example above, either a Box-Behnken or central
injection rate is either fast or slow with no composite design is used to completely understand
differentiation in between. Consequently, there is the effect of the processing variables on fiber
a model for each extreme that can be used to length by doing a response surface. Using a Box-
optimize the variables that are quantifiable. These Behnken design, the required experiments are
models are generated to predict the combination of shown in Table 8 and Figure 10. Experiments in

60
®
 Design of Experiments

fiber length data are given in Table 8. Using the

data, predictive equations and models are generated
by a computer program to predict what is occurring
at any point within the experimental space.
The response data fit the quadratic model
given below:
Fiber length = 6.71 – 0.02(screw speed) +
1.27(backpressure) + 0.080(mold temperature) –
5.43x10-3(screw speed)(backpressure) – 0.026
(back pressure)(mold temperature)
Incorporating any values for screw speed,
backpressure, and mold temperature within the
Figure 10. Box-Behnken injection
molding example. experimental limits, the fiber length can be
calculated. The equation shows the significant
Table 8 with an asterisk are replicates of the terms and interactions controlling fiber length.
center point. Other interactions not included in the equation are
Once the experiments are defined, it is time to not significant in determining the fiber length.
go into the laboratory or plant to run the Using the model, the computer can generate
experimental phase of the DOE. Samples are contour plots or response surface plots to show
produced under the different experimental exactly what is occurring at any experimental
conditions and tested for dependent response. The point within the experimental design.

Mold
Screw speed, Backpressure, Fiber length,
Experiment temperature,
rpm MPa mm
ºC
1 200 1.72 65 5.11
2 200 1.72 121 11.9
3* 200 0.946 93 8.20
4 200 0.172 121 6.74
5 300 0.946 121 6.80
6 300 1.72 93 3.61
7 100 1.72 93 9.42
8* 200 0.946 93 8.23
9* 200 0.946 93 8.30
10 100 0.946 65 8.47
11 200 0.172 65 8.05
12 300 0.172 93 7.37
13 100 0.172 93 11.5
14* 200 0.946 93 8.12
15 300 0.946 65 3.89
16* 200 0.946 93 8.25
17 100 0.946 121 12.4
Table 8. Box-Behnken design for injection molding example.

61
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

is happening to fiber length or the response

variable as a function of the processing conditions
or independent variables.
The factorial analysis is easy with the use of a
computer program to assist in the data analysis.
However, if your company does not have the
computer software to do the evaluation and you
have designed the experiment, performed the
experimentation, and are ready to analyze the data,
what do you do? How do you treat the data
without the aid of a computer? To simplify the
analyses, consider a two-level, three-factor design.
A full factorial DOE is set up similar to the five-
factor example above except the independent
factors being studied are mold temperature,
Figure 11. Fiber length at mold temperature of
backpressure, and screw speed. Using the same
65°C. limits in the previous example, set up the
experiments to be run.
Three contour plots are shown in Figures 11,
Setting up the experiments using the +1 and
12, and 13 for mold temperatures of 65°, 93°, and
–1 approach discussed earlier the experimental
121°C, respectively. At each temperature the fiber space is defined by the experiments in Table 9.
length is plotted as a function of screw speed and
backpressure. From the graphs, it is easy to see the Fill in Table 9 with the actual values for the
maximum fiber length occurs at the lowest screw experiments using the limits:
speed and backpressure and the highest mold • Mold temperature = 65°C (149°F) to 121°C
temperature. Graphs for other mold temperatures (250°F)
or plots of fiber length as a function of mold
temperature and backpressure or mold
• Backpressure = 0.172 MPa (25 psi) to 1.72
MPa (250 psi)
temperature and screw speed are easily generated.
Graphs of this type demonstrate specifically what • Screw speed = 100 rpm to 300 rpm

Figure 12. Fiber length at mold temperature of Figure 13. Fiber length at mold temperature of
93°C. 121°C.

62
®
 Design of Experiments

Mold temperature, Backpressure, Screw speed,

Experiment
°C MPa rpm
1 +1 +1 +1
2 +1 +1 -1
3 +1 -1 +1
4 +1 -1 -1
5 -1 +1 +1
6 -1 +1 -1
7 -1 -1 +1
8 -1 -1 -1
Table 9. Experiment design for three-factor, two-level experiment.

Mold temperature, Backpressure, Screw speed,

Experiment
°C MPa rpm
1 121 1.72 300
2 121 1.72 100
3 121 0.172 300
4 121 0.172 100
5 65 1.72 300
6 65 1.72 100
7 65 0.172 300
8 65 0.172 100
Table 10. Experimental design for three-factor, two-level experiment.

Mold temperature, Backpressure, Screw speed, Fiber length,

Experiment
°C MPa rpm mm
1 121 1.72 300 4.60
2 121 1.72 100 10.9
3 121 0.172 300 9.40
4 121 0.172 100 12.4
5 65 1.72 300 2.30
6 65 1.72 100 7.60
7 65 0.172 300 6.80
8 65 0.172 100 8.70
Table 11. Experimental design for three-factor, two-level experiment.
Substituting the actual values for the coded no effect on the fiber length data. Evaluating the
terms in Table 9 generates Table 10. mold temperature first, take the average of the
Before collecting data, the experiments need to fiber lengths at the maximum mold temperature
be put in random order and run in the laboratory. (+1 coded terms) and compare it to the average of
The experiments are all run and fiber length data is the fiber length at the minimum mold temperature
generated for each set of independent variables and (-1 coded terms). The average fiber length at the
included in the data (Table 11). maximum mold temperature comes from
Use these data to determine which experiments 1 through 4 and is calculated in
independent variables have a positive, negative, or Equation 7.

63
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

length at maximum screw speed (experiments 1, 3,

5) equals 5.88, and the average fiber length at
minimum screw speed (experiments 2, 4, 6, and 8)
equals 9.90. Similar to backpressure, screw speed
exhibits a negative effect on the fiber length.
A similar approach is used to determine if any
interactions are present. The first potential
interaction for investigation is between screw
speed and backpressure. At a low backpressure,
determine the average response when screw speed
Figure 14. Effect of mold temperature on fiber length. is high (experiments 3 and 4) and when screw
speed is low (experiments 7 and 8). At a high
backpressure, determine the average fiber length
response when screw speed is high (experiments 1
and 2) and when screw speed is low (experiments
5 and 6). The average fiber length values are
plotted on the effects plot (Figure 17). As the two

Figure 15. Effect of backpressure on fiber length.

Average fiber length at maximum mold tempera-

ture = (4.60 + 10.9 + 9.40 + 12.4) ÷ 4 = 9.32 (7)

The average fiber length at the minimum mold

temperature comes from experiments 5 through 8
and is calculated in Equation 8. Figure 16. Effect of screw speed on fiber length.
Average fiber length at minimum mold tempera-
ture = (2.30 + 7.60 + 6.80 + 8.70) ÷ 4 = 6.35 (8)

Therefore, mold temperature has a positive

effect on the fiber length, as shown in Figure 14.
Increasing the mold temperature from 65° to
121°C increased the average fiber length
approximately 3 mm. Following the same
procedure, the effect of backpressure and screw
speed are shown graphically in Figures 15 and 16,
respectively. The average fiber length at high
backpressure (experiments 1, 2, 5, and 6) is 6.35
mm, with the average fiber length at low
backpressure (experiments 3, 4, 7, and 8) equal to
9.33 mm. Consequently, backpressure has a
negative effect (Figure 15). Increasing the Figure 17. Evaluation of interaction between
backpressure lowers the fiber length. Average fiber backpressure and screw speed.

64
®
 Design of Experiments

Tensile strength,
Experiment Resin A Resin B IM
MPa
1 46 46 8 172
2 24 72 4 168
3 58 38 4 158
4 10 72 18 122
5 44 38 18 178
6 41 55 4 158
7 44 38 18 172
8 10 72 18 120
9 27 55 18 147
10 34 55 11 169
11 24 72 4 165
12 51 38 11 185
13 58 38 4 159
14 22 64 14 145
Table 12. Experiments and tensile strength for mixture example.
effect lines are essentially parallel no interaction • B0 equals the average of all the fiber length
is present. If one effect line had shown a positive response, which in this example is 7.84.
effect and the other a negative effect, a strong • B1 equals the effect of X1 or (9.32–6.35)÷2
interaction between these two independent = 1.49 where 9.32 is the positive effect or
variables would be present. However, if both lines maximum effect of mold temperature
have both a negative or positive effect and (Equation 7) and 6.35 is the negative or
essentially the same slope, no interaction is minimum effect (Equation 8).
present. A weak interaction is present if both
effects are positive or negative but the slopes of • B2 equals the effect of X2 and is calculated
the curves are different. Other interaction effect in the same method as B1.
plots for screw speed and mold temperature and • B3 equals the effect of X3 and is calculated
backpressure and mold temperature are to be in the same method as B1.
generated as an exercise.
• B12 equals the effect of X1X2 divided by 2.
The last step in the analysis is to generate
predictive equations that can be used to predict Following this procedure, it is possible to
the response at any location within the calculate the predictive Equation 10:
experimental space defined by the factorial limits. Fiber length = 7.84 + 1.49X1 – 1.49X2 –2.01X3 (10)
Use Equation 9 as a model to develop a predictive
equation. This equation is based on X1, X2, and X3 being
based on values between +1 and -1 with the center
Predicted response = B0 + B1X1 + B2X2 + B3X3 + point being 0. The +1 and -1 were used to
B12X1X2 + B13X1X3 + B23X2X3 (9) establish the original data table and are
where X1 is any value for factor 1, X2 is any value considered coded terms for the actual maximum
for factor 2, and X3 is any value for factor 3. and minimum values of the independent
These values used in Equation 9 have to be in variables. Equation 10 must be calculated based
coded terms and not actual terms for X1, X2, and on coded terms.
X3. The coefficients B0, B1, B2…Bij are calculated Data presented in this example and the
as follows: factorial design are purely hypothetical, and the

65
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

example is not intended to imply all reinforced plugged into the equation to calculate the tensile
injection-molded thermoplastic composites will strength at any given set of concentrations. Or,
behave in a similar manner. data can be taken directly from the plot shown in
Mixture Experiment
Figure 18, which shows a small section from the
triangular coordinate plotted in Figure 8. The
The mixture experiment example is the same experimental space in Figure 18 is the same size as
as that used previously under the Mixture the shaded area in Figure 8.
Experiment section of this chapter. Physical
property data for tensile strength are given in If the other responses for Dynatup impact and
Table 11 with the experimental compositions. The tensile modulus had been plotted, three individual
results for tensile strength (MPa) as a function of equations and graphs would have resulted. It is then
the concentrations of the individual ingredients are possible to determine the experimental composition
plotted in Figure 18. The model is based on the with the best balance of properties to determine the
quadratic equation given below: optimum formulation for the product. As in other
examples, the selected formulation is run to verify
Tensile strength = 1.07[A] + 1.78[B] – 14.0[IM] +
the predicted property profile.
0.27[A][IM] + 0.14[B][IM] (11)
As with the other examples, the data presented
herein does not represent any specific plastic system.
If the data resemble any specific formulation
currently in use, this is only by coincidence.
Additional Information
If more information is desired on design of
experiments, some potential readings include the
following.
Hicks C.R. (1982) Fundamental Concepts in
the Design of Experiments. Saunders,
Philadelphia, PA
DuPont (1979) Strategy of Formulations
Development. EI DuPont, Wilmington, DE
Montogomery D.C. (1976) Design and
Analysis of Experiments, 2nd Ed. Wiley, New
Figure 18. Tensile strength response.
York, NY
Mason R.I., Gunst R.F., Hess J.L. (1989)
Concentrations of A, B, and IM that meet the Statistical Design and Analysis of Experiments.
restrictions of the experimental space can be Wiley, New York, NY

REFERENCES
1. “Design Expert.” Stat-Ease, Inc. 2021 E. Hennepin Avenue, Minneapolis, MN 55413-2723.
2. Statgraphics Plus, Manugistics Inc., 2115 East Jefferson Street, Rockville, MD 20852.
3. “CARD.” S-Matrix Corporation, 317 Third Street, Suite 5, Eureka, CA 95501.
4. JMP. SAS Institute Inc., SAS Campus Drive, Cary, NC 27513-2414.

66
®
POLYMER BASICS
DR. ALLISON R. CALHOUN

CHEMISTRY WHAT IS A POLYMER?

When most people hear the word “chemistry,” When you walk through a store, much of what
they have an immediate negative reaction. An you see is made of or packaged in plastic. There
are many examples—trays for cooking ready-
image appears of a mad scientist in a white lab
made meals, milk bottles, the bags you use to
coat surrounded by boiling, bubbling beakers of carry your purchases home, vinyl siding, plastic
brightly colored liquids. When you add this pipes, coverings on wires, floor coverings—all are
stereotype to chemistry’s strong dependence on made of polymers. Although it does not seem
mathematics and physics, most people are scared terribly exciting to think about what makes up the
stiff of the thought of learning the discipline. But, casing on a cellular phone, the chemical structure
when you step away from all of this, chemistry is of the plastic makes the casing strong, heat
resistant, scratch resistant, and shiny. These
just a way to explain the world around us and
attributes make the cell phone case what it is.
predict what we will observe with our senses
based on what a substance looks like at the A polymer is a chain of linked repetitive units:
“poly,” many, and “mer,” units. The organization
molecular level. (Just an aside: the white lab coats
and the components of the units are what create
are great to prevent the chemist’s syndrome, hole-
the many different types of polymers in the world.
riddled clothes, and I have never been able to play
A model of a very simplistic polymer is
with chartreuse, bubbling liquids unless I make
them with food coloring.) This chapter is going to -A-A-A-A-A-A-A-
describe some basics of chemistry and the
application of these basics to understanding why where “A” is the unit and each “A” is linked to
plastics/polymers look, behave, feel, or react the another “A” making it many units together, a
way they do in a processing environment. As a polymer. The way the individual “A’s” are linked is
called a chemical bond. Bonds hold together atoms
polymer technician, these concepts will help
making up a molecule with the electrons from the
explain what is going well or poorly in your atoms acting as the “glue.” Chemical bonds are
process because everything that you do will represented as lines between individual atoms. The
determine how the material behaves as a function number of chemical bonds that each atom can
of its chemistry. make is determined by the atom itself and varies

67
Society of Plastics Engineers

from one type of atom to another. Table 1 provides

Common
a quick reference that shows the standard number of Repeat unit Typical uses
polymer name
bonds for atoms commonly found in polymers.1
Polyethylene Milk bottles,
Atom Number of bonds -CH2-
(PE) plastic bags
Hydrogen (H) 1 Children’s toys,
Polypropylene
-C(CH3)H- candy labels,
Carbon (C ) 4 (PP)
bottle labels
Oxygen (O) 2 Extrusion coating
-CHCO-
Fluorine (F) 1 Polyester (PET) on paper, 2-liter
O bottles, clothing
Chlorine (Cl) 1 -NH2(CH2)5C- Nylon stockings,
Nylon
Nitrogen (N) 3 O wire insulation
Table 1. Standard bonds for atoms. Polyvinyl chloride Vinyl siding,
-CH2CHCl-
(PVC) pipe
What an “A” is made of is what defines the
-CH2CH- Packaging
type of polymer it is. The chemical elements that materials, TV
make up polymers are very few in number: most Polystyrene
cabinets, toys,
plastics, or polymers, are made of two to six jewel cases
elements. Some examples are listed in Table 1. Table 2. Repetitive units, common polymer name,
Looking at a very simple polymer, polyethylene, is and typical uses.
a good example of what “A” can be. Polyethylene
is made of many repeating units of carbon and
hydrogen, so A is –CH2–. The organization of the
THE TWO CLASSES
OF POLYMERS
carbon to the hydrogen is
H
There are two general classes of polymers:
thermosets3 and thermoplastics.2 They are
C distinguished by how they behave with respect to
processing and their characteristics once they are
H
processed.
and the polymer will look like this: A thermoset is a type of plastic that undergoes
H H H H H H H a chemical change during production that cannot
be repeated or reversed. The way that this happens
H C C C C C C C H is called cross-linking. This process results in
permanent chemical bonding of the individual
H H H H H H H
polymer chains to one another. These materials can
Another, easier, way to write this is as never be reshaped into a new form with the same
CH3–(CH2)5–CH3. Notice that each carbon atom chemical composition by heating and mixing as the
other type of polymers can. Some examples of
has four bonds and each hydrogen atom makes
materials made of thermosets are fiberglass boats
one bond.
or showers, foam insulation, and epoxy glues.
There are many other examples of the A thermoplastic is a material that can be
repetitive units in polymers. Table 2 shows several processed many times without a chemical change
of these and the common name of the polymer that in or bonding between the chains of the polymer.
they make when they are combined.2 Because there is no chemical change, these

68
®
 Polymer Basics

materials can be melted again and again and

Number of Number of molecules with this
reformed as many times as desired. (There is one
“mers” number of “mers”
flaw in this statement, in that many polymers
degrade during processing because of the high 5 2
temperatures used in the process. This 6 4
degradation is a chemical process that cannot be
7 5
reversed and is guarded against by the use of
stabilizers.) Because they can be processed many 8 7
times, these materials are the backbone of the 9 5
plastics recycling industry. Common examples of
10 4
thermoplastics are polyethylene, polyvinyl
chloride, and polypropylene, and some common 11 3
uses are vinyl siding, plastic grocery bags, and Table 3. Molecular distribution.
milk bottles.
If we made a graph of this (Figure 1), we
THERMOPLASTIC POLYMERS would be showing the length distribution of the
polymer sample.
There are many different properties of a
Chain Length Distribution
polymer used to characterize a material in
determining the best choice for use in an 8
# of Molecules

application. Some of these properties involve how 6

the material will handle during processing, others
4
describe the strength or toughness of the polymer,
2
and still others describe how the material will
0
look. All of these need to be understood at a
Number of "mers"
fundamental level to help choose the best material
for a specific purpose. Some basic things we need
Figure 1. Chain length distribution.
to know to explain the behavior of a polymer are
chain length (and chain length distribution), Although this is not a realistic example, as 1
crystallinity, polarity, and stability. gram (g) of a polymer often has millions of
molecules in it and each molecule has thousands
Chain Length
and thousands of “mers,” it does show that the
The number of repeat units in a polymer overall material has a distribution of different chain
molecule is described as its chain length.4 The lengths. What we have described so far is a number
chain length of a single chain is important to distribution, but there are other ways to describe
know, but not as important as the distribution of the distribution of a polymer. The most common is
the molecular weight distribution. The term
all the chains in a polymer material. A distribution
molecular weight refers to the mass of material that
describes the population of each chain length. An
would be present if a specified number of polymer
example is the best way to show this. Imagine that chains were present. The units of molecular weight
we can look through a magic microscope at a are grams per mole (where one mole is 6.022 ×
polymer and are able to count the number of 1023 molecules, which is a whole lot of
“mers” found on each molecule and the number molecules!). To give an idea of what this means—a
of times this length of molecule occurs in the typical chain length of a polyethylene polymer that
sample. Below is a summary of what we see: is used to make trash bags is 30,000 “mers,” which

69
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

means that the average molecular weight would be number of interesting consequences as is
420,000 g/mole. Because the material has many discussed later.
different chain lengths (as described by the Crystallinity
molecular weight distribution), it is necessary to
Mineral crystals are the most well known type
describe an average molecular weight. These
of crystals. They are found throughout the world
definitions allow us to characterize the size of
and are prized for their beauty. Chemically,
polymer molecules; this can then help us to explain
however, they are simple materials made of
some properties later, such as viscosity. There are
repeating units of ions in three dimensions.5
two ways that molecular weights are reported,
(An ion is a charged atom or group of atoms.) A
number-averaged (Mn) and weight-averaged (Mw)
very simple example is table salt. Salt contains
molecular weights. The number average molecular
sodium ions and chlorine ions alternating one by
weight is the mass of a given quantity of material
one. Figure 2 is a picture of salt at the atomic level.
divided by the number of chains found in that
sample measured. It can be described by the
mathematical equation: Cl Na
∞
∑ NiMi Na Cl
M n = -------------------
i=1
-
∞ Na Cl
∑Ni Cl Na
i=1

Figure 2. Salt at the atomic level.

where Ni is the number of polymers with the
molecular weight of Mi. The weight averaged This diagram shows that a crystal has
molecular weight is a statement of the average repeating units in an ordered manner. Anywhere
weight of all the chains in the polymer defined by you cut the salt particle, the atoms will look the
the weight of a given chain length multiplied by same. In other words, the structure is consistent
the weight fraction (or contribution) to the overall throughout the entire material. In polymer
material. The mathematical equation is chemistry, we can talk about crystallinity too. The
concept comes from mineralogy in that there are
∞
Mw = ∑ wi M i repeated units. There is one major difference; no
polymer is completely crystalline. Crystalline
i=1
polymers are a combination of small crystal
where wi is the weight fraction of the polymer domains (or areas) and other noncrystalline areas. 6
with a molecular weight of Mi. A crystalline domain in a polymer occurs when a
lot of the polymer chains line up with one another
Comparing the weight-averaged and number-
creating a repeated structure. If you imagine that
averaged molecular weights describes the
you can see the individual chains of the polymer,
polydispersity of the sample. In other words, it
they would look a little like a bucket of
tells us how wide the range of the distribution of
nightcrawler worms. All the chains would be
chain lengths is through the ratio of Mw /Mn .
intertwined with all the other chains. Now think
Sometimes polymers are not linear. This how the worms would lie in relation to the other
means that instead of looking like a long rope of worms—some of the nightcrawlers would be lying
“mers” lined up, they can have branches off the right next to other nightcrawlers, side by side, but
main chain, much as trees have branches. This in other areas, they would just be lying at all
complicates the story a little bit; now, we cannot angles to one another. The side-by-side
just refer to chain length, we now have to talk in nightcrawlers would represent a crystalline area.
terms of molecular weight. Branching has a Where they are lying all over the place would be a

70
®
 Polymer Basics

lost some of its electrons has a positive charge, so

A the whole bond has two poles, just like a magnet.
Instead of north and south, a bond has positive
and negative poles. If you get two molecules
together with positives and negatives, the positive
of one molecule will be attracted to the negative
of another molecule. This attraction makes the
two molecules want to stick together more
B strongly than if there were no polar bonds in the
molecules. Many “mers” in polymers are polar.
Some examples are found in polyvinyl chloride,
nylon, and polyester.
Homopolymers, Copolymers, and Blends
Earlier we described a polymer as a long
chain of repeating units—many “mers” lined up.
Figure 3. Polymer container both crystalline and Many polymers are made from the same units
noncrystalline areas. repeated again and again; these are called
homopolymers. In other words, every repeat unit
noncrystalline area (also called an amorphous
is the same within the material. Another type of
region). Figure 3 represents a polymer (bucket of
polymer, a copolymer, is different because there
worms) containing both crystalline (region A) and
are at least two different repeat units in the
noncrystalline (region B) areas.
polymer chain. In this type of polymer, the
The presence of crystalline areas within a different units are bonded to one another. Some
polymer determines a number of properties of a simplistic pictures of copolymers follow:
polymer such as clarity, density, and melting
temperature. A-B-A-B-A-B . . . . . . . . . .alternating copolymer
A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B . . . . . . . . . . block copolymer
Polarity in Polymers
A-B-B-B-B-A-A-B-A-A A . . random copolymer
An atom is composed of charged and
uncharged subatomic particles. The two types of In these examples A is one type of “mer” and B
charged particles are the protons (positively is another. Another way to have different “mers”
charged) and the electrons (negatively charged). combined in the same polymer material is in a
Some atoms “want” to be surrounded by electrons blend. The difference between a blend and a
more than others, so when they are in a bond with copolymer is that the blend is a mixture of two or
an atom that wants electrons less, the electrons more homopolymers or copolymers into a
end up being unevenly distributed around the two thoroughly mixed material whereas in a copolymer
atoms. This bond is called a polar bond.7 A polar the different types of “mers” are bonded to one
bond is similar to a tug of war between two another. These polymers are often made to improve
people of different strength. In a tug of war, the specific characteristics for an end use.
strongest person ends up with the most rope on
their side of the center line. If you imagine that POLYMER RHEOLOGY
the rope is the electron and the two contestants are Rheology is “the science that deals with the
atoms, the “stronger” atom ends up with the most way materials deform when forces are applied to
electrons around it, which leads to an interesting them”8—or how a material changes when
effect—polarity. The atom with the most exposed to external forces such as gravity,
electrons gets a negative charge and the atom that pumping through tubes or applied pressure. This

71
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

action is very important in polymer processing

Relative Viscosity Material
because the polymer has to be formed into a
usable shape, which is accomplished by heating, Low Gasoline
shearing, and mixing the polymer. Heating is used
Medium—Low Cooking oil
to soften the material or in some cases melt it.
Shearing is a process where the polymer is Medium—High Maple syrup
kneaded, as is done with dough when making High Silly putty
bread. The technical definition is “the movement,
in a fluid or solid body, of a layer parallel to Table 4. Common materials and their relative
viscosities.
adjacent layers.”4
resistance of a material to flow.4 The easiest way
An everyday example is what happens when to understand this is in the form of examples.
you wash your hands. You place a dollop of liquid
soap on your hands and rub your hands together. P ROPERTIES AS A F UNCTION
The action is shearing the soap all over your hand, OF T HERMOPLASTIC P OLYMER
which then allows the soap to pick up the dirt, C HEMISTRY
making a clean hand. A representation is shown in
Effects of Chain Length Distribution
Figure 4. In A the figure shows a drop of soap on
the palm of a hand. In B, the palm of the other Earlier, we described the meaning of chain
hand is placed on top of the soap and in C the top length in terms of what the molecules look like.
hand is moved in the direction of the arrow so that Now, we talk about what this means in terms of
the soap is sheared and spreads out in the direction the properties displayed by a polymer material. To
of the hand. In the final block, D, the soap is begin, the longer the chain length of the polymer,
flattened out from the shear forces and spread over the greater the intermolecular forces between the
your hand. This shearing action occurs in chains.9 Each “mer” in a polymer chain has an
extruders as a molten polymer material is passed attraction to other “mers” on other chains. So the
down a barrel along a screw between the screw more “mers” that are attracted to other “mers,” the
face and the surface of the barrel. stronger the desire for chains to stick together.
This tendency translates to a number of different
An important concept in polymer rheology is properties: viscosity, part strength, volatile level,
that of viscosity. The definition of viscosity is the melt strength, and glass transition temperature.

A B

C D

Figure 4. A picture of shear forces.

72
®
 Polymer Basics

The higher the average chain length, the Another property of interest related to chain
higher the viscosity9—so as chain length length is the ability of a material to volatilize.9
increases, it becomes harder and harder to make Volatiles are the component of a polymer material
the material flow. This difficulty results from all that boils off during heating. A simple example of
the intertwining and tangling of the individual a volatile is steam from a pot of hot water. Small
chains because of their size and intermolecular molecules volatilize much easier than large
forces. An experiment to demonstrate this is as molecules, so when short chain length polymers
follows. Get two paper bags and fill one with tiny are in the melt, it is likely that you will have
pieces of yarn or string no longer than 2 in.; label volatiles during processing. The problems caused
it bag A. Fill the other with long pieces, each one by volatiles are often costly; in one situation, a
more than 1 ft. in length; label this bag B. Now polymer was received from a supplier with a high
mix up the yarn pieces in each bag with your hand level of low chain length materials and used in an
and try to pull out one single piece of yarn. You extrusion process where the surface was supposed
will find it is very easy to pull out one single to be glossy. Because the volatiles all released as
untangled piece from bag A. On the other hand, the material went through the die, the final surface
when you try to pull out a single strand from bag was pockmarked and not glossy at all. The entire
B you often get a tangled mess. This tangling is production run was scrapped and a day of
exactly what happens with long chain length processing time was lost!
polymers versus short chain length polymers. To The strength of a polymer, both in the melt
try to move just one polymer chain means that form and the final product, is largely the result of
you have to move all the ones that are tangled the chain length. The longer the chain length, the
with it, so you have to work harder to do it. One stronger the material9, which is caused by the
way that this effect is characterized is by melt intertangling of chains and intermolecular forces
index (MI).4 A melt index describes how much as described when discussing the viscosity of the
polymer can flow through a small tube when molten polymer and is the origin of the ultrahigh
pushed by a weight in a 10-min time span.10 A molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE)
high melt index means a low chain length because materials. Engineers liked many of the properties
a lot of material flowed quickly because of fewer of polyethylene but needed greater strength and
tangles. A low MI, on the other hand, means the toughness.
polymer was very viscous and a small amount of In general, the higher the chain length in a
the polymer was able to get through the opening polymer material, the higher the melting point
at the end of the tube. Chewed chewing gum has a and glass transition point.9 It is important to
low melt index and molten wax has a very high differentiate between melting point and the glass
melt index. transition point. The melting point describes a
physical change of the polymer from a solid to a
Practically, when a polymer becomes more liquid. This point can be easily measured because,
viscous and has a lower melt index, it becomes at this temperature, the heat that is added to the
more difficult to mix because of the many tangles polymer just makes it molten rather than
between the many chains. The torque required to increasing the temperature of the material. (The
push the material and mix it is higher, making the same is true when melting ice: at 0°C the heat that
motor current higher, creating a higher is added to the ice makes the water liquid but does
backpressure and melt temperature. Because of not raise the temperature of the water until all the
this, you have to watch your resin stability ice melts—try it!) The glass transition point is
because these changes can lead to polymer different in that it describes the temperature, or
degradation through either mechanical or thermal more accurately, the temperature range where a
means. polymer becomes rubbery rather than hard and

73
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

because the polymer itself is amorphous. Yet

Viscosit another property that is influenced by crystallinity
y
Melt Po , MI, strength
Transitio
int, Gla
ss is chemical resistance. The higher crystallinity
n Temp makes the polymer more difficult to penetrate by an
erature
Property Value

attacking species, thereby making it more resistant.

iz o
til t
One final property affected by the degree of

la cy
e
vo den
crystallinity is density. The density of a material is

n
Te
described as the amount of “stuff” in a given
“space” or more technically the mass of material
present in a given volume. This kind of goes with
the old brain teaser of “which weighs more—a
pound of feather or a pound of lead?” The answer
Average Chain Length is, of course, that they both weigh the same but the
volume that they take up is vastly different. A
pound of lead would fit in one hand but a pound of
Figure 5. Trends for properties as a function of feathers needs a pillowcase because the lead is
average chain length.
denser.
brittle. The glass transition occurs in areas of the
If you think back to how a crystalline region
polymer that are amorphous and occurs when the
was described in terms of worms lying in a bucket,
chains have the energy to start moving around
ask yourself how can you fit the most worms into
relative to one another.
your bucket. Would more fit if they were lying side
Figure 5 describes the general trends of by side or all at angles to one another? The answer
polymer behavior as a function of the average is if they were lying side by side, so this is the
chain length. This graph shows general trends and arrangement that would give you the greatest
is not meant to imply anything regarding orders of worm density. With polymers it is the same. Those
magnitude. that have a high degree of these side-by-side
arrangements, in other words, crystalline regions,
Effects of Crystallinity
will have the greatest number of polymer chains in
Polymers can be described by a degree of a given volume and thereby a greater density
crystallinity; this tells you how much of the (Figure 6).
polymer is made of crystalline areas. The degree of
crystallinity9 can tell you a lot about how a polymer Density,
will behave. Materials that have low crystallinity opacity
are flexible and will bend easily; those that have
Property Value

high crystallinity are brittle and hard. Another

y
lit
bi

property that is affected by crystallinity is the

i
ex
Fl

opacity of the plastic. A plastic sheet that is

transparent most likely has a low level of
crystallinity whereas one that is opaque has a very
high level of crystallinity. This is clearly illustrated
by two types of plastic cups. Isotactic
polypropylene cups are made of a resin that has a Degree of Crystallinity
high degree of crystallinity, making the cups
translucent due to the light scattering between the
amorphous and crystalline regions. Polystyrene Figure 6. Properties of polymers as a function of the
degree of crystallinity.
cups, however, are perfectly transparent and clear

74
®
 Polymer Basics

Sometimes it is desirable to reduce the degree

Property Value
of crystallinity in a polymer. For example, some
homopolymers are highly crystalline, creating
very high densities and a slick, impermeable Strength, Melting
surface that does not stick to other polymers or Point, Moisture Pick
Up
other parts of itself well. This is a problem in the
packaging industry where it is essential that the
walls seal to one another to make a package. In
this case you can use a copolymer to break up the
crystallinity, allowing the surfaces to stick to one
another during a heat seal process.
Polarity
Effects of Chain Branching
Chain branching has one major impact on a
polymer—it reduces the crystallinity of the Figure 7. The effect of polarity on
material on cooling.9 Why? If a crystalline domain polymer properties
is created by materials being able to line up next to without (all other things being equal).12 Also,
each other as close as they can get, the presence of these materials have higher melting points.12
branching interferes with how close the individual One interesting side effect of the polarity is that
chains can get to one another. Branching causes an polymers that contain polar groups are more
“arms-length” relationship—with the branches likely to pick up water from the environment,
acting as the arms of the main chain. A great acting a bit like a sponge. Water is polar itself so it
example of the effect of chain branching on a is attracted to the polar groups in polar polymers.
polymer’s behavior is that of polyethylene. There Because of this, when processing, it is often
are three major types of polyethylene: low density necessary to dry these polar polymers before use
polyethylene (LDPE), high density polyethylene to prevent water vapor bubbles from popping out
(HDPE), and linear low density polyethylene throughout the final part. Figure 7 summarizes
(LLDPE). The differences between these materials these properties.
are caused by the presence of chain branching that
causes the differences in crystallinity. HDPE is a PLASTICS ADDITIVES
material with very few to zero branches on the
main chain. LDPE has many long branches. Additives are often added to polymers to
LLDPE has many short branches. HDPE is a improve processability, improve properties, or
brittle, strong polymer while LDPE is flexible and reduce cost.13 The presence of additives often has
weak. LLDPE falls in the middle on most negative consequences, however, so they must be
properties and was developed for strength and used carefully. There are a number of different
processability.11 categories of additives: antioxidants, blowing
agents, flame retardants, fillers, impact modifiers,
Effects of Polarity lubricants, pigments, plasticizers, thermal
Earlier we described how polymers get polar stabilizers, and UV absorbers, to name a few.
bonds—from an uneven desire between two When designing a new product, a combination of
atoms for electrons in a bond. Also, we said that polymer optimization and additive optimization is
these polar groups (the two atoms and the bond used to determine the formulation, or recipe, that
between them) want to interact with other polar will be used. If the polymer is equivalent to the
groups in the polymer. What this means is that flour in a bread recipe, the additives are the salt,
materials that have polar bonds have a greater sugar, and yeast. A brief explanation of each of
cohesive (sticking together) strength than those the additives just mentioned follows.

75
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Antioxidants: An antioxidant is added to lubricants.14 Lubricants are often waxes, like

polymers that can be attacked by oxidizing agents candle wax, that help the polymer flow through the
to change their chemistry.4 An example of processing equipment. Also, some lubricants stick
oxidation that we see every day is rusting of to the metal of the equipment and prevent the
metals. The metal is attacked by oxygen and polymer from sticking—like Teflon® coating a
changes chemically into rust. Polymers can be frying pan.
affected in a similar way if an additive is not
present in the system. Pigments and dyes: Both pigments and dyes
are added to plastics to color them. The pigments
Blowing agents: Blowing agents are are small particles that are mixed into the polymer
incorporated into polymers to make a foamed but do not dissolve in the plastic; instead, they
product.4 These materials, when heated during remain as small particles that can be found
processing, break down into a gas that makes a throughout the plastic.4 Dyes, on the other hand,
bubble in the plastic while the polymer is still are colored materials that dissolve in the plastic
molten. A great example of a material made with a and become part of the polymer solution.4 I like to
blowing agent is foamed hot drink cups. think of dyes as behaving like food color in water,
Flame retardants: Many polymers are highly whereas a pigment is like chocolate chips in a
flammable (meaning that they will burn in air chocolate chip cookie.
without any other fuel), so it is necessary to add Plasticizers: Some applications require a
something that reduces their flammability.4 These plastic to be flexible or rubbery. It is possible to
materials are most often added to plastics that are create this property in some polymers by adding a
used as building materials or in electrical plasticizer.4 When a plasticizer is added, a plastic
applications where the tendency to ignite in the can go from being rigid and hard to flexible and
presence of an open flame is very detrimental. soft. The plasticizer works the same way as grease
Fillers: Fillers, as a category, is very broad. It does in a machine. It gets between two polymer
includes a variety of materials that are added to a chains and helps them slip past one another just as
polymer to reduce the cost of the final part. grease gets between two metal parts and helps
Sometimes they also improve properties such as them slip past one another.
impact strength and hardness.4 Some standard Thermal stabilizers: Because thermoplastics
fillers in use today are calcium carbonate, glass are processed with a lot of heat and shearing
spheres, wood flour, and silica.
energy, it is often necessary to add thermal
Impact modifiers: Impact modifiers are added stabilizers to the formulation. A thermal stabilizer
to polymers to improve the impact strength of a protects the polymer from burning during
product.4 They are usually a type of elastomer that processing.4
can absorb the shock the same way that the rubber
UV stabilizers: Often final products are
soles of tennis shoes do. A good way to see this is
exposed to sunlight or other sources of UV
to imagine that the plastic is filled with lots of
radiation. Ultraviolet light has a very high energy
little superballs that are spread throughout the
and can cause the polymer to break down unless
plastic.
an UV stabilizer is added to protect it.4
Lubricants: A number of polymers are very Commonly, UV stabilizers are added to anything
difficult to process because of high viscosity or a that will be used outdoors such as vinyl siding,
tendency to stick to the metal equipment and burn. plastic furniture, and agricultural films, to prevent
To prevent a polymer from sticking, we add this breakdown.

76
®
 Polymer Basics

Short
Polymer Name Hand mer Properties Applications
Notation

Good hardness, tough, good Injection molded housing for

Acrylonitrile-
ABS Copolymer impact resistance household appliances,
butadiene-styrene
instrument panels in cars, pipes

Improved clarity, flexibility at Films, flexible hosing, gaskets

Ethylene vinyl
EVA Copolymer low temp over PE, good adhesion
acetate
and heat seal

Great toughness, good wear Gears, composite layer in PE

O resistance, good chemical films, hosiery, synthetic fabrics,
Polyamide (Nylon) PA
-NH-[-(CH2)5-C-]n- resistance, sharp melting point automotive components,
furniture

O CH3 Excellent impact strength, good Door/window components,

clarity automotive light lenses,
Polycarbonate PC -[-C-O- -C- -O-]n- beverage pitchers
CH3

Good clarity, good toughness, Synthetic fabric fibers, bottles,

O O good CO2 barrier properties, food containers, film, injection
Polyester PET
-[-C- -C-O-CH2-CH2-O-]n- outstanding dimensional stability molded auto parts

PE, Good toughness, strength, ease of Squeeze bottles, grocery bags,

HH processing, good chemical toys, construction films,
LDPE,
Polyethylene -[-C-C-]n- resistance, good heat seal, low extrusion coating for packaging
HDPE,
LLDPE HH water permeability applications, trash cans

HH Good optical clarity, excellent Tail lights, aircraft windows,

weather resistance, fair chemical skylights, furniture, shelving
-[-C-C-]n- resistance, good impact strength displays
Polymethyl-
PMMA HC O
methacrylate
O
CH3

Strong, good heat resistance, Auto instrument dials, combs,

high, stiffness, good creep hardware, handles, zippers,
Polyoxymethylene
POM HO-[-(CH2)n(CH2-O)m-] resistance, good chemical bearings, bushings
(Acetal)
resistance, low moisture
absorption

Good impact strength, good Auto parts, packaging films,

H CH3 chemical resistance, high injection molded furniture,
Polypropylene PP -[-C-C-]n- toughness, high stiffness plasic plates
HH

Table 5. Polymer properties and applications summary.

77
®
 Society of Plastics Engineers

Short
Polymer Name Hand mer Properties Applications
Notation

Hard, excellent clarity, good Toys, appliance housings, pipe,

HH chemical resistance disposable salad trays
Polystyrene PS -[-C-C-]n-
H

Good heat resistance, excellent gaskets, coatings/linings,

F F no-stick surface, good toughness, electrical insulation,
Polytetrafluoro
PTFE -[-C-C-]n- excellent chemical resistance, cardiovascular grafts, seal rings
ethylene
low COF, very difficult to process
F F

Very low heat resistance during

processing Rigid—pipe, pipe fittings, vinyl
H Cl Rigid—tough, resistant to siding, lawn furniture, window
weathering, good chemical frames, guttering
Polyvinyl chloride PVC -[-C-C-]n- resistance, good moisture Flexible—wire insulation, floor
HH resistance tile, packaging films, garden
Flexible—ease of processing, hose, raincoats
excellent electrical properties
Table 5. Polymer properties and applications summary.
REFERENCES
1. Whitten K.W., Gailey K.D. and Davis R.E.. General Chemistry, 4th Ed. Saunders College Publishers, NY,
pp. 269-275. (1992)
2. Schwartz S.S. and Goodman S.H. Plastics Materials and Processes. Van Nostrand Rheinhold, NY,
pp. 42-288. (1982)
3. Billmeyer F.W. Textbook of Polymer Science, 2nd Ed. Wiley/Interscience, NY, p. 468. (1971)
4. Carley J.F. Whittington’s Dictionary of Plastics. Technomic Publishing, Lancaster, PA. (1993)
5. Huheey J.A., Keiter E.A. and Keiter R.L. Inorganic Chemistry, Principles of Structure and Reactivity, 4th
Ed. Harper Collins College Publishers, NY, pp. 74-80. (1993)
6. Billmeyer F.W. Textbook of Polymer Science, 2nd Ed. Wiley/Interscience, NY, pp. 141-180. (1971)
7. Whitten K.W., Gailey K.D., and Davis R.E. General Chemistry, 4th Ed. Saunders College Publishers, NY,
pp. 265-267. (1992)
8. Dealy J.M. Melt Rheology and Its Role in Plastics Processing Theory and Applications, vol. 1, Van
Nostrand Rheinhold, NY (1996)
9. Billmeyer F.W. Textbook of Polymer Science, 2nd Ed. Wiley/Interscience, NY, pp. 220-250. (1971)
10. Dealy J.M. Melt Rheology and Its Role in Plastics Processing Theory and Applications, Van Nostrand
Rheinhold, NY, p. 369. (1996)
11. Schwartz S.S. and Goodman S.H. Plastics Materials and Processes. Van Nostrand Rheinhold, NY,
pp. 39-41. (1982)
12. Billmeyer F.W. Textbook of Polymer Science, 2nd Ed. Wiley/Interscience, NY, pp. 238-240. (1971)
13. Wypych G. Handbook of Fillers, vol 8. Chemtech Publications, Toronto. (1999)
14. Wickson E.J. Handbook of Polyvinyl Chloride. Wiley, NY, pp. 369-392. (1993)
15. Rubin I.I. Handbook of Plastic Materials and Technology. Wiley, NY (1990)

78
®
PLASTICS TESTING
DR. RANGANATH SHASTRI AND DR. JAE CHOI

WHY TEST PLASTICS? v. To evaluate whether a material meets

necessary agency compliance
Plastics testing provides us with insight to requirements e.g. Food and Drug
understand how a material will respond to the Administration (FDA), Underwriters
stresses and the use environment it will Laboratory (UL), or National Sanitation
experience during its use. It also allows us to Foundation (NSF), as desired for the
compare the performance characteristics of one specific application.
plastic material against another. In your work, you
may be asked to test incoming resins, compounds WHAT TO TEST?
or actual parts to ensure that the end-use
To understand everything about a plastic
performance requirements are adequately met.
material requires that you study the broad range
At the outset, let us first examine why the of its behavior, such as its mechanical, thermal,
testing of plastics may be necessary. Any one of electrical, rheological, physical, and chemical
the following reasons can necessitate that you test properties as well as its environmental resistance.
your materials and/or fabricated parts: Of course, such extensive testing is very time
consuming and costly. A more pragmatic
i. To assess the behavior of materials to approach focuses on selecting the properties to
evaluate their suitability for an intended characterize depending on what information you
application need. What follows are some basic guidelines to
ii. To verify lot-to-lot consistency of the help in your testing protocol based on your
incoming material to monitor variability specific needs.
and compliance of the product to its For Application Suitability
specifications To assist in the material selection for any
iii. To validate the part design, which often application, resin suppliers routinely provide a
involves testing the fabricated part under technical datasheet for each commercial product
actual or simulated service conditions they offer. These datasheets typically report a
general set of 10-15 properties that are intended to
iv. To understand why the performance represent the typical characteristics of each
requirements are not met as expected or to product. The primary intent of a datasheet is for
understand the causes of part failure use as a sales tool, and as such the data reported

79
Society of Plastics Engineers

generally includes average values for each of the temperatures, loading history, and the potential
properties but does not include any information on environments experienced by the part over its
the expected ranges for each of the properties. lifetime, more comprehensive data such as:
Therefore, the datasheet properties should only be
• Stress-strain curves at temperatures and
used for initial screening or comparisons among a
strain rates that relate to service conditions
family of products. As an integral part of material
selection, you also need to understand the • Modulus as a function of temperature
processability of that plastic. To do this, you need
to determine the flow behavior of the polymer
• Creep curves at ambient and elevated
temperatures and several stress levels
melt, maximum shear stress and shear rate the
polymer melt can withstand, and maximum • Effect of anisotropy on the material
processing temperature as well as any performance
decomposition products that may be released
during processing. Testing needed for computer
• Viscosity-shear rate data
aided design/computer aided engineering (CAD/ are essential.4-7 It should be emphasized that the
CAE) analysis depends on the type of simulation specific operating conditions (temperature,
and the specific finite element analysis (FEA) tool applied stress or strain, environment, etc., and the
employed. There are many CAE tools at the corresponding duration of such exposures) often
design engineer’s disposal. Unfortunately, there vary significantly from one application to another.
are misconceptions about which properties are Some examples of properties that depend on the
essential for the design process. The datasheet use environment can be found in Table 1 below.
properties are inadequate for design and Therefore, it is critical for the design engineer or
engineering analysis, because they bear little material specifier to test plastics under actual
relevance to the end-use performance of the conditions of use to determine the suitability of
product and provide very little insight into how the plastic for the intended application.
well the plastics will perform in service.1-3 Design In many applications where consumer safety is
engineers rely heavily on the datasheets, however, of paramount importance, the product performance
because they are readily available. With operating criteria may stipulate compliance with various
conditions varying over a rather broad range of regulatory requirements. The specific requirements

Targeted application Industry focus Property to be tested

Components involving outdoor Lawn and Garden UV stability

or UV exposure Automotive exterior parts Weatherability
Automotive interior parts Gasoline resistance
(above belt line) Fogging resistance

Food containers Packaging Gas barrier

Moisture barrier

Disposable components Healthcare Autoclavability

Radiation sterilizability

Medical implants Healthcare Biocompatibility

Enclosures for electronic units Information Technology EMI/RF shielding
effectiveness

Table 1. Examples of application specific properties of plastics properties.

80
®
 Plastics Testing

Regulatory
Targeted application Industry focus Property to be tested
agency/body

Electrical components Information technology Underwriters Relative Thermal Index

(connectors, housings, Computer and business Laboratories (UL) (RTI); Glow wire
lighting components) equipment resistance
Lighting

Nondisposable Healthcare FDA Biocompatibility

products (medical devices) Extractables

Applications involving Packaging FDA Extractables

direct food contact
Table 2. Examples of properties for agency compliance

are, of course, dependent on the targeted Failure Analysis

application. Some examples are shown in Table 2.
If you are trying to understand the reasons for
Lot-to-Lot Consistency Testing lower than expected performance or causes of
If the intention of testing is to verify the lot-to failure, the focus of your testing ought to be on
lot consistency of incoming materials, specific
analyzing the structural features of the plastics.
properties that are more sensitive to fluctuation in
production are usually chosen because it is simply This includes molecular parameters like
not practical to test every property for each lot of molecular weight, molecular weight distribution
incoming material. Some of the quality control (MWD), branching or chemical homogeneity, and
testing includes properties such as: degree of crystallinity, etc. These data should help
• Melt Flow Rate (MFR) you uncover the cause of premature failure or
• Chemical composition by Infra Red (IR) diminished performance of the product.
Spectroscopy While discussing the testing of plastics, it is
• Molecular weight and molecular weight appropriate to address the relevance of the
distribution by Gel Permeation properties being tested. Table 3 summarizes the
Chromatography (GPC) meaning and relevance of some material properties
• Tensile properties commonly reported for plastics. At the end of the
• Notched impact strength, etc. chapter is a more complete listing as well as a
and monitoring the measured values against sales discussion of some misunderstood properties
specifications. commonly evaluated through plastics testing.

Property Meaning Relevance

Melt Flow Rate (MFR) Rate of flow of a polymer melt through Single parameter useful to
a standard orifice of a capillary at a differentiate flow characteristics of
chosen temperature under a fixed load different grades within the same
polymer family; useful to verify lot-
to-lot uniformity of a product

Tensile modulus Ratio of tensile stress to corresponding Indicator of inherent rigidity of the
strain in the linear range plastic

Table 3. Meaning of relevance of properties of plastics.

81
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Property Meaning Relevance

Poisson’s ratio Relative deformations in lateral and Useful in estimation of bulk modulus
corresponding longitudinal directions from tensile modulus for isotropic
in response to applied axial stress material

Creep modulus Apparent modulus of the plastic under Indicator of reduction in modulus of
constant loads for a long duration of the material, useful in predicting
time dimensional changes as a result of
long-term loads

Shear stress Ratio of shear stress to resulting Useful in buckling analysis

angular strain in the range of small
deformations

Notched impact strength Amount of energy absorbed in Indicator of the notch sensitivity and
propagating a predefined notch under ductile-brittle transition temperature
high rates of impact loading

Deflection Temperature Under Load Temperature corresponding to a Reference point for quality control
(DTUL) deflection of 0.25 mm (0.01 in.) under
a prescribed load generating a fixed
fiber stress
Continuous use temperature Highest temperature at which a plastic Indicator of the maximum
can be expected to retain its application temperature
performance under continuous
exposure for extended periods of time

Coefficient of Linear Thermal Measure of change in linear Useful in determining dimensional

Expansion (CLTE) dimensions with temperature stability of a molded part with
changes in termperatures during use
and estimation of thermally induced
residual stresses in the part

Relative Thermal Index (RTI) The maximum temperature at which Measure of themal endurance, i.e. the
the plastic retains 50% of its ability of the plastic to retain 50% of
mechanical or electrical properties its particular property when exposed
when exposed for 10,000 hours to elevated temperature for extended
periods of time

Dielectric strength Maximum voltage a plastic can Indicator of insulation characteristics

withstand before electric breakdown of the plastic

Dielectric constant Ratio of the capacity of the condenser Insulating capacity of the plastic in
with the particular dielectric material terms of its ability to store electrical
to the capacity of the condenser with energy
air as the dielectric material

Dissipation factor Amount of energy dissipated Measure of inefficiency of the plastic

as an insulator

Table 3. Meaning of relevance of properties of plastics.

In summary, the testing that you need to do GENERAL TEST STANDARDS

depends on what you need to know! For testing plastics, a wide spectrum of
national standards have been practiced worldwide,

82
®
 Plastics Testing

Test method in accordance with…

Property ISO standards ASTM standards

Density/ specific gravity ISO/DIS 1183 - 1 : 200015 D 792 - 0032

ISO/DIS 1183 - 2 : 200016 D 1505 - 9833 (polyolefins)

Melt flow rate (MFR and MVR) ISO/DIS 1133.2 : 200117 D 1238 - 0034

Mold shrinkage (thermoplastics) ISO/DIS 294-4 : 200018 D 955 - 0035

(thermosets) ISO 2577 : 198419 D 6289 – 9836

Water absorption ISO 62 : 199920 D 570 - 9837

Tensile properties ISO 527 - 1 : 199921 D 638 – 0038

ISO 527 - 2 : 199914
Flexural properties ISO/FDIS 178 : 200122 D 790 – 0039
Notched Izod impact strength ISO 180 : 200023 D 256 - 0040

Notched Charpy impact strength ISO 179 - 1 : 200024 D 6110 – 9741

ISO 179 - 2 : 199725

Instrumented dart impact strength ISO 6603 - 2 : 200026 D 3763 – 0042

Rockwell hardness ISO 2039 - 2 : 198727 D 785 - 9843

Deflection temperatures under load ISO/DIS 75 - 1 : 200128 D 648 – 00a44

ISO/DIS 75 - 2 : 200129

Vicat softening temperature ISO 306 : 200230 D 1525 - 0045

Coefficient of thermal expansion ISO 11359-2 : 200031 E 831 - 9346

Table 4. Typical properties reported in datasheets and common test methods.*

*The references listed above correspond to most current valid documents at the time of this
publication. As all standards are subject to mandatory review for revision every 5 years, the readers
are urged to seek the most recent edition of the respective test standard.
for instance, American Society for Testing & Standardization (ISO), which have been derived
Materials (ASTM) standards in the United States from those developed by ASTM, DIN, BSI, and
(U.S.), Deutsches Institut für Normung (DIN) in others, have the greatest chance to provide the
Germany, British Standards Institution (BSI) basis for consensus on a single set of global
standards in the United Kingdom (U.K.), standards. Test methods developed by the
Association Francaise de Normalisation International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)
(AFNOR) standards in France, and Japanese fulfill a similar role where electrical properties are
Industrial Standards (JIS) in Japan. In theory, any concerned.
of the these national standards could achieve Until recently, lack of uniform testing
global acceptance. However, in reality, none of protocols for plastics was a major issue.
them are in contention for universal acceptance Fortunately, three International Standards—
worldwide because of their historical use. In ISO 10350-1 : 19998, ISO 11403-1 : 20019, and
contrast, test methods developed by the Geneva- ISO 11403-2 : 200110—were specifically
based International Organization for developed by an international collaborative effort

83
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

to address these issues. ISO 10350-1 : 19998 (ABS) resin, ISO 10350-1 : 19998 specifies using
forms the basic framework for testing and the 4 mm thick, ISO/FDIS 3167 : 200011
reporting of single-point data on plastics by multipurpose test specimen, molded using the
designating which test specimens should be used balanced mold design with gating as specified in
for each test and how the specimens should be ISO 294-1 : 199612 at conditions specified in the
prepared. For example, to determine the tensile ABS material standard ISO/DIS 2580-2 : 2001 13,
modulus of an Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene and tested according to the procedures described

Polymer family ISO standardsa ASTM standards

Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene DIS 2580 - 1 : 200147 DIS 2580 - 2 : 200113 D 4673 – 9878

resin (ABS)

Styrene-Acrylonitrile resin (SAN) 4894 - 1 : 199748 4894 - 2 : 199549 D 4203 – 0079

Polystyrene, crystal (PS) 1622 - 1 : 199450 1622 - 2 : 199451 D 4549 - 0080

Polystyrene, impact (PS-I) 2897 - 1 : 199752 DIS 2897 - 2 : 200153 D 4549 - 0080

Polypropylene (PP) 1873 - 1 : 199554 1873 - 2 : 199755 D 4101 - 0081

D 5857 - 01b82

Polyethylene (PE) 1872 - 1 : 199356 1872 - 2 : 199757 D 4976 – 00b83

Polyvinyl chloride, plasticized 2898 - 1 : 199758 2898 - 2 : 199759 D 2287 - 9684

(PVC-P)
Polyvinyl chloride, unplasticized 1163 - 1 : 199560 1163 - 2 : 199161 D 1784 - 99a85
(PVC-U)

Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) 8257 - 1 : 199862 8257 - 2 : 199863 D 788 - 96b86

Polycarbonate (PC) 7391 - 1 : 199664 7391 - 2 : 199665 D 3935 - 9487

Acetals (POM) 9988 - 1 : 199866 9988 - 2 : 199967 D 4181 - 00b88

Polyamides (PA) 1874 - 1 : 199668 1874 - 2 : 199569 D 4066 - 00ab89

Thermoplastic polyester 7792 - 1 : 199770 7792 - 2 : 199771 D 5927 - 00b90

Polyketone (PK) 15526 - 1 : 200072 15526 - 2 : 200073 D 5990 - 0091

Polyphenylether (PPE) 15103 - 1 : 200074 15103 - 2 : 200075 D 4349 - 9692

Thermoplastic polyester 14910 - 1 : 199776 14910 - 2 : 199877 D 4550 – 98b93

elastomer

Table 5. ISO and ATSM Standards for common polymer families.

a
Part 1 of each ISO material standard addresses the “Designatory Properties” and part 2
describes specific tests, test specimens, and test conditions.
b
Based on ISO test methods.

84
®
 Plastics Testing

in ISO 527-2 : 199914 at a specified testing speed plastics. For rigid plastics, the most common test
of 1 mm/min. The end result of such a specimen geometry is the dog bone shape test
comprehensive approach is a reduction in the specimen. The ISO/FDIS 3167 : 200011 multi-
variables associated with testing so that we have purpose specimen (Figure 1) required by ISO
more reliable, reproducible, and, above all, 10350 – 1 : 19998 has the dimensions 165 mm x
comparable data. Table 4 summarizes the ASTM 10 mm x 4 mm and must be prepared in end-gated
and ISO standards for properties of plastics balanced molds to achieve uniform orientation in
typically reported in datasheets. test specimens with high reproducibility. With this
approach, a reduction in variables typically
MATERIAL STANDARDS associated with specimen preparation is noted,
There are material standards that define thus ensuring more reliable, reproducible, and
appropriate tests for a specific type of material in comparable data. True to its name, this specimen
both ISO/IEC and ASTM approaches. The geometry or sections of the parallel-sided portion
corresponding material standards for common cut from the central region is useful for
polymer families are listed in Table 5. determination of many properties.
Test Specimens The common specimen geometry for testing
Several test specimen geometries are plastics when using ASTM test methods is often
commonly employed to determine properties of the ASTM D 638-0038 Type 1 specimen as shown

Thickness h 4.0 ± 0.2 mm

Overall length I3 ≥ 150 mm (For some materials, the
length of the tabs may need to be
extended to prevent breakage or
slippage in the jaws of the testing
machine.)
Length of narrow parallel-sided portion I1 80 ± 2 mm
Distance between broad parallel-sided portion I2 104 to 113 mm
Width at ends b2 20.0 ± 0.2 mm
Width of narrow portion b1 10.0 ± 0.2 mm
Radius r 20 to 25 mm
Figure 1. ISO/FDIS 3167 : 200011 multipurpose test specimen.

85
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Thickness T 3.2 ± 0.4 mm

Overall length LO 165 mm
Length of narrow section L 57 ± 0.5 mm
Gage length G 50 ± 0.25 mm
Distance between grips D 115 ± 5 mm
Overall width WO 19 mm (+6.4, 0)
Width of narrow section W 13 ± 0.5 mm
Radius of fillet R 76 ± 1 min
Figure 2. ASTM D 638-0038 type I specimen.

in Figure 2 with dimensions of 165 mm × The shape of the test specimens differ between
12.7 mm × 3.2 mm. the ISO/IEC and ASTM approaches for
For flexible materials, test specimens with a determination of puncture impact properties. The
much narrower cross section (ASTM D 638-0038 ISO 6603–2 : 200026 standard employs a 60 mm ×
Type IV specimens) as shown in Figure 3 are
60 mm × 2 mm thick small plate whereas ASTM D
commonly used. Similar narrow cross-section
geometry as described in ISO 37 : 199494 or ASTM 3763-0042 uses 3.2 mm thick disks either 51 mm ±
D 412-98a95 are employed for testing elastomers. 3 mm or 140 mm in diameter.

Figure 3. Dimensions of ASTM D 638-0038 Type IV test specimen for flexible materials.

86
®
 Plastics Testing

ISO standards ASTM standards

Thermoplastics

Injection molding—dogbones 294-1 : 199612 D 3641-97102

small plates DIS 294-3 : 200096

Compression molding 293 : 199997 D 4703-00103

Machining 2818 : 199498

Thermosetting molding materials

Injection molding—dogbones 10724-1 : 199899 D 3419-00104

small plates 10724-2 : 1998100

Compression molding DIS 295 : 2001101 D 5224-00105

Machining 2818 : 199498

Table 6. Specimen preparation standards.
Test Specimen Preparation the melt temperature before molding is essential to
Although often overlooked, one of the most minimize residual stresses in the molded test
critical parameters in testing plastics is how the specimens. Measuring the polymer melt
test specimens are prepared. Usually the test temperature (stock temperature) with an air shot
specimens are prepared by injection molding. instead of relying on the molding machine display
However, test specimens prepared by is highly recommended. It is advisable to measure
compression molding or machined from extruded both the mold core and cavity temperatures. For
sheets or molded parts are also acceptable. The more reliable specimen preparation, a pressure
recommended specimen preparation methods for transducer should be used to measure the cavity
thermoplastics and thermosetting materials pressure. Recommended specimen preparation
according to ISO material standards and ASTM conditions for some polymer families according to
guidelines are summarized in Table 6. ISO material standards are summarized in Table 7,
and the corresponding ASTM guidelines are listed
Unless the testing is primarily to determine the
in Table 8.
effect of weld line strength of the polymer, end-
gated molds should be used. Very often, family Specimen Conditioning
molds including specimens of different geometry All specimens are required to be conditioned
such as dogbone shape specimens, rectangular after molding to allow reaching equilibrium with
bars, and circular disks are used. Because flow the standard atmosphere before the start of the
imbalances caused by different flow lengths as well test. The idea behind this requirement is to
as cavity volumes prevent simultaneous filling of facilitate reproducible results between different
different cavities, and because injection velocities materials tested in different laboratories at
in each cavity cannot be precisely defined, such different times. ISO 291 : 1997106 specifies a
family molds should be avoided. minimum of 88 hrs at the standard laboratory
Before molding the test specimens, the resin atmosphere of 23°C ± 1°C and 50% ± 5% relative
pellets should be dried according to suggested humidity (RH) or 23°C ± 2°C and 50% ± 10%
conditions in material standards or supplier RH. ASTM D 618-00107, on the other hand
recommendations. The processing must be stable requires at least 40 hrs at or 23°C ± 2°C and 50%
before sampling begins. Ensuring the uniformity of ± 5% RH.

87
®
 Society of Plastics Engineers

Average
Melt Mold
injection
Material Temperature Temperature Material Standard
velocity
(°C) (°C)
(mm/s)
Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Resin (ABS) 250 60 200 ± 100 DIS 2580-2 : 200113
Styrene-Acrylonitrile Resin (SAN) 240 60 200 ± 100 4894-2 : 199549
Polystyrene (PS) 220 45 200 ± 100 1622-2: 199451
Impact Polystyrene (PS-I)
General purpose 220 40 200 ± 100 DIS 2897-2 : 200153
Flame retarded 210 45 200 ± 100
Polypropylene (PP)
MFR < 1.5 g/10 min 255 40 200 ± 20
MFR > 1.5 ≤ 7 g/10 min 230 40 200 ± 20 1873-2 : 199755
MFR > 7 g/10 min 200 40 200 ± 20
Polyethylene (PE) 210 40 100 ± 20 1872-2 : 199757
Polycarbonate (PC)
Unreinforced
MFR > 15 g/10 min 280 80 200 ± 100
MFR > 10 ≤ 15 g/10 min 290 80 200 ± 100
MFR > 5 ≤ 10 g/10 min 300 80 200 ± 100 7391-2 : 199665
MFR ≤ 5 g/10 min 310 90 200 ± 100
Glass fiber reinforced 300 110 200 ± 100
Acetals (POM)
Homopolymer
MFR ≤ 7 g/10 min 215 90 140 ± 100
MFR ≥ 7 g/10 min 215 90 300 ± 100
Homopolymer, impact modified
MFR ≤ 7 g/10 min 215 60 140 ± 100 9988-2 : 199967
MFR ≥ 7 g/10 min 215 60 300 ± 100
Copolymer 205 90 200 ± 100
Copolymer, impact modified 205 200 ± 100
Polyamide 6 (PA6)
Unfilled, VN ≤ 160 mg/l 250 80 200 ± 100
Unfilled, VN ≥ 160 mg/l to ≤ 200 mg/l 260 80 200 ± 100 1874-2 : 199569
Unfilled, VN ≥ 200 mg/l to ≤ 240 mg/l 270 80 200 ± 100
Filled 290 80 200 ± 100
Polyamide 66 (PA66)
Unfilled, VN ≤ 200 mg/l 290 80 200 ± 100
Filled, VN ≤ 200 mg/l, glass > 10 to ≤ 50% 290 80 200 ± 100 1874-2 : 199569
Filled, VN ≤ 200 mg/l, glass > 50 to ≤ 70% 300 100 200 ± 100
Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)
Unfilled 260 80 200 ± 100
Unfilled, Impact modified or flame retarded 250 80 200 ± 100 7792-2 : 199771
Filled 260 80 200 ± 100
Filled, Impact modified and flame retarded 250 80 200 ± 100
Table 7. Recommended conditions for test specimen preparation from common materials according to ISO guidelines.

88
®
 Plastics Testing

Melt Mold Average Injection

Material
Material Temperature Temperature Velocity
Standard
(°C) (°C) (mm/s)

Acrylonitril-Butadiene-Styrene resin (ABS)

General purpose 250 ± 5 55 ± 5 200 ± 100
Flame retarded 220 ± 5 55 ± 5 200 ± 100 D 4673-9878
High heat grade 255 ± 5 55 ± 5 200 ± 100
Filled 255 ± 5 55 ± 5 200 ± 100

Styrene-Acrylonitrile Resin (SAN) Molding conditions shall be as specified in Practice D 3641 unless D 4203-0079
otherwise agreed by the user and the supplier

Polystyrene (PS) 220 ± 10 50 ± 10 ………… D 4549-0080

Impact Polytyrene (PS–I) 220 ± 10 50 ± 10 ………… D 4549-0080

Polypropylene (PP) The injection speed is

MFR 1.0-1.5 g/10 min 250 ± 3 60 ± 3 set to produce equal
MFR 1.6-2.5 g/10 min 240 ± 3 60 ± 3 weight parts (i.e., part
MFR 2.6-4.0 g/10 min 230 ± 3 60 ± 3 weight not varying by
MFR 4.1-6.5 g/10 min 220 ± 3 60 ± 3 more than ± 2% D 4101-0081
MFR 6.6-10.5 g/10 min 210 ± 3 60 ± 3 regardless of material
MFR 10.6-17.5 g/10 min 200 ± 3 60 ± 3 flow rates and to
MFR 17.6-30.0 g/10 min 190 ± 3 60 ± 3 minimize sink and flash

Polyethylene (PE) Unless otherwise specified, test specimens shall be compression D 4976-0083
molded in accordance with Procedure C of Practice D 1928

Polycarbonate (PC)
Unfilled, MFR < 8 g/10 min 290-345 80-115 …………
Unfilled, MFR > 8 g/10 min 275-290 70-95 ………… D 3935-9487
Filled and reinforced 300-350 80-115 …………
High heat copolymer, unfilled 330-375 80-100 …………
High heat copolymer, filled/reinforced Consult manufacturer for recommended molding conditions

Acetals (POM)
Homopolymer 215 ± 5 90 ± 10 200 ± 100 D 4181-0088
Homopolymer, modified 210 ± 5 90 ± 10 200 ± 100
Copolymer 195 ± 5 85 ± 5 200 ± 100

Polyamide 6 (PA6)
Unfilled 260 80 200 ± 100 D 4066-00a89
Filled 290 80 200 ± 100
Polyamide 66 (PA66)
Unfilled 260 80 200 ± 100 D 4066-00a89
Filled 290 80 200 ± 100

Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT) 260 ± 3 80 ± 5 200 ± 100 D 5927-0090

Table 8. Recommended conditions for test specimen preparation from common materials according to ASTM guidelines.

89
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Material ISO test method(s) ASTM test method(s) Test speed (mm/min)

Rigid plastics 527-1 : 199921 D 638-0038 5 ; 50

527-2 : 199914

Thin plastic sheeting 527-3 : 1995108 D 882-00111 500

Elastomers 37 : 199494 D 412-98a95 50 ; 500

Composites 527-4 : 1997109 D 3039-00112 5

527-5 : 1997110

Table 9. Test methods for tensile properties.

TESTING PROCEDURES general sense. Table 9 summarizes the common

testing protocols often used for tensile testing.
As discussed in previous sections, the testing
of plastics can be quite exhaustive. It is not In large parts, the effect of anisotropy are quite
evident. For that reason, it is necessary to describe
uncommon to find that some properties draw more
whether the test specimens were cut in the
attention than others. Chief among these are
direction of flow (machine direction) or across the
tensile properties, impact strength, thermal
direction of flow (transverse or cross direction)
transitions such as glass transition temperature
when describing the tensile properties of a
(Tg) and crystalline melting temperature (Tm),
fabricated part. Also, the tensile behavior of a
melt rheology, and color. Let us look at how these
plastic is strongly influenced by the temperature
properties are tested. It is worth noting, at this
and the humidity of the environment especially for
point, that ISO/IEC and ASTM test methods for
hygroscopic materials.
many properties are similar in principle and the
differences between the specific test methods are To perform the tensile test, you clamp a test
rather minor. Even so, differences in measured specimen between fixed grips of the stationary
data between the two methods are expected frame and the movable crosshead of the testing
depending on the type of material, particularly machine. The test specimen is pulled along its
with thickness-dependent properties such as major axis at a constant rate specific to the
material type. The total load sustained by the
impact strength, DTUL, and flexural properties
specimen and the elongation of the part as it is
stemming from the variance in test specimen
stretched are recorded. From the load-elongation
dimensions and its preparation. Thus, any
data, the stress and strain values are calculated.
correlation between two sets of data is dependent
The stress-strain behavior is represented in a
on the material type, implying that one should not
graphical form as stress-strain curves (Figure 4).
assume that the property values generated by the
ISO test methods would always be equivalent to Some explanations of the terms commonly
the values obtained by using the ASTM method used in describing tensile properties follow.
with simple conversion to appropriate units. The stress is calculated by dividing the force, or
load on the specimen by the original cross sectional
Tensile Properties area of the test specimen. The units of stress are
Among the many mechanical properties of MPa or psi (lb/in2). The cross sectional area is
materials, tensile properties may be the most determined by multiplying the width of the
widely evaluated by the plastic industry. Tensile specimen (in the center of the part) by its thickness.
properties tell you the strength and stiffness of a The strain is a measure of how much the
material in tension and can be used to predict the specimen has elongated. It is defined as the change
performance of a plastic in an application in a in length of the specimen divided by the original

90
®
 Plastics Testing

Yield Point Break Point

Stress

Plastic
Elastic Region
Region

Strain
Elongation
at Break
Figure 4. Typical stress-strain curve.
length of the specimen. Multiplying this term by elongate due to molecules sliding past one
100 gives you a percent elongation, a typical unit another. After this point, the specimen can no
system for reporting strain. longer return to its original length.
The tensile strength is the maximum stress
The tensile modulus is the ratio of the stress to
withstood by the specimen before it breaks.
the strain in the initial linear portion of the stress-
The elongation at break is the percent strain curve. A modulus is a measure of the
elongation of the specimen at the moment it breaks. stiffness of the material. In cases where there is
The yield point refers to the location on the no linear portion of the stress-strain curve, it is
stress-strain curve where the sample begins to common to report a Secant Modulus which is

Tangent
Modulus
Line

Stress
Tangent
modulus

Strain
Figure 5. Determination of tensile modulus.

91
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Brittle
Stiff and strong

Stiff and tough

Stress
Soft and tough

Strain
Figure 6. Range of tensile stress-strain behavior of plastics.
determined by the slope of the line drawn from the or modulus of elasticity of the material, because
origin of the curve through a point on the curve up to the yield point the plastic material is being
(often taken to be 2% strain). stretched elastically and can return to its original
length easily. After the yield point, however, the
Although it is desirable to report the complete
polymer chains have begun to separate, becoming
stress-strain curve, discreet values for the tensile
untangled and exhibiting permanent deformation.
properties are generally reported. For example you
Eventually you reach the maximum elongation of
will often see reported results such as tensile stress
the plastic where the bonds within polymer chains
at break, strain or elongation at break, tensile
break (or rupture). The total energy required to
modulus and stress at yield.
cause this rupture is referred to as the toughness of
Results obtained from the different testing the material and can be calculated by integrating
conditions must not be directly compared. Because the area under the stress-strain curve.
of this, always report the test specimen geometry,
The shape of the tensile stress-strain curves
test speed and the conditioning of the sample.
give us a clue to the nature of the material
The stress-strain curve can be used to behavior. Figure 6 illustrates the easily
understand a great deal about a polymer. The distinguishable range of tensile responses
initial slope of the curve tells us about the stiffness exhibited by various plastics.

Behavior Examples

i. Brittle Polystyrene, Acrylics, SAN, highly reinforced material

ii. Stiff and strong ABS, Polycarbonate, Polyamides, highly filled resin

iii. Stiff and tough Impact modified polyamides, Impact polystyrene

iv. Soft and tough Elastomers, Low density polyethylene (PE-LD), Linear low density
polyethylene (PE-LLD)

Table 10. Examples of tensile responses exhibited by various plastics.

92
®
 Plastics Testing

Material ISO test method ASTM test method

Rigid plastics; FDIS 178 : 200122 D 790-0039 (3-point bending);

semi-rigid plastics D 6272-00113 (4-point bending)

Table 11. Test methods for flexure properties.

The tensile behavior of plastics is strongly In flexure testing, a test specimen is placed as
influenced by factors such as polymer composition a flat beam on two supports, typically with a
(e.g. crosslinking density, co monomers types and support span to depth ratio of 16:1 and the load is
as well as the monomer sequence distribution), applied by means of a loading nose at the center
of the support span at a constant rate of 2 mm/
type and amount of filler and additives, test
min. The specimen is deflected until rupture
temperature and the speed of testing. When using occurs in the outer fibers or until a maximum
tensile data it is important to remember that there is strain of 5% is reached in the outer fibers
no simple relationship between the tensile immediately under the loading nose. The load
properties of standard specimens under laboratory sustained by the specimen and the deflection are
conditions and the real life performance of a continuously recorded. From the load-deflection
product made from that polymer. dataset, flexural modulus and flexure strength are
determined. It should be noted that flexure
Flexural Properties strength cannot be determined when the
specimens do not break or do not fail in the outer
Flexural properties, particularly flexural
fibers. Unlike tensile testing, the stresses in the
modulus and flexure strength, are commonly test specimen through the specimen thickness are
reported for rigid and semi-rigid plastics and are not uniform—the top surface of the specimen is in
somewhat meaningless for softer materials like compression while the bottom surface of the
elastomers. The common test methods employed specimen is under tension. The results are
for flexure testing are summarized in Table 11. influenced by variables such as specimen
The 3-point bending approach is most common. thickness, temperature, and rate of strain.

Thickness of specimen h 4.0 ± 0.2 mm

Length of specimen l 80 ± 2 mm
Width of specimen b 10 ± 0.2 mm
Remaining width at notch base bN 8 ± 0.2 mm

Figure 7. Dimensions of Charpy impact test specimen in ISO 179-1 : 200024.

93
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

A 10.16 ± 0.05 mm
B 32.0 mm max/ 31.5 mm min
C 63.5 mm max/ 60.3 mm min
D 0.25 ± 0.05 mm R
E 12.7 ± 0.15 mm
Figure 8. Dimensions of Charpy impact test specimen in ASTM D 6110-9741.
Impact Properties Notched Charpy impact strength for plastics
were not commonly reported in the past in the U. S.
Impact testing includes a wide variety of test
and very few resin producers and almost no
methods to determine the toughness of a material or
processors in the U. S. were familiar with it until
the energy required to break a specimen by a load
recently. A number of variables—method of
applied dynamically at a high rate. The impact tests
notching, notch radius, quality of notch, time
include four general types of tests: pendulum
between notching and test, specimen thickness and
impact tests, falling weight impact tests,
temperature—are known to affect the test results.
instrumented impact tests and tensile impact tests.
In the notched Izod test described in ISO 180 :
In notched Charpy test, one of the pendulum 200023 or ASTM D 256-0040, the notched
impact tests described in ISO 179-1: 200024 (non- specimen is clamped in a vertical cantilever
instrumented) and 179-2:199725 (instrumented) or position with the notch aligned with the line of
ASTM D 6110-9741, a notched specimen is impact at a fixed distance from the specimen
supported horizontally on an anvil with the notch clamp but facing the direction of impact. A
aligned with the line of impact but facing directly pendulum type hammer mounted on the machine
opposite to the direction of impact. A pendulum is released from a fixed height and the pendulum
type hammer mounted on the machine is released strikes the specimen at a substantially fixed
from a fixed height and the swinging pendulum velocity of the hammer at the moment of impact.
strikes the specimen at a substantially fixed The energy absorbed per unit cross sectional area
velocity of the hammer at the moment of impact. behind the notch (in the case of ISO 180 : 2000 23)
The energy absorbed in the deformation of the or per unit of specimen width (in the case of
specimen is recorded. ASTM D 256-0040) in breaking the specimen in a
The specimen dimensions in ISO 179-1 : single swing is recorded.
200024 and ASTM D 6110-9741 are illustrated in In both pendulum type tests, the notch serves
Figures 7 and 8 respectively. The corresponding as a stress concentrator, which minimizes the
relationships between specimen, support and the plastic deformation aiding in directing the
striking edge in each case are represented in propagation of crack behind the notch. Both
Figures 9 and 10. methods primarily allow the estimation of the

94
®
 Plastics Testing

Span L 62 mm (+0.5, 0)

Figure 9. Relationship of support, specimen and striking edge to each other

in Charpy impact test (ISO 179-1 : 200024).
energy for crack propagation only and do not by a suitable method (hydraulic, pneumatic,
include information on the energy required for mechanical or gravity) is allowed to strike the
crack initiation. With materials of different impact specimen. Force vs. deflection diagrams for the
strengths, it is a common practice to employ specimen are recorded from which the puncture
hammers of different inertial energies. With long energy is calculated. Usually the tests are carried
glass fiber reinforced materials and thermotropic out at a dart speed of 4.4 m/s or 8000 inch/min
LCP (liquid crystal polymer) materials, notched (ipm) at temperatures of 23°C and –29°C. It has
specimens are not normally used. been observed that clamping the test specimen
enhances the precision of the results but may result
The falling dart impact tests ISO 6603-2 : in lower values than unclamped specimens. The
200026 or ASTM D 3763-0042 provide a measure results are also thickness dependent.
of the energy required to puncture the specimen by
the vertical free falling dart of fixed mass from a Glass Transition
and Crystalline Melting Temperatures
known height at a high speed. The square plate
specimen (60 mm × 60 mm × 2 mm thickness) in The glass transition temperature (Tg) and
the case of ISO 6603-2 : 200026 or the 3.2 mm crystalline melting temperature (Tm) are
thick 51 mm or 101 mm diameter disk in the case fundamental thermal properties that give insight
of ASTM D 3763-0042 is clamped in place. A 12.7 to the thermal transitions in the material. At a
mm ± 0.13 mm diameter hemispherical tup driven molecular level, the crystalline melting

95
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 10. Relationship of anvil, specimen and striking edge to each other in
Charpy impact test according to ASTM D 6110-9741.
temperature relates to the motions of entire precision. The most common method, however, is
polymer chains whereas glass transition the DSC technique. The test standards for
phenomenon relates to motions of chain segments. determining Tg by DSC are ISO 11357-2 : 1999114
Because it requires more energy to facilitate and ASTM D 3418-99115. In both of these test
movement of whole chains as opposed to chain methods, a small amount of a plastic sample,
segments, crystalline melting temperatures are usually about 20 mg, is placed in an aluminum pan
always higher than glass transition temperatures. and either heated from room temperature at a
Amorphous thermoplastics, by definition, exhibit constant heating rate of 20°C/min under a blanket
only glass transition temperature whereas of flowing inert gas (usually nitrogen) or cooled
semicrystalline thermoplastics characteristically from the melt state at a cooling rate of 20°C/min.
exhibit both these thermal transitions. The energy differential to maintain the sample pan
For the determination of glass transition and the empty reference pan at the same
temperature, several thermal characterization temperature is recorded during the thermal scan.
methods can be employed. For example, differential For more meaningful determination of Tg, cooling
scanning calorimetry (DSC), dynamic mechanical scans are preferred over heating scans because they
analysis (DMA), or thermomechanical analysis avoid any artifacts arising from the previous
(TMA) can be used with different degrees of thermal history of the material. For the

96
®
 Plastics Testing

determination of the crystalline melting transition, specific to each material type. Because annealing
the DSC technique is preferred. The relevant test relieves any residual stresses, annealed samples
standards are ISO 11357-3 : 1999116 and ASTM D always yield higher DTUL values.
3417-99117. In both these test methods, a small
Rheological Properties
amount of plastic sample, usually about 20 mg, is
placed in an aluminum pan and first heated from Rheology is the science associated with
room temperature at a constant heating rate of understanding how materials flow. Rheological
10°C/min under a blanket of flowing inert gas properties are important because they indicate
(usually nitrogen). The peak melting temperature how a molten plastic will flow into the mold
and enthalpy of melting are determined from the during processing, how easy it is to pump the
heating scans. Cooling scans from the melt state polymer melt, and the stability of the melt during
are used to determine the crystallization processing. Most common rheological properties
temperature and enthalpy of fusion. measured are melt flow rate and melt viscosity as
Determination of Deflection Temperature a function of shear rate.
Under Load (DTUL)
Melt Mass—Flow Rate (MFR) and
Unlike the Tg and Tm, the DTUL (sometimes Melt Volume—Flow Rate (MVR)
referred to as Heat Deflection Temperature or
Melt mass-flow rate and melt volume-flow
Heat Distortion Temperature (HDT)) is a
rate are single-point measurements that describe
reference temperature based on arbitrary criteria.
the relative flow characteristics of a polymer melt
It refers to the temperature at which a predefined
under specified conditions of temperature and
deflection occurs in a specimen that is subjected
load. MFR and MVR are inversely related to the
to flexural or bending load. The relevant test
molecular weight of the material. A low MFR and
standards are summarized in Table 12.
MVR imply high molecular weight. By contrast,
ISO test method ASTM test method high MFR and MVR correspond to a lower
molecular weight and hence represent easier flow
DIS 75-1 : 200128 D 648-00a44 characteristics. The difference between MFR and
DIS 75-2 : 200129 MVR is in the units for measuring the flow
characteristics. MFR is expressed in g/10 min
Table 12. Test methods for DTUL testing. whereas MVR is expressed in cc/10 min. The test
In both approaches, a standard test specimen standards are ISO/DIS 1133.2 : 200117 and
is placed in a fixture on two supports with a ASTM D 1238-0034.
support span of 64 mm in flatwise position or a To determine the MFR and MVR, a small
span of 100 mm in edgewise position with a fixed amount of polymer granules or pellets is placed in
load applied at the center of the support span a heated barrel maintained at a specified
corresponding to a stress of either 0.45 MPa temperature and a specified load is applied
(66 psi) or 1.8 MPa (264 psi) and immersed to a through a piston operating within the heated
depth of at least 50 mm in a heat transfer bath. barrel. The material is extruded through a
The temperature of the heat transfer medium is capillary die of a specified length and diameter.
raised at a uniform rate of 2 ± 0.2°C/min (or 120 Typically the capillary L/D is about 33. The
± 10°C/h) and the temperature of the medium extrudate is collected for a specific length of time.
corresponding to the specimen deflection of The extrudate is weighed and normalized for a
0.25 mm (0.010 in) is recorded. flow time of 10 min for the determination of
The specimens can be tested as molded MFR. To measure MVR, the volume of material
(which is referred to as unannealed) or following extruded through the capillary for a flow time of
annealing treatments at temperatures and times 10 min is determined. Table 13 summarizes the

97
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

ISO conditions ASTM conditions

Material
Temperature Load Temperature Load
(°C) (kg) (°C) (kg)

Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene resin (ABS) 220 10 230 3.8

Styrene-Acrylonitrile resin (SAN) 220 10 230 3.8

Polystyrene (PS) 200 5 200 5

Impact Polystyrene (PS-I) 200 5 200 5

Polypropylene (PP) 230 2.16 230 2.16

Polyethylene (PE) 190 2.16 190 2.16

190 21.6 190 2.16

Polycarbonate (PC) 300 1.2 300 1.2

Acetals 190 2.16 190 2.16
190 1.05

Table 13. Recommended Conditions for determination of MFR and MVR for Common Materials according to
ISO and ASTM Guidelines.
standard temperature and load conditions for a. estimations of shear sensitivity under
common material types. constant shear stress by measuring
viscosity at extremely high shear rates,
Melt Rheology
b. estimations of melt stability with respect to
The principles of measuring melt rheology are temperature by measuring melt viscosity at
similar to those for the determination of MFR and higher temperatures and at increasing dwell
MVR, i.e., plastic melt is forced through a times,
capillary die at a fixed temperature under constant c. determinations of melt elasticity by
load or stress. The primary difference here is that measuring the die swell ratio.
measurements are made at a set of conditions of
Molecular Weight and
temperature and shear rate that approximate Molecular Weight Distribution
typical processing conditions for that material
Gel permeation chromatography (GPC) is
type. Generally, the shear stress and shear strain
widely used to determine the average molecular
experienced by the polymer melt during the flow
weights and molecular weight distribution (MWD)
through the capillary are estimated from the of a polymer. A dilute solution of the polymer
dimensions of the capillary. From this test, the sample (usually about 0.25% in concentration) is
volumetric flow rate and the melt viscosity are injected into a solvent stream which is flowing
computed. The data is represented in a graphical through a packed column which contains a material
form of melt viscosity vs. shear rate. The relevant that has a broad distribution of pore sizes. Larger
test standards are ISO 11443 : 1995118 and ASTM molecules pass through the column relatively
D 3835–96119. The ISO 11443 : 1995118 allows quickly because they don’t get hung up in any of
the use of either a capillary or a slit die rheometer. the pores because they are too large to fit in them.
Smaller molecules will take longer since they can
The rheological measurements by these get stuck in some of the pores of the column
techniques can also include material. The elution times are detected using a

98
®
 Plastics Testing

Property As an indicator of

Notched impact strength Toughness

Hardness Scratch and abrasion resistance

Heat distortion temperature Maximum use temperature for the part

Vicat softening temperature Recommended temperature for the part

Melt flow index/rate Processability

Table 14. Common Misconceptions of the Meaning of Certain Properties.

differential refractive index (RI detector) which MISUNDERSTOOD AND

compares the refractive index of the polymer MISUSED PROPERTIES
solution to the pure solvent and reports the Too often, what a property really means and
difference as a function of the elution time. The how it is applicable in practice is greatly
relevant test standard is ASTM D 6474-99120. misunderstood. Although the measurement of
some properties may provide little indication of
Color and Color Difference
the performance of the plastic under actual use
Very often color evaluations are performed conditions there seems to be reluctance in the
qualitatively by comparing a sample of a known plastics industry to discontinue their reliance on
color to the test sample and checking how closely these measurements to determine the suitability of
the colors match. This leads to inconsistent results a resin for the intended application. Among the
because two objects may appear to have the same properties that are often misunderstood are those
color when viewed under daylight, but not under commonly reported in the product datasheets,
incandescent light. This phenomenon is known as such as those described in Table 14.
metamerism. To minimize the effect of Notched impact strength is often used in the
metamerism on color evaluation, the color industry as a differentiating criteria among
specimens should be viewed under specified candidate materials for toughness. Notched
lighting conditions and compared against a impact strength, although a useful property to
standard. Quantitative color measurements are describe the notch sensitivity of a material, does
widely performed today with the CIE system not shed any light on the toughness of the material
(ASTM E 308-99121) by measuring the in the absence of a notch or when stress states are
reflectance of specific wavelengths of light off of not always triaxial. The real value of notched
impact strength lies in determining the ductile-
a sample based on a specific type of illuminant.
brittle transition temperature, the temperature at
These are typically reported as L*, a*, and b*
which the material changes its failure behavior
values where the L* is a measure of lightness and
from a ductile to a brittle fashion under impact
a* and b* represent the hue dimensions of red/
conditions, by testing the notched impact strength
green and blue/yellow respectively.
at different temperatures.
Data Reporting Although DTUL at 0.45 MPa and 1.8 MPa are
both arbitrarily defined reference temperatures,
Very often, the test results are reported to too they are mistakenly used as an indicator of the
many significant figures. ASTM D 6436 - 99122 maximum use temperature or continuous use
was specifically developed to assist in temperature of the plastic material. In fact, clause
highlighting the accepted significant digits 5.1 of ASTM D 648-00a44 clearly states that the
associated with each material property. DTUL “data is not intended for use in design or

99
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Misused property Suggested alternative

Flexural modulus Tensile modulus

HDT @ 0.45 MPa (66psi) and 1.8 MPa (264psi) and Modulus versus temperature curve based on
Vicat softening temperature Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)

Mold shrinkage Shrinkage as a function of thickness, cavity pressure

and injection velocity

Melt Flow Rate (MFR) or Melt Index (MI) Viscosity-shear rate data within the processing
temperature range.

Table 15. Alternatives to Misunderstood Properties.

predicting endurance at elevated temperatures.” by designers in plate and beam analysis to
Similarly, clause 1.3 of ISO/DIS 75-1 : 200128 calculate the beam deflection and determine the
points out that the “measured DTUL results do not appropriate part thickness. However, development
necessarily represent maximum use temperature of apparent stress gradients across the beam or
since in practice essential factors such as time, plate thickness in flexure fails to satisfy the basic
loading conditions and normal surface stress assumptions of uniformity of stress through the
usually differ from the test conditions.” entire cross section in most material models used
Limitations of DTUL in describing the in engineering analyses. The relevance of flexural
temperature dependence of modulus are discussed modulus to designers is limited and tensile
extensively by Sepe123-125 and by Nunnery126. modulus is more appropriate for these
Processors commonly rely on the melt flow computations because of its uniaxial nature127.
rate of the resin and expect the processing For the same reason, the most useful creep data to
behavior of resins with the same MFR (or melt the designer are creep modulus under tension
index, in the case of polyolefins) to exhibit similar mode, although creep in bending is generally
viscosity behavior at all shear rates in the reported frequently.
processing temperature range. The fact that shear In the case of filled or reinforced plastics, the
rates during measurement of melt flow rate at a effect of anisotropy is usually magnified, often with
single temperature and load correspond to very significant differences in properties between flow
low range (< 100 s-1) in comparison to shear rates and the transverse directions and the properties
in excess of 10,000 s-1 typically encountered in measured from large molded parts generally differ
reality is frequently ignored. from those obtained with standard test specimens. It
However, the list of misused properties is by is, therefore, essential to evaluate the properties in
no means limited to only these properties. Too tension, creep, coefficient of linear thermal
many moldmakers think of mold shrinkage as a expansion etc., in both directions for the filled or
single value, ignoring its dependence on thickness, reinforced materials.
direction of orientation and processing conditions, Suitable alternatives to the misunderstood
especially cavity pressure. The mold shrinkage properties discussed above are shown in Table 15.
value as measured by ISO/DIS 294-4:200018 or
ASTM D 955-0035 does not accurately relate to SUMMARY
actual shrinkage in molded parts because of non- The information provided here is only a
uniform wall thicknesses in the parts, varying flow starting point to shed some light on the testing of
paths, pressure gradients, and process conditions plastics and is by no means exhaustive. The list of
encountered in practice. resources included at the end of the references
Flexural modulus is commonly used as an cover these topics in much more detail if you have
indicator of rigidity of the plastic and often used further interest.

100
®
 Plastics Testing

REFERENCES
1. Driscoll S.B. and Shaffer C.M. (1998) “What does the property datasheet really tell you?,” ASTM Sympo-
sium on Limitations of Test Methods for Plastics, Norfolk, VA, Nov. 1, 1998.
2. Rackowitz D. (1994) “Beyond the datasheet : a designer’s guide to the interpretation of datsheet proper-
ties,” Challenging the Status Quo in Design, ’94 Design RETEC Proceedings, (March 1994) pp 28-31.
3. Rackowitz D. (1994) “Looking beyond the material datasheet; Understanding plastic material properties,”
SAE Tech. Paper 1999-01-275, SAE International Congress & Exposition, Detroit, MI, March 1-4, 1999.
4. Shastri R. (1995) “Material Properties Needed in Engineering Design Using Plastics.” Int Plast Eng. and
Tech., 1, 53-60.
5. Shastri R. (1994) “Material Properties Needed in Engineering Design Using Plastics.” ANTEC ’94:
3097-3101.
6. ASTM D 5592-94: Standard Guide for Material Properties Needed in Engineering Design Using Plastics.
American Society of Testing Materials, Philadelphia.
7. ISO/FDIS 17282: 2000: Plastics—The acquisition and presentation of design data for plastics
8. ISO 10350 - 1: 1999: Plastics—The acquisition and presentation of comparable single-point data—
Part 1: Moulding materials
9. ISO/DIS 11403 - 1: 2001: Plastics—The acquisition and presentation of comparable multipoint data—
Part 1: Mechanical properties
10. ISO/CD 11403 - 2: 2001: Plastics—The acquisition and presentation of comparable multipoint data—
Part 2: Thermal and processing properties
11. ISO/FDIS 3167: 2000: Plastics—Multipurpose test specimens
12. ISO 294 - 1 : 1996: Plastics—Injection moulding of test specimens of thermoplastic materials—Part 1:
General principles, multipurpose—test specimens (ISO mould type A) and bars (ISO mould type B)
13. ISO/DIS 2580 - 2 : 2001: Plastics—Acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS) moulding and extrusion materials—
Part 2: Preparation of test specimens and determination of properties
14. ISO 527 - 2 : 1999: Plastics—Determination of tensile properties—Part 2: Test conditions for moulding
and extrusion plastics
15. ISO/DIS 1183 - 1 : 2000: Plastics—Methods for determining the density and relative density of non-cellu-
lar plastics—Part 1: Immersion method, pyknometer method and titration method
16. ISO/DIS 1183 - 2 : 2000: Plastics—Methods for determining the density and relative density of non-cellu-
lar plastics—Part 2: Density gradient column method
17. ISO/DIS 1133.2 : 2001: Plastics—Determination of the melt mass-flow rate and the melt volume-flow rate
of thermoplastics
18. ISO/DIS 294 - 4 : 2000: Plastics—Injection moulding of test specimens of thermoplastic materials—
Part 4: Determination of moulding shrinkage
19. ISO 2577: 1984: Plastics—Thermosetting moulding materials—Determination of shrinkage
20. ISO 62 : 1999: Plastics—Determination of water absorption
21. ISO 527 - 1 : 1999: Plastics—Determination of tensile properties—Part 1: General Principles
22. ISO/FDIS 178 : 2001: Plastics—Determination of flexural properties
23. ISO 180 : 2000: Plastics—Determination of Izod impact strength of rigid materials
24. ISO 179 - 1 : 2000: Plastics—Determination of Charpy impact properties—Part 1: Non-instrumented
impact test
25. ISO 179 - 2 : 1997: Plastics—Determination of Charpy impact properties—Part 2: instrumented impact test

101
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

26. ISO 6603 - 2 : 2000: Plastics—Determination of puncture impact behaviour of rigid plastics—Part 2:
Instrumented puncture test
27. ISO 2039 – 2: 1987: Plastics—Determination of hardness—Part 2: Rockwell hardness
28. ISO/DIS 75 - 1 : 2001: Plastics—Determination of temperature of deflection under load—Part 1: General
test method
29. ISO/DIS 75 - 2 : 2001: Plastics—Determination of temperature of deflection under load—Part 2: Plastics
and ebonite
30. ISO 306 : 2002: Plastics—Determination of Vicat softening temperature (VST)
31. ISO 11359 – 2 : 2000: Plastics—Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)—Part 2: Determination of coefficient
linear thermal expansion and glass transition temperature
32. ASTM D 792 – 00: Standard Test Methods for Density and Specific Gravity (Relative Density) of Plastics
by Displacement
33. ASTM D 1505 – 98: Standard Test Method for Density of Plastics by the Density-Gradient Technique
34. ASTM D 1238 – 00: Standard Test Method for Flow Rates of Thermoplastics by Extrusion Plastometer
35. ASTM D 955 – 00: Standard Test Method for Measuring Shrinkage from Mold Dimensions of Molded
Thermoplastics
36. ASTM D 6289 – 98: Standard Test Method for Measuring Shrinkage from Mold Dimensions of Molded
Thermosetting Plastics
37. ASTM D 570 – 98: Standard Test Method for Water Absorption of Plastics
38. ASTM D 638 – 00: Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics
39. ASTM D 790 – 00: Standard Test Methods for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and Reinforced Plastics
and Electrical Insulating Materials
40. ASTM D 256 – 00: Standard Test Methods for Determining the Izod Pendulum Impact Resistance of Plas-
tics
41. ASTM D 6110 – 97: Standard Test Methods for Determining the Charpy Impact Resistance of Notched
Specimens of Plastics
42. ASTM D 3763 – 00: Standard Test Methods for High Speed Puncture Properties of Plastics Using Load and
Displacement Sensors
43. ASTM D 785 – 98: Standard Test Method for Rockwell Hardness of Plastics and Electrical Insulating
Materials
44. ASTM D 648 – 00a: Standard Test Method for Deflection Temperature of Plastics Under Flexural Load in
the Edgewise Position
45. ASTM D 1525 – 00: Standard Test Method for Vicat Softening Temperature of Plastics
46. ASTM E 831 – 93: Standard Test Method for Linear Thermal Expansion of Solid Materials by Thermome-
chanical Analysis
47. ISO/DIS 2580 - 1 : 2001: Plastics—Acrylonitrile/butadiene/styrene (ABS) moulding and extrusion
materials—Part 1: Designation system and basis for specifications
48. ISO 4894 - 1 : 1997: Plastics—Styrene/Acrylonitrile (SAN) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 1:
Designation system and basis for specifications
49. ISO 4894 - 2 : 1995: Plastics—Styrene/Acrylonitrile (SAN) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 2:
Preparation of test specimens and determination of properties
50. ISO 1622 - 1 : 1994: Plastics—Polystyrene (PS) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 1: Designation
system and basis for specifications

102
®
 Plastics Testing

51. ISO 1622 - 2 : 1994: Plastics—Polystyrene (PS) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 2: Preparation of
test specimens and determination of properties
52. ISO 2897 - 1 : 1997: Plastics—Impact resistant Polystyrene (PS-I) moulding and extrusion materials—
Part 1: Designation system and basis for specifications
53. ISO/DIS 2897 - 2.: 2001: Plastics—Impact resistant Polystyrene (PS-I) moulding and extrusion materials—
Part 2: Preparation of test specimens and determination of properties
54. ISO 1873 - 1 : 1995: Plastics—Polypropylene (PP) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 1: Designa-
tion system and basis for specifications
55. ISO 1873 - 2 : 1997: Plastics—Polypropylene (PP) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 2: Preparation
of test specimens and determination of properties
56. ISO 1872 - 1 : 1993: Plastics—Polyethylene (PE) and ethylene copolymer thermoplastics—Part 1:
Designation system and basis for specifications
57. ISO 1872 - 2 : 1997: Plastics—Polyethylene (PE) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 2: Preparation
of test specimens and determination of properties
58. ISO 2898 - 1 : 1997: Plastics—Plasticized compounds of homopolymers and copolymers of vinyl chloride
(PVC-P)—Part 1: Designation system and basis for specifications
59. ISO 2898 - 2 : 1997: Plastics—Plasticized compounds of homopolymers and copolymers of vinyl chloride
(PVC-P)—Part 2: Preparation of test specimens and determination of properties
60. ISO 1163 - 1 : 1995: Plastics—Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC-U) moulding and extrusion
materials—Part 1: Designation system and basis for specifications
61. ISO 1163 - 2 : 1991: Plastics—Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (PVC-U) moulding and extrusion materials—
Part 2: Preparation of test specimens and determination of properties
62. ISO 8257 - 1 : 1998: Plastics—Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) moulding and extrusion materials—
Part 1: Designation system and basis for specifications
63. ISO 8257 - 2 : 1998: Plastics—Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) moulding and extrusion materials—
Part 2: Preparation of test specimens and determination of properties
64. ISO 7391 - 1 : 1996: Plastics—Polycarbonate (PC) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 1: Designa-
tion system and basis for specifications
65. ISO 7391 - 2 : 1996: Plastics—Polycarbonate (PC) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 2: Preparation
of test specimens and determination of properties
66. ISO 9988 - 1 : 1998: Plastics—Polyoxymethylene (POM)—Part 1: Designation system and basis for spec-
ifications
67. ISO 9988 - 2 : 1999: Plastics—Polyoxymethylene (POM)—Part 2: Preparation of test specimens and
determination of properties
68. ISO 1874 - 1 : 1996: Plastics—Polyamides (PA) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 1: Designation
system and basis for specifications
69. ISO 1874 - 2 : 1995: Plastics—Polyamides (PA) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 2: Preparation of
test specimens and determination of properties
70. ISO 7792 - 1 : 1997: Plastics—Thermoplastic polyester (TP) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 1:
Designation system and basis for specifications
71. ISO 7792 - 2 : 1997: Plastics—Thermoplastic polyester (TP) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 2:
Preparation of test specimens and determination of properties
72. ISO 15526 - 1 : 2000: Plastics—Polyketone (PK) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 1: Designation
system and basis for specifications

103
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

73. ISO 15526 - 2 : 2000: Plastics—Polyketone (PK) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 2: Preparation of
test specimens and determination of properties
74. ISO 15103 - 1 : 2000: Plastics—Polyphenylene ether (PPE) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 1:
Designation system and basis for specifications
75. ISO 15103 - 2 : 2000: Plastics—Polyphenylene ether (PPE) moulding and extrusion materials—Part 2:
Preparation of test specimens and determination of properties
76. ISO 14910-1 : 1997: Plastics—Thermoplastic polyester/ester and polyether/ester elastomers for moulding
and extrusion—Part 1: Designation system and basis for specifications
77. ISO 14910-2 : 1998: Plastics—Thermoplastic polyester/ester and polyether/ester elastomers for moulding
and extrusion—Part 2: Preparation of test specimens and determination of properties
78. ASTM D 4673 – 98: Standard Specification for Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene (ABS) Molding and
Extrusion Materials
79. ASTM D 4203 – 00: Standard Specification for Styrene-Acrylonitrile (SAN) Injection and Extrusion
Materials
80. ASTM D 4549 – 00: Standard Specification for Polystyrene and Rubber Modified Polystyrene Molding and
Extrusion Materials (PS)
81. ASTM D 4101 – 00: Standard Specification for Propylene Plastic Injection and Extrusion Materials
82. ASTM D 5857 – 01: Standard Specification for Propylene Injection and Extrusion Materials Using ISO
Protocol and Methodology
83. ASTM D 4976 – 00b: Standard Specification for Polyethylene Plastics Molding and Extrusion Materials
84. ASTM D 2287 – 96: Standard Specification for Non Rigid Vinyl Chloride Polymer and Copolymer Mold-
ing and Extrusion Compounds
85. ASTM D 1784 – 99a: Standard Specification for Rigid Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Compounds and Chlo-
rinated Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (CPVC) Compounds
86. ASTM D 788 – 96: Standard Classification System for Poly(Methyl Methacrylate) (PMMA) Molding and
Extrusion Compounds
87. ASTM D 3935 – 94: Standard Specification for Polycarbonate (PC) Unfilled and Reinforced Material
88. ASTM D 4181 – 00: Standard Classification for Acetal (POM) Molding and Extrusion Materials
89. ASTM D 4066 – 00a: Standard Classification System for Nylon Injection and Extrusion Materials (PA)
90. ASTM D 5927 – 00: Standard Specification for Thermoplastic Polyester (TPES) Injection and Extrusion
Materials Based on ISO Test Methods
91. ASTM D 5990 – 00: Standard Classification System for Polyketone Injection Molding and Extrusion
Materials (PK)
92. ASTM D 4349 – 96: Classification System for Polyphenylene Ether (PPE) Materials
93. ASTM D 4550 – 98: Standard Specification for Thermoplastic Elastomer-Ether-Ester (TEEE)
94. ISO 37 : 1994: Rubber, vulcanized or thermoplastic—Determination of tensile stress-strain properties
95. ASTM D412 – 98a: Standard Test Method for Vulcanized Rubber and Thermoplastic Rubbers and
Thermoplastic Elastomers—Tension
96. ISO/DIS 294 - 3 : 2000: Plastics—Injection Moulding of test specimens of thermoplastic materials—Part 3:
Plates (ISO moulds type D)
97. ISO 293 : 1999: Plastics—Compression moulding test specimens of thermoplastic materials
98. ISO 2818 : 1994: Plastics—Preparation of test specimens by machining

104
®
 Plastics Testing

99. ISO 10724 - 1 : 1998: Plastics—Injection Moulding of test specimens of thermosetting powder moulding
compounds (PMCs)s—Part 1: General principles and moulding of multipurpose-test specimens
100. ISO 10724 - 2 : 1998: Plastics—Injection Moulding of test specimens of thermosetting powder moulding
compounds (PMCs)s—Part 2: Small plates
101. ISO/DIS 295 : 2001: Plastics—Compression moulding of test specimens of thermosetting materials
102. ASTM D 3641 – 97: Standard Practice for Injection Molding Test Specimens of Thermoplastic Molding
and Extrusion Materials
103. ASTM D 4703 – 00: Standard Practice for Compression Molding Thermoplastic Materials into Test
Specimens, Plaques, or Sheets
104. ASTM D 3419 – 00: Standard Practice for In-Line Screw-Injection Molding Test Specimens From
Thermosetting Compounds
105. ASTM D 5224 – 00: Standard Practice for Compression Molding Test Specimens of Thermosetting
Molding Compounds
106. ISO 291 : 1997: Plastics—Standard atmospheres for conditioning and testing
107. ASTM D 618 – 00: Standard Practice for Conditioning Plastics for Testing
108. ISO 527 - 3 : 1995: Plastics—Determination of tensile properties—Part 3: Test conditions for films and sheets
109. ISO 527 - 4 : 1997: Plastics—Determination of tensile properties—Part 4: Test conditions for isotropic
and orthotropic fibre-reinforced plastics
110. ISO 527 - 5 : 1997: Plastics—Determination of tensile properties—Part 4: Test conditions for unidirec-
tional fibre-reinforced plastic composites
111. ASTM D 882 – 00: Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Thin Plastic Sheeting
112. ASTM D 3039/3039M – 00 : Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Polymer Matrix Composite
Materials
113. ASTM D 6272 – 00: Standard Test Method for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and Reinforced Plas-
tics and Electrical Insulating Materials by Four-Point Bending
114. ISO 11357 - 2 :1999: Plastics—Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)—Part 2 : Determination of glass
transition temperature
115. ASTM D 3418 – 99: Standard Test Method for Transition Temperatures of Polymers By Differential
Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
116. ISO 11357 - 3 :1999: Plastics—Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)—Part 3 : Determination of
temperature and enthalpy of melting and crystallisation
117. ASTM D 3417 – 99: Standard Test Method for Enthalpies of Fusion and Crystallization of Polymers by
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
118. ISO 11443 : 1995: Plastics—Determination of the fluidity of plastics using capillary and slit die rheometers
119. ASTM D 3835 – 96: Standard Test Method for Determination of Properties of Polymeric materials by
Means of a Capillary Rheometer
120. ASTM D 6474– 99: Standard Test Method for Determining Molecular Weight Distribution and Molecular
Weight Averages of Polyolefins by High Temperature Gel Permeation Chromatography
121. ASTM E 308 – 99: Practice for Computing the Colors of Objects by Using the CIE System
122. ASTM D 6436 – 99: Standard Guide for reporting Properties for Plastics and Thermoplastic Elastomers
123. Sepe M.P. “The usefulness of HDT and a better alternative to describe the temperature dependence of
modulus,” SAE Tech. Paper 1999M-221, SAE International Congress & Exposition, Detroit, MI
(March 1-4, 1999)

105
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

124. Sepe M.P. “Dynamic Analysis Pinpoints Plastics Temperature Limits,” Advanced Materials & Processes,
April 1992, pp. 32 – 41

125. Sepe M.P. “Material Selection for Elevated Temperature Applications: An Alternative to DTUL,” SPE
ANTEC ‘91, pp. 2257 – 2262

126. Nunnery L.E. “HDT and Izod—past their prime?,” Plastics Design Forum, May/June 1992, pp. 38 – 41

127. Breuer H. “Relevance of Flexural Modulus to the Design Engineer,” SAE Tech. Paper 1999-01-0276, SAE
International Congress & Exposition, Detroit, MI (March 1-4, 1999)

SUGGESTED READING
1. Brown R.P. (1999) Handbook of Polymer Testing—Physical Methods, Dekker, New York.

2. Shah V. (1998) Handbook of Plastics Testing, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York.

3. Hawley S.W. (1992) “Physical Testing of Thermoplastics,” RAPRA Review Report No. 60, RAPRA.

4. Shastri R. (2000) “Polymer Testing.” In Harper CA (ed) Modern Plastics Handbook, 4th Ed., McGraw Hill,
New York, pp. 11.1-11.94.

5. Clements L. (1998) “Testing and Characterization.” In Engineered Materials Handbook, vol 2. Engineering
Plastics, ASM International (1988), pp. 515 – 609.

APPENDIX 1. LIST OF RESOURCES

ISO S T A N D A R D S
International Organization for Standardization www.iso.ch +41 22 749 01 11
1, rue de Varembé +41 22 733 34 30 (fax)
Case Postale 56 [email protected]
CH 1211 Genève 20
Switzerland

American National Standards Institute www.ansi.org +1 212 642 4900

11 West 42nd Street +1 212 398 0023 (fax)
New York, NY 10036

Global Engineering Documents www.global.ihs.com +1 303 397 7956

15 Inverness Way East +1 303 397 2740 (fax)
Englewood, CO 80112-5776

ASTM S T A N D A R D S
ASTM www.astm.org +1 610 832 9585
100 Barr Harbour Drive +1 610 832 9555 (fax)
West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959

106
®
 Plastics Testing

TEST SPECIMEN MOLDS

Axxicon Molds Rochester Inc. www.axxicon.com +1 716 427 9410
150 Park Center Drive +1 716 427 9438 (fax)
West Hanrietta, NY 14586 [email protected]

Master Unit Die Products, Inc. +1 616 754 4601

P. O. Box 520 +1 616 754 7478 (fax)
Greenville, MI 48838 [email protected]

Axxicon Moulds Hemond BV www.axxicon.com +31 492 598888

Kanaaldijk z.w. 7b 5706 LD +31 492 533825 (fax)
P. O. Box 237 [email protected]
5700 AE Helmond
The Netherlands

TESTING EQUIPMENT
Ceast S.p.A. www.ceast.com +39 011 966 4038
Via Airauda 12 +39 011 966 2902
10044 Pianezza [email protected]
Torino, Italy

Ceast USA, Inc. www.ceast.com +1 803 548 6093

377 Carowinds Boulevard +1 803 548 1954 (fax)
Suite 207 [email protected]
Fort Mill, SC 29715
U.S.A.

Haake www.haake-usa.com +1 201 265 7865

53 W. Century Boulevard +1 201 265 1977 (fax)
Paramus, NJ 07652 - 1482

Tinius Olsen Testing Machine Co., Inc www.TiniusOlsen.com +1 215 675 7100
Easton Road +1 215 441 0899 (fax)
P. O. Box 429 [email protected]
Willow Groove, PA 19090-0429
U.S.A.
TMI www.testingmachines.com 516 842 5400
2910 Expressway Drive South 516 842 5220 (fax)
Islandia, NY 11722-1407
U.S.A.

Zwick GmbH & Co. www.zwick.com +49 7305 10 0

August Nagel straße 11 +49 7305 10 200 (fax)
D 89079 Ulm [email protected]
Germany

This listing is provided solely as a convenient resource to the readers. The authors do not guarantee
the accuracy or completeness of the lists or attempt to endorse the proprietary products or services of
any manufacturer or provider and assume no liability whatsoever for any inaccuracies or omissions in
the list.

107
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

APPENDIX 2. SOME USEFUL UNIT

CONVERSION FACTOR
To convert…

From U.S. Units to SI Units multiply by

°F °C 0.5556 × (F – 32)

ft-lb/in J/m 53.38

ft-lb/in kJ/m2 5.235a

in mm 25.4

in-lb J 0.113

psi MPa 0.006895

g/cm3 kg/m3 0.006895

Piose Pa-s 0.1

V/mil kV/mm 0.0394

From SI Units to U.S. Units Converstion factor

°C °F 1.8 C + 32

J/m ft-lb/in 0.0187

kJ/m2 ft-lb/in 0.476

mm in 0.0394

J in-lb 8.8496

MPa psi 145.0377

kg/m3 g/cm3 0.001

Pa-s Piose 10
kV/mm V/mil 25.381
a
Taking a depth under the notch of 10.2 mm.
SI, International Systems of Units.

108
®
 Plastics Testing

APPENDIX 3. COMPREHENSIVE LIST OF

TEST STANDARDS FOR PLASTICS
Significant
digits for
Property ISO/IEC test method ASTM test method
reporting
results
Physical Properties
Density/Specific Gravity
Bouyancy method DIS 1183 – 1 : 20001 D 792 – 0041 3
Density Gradient method DIS 1183 – 2 : 20002 D 1505 – 9842
Water Absorption 62 : 19993 D 570 – 9843 2
Molding Shrinkage
Thermoplastics DIS 294 – 4 : 20004 D 955 – 0044 3
Thermosetting molding materials 2577 : 19845 D 6289 – 9845
Rheological Properties
Melt mass – Flow Rate (MFR) DIS 1133.2 : 20016 D 1238 – 0046 2
Melt volume Flow Rate (MVR
Melt Density DIS 1133.2 : 20016 D 1238 – 0046 3
Melt Viscosity as a function of shear rate 11443 : 19957 D 3835 – 9647
(capillary rheometer)
D 5422 – 9348
(screw extrusion
capillary rheometer)
Mechanical Properties
Tensile properties
Tensile modulus 3
Stress at yield 527 – 1 : 19998 D 638 – 0049 3
Strain at yield 527 – 2 : 19999 2
Stress at break 3
Strain at break 2
Flexure properties
Flexural modulus FDIS 178 : 200110 D 790 – 0050 (3-point 3
Flexural strength bending) 3
D 6272 – 0051 (4-point
bending)
Compressive properties
Compressive modulus FDIS 604 : 200111 D 695 – 9652 3
Compressive strength 3
Creep properties
Creep modulus in tension DIS 899 – 1 : 200112 D 2990 – 0153 3
Creep modulus in flexure/bending DIS 899 – 2 : 200113 D 2990 – 0153 3
Creep modulus in compression ……….. D 2990 – 0153 3
Impact properties
Unnotched Izod impact energy 180 : 200014 D 256 – 0054 3
Notched Izod impact energy 3
Unnotched Charpy impact energy 179 – 1 : 200015 /1eU D 6110 – 9755 3
Notched Charpy impact energy 179 – 2 : 200016 /1eA 3

109
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Significant
digits for
Property ISO/IEC test method ASTM test method
reporting
results

Puncture impact energy 6603 – 1 : 199817 D 3763 – 0056 2

6603 – 2 : 200018
Tensile impact energy NWIP 8256 : 200119 D 1822 – 9957 2
Hardness
Shore Hardness DIS 868 : 200120 D 2240 - 0258 2
Rockwell Hardness 2039 – 2 : 198721 D 785 – 9859 3
Thermal Properties
Glass transition temperature 11357 – 2 : 199922 D 3418 – 9960 3
Crystalline melting temperature 11357 – 3 : 199923 D 3417 – 9961 3
DTUL @ 0.45 MPa (66 psi) DIS 75 – 1 : 200124 D 648 – 00a 62
3
DIS 75 – 2 : 200125
DTUL @ 1.8 MPa (264 psi) DIS 75 – 1 : 200124 D 648 – 00a62
DIS 75 – 2 : 200125
Vicat softening temperature 306 : 200226 D 1525 – 0063 3
Coefficient of Linear Thermal Expansion 11359 – 2 : 200027 E 831 – 9364 2
Specific heat DIS 11357 – 4.2 : 200028 D 3417 – 9961 3
Thermal conductivity D 5930 – 0165 3
Resistance to long term heat aging 2578 : 199329 D 3045 – 92 2
(reapproved 1997)66
Burning behavior
Horizontal burning IEC 60695-11-10 : 200030 D 635 – 9867
Vertical burning D 3801 – 0068
Limiting Oxygen Index 4589 – 1 : 199631 D 2863 – 0069 2
4589 – 2 : 199632
Electrical Properties
Electric strength IEC 60243 – 1 : 199833 D 149 – 95a70 3
34 71
Relative permittivity IEC 60250 : 1969 D 150 – 95 2
Dissipation factor 2
Volume resistivity IEC 60093 : 198035 D 257 – 9372 2
Surface resistivity
Comparative Tracking Index (CTI) IEC 60112 : 197936 D 3638 – 9373
Optical Properties
Refractive index 489 : 199937 D 542 – 0074 4
13468 – 1 : 199638
(Single beam instrument)
Total luminous transmittance 13468 – 2 : 199939 D 1003 – 0075 2
(Double beam instrument)
Haze 14782 : 200040 D 1003 – 0075 2
Specular Gloss D 2457 – 9776 3

110
®
 Plastics Testing

REFERENCES
1. ISO/DIS 1183 - 1 : 2000: Plastics—Methods for determining the density and relative density of non-cellu-
lar plastics—Part 1: Immersion method, pyknometer method and titration method
2. ISO/DIS 1183 - 2 : 2000: Plastics—Methods for determining the density and relative density of non-cellu-
lar plastics—Part 2: Density gradient column method
3. ISO 62 : 1999: Plastics—Determination of water absorption
4. ISO/DIS 294 - 4 : 2000: Plastics—Injection moulding of test specimens of thermoplastic materials—
Part 4: Determination of moulding shrinkage
5. ISO 2577: 1984: Plastics—Thermosetting moulding materials—Determination of shrinkage
6. ISO/DIS 1133.2 : 2001: Plastics—Determination of the melt mass-flow rate and the melt volume-flow rate
of thermoplastics
7. ISO 11443 : 1995: Plastics—Determination of the fluidity of plastics using capillary and slit die rheometers
8. ISO 527 - 1 : 1999 : Plastics—Determination of tensile properties—Part 1: General Principles
9. ISO 527 - 2 : 1999 : Plastics—Determination of tensile properties—Part 2: Test conditions for moulding
and extrusion plastics
10. ISO/FDIS 178 : 2001 : Plastics—Determination of flexural properties
11. ISO/FDIS 604 : 2001 : Plastics—Determination of compressive properties
12. ISO/DIS 899 – 1 : 2001 : Plastics—Determination of creep behavior—Part 1: Tensile creep
13. ISO/DIS 899 – 2 : 2001 : Plastics—Determination of creep behavior—Part 2: Flexural creep by three-
point bending
14. ISO 180 : 2000 : Plastics—Determination of Izod impact strength of rigid materials
15. ISO 179 - 1 : 2000 : Plastics—Determination of Charpy impact properties—Part 1: Non-instrumented
impact test
16. ISO 179 - 2 : 1997 : Plastics—Determination of Charpy impact properties—Part 2: instrumented impact
test
17. ISO 6603 - 1 : 1998 : Plastics—Determination of puncture impact behaviour of rigid plastics—Part 1:
Falling dart method
18. ISO 6603 - 2 : 2000 : Plastics—Determination of puncture impact behaviour of rigid plastics—Part 2:
Instrumented puncture test
19. ISO NWIP 8256 : 2001 : Plastics—Determination of tensile-impact strength
20. ISO/DIS 868: 2001 : Plastics—Determination of shore hardness
21. ISO 2039 – 2: 1987 : Plastics—Determination of hardness—Part 2. Rockwell hardness
22. ISO 11357 - 2 :1999 : Plastics—Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)—Part 2 : Determination of glass
transition temperature
23. ISO 11357 - 3 :1999 : Plastics—Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)—Part 3 : Determination of
temperature and enthalpy of melting and crystallisation
24. ISO/DIS 75 - 1 : 2001 : Plastics—Determination of temperature of deflection under load—Part 1: General
test method
25. ISO/DIS 75 - 2 : 2001 : Plastics—Determination of temperature of deflection under load—Part 2: Plastics
and ebonite
26. ISO 306 : 2002 : Plastics—Determination of Vicat softening temperature (VST)
27. ISO 11359 – 2 : 2000 : Plastics—Thermomechanical Analysis (TMA)—Part 2: Determination of coeffi-
cient linear thermal expansion and glass transition temperature

111
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

28. ISO/DIS 11357 – 4.2 : 2000 : Plastics—Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)—Part 4 : Determination
of specific heat capacity
29. ISO 2578 : 1993: Plastics—Determination of time-temperature limits after prolonged exposure to heat
30. IEC 60695-111-10 : 2000 : Determination of the burning behaviour of horizontal and vertical specimens in
contact with a small-flame (50 W) ignition source
31. ISO 4589 – 1 : 1996 : Plastics—Determination of flammability by oxygen index—Part 1: Guidance
32. ISO 4589 – 2 : 1996 : Plastics—Determination of flammability by oxygen index—Part 2: Ambient temper-
ature test
33. IEC 60243 – 1 : 1998 : Electrical strength of insulating materials—Test methods—Part 1: Tests at power
frequencies
34. IEC 60250 : 1969 : Recommended methods for the determination of the permittivity and dielectric
dissipation factor of electrical insulating materials at power, audio, and radio frequencies including metre
wavelengths
35. IEC 60093 : 1980 : Methods of test for volume and surface resistivity of solid electrical insulating materials
36. IEC 60112 : 1979 : Method for determining the comparative and the proof tracking indices of solid insulat-
ing materials under moist conditions
37. ISO 489 : 1999 : Plastics—Determination of the refractive index
38. ISO 13468 – 1 : 1999 : Plastics—Determination of the total luminous transmittance of transparent materials—
Part 1 : Single-beam instrument
39. ISO 13468 – 2 : 1999 : Plastics—Determination of the total luminous transmittance of transparent materials—
Part 1 : Double-beam instrument
40. ISO 14782 : 2000 : Plastics—Determination of haze of transparent materials
41. ASTM D 792 – 00 : Standard Test Methods for Density and Specific Gravity (Relative Density) of Plastics
by Displacement
42. ASTM D 1505 – 98 : Standard Test Method for Density of Plastics by the Density-Gradient Technique
43. ASTM D 570 – 98 : Standard Test Method for Water Absorption of Plastics
44. ASTM D 955 – 00 : Standard Test Method for Measuring Shrinkage from Mold Dimensions of Molded
Thermoplastics
45. ASTM D 6289 – 98 : Standard Test Method for Measuring Shrinkage from Mold Dimensions of Molded
Thermosetting Plastics
46. ASTM D 1238 – 00 : Standard Test Method for Flow Rates of Thermoplastics by Extrusion Plastometer
47. ASTM D 3835 – 96 : Standard Test Method for Determination of Properties of Polymeric materials by
Means of a Capillary Rheometer
48. ASTM D 5422 – 93 : Standard Test Method for Measurement of Properties of Thermoplastic Materials by
Screw-Extrusion Capillary Rheometer
49. ASTM D 638 – 00 : Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics
50. ASTM D 790 – 00 : Standard Test Methods for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and Reinforced Plastics
and Electrical Insulating Materials
51. ASTM D 6272 – 00 : Standard Test Method for Flexural Properties of Unreinforced and Reinforced Plastics
and Electrical Insulating Materials by Four-Point Bending
52. ASTM D 695 – 96 : Standard Test Method for Compressive Properties of Rigid Plastics
53. ASTM D 2990 – 01 : Standard Test Methods for Tensile, Compressive, and Flexural Creep and Creep-Rup-
ture of Plastics

112
®
 Plastics Testing

54. ASTM D 256 – 00 : Standard Test Methods for Determining the Izod Pendulum Impact Resistance of
Plastics
55. ASTM D 6110 – 97 : : Standard Test Methods for Determining the Charpy Impact Resistance of Notched
Specimens of Plastics
56. ASTM D 3763 – 00 : Standard Test Methods for High Speed Puncture Properties of Plastics Using Load
and Displacement Sensors
57. ASTM D 1822 – 99 : Standard Test Method for Tensile-Impact Energy to Break Plastics and Electrical
Insulating Materials
58. ASTM D 2240 – 02 : Standard Test Method for Rubber Property—Durometer Hardness
59. ASTM D 785 – 98 : Standard Test Method for Rockwell Hardness of Plastics and Electrical Insulating
Materials
60. ASTM D 3418 – 99 : Standard Test Method for Transition Temperatures of Polymers By Differential
Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
61. ASTM D 3417 – 99 : Standard Test Method for Enthalpies of Fusion and Crystallization of Polymers by
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
62. ASTM D 648 – 00a : Standard Test Method for Deflection Temperature of Plastics Under Flexural Load in
the Edgewise Position
63. ASTM D 1525 – 00 : Standard Test Method for Vicat Softening Temperature of Plastics
64. ASTM E 831 – 93 : Standard Test Method for Linear Thermal Expansion of Solid Materials by Thermo-
mechanical Analysis
65. ASTM D 5930 – 01 : Standard Test Method for Thermal Conductivity of Plastics by Means of a Transient
Line-Source Technique
66. ASTM D 3045 – 92 (1997) : Standard Practice for Heat Aging of Plastics Without Load
67. ASTM D 635 – 98 : Standard Test Method for Rate of Burning and/or Extent and Time of Burning of Plas-
tics in a Horizontal Position
68. ASTM D 3801 – 00 : Standard Test Method for Measuring the Comparative Burning Characteristics of
Solid Plastics in a Vertical Position
69. ASTM D 2863 – 00 : Standard Test Method for Measuring the Minimum Oxygen Concentration to Sup-
port Candle-Like Combustion of Plastics (Oxygen Index)
70. ASTM D 149 – 97a : Standard Test Method for Dielectric Breakdown Voltage and Dielectric Strength of
Solid Electrical Insulating Materials at Commercial Power Frequencies
71. ASTM D 150 – 98 : Standard Test Methods for AC Loss Characteristics and Permittivity (Dielectric Con-
stant) of Solid Electrical Insulation
72. ASTM D 257 – 99 : Standard Test Methods for DC Resistance or Conductance of Insulating Materials
73. ASTM D 3638 – 93 (1998) : Standard Test Method for Comparative Tracking Index of Electrical Insulat-
ing Materials
74. ASTM D 542 – 00 : Standard Test Method for Index of Refraction of Transparent Organic Plastics
75. ASTM D 1003 – 00 : Standard Test Method for Haze and Luminous Transmittance of Transparent Plastics
76. ASTM D 2457 – 97 : Standard Test Method for Specular Gloss of Plastic Films and Solid Plastics

113
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

114
®
QUALITY
JERRY GOLMANAVICH
J. ALISON MAYNARD
®

INTRODUCTION system structure within which the company

By this time you should have covered the operates in a consistent and predictable way while
principles of Probability and Statistics as well as striving to continuously improve. The quality
basic mathematics in previous chapters. If you assurance department selects random samples and
haven’t already done so, it might be helpful to identifies failures to evaluate the overall quality of
review these chapters so that it will be easier to outgoing products. The inspection department
understand what is presented here. performs statistical process control and other
quality and dimensional measurements to provide
This chapter attempts to provide guidance to feedback to the technician regarding necessary
the technician about the many aspects of quality
adjustments to the process. The quality or product
that are encountered during the process of making
engineer may be called on to help make a “how
plastic products. Everyone in the plastics industry
much flash is too much flash” decision before
has already encountered quality in at least some
shipping a product. The International
aspects of their jobs. Quality is a concept that is
Organization for Standardization (ISO) internal
not easily defined. Even the great quality gurus
auditor may ask you about how you know how to
never agreed on a favorite, all-encompassing
do your job and where your most recent
definition. Juran worked with many complicated
production records are located. However, of all
definitions and settled on “fitness for use.” This
these roles, it is the technicians who truly have
definition can be as narrow or as broad as the
their hands on the pulse of quality, a position that
reader wishes it to be. ‘Fitness for use’ means
can greatly influence fitness for use, the “quality”
producing a quality product that ultimately
of the product. Often we are faced with products
satisfies the customer’s stated as well as unstated
for which the quality standards are not simply
expectations, is reliable and safe over time,
performs the intended function, meets all stated black-and-white dimensions but are some level of
internal specifications, and requires the entire “good enough.” Indeed, each company makes its
organization to work together. own rules for quality and measures it according to
prescribed criteria.
The design teams working with the customers
establish the specifications and expectations for There is risk involved in discarding products
the final product, as well as the ease with which that a customer may decide are acceptable;
the product can be produced (manufacturability). however, the greatest and most costly risk occurs
The quality management organization defines the when a processor decides output is good, only to

115
Society of Plastics Engineers

have it returned by the customer. This situation routines focus on continually improving the
might be called “risk management.” Even when operation.
observational standards are created that show Although the examples used here are from
“how much discoloration is allowed” there will injection molding, the basic premises apply to all
always be a time when the judgment must be disciplines in plastic processing.
rendered if a product is on the borderline of
failure. SETTING THE STAGE
What exactly does the technician have to do FOR QUALITY
with quality? Everything! As the person who sets There are many inputs to a quality product;
up a process, monitors it, and keeps it running, the however, ideally the start of a quality product must
technician drives the quality of an operation. Let’s occur by designing quality into the product and
look at some specific aspects of quality from the processes (you may have heard the terms design
shop floor. for manufacturability or “design for six sigma” in
relation to this process). The means that not only
GOOD OR BAD? the customer’s specifications are considered at the
A simple example: Perceptions of quality can outset, but also the process needs and capabilities.
start at an early age, along with the puzzlements Once the facilities/equipment are in place, the
that go along with it. A wall shelf that was made in process should be verified and all the parameters
your first shop class may require “excessive” documented. This is done by determining all
sanding through several phases of sandpaper critical dimensions and features of the product and
before the instructor (or customer) is satisfied. The then establishing the process capability for each
surprise may come with the last shop class when critical dimension or feature. A designed
the same instructor explains that no sanding is experiment may be run to determine which key
required for the underside of the end table because processing variables are correlated to the
“Who’s going to look under there?” important features of the product. Even after
Without the explanation, it is difficult to make establishing critical to quality features and their
the judgment call. When judged separately, one capabilities, we are, of course, not assured a
might conclude there are two quality standards. In trouble-free run of perfect product. Inputs and
real life, experience hints at the fact that there is interactions with many other factors and
more to it than that. As an operation becomes organizations within the plant, such as preventive
familiar with its customers, products, and their maintenance, inventory, scheduling, staffing, etc.
uses, it usually becomes easier to determine what have significant impact on the final product
will satisfy the customer. When borderline cases quality. These are critical interactions that,
occur, the question becomes, “What will happen if although they may not be directly under the
I ship this product and my customer returns it?” technician’s control, must be acknowledged as
versus “How much will it cost me to scrap this inputs to the overall quality system. Exploring
product and maintain my performance record with these interactions is beyond the scope of this
the customer?” discussion; however, they should be noted when
The solution may appear to be simple, but as a analyzing root causes of specific quality issues.
process develops and machines and other Incoming material is the most obvious and
equipment wear, the need for making decisions direct input to a quality product. To protect against
seems to never end. Below, we present quality as a processing difficulties and quality problems that
total package. The technicians are the ones who may be caused by incoming material, each
should be aware of all the aspects that affect their company must decide what properties should be
output, recognize which ones are under their measured and what values are acceptable.
control, and make sure that their day-to-day Although not usually under the direct control of a

116
®
 Quality

process technician, the quality of the output starts Three sets of eyes checking product will help
with the raw materials—and the character of these ensure the ultimate quality sent to the customer.
raw materials can be changed within the process. One suggestion is to centralize the gauging and
Larger companies can develop their own criteria more technical inspection equipment for
for acceptance, but smaller companies may need inspection or process checkers. Then, provide
to rely on a supplier’s Certificate of Compliance, visual standards and go/no-go gauges to the
or equivalent, which says the material has been technicians and operators on the floor. The results
tested and proved to be satisfactory. Because we of the more technical process checks must be
cannot test all material characteristics, it is communicated quickly to the technicians and
important to consider the value obtained from the operators so that the problem may be controlled
test and ensure it is relevant to the application and immediately. All persons in the department should
achievable while still being economical. In other be empowered to place suspect product on hold, to
words, the supplier should be able to meet the protect the company and the customer until the
criteria without throwing too many lots of appropriate party makes a quality judgment.
material away.
Once the material is approved for use, it may QUALITY DURING INITIAL START-UP
be important to track what happens to it in the OF AN INJECTION MOLD
process. For example, measuring impact strength
As we have already discussed briefly, start-up
of a material before and after processing will tell
is a very critical time in the life of a mold. The
you how much degradation was experienced in
critical-to-quality features must be studied to
the process. It makes sense to establish the accept/
determine a process that is very capable of
reject criteria by having discussions with the
meeting the quality demands each and every time
customer. Once these are known, an internal
the tool is run. Experienced technicians often
quality system can be set up.
enjoy the challenge of a successful initial start-up.
As the tool is running for the first time, the
R OLES AND R ESPONSIBILITIES
technician may encounter several different
Because in most typical scenarios you, as the processes that produce good quality product. How
operator or technician, are the first person in your does the technician (possibly with the assistance
company to “look at” the output from the of the product engineer or other support staff)
equipment, you need to understand who is determine which process is the best and should be
responsible for what. In regards to inspection, recorded for others to follow? The best process
there are many options, but the two most likely will be the one that produces the least amount of
would be to1 make the operator responsible for the variation while meeting customer requirements in
measurement and reporting of quality data or2 to the critical-to-quality features.
remove all responsibility for quality from the
operator and place the responsibility on a process Process capability is direct comparison
checker or inspection organization. This between the variation of a critical feature and the
organization could be the sole source of data or width of the specification limit. There are many
could supplement the information collected by the texts and examples available to describe process
operator. Perhaps the most critical steps are to capability in more detail. Companies such as GE,
determine how to monitor output from here on and Motorola, and others are striving for “6 sigma”
who is accountable. There are many different ways quality. At a quality level of 6 sigma, the process
of defining the operator, process checker, and will produce three defects for every million
technician roles. The authors believe that the best opportunities for defects. Process capability (Cp)
organizations make every person in the is measured after you verify that the process is in
department (and company) responsible for quality. control, by taking the width of the specification

117
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

limits divided by 6σ (where σ is the standard During the initial run of the tool, samples can
deviation of the gathered sample data). be collected for alternative processes to determine
USL – LSL which gives the best process capability. A standard
--------------------------- = Cp rule of thumb requires a minimum of 30 data
6σ
points to generate a short-term process capability,
where USL = upper specification limit, although collecting more data will provide more
LSL = lower specification limit, and Cp = the basic
detail and more confidence in the process
process capability.
capability you calculate. A histogram provides an
excellent way to visualize how your process is
Higher Cp numbers suggest that the process is running and can easily be created from the data
producing fewer defects; lower Cp’s should signal points. Figure 1 shows a typical histogram that is
the technician to keep an eye on the process. Many based on the imposed “normal distribution” or
companies require their suppliers to provide proof
bell-shaped curve. In this example, the process is
of process capabilities of 1.5 or better, which
centered at the nominal value (Cp = Cpk), but the
equates to about 1350 parts per million (when the
variation of the process is at an undesirable level.
process is centered, the average actual value is the
Notice how some of the data points fall above and
same as the nominal value for the dimension).
below the process specification limits. This
Many times you will see reference to a Cpk process is running at a 3 sigma level, meaning that
value. This value represents the process capability the average data point ± 3 sigma fit within the
of a process that is not centered at nominal. This specification limits for a Cp = 1. A process
calculation takes the smaller of either running with this Cp would be expected to
USL – X X – LSL produce 66,807 defects per million. Microsoft
--------------------- or --------------------
3σ 3σ Excel, or any standard statistical software, can be
where X is the average of the sample data. used to find the sample standard deviation. Once
Thus, this value accounts for the increased amount the standard deviation is known, the process
of defects possible when a process is not running capability formulas above can be computed as
at nominal. previously described.

n=3,000 Histogram Example

250 LSL=9.9 USL=13.2
Cp( sigm a)= 1.0 0
Cpk(sigma) =1.00
200 Sigm a= 0.55
Max=13.5 0
Min=9.50

150
Number

100

50

0
9.6 9.8 10.0 10.2 10.4 10.6 10.8 11.0 11.2 11.4 11.6 11.8 12.0 12.2 12.4 12.6 12.8 13.0 13.2 13.4
to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to
9.7 9.9 10.1 10.3 10.5 10.7 10.9 11.1 11.3 11.5 11.7 11.9 12.1 12.3 12.5 12.7 12.9 13.1 13.3 13.5
Values
Figure 1

118
®
 Quality

DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS (DOE)

If there are many critical features and many alternative processing methods, the technician may want to
consider performing a designed experiment. This technique (as described in the “Design of Experiments”
chapter) allows the technician to optimize the processing variables relative to the variation of critical fea-
tures. This technique, although somewhat time consuming, is extremely powerful and well worth the
effort if it means sustainable, low variation, quality production.
Note: For an injection mold with multiple cavities, it is necessary to do the process capability and DOE
for each cavity. The cavities will always be somewhat different, and analyzing all cavities will show a
much larger amount of variation than the individual cavity variation. The total quality will only be as good
as the total variation allows, but analyzing the variation of the individual cavities allows the individual
causes of excessive variation to be pinpointed. Oftentimes the engineer will run some preexperiment data
to determine which cavity produces a product with the greatest variation, then the actual experiment is
done to reduce the variation on a single cavity with the understanding that reducing variation to that cavity
will reduce the variation of the remaining cavities as well as the overall variation for each shot.

A typical DOE involves running the product for a “start-up card” that may be used to collect
using all or many combinations of high and low data from the process.
values for two to six parameters. Doing this helps
the engineer determine which parameters have the E STABLISHING Q UALITY
greatest impact on the overall variability (the G UIDELINES FOR THE P RODUCT
significant factors) of the critical-to-quality Because of the complexity and variety of
feature being measured. If the number of tasks in plastic manufacturing, there are no hard
significant factors can be reduced, then further and fast rules. Each application is essentially
experiments can be run with the reduced number stand alone, so when a judgment is made,
of parameters at more levels (rather than just the hopefully it will be the correct one. Many
extreme high and low). This second stage of the decisions must be made when a new product is
DOE is where the process is scientifically introduced, such as these:
optimized to reduce variation. It is important for
the technician to understand why the engineer is • What needs to be inspected?
insisting on an experiment that requires so much • How often should the product be inspected?
work. Although it may seem ridiculous and
unnecessary, the DOE technique is a very
• How is the product inspected?
powerful tool for reducing variation, especially in • Who should do the inspection?
an industry such as plastics where many The product designers will identify the
parameters interact in unpredictable ways. features they feel contribute to form, fit, and
The ultimate results from all this upfront function. In addition to the standards set forth by
effort will be a set of “best practices” that can be the designer, the customer ultimately determines
used each and every time the mold is in the critical-to-quality features of a product. The
production. Much of the headache of rejecting customer (whether internal to the manufacturing
and troubleshooting parts during subsequent start- plant or external) will also need to help define the
ups will be eliminated with the implementation of infamous quality “gray areas.” How much is too
the best practices with the lowest variation. At the much flash, sink, discoloration, etc.? Most issues
end of the chapter, we have included a template that are critical to the customer will not be black-

119
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 2. An example of a visual quality reference. The reference gives the operator,
technician, and process checker detailed information on what defects to check for and if the
defects are acceptable or not.
and-white decisions. For this reason, it may be maneuver may reasonably reflect typical usage
essential that a department develop a set of wherein an “installer” may be expected to “line
workmanship standards and visual aids. up” holes by bending, twisting, or straightening
Technicians as well as operators prefer the quick the part being installed. However, be aware that it
and easy access that visual aids provide over more is typical to encounter maximum warpage
traditional attempts at verbally describing the requirements and other similar considerations
quality feature. Workmanship standards will be
because bending of semirigid pieces will introduce
constantly evolving. Each and every time a quality
stress, and may ultimately cause a failure out in
feature is questioned, information about the
disposition of the suspect product (once the the field. Holes with flash require a different
responsible person has analyzed whether or not it consideration that will be based on actual usage.
is acceptable) needs to be made available for Starting a screw through a hole that has a smaller
future reference. diameter due to flash may lead to satisfactory
performance, but if the intent is to drop a screw
A quick note about measuring: Plastic parts
are generally more compliant than metals and can completely through the hole, which has a
be flexed and bent more easily, thus making them minimum diameter requirement, the screw may
difficult to measure consistently and accurately. A not drop under its own weight. Each attribute to be
good rule of thumb for a part that has bent or measured should be agreed upon by both the
bowed after being manufactured is to straighten customer and supplier, as well as the techniques
the part in a fixture and then measure. This used to verify the measured attribute.

120
®
 Quality

How much inspection? Let’s say that you’re plastic products when from 1% or 5% defective
checking a process every hour for parts that are was considered normal. The standard sampling
molded every 20 seconds and one defect is found. plans can, as we have previously stated, detect a
Is this good enough? Let’s say that your customer problem for which there is a high defective rate,
is buying knives and forks and spoons that are usually more than 1.5% defective, or more than
loosely packed in boxes and your prices are 10% 15,000 parts per million defective. The sampling
lower than your competitor’s. Would your future plan does not guarantee that it will detect a
business be in jeopardy if a customer at a fast defective rate that is less than 1.5%. So you see as
food store received an underfilled knife? What a company it may make sense to audit product to
about defects found in medical equipment? An this or other levels as some assurance that when
important point to consider is that, even with the process is grossly out of control you will
100% inspection, not all defects will be identified. detect it. However, to survive in today’s
(A general rule of thumb is that 100% inspection marketplace more than just random auditing is
by human operators will be able to catch only required to keep defects from being shipped to
about 80% of the defects present.) Typical your customers; 1.5% would mean a defective
sampling plans suggest that defect “rates” component in more than 1 out of every 100
between 1% and 3% can be achieved reasonably. components on your car, VCR, computer, etc. You
Although this might be satisfactory for a producer as a consumer would never tolerate this kind
of knives, forks, and spoons, it would hardly be quality and we should not expect our customers to
acceptable for producers of pacemakers and other tolerate it from our plastic processes. This is
critical applications. especially important when you consider that your
When setting up an inspection plan, it is molded parts are most likely the base components
necessary to compare the consumer’s risk (the of multistep assemblies.
probability of shipping bad product to the The outgoing quality is determined by
customer) versus the producer’s risk (rejecting multiplying the defective rates of each level of
some good product along with some bad product). assembly. Using this rationale, if we start out only
Many books have been written on the subject, and 99% good, we can never reach 100% and will
your quality department will be able to provide an most likely get increasingly worse through
inspection plan consistent with your supplier’s subsequent operations. Each person in the
expectations and your company’s standard organization should strive for zero defects. This is
practices. These inspection plans are based on especially difficult in the plastics industry because
average quality levels, AQL (otherwise thought of many operations produce small critical parts, at a
as average long-term expected percent defective very fast speed, and it may be difficult to inspect
for a process) or on average outgoing quality each and every part. Establishing and following
levels, AOQL (average long-term percent best practices, regular and careful monitoring of
defective seen by the customer after the supplier processing variables, along with the process
has caught and 100% inspected those lots that capability of the quality features of the part, must
failed the original inspections). Inspecting to an be taken seriously and those responsible held
AQL level of 1.5% will detect a failure accountable for their actions. Please see the
approximately 95% of the time when the process section on “Monitoring” for more suggestions on
is producing 1.5% defective product. reaching zero defects.
Although most companies still rely on
inspection plans, the only companies that will TRAINING
survive the next decade of competition will be Training is of the most basic elements of a
those that strive for zero defects. This is a very successful quality system and a successful
tough concept for those that began producing company. Good training starts with good training!

121
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Although on-the-job training might be the easiest referenced if later in the run the machine is found
and most accessible training for technicians and to be producing defects. It is also recommended
operators, this method alone will introduce too that the process be rechecked after about an hour
much variation into your system. Persons assigned or so to ensure the quality of the output has not
the responsibility of training new operators should changed. Any assigned personnel may have this
first be trained in how to be effective trainers. It is responsibility
critical to the success of the employee that the
person training them is capable of effectively HANDLING NONCONFORMING
imparting their knowledge and making sure that PRODUCT
the new employee has truly learned the new skills. During start-up and troubleshooting periods, it
A good training program should minimally consist is very likely that defective or suspect parts will be
of a basic checklist for each training topic and a generated. The technician should take extra
sign-off for each item once the new employee can caution in these instances to make sure that
successfully demonstrate they are comfortable suspect and good parts are always kept clearly
with all its aspects. Standardized training separated. After all the work we put into
materials should be developed such that each new producing good parts, it would be a shame to
employee learns the same “best practices.” inadvertently ship product that we know is bad!
Standardized training results in employees who
enter into full responsibility with similar and ENSURING QUALITY
complete knowledge of the required technical IN THE LONG TERM
basics and the criteria necessary to make good Statistical Quality Control (SQC)
decisions relating to quality, productivity, safety,
This section is not meant to replace a textbook
and the business in general.
on statistical quality control (SQC), but we would
One-on-one training for technicians should be like to touch on highlights of this procedure. Some
supplemented with technical classes based on the basic philosophies of SQC are the ability to detect
theory that the new technician cannot learn solely the difference between assignable and random
on the shop floor. The training should be causes and the ability to detect when the process is
documented as to who was trained, on what and out of control and needs intervention and
when. It may also be helpful for your department/ adjustment. SQC allows us to determine the
company to regularly evaluate the effectiveness of quality of a large number of products by checking
your training efforts and continually improve what a small number. The number of samples taken
you are able to offer new employees. from a process may be called a subgroup and
generally ranges from 1 to 5. The most important
R E C U R R I N G S T A R T -U P S thing to remember is that, to learn the most, all
A set of work instructions should be available samples in a subgroup should be taken from the
to the technician on machine start-up. These work same machine, die, mold cavity, or whatever
instructions should reflect the results of the initial component makes the product unique. The basic
tool start-up process and should give parameters process of SQC requires collecting samples and
that quickly bring the technician to a high quality measuring a particular characteristic, such as a
product. The authors also recommend that the part dimension, to tell you something about the
technician fill out a start-up card showing the character of the process.
initial processing parameters. We have found that Typically, X and R charts are used. For
the start-up card can work well as a sign-off sheet discussion purposes, let’s consider the X chart a
for the quality personnel and the operator to measure of accuracy and the R chart a measure of
approve the parts once the machine has been precision. Accuracy will be calculated by how close
started. The start-up card settings can then be a measurement is to the nominal (target) dimension

122
®
 Quality

X & Moving Range

0.03 0.030

0.02
X
0.01 0.008
0.005
0.003
0.00 0.000
0.005 0.005
0.004
0.003
M
R 0.002
0.001 0.001
0.000 0.000

4/12/2001 9/6/2001 10:40:27 AM

Figure 3. This graph was generated using Criterion™, an SPC software package from Siemens.
or central tendency. Precision will be calculated by averaged and then compared to the average of the
how large or small the difference is in the five samples 2 through 6 and so forth (see “Math 2”
dimension(s) of the subgroup collected or the chapter or refer to one of the quality references
variability of the process. It is important that data listed at the end of this chapter for specifics on
from each operation (e.g., extruder, injection mold calculating X and R charts). The R chart will be
cavity, etc.) be isolated from others. A process can populated by the difference between the current
be accurate without being very precise. It can also measurement and the previous measurement. As
be precise without being too accurate. you can see from the top X chart, the process was
Because most SQC-based decisions are made nearly over the specification limit (0.030) when
based on trends, it is very important to begin data process control first began. With the help of the
collection right away with a new process. control chart, the warp issue is now practically
Information from the initial tool run can be used nonexistent and any changes in warp are quickly
as a benchmark for future runs. As with any identified and corrected.
inspection process, the more frequently data are What good does the X and R chart do for the
collected, the higher your confidence level that technician? As the technician observes the trends
the process is being accurately described. The plotted on the X and R charts they can determine
more frequently checks are made, the fewer whether the process needs adjustment. Often times
number of products have to be reexamined when when a part is inspected it will not be right at the
defects are found. Once again, economics dictate nominal value. The control chart is used to help
how much time shall be spent and by whom. the technician determine if the value that was
Let us look at a case history from one cavity measured is a result of random variation (in other
out of a four-cavity injection mold where words the process is still centered at nominal and
individual samples were collected every shift and will continue to produce measurements centered at
inspected for a warp dimension (Figure 3). In this nominal) or the value occurred because of some
case the sample size was one. This type of R chart assignable cause (i.e., something in the process
calculation is based on a “moving range” where 5 has now shifted and the technician must adjust the
consecutive values (e.g., samples 1 through 5) are process to get it recentered). Use of control charts

123
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

prevents defects and variation caused by constant is in control. Once in control, the data for this
“tweaking” of the process, and it is extremely cavity are well between the specification limits
important for the technician to know the difference (USL=0.030˝ and LSL=0.000˝), but the chart
between tweaking based on a single inspection shows moving ranges that vary from “zero” to
value and adjusting based on an out-of-control near the control limit of 0.005 in. This may be
condition with an assignable cause. When cause for concern, indicating excessive variation
measuring actual dimensions (e.g., length), in the process.
variation in metal parts can suggest a pattern of
Statistical Process Control
tool wear. However, with injection molding what
may be happening is that the part might not be The next step after statistical quality control is
“packing out” and resulting in smaller dimensions. statistical process control. We define it as
This would not mean that the size of the cavity is controlling quality by controlling the process. For
changing! Understanding your specific example, rather than measuring product
manufacturing process (such as injection or blow characteristics, you can measure process
molding) is of course crucial for using the characteristics such as temperatures, pressures, or
information from the control charts effectively. times. To develop a high confidence level in this
There are several general rules that can be applied technique, a person should understand
to the observed control chart trends, such as one relationships between process parameters and part
data point outside the control limits, one data point quality. Usually this can be done by using design
outside the specification limits, or eight data points of experiments techniques or by performing
on one side of the average dimension. Your process capability studies.
company will decide which rules are most Looking at a process with so many variables
important for your processes. can be daunting, but an experienced molder
For the process shown in Figure 3, one might usually possesses a good feel for where most of
conclude that after data point 30 or so, the process the problems come from. The resultant charts can

Figure 4. Graphic display from Dartnet software by RJG and Associates.

124
®
 Quality

look similar to actual dimensional measurements; A designed experiment has determined that if the
however, the units may be psi (packing pressure), peak cavity pressure is held between 3000 and
peak pressure, screw position, temperature, or 5000 psi in cavity 1 that there is an extremely
another variable that appears to directly affect an high confidence level that the parts will be good
important characteristic of the product. It is (no underfill, flash, sink, etc.; cannot detect
suggested that correlation studies be performed to
aesthetics such as color). Alarm limits could be
verify that the variation of a process parameter
set at these limits and then if any shot falls outside
mirrors the variation of corresponding product
the limits, the defects can be separated (using a
characteristic. So, why would one to put forth
extra effort to use this technique? The answer is to part diverter or reversing conveyor) into a
minimize or even eliminate other forms of collection container that could be designated
inspection. “defects.” As data accumulate, control chart limits
can be calculated. The system can continue
MONITORING SYSTEMS calculating this value and alarm when it exceeds
the established limits. The question then becomes
This section describes something that can be
how much production is now considered
the most challenging but also the most rewarding
“suspect”—this is the part called “risk
technique in the toolbox. For those who have
installed monitoring systems, the electronics can management.” Often some of the parts rejected by
do much of the work for you. Figure 4 shows how a monitoring system will have been processed
much information can be obtained just from one under a low or high parameter value but due to
glance. The example shows many pieces of data other conditions were not actually defective.
from each cycle (the lower or cycle chart) as well Regularly comparing the results of the defect bin
as one piece of data per cycle for each of the to the values associated with alarms will tell you
parameters being monitored (the upper or if you need to expand or tighten your alarm
summary chart). control limits. When a process shifts such that
Using this technique allows one to monitor many parts begin being rejected, the technician
factors such as peak cavity pressure from a must be alerted to adjust the process. The next
pressure transducer that is placed inside the tool at question would be how to reestablish the process.
the last place to fill, hydraulic injection pressure, The other drawers in the technician’s toolbox will
fill time, or other data which may have been help to address the question of what to change
determined to be reliable in predicting the quality depending on the process. However, as the
of the output. Monitoring systems offer a technician gains experience with their specific
technician the convenience of automatically monitoring system, rules of thumb can easily be
recording data at intervals specified by the established relating process shifts detected by the
technician. Many monitoring programs collect
monitoring systems to their root causes.
data on each and every shot; this capability
provides true 100% inspection and the unique If you reach this point, the next step would be
ability to be 100% confident, at least about certain to sit back and watch. It should not take long
process-related characteristics. (See “Setting Up a before you realize that you are monitoring the
Quality System.”) Let’s describe how a correct variables at the correct frequency—or
monitoring system can aid in the productivity of maybe neither of the above. If all else fails, it’s
an operation.
time to start all over again. More information on
Suppose a four-cavity injection mold is being computer-integrated manufacturing can be found
run with a cavity pressure transducer in cavity 1. later in the next chapter.

125
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

A NOTE ABOUT manual is an absolute must, and any effective

CERTIFICATION company should already have something like this
in place.
Certifying an operation according to the
guidelines established by ISO requires a company The costs to obtain certification will vary
to describe its quality system in detail. It also widely based on the size and complexity of a
requires that the company follow what it business, but ultimately will result in the
establishes as standard procedures in the manual, capability to sell products to customers requiring
in other words, “Say what you do and do what you this noble achievement. Certification of any
say.” This is a basic requirement of a certification operation does not mean that the company’s
audit, yet it is this very thing that gets most quality is any better than its competitors. What it
companies in trouble. A correctly implemented suggests is that management has made an effort to
ISO 9000 system will provide the means to analyze establish a process for monitoring the quality of its
each process as well as a vehicle to improve each output. Although this is significant, it must be
process. Contrary to most organization’s ISO 9000 accompanied by the discipline to strive for
implementations, the goal of being certified is not continual improvement. Even companies already
to produce a truckload of paperwork; in fact, the
with the best quality adhere to this philosophy.
latest version ISO 9000:2000 states clearly that
documentation should be provided only if it adds
value to the system. WHERE DO WE GO
FROM HERE?
Certification requires establishing and
following standardized (and hopefully best Even if you do not commit yourself to the
practices) procedures. ISO 9000 specifies the above philosophies, a technician has an obligation
general areas that must be addressed by a to be accountable and do the best possible job for
company with a robust quality system. Not all his employer. If you understand the basic
these elements will directly affect the technician principles behind the strategies in your shop, you
but some will. The procedures established for your should be able to do your best job and be satisfied
use should be followed. If you find a need to when you can prove your production is of the
deviate from standardized procedures, make sure utmost quality. Your employer has the right to
the change is a best practice and then work to get expect the best from you and should provide the
the standards changed. A common complaint is tools to do it. No matter what quality system is
that ISO 9000 requires too many forms. This is not currently utilized by your company, the technician
true. Your company created these forms and they has the most pivotal role to play in producing
can get rid of them. Get with the persons in charge quality product. In this chapter we have tried to
and reevaluate the forms to determine what highlight some elements of a sophisticated quality
information is necessary, what information is used system, to give the technician insight into the tools
or needs to be used, or see if the form can be and procedures the engineers and management
automated or simplified. Our suggestion is to they work with may be trying to implement to
make the system work for you, not against you. improve the existing processes. We hope you will
Obtaining certification may be a worthwhile be able to use this knowledge combined with your
pursuit; however, what may be the most valuable existing technician’s skills to reduce variation,
result from following this path would be to instill optimize processes, and ultimately help your
discipline in any operation. Any good auditor will company be as successful as possible. For more
look for things such as neatness, work ethic, detailed discussion regarding setting up a quality
accountability, and making sure that all of the system using monitoring equipment, please read
employees have bought into the concept. A quality the following chapter.

126
®
 Quality

Figure 5.

FURTHER DISCUSSION FOR This histogram (Figure 5) shows output from

THE INTERESTED READER individual samples from cavity number 1 that
results in a Cp greater than 2.7 and a Cpk greater
There has been much discussion over the years than 1.6, significantly less defects than that shown
regarding the application of the normal distribution if a normal distribution were drawn for the same
to plastics processing. We will leave it up to the data. So, if you feel that your data represent a
reader to determine if it is correct, but we should non-normal distribution you may want to consider
also introduce “Johnson curves.” Sometimes data testing to see if Johnson curves can be applied. If
will result in a distribution that does not seem you are convinced that these will more accurately
show your quality and capability, by all means,
“normal” (in fact, some experienced folks in plastic
use them. Your supplier of data collection
processing suggest that there is very little normal
equipment can provide further information.
about the industry). There are formulas that can
suggest that Johnson curves should be used to APPENDIX
calculate capability as the normal distribution does
not apply. Johnson curves can be of many different Start Up Card Example
shapes, so we offer one example of what we have Figure 6 (on the following page). Machine
seen in the past. Start-Up–Sign Off/Checklist

REFERENCES
1. Eckes G. The Six Sigma Revolution. How General Electric and Others Turned Process into Profits. Wiley,
NY (2001)
2. Hoyer R.W. and Hoyer B.B.Y. “What is quality?” Quality Progress 43, No. 7, 53. (2001)
3. Juran M. and Gryna F.M. Quality Planning and Analysis. McGraw-Hill, NY (1980)
4. Montgomery D. (1991) Introduction to Statistical Quality Control. Wiley, NY

127
®
 Society of Plastics Engineers

J O B C H A N G E R E Q U E S T C A R D / S T A R T -U P C A R D

Tool:__________________________________ Press:__________________
Initial Setup 2nd Setup 3rd Setup

Comcode

Date / Quantity / / /
New
Compound/Material
Data
Act. Cycle Time

Layout Cycle Time

Initial Setup



Check
Reason Color Change



for Tool Repair



New Data
Process Change

Tool Ticket

Layout & copy to process checker

Dryer On/Clean Hopper

Grinder Clean?

Thermolator/Chiller on
Install
Checks Water Flow?
required
Load Job on Dartnet
for each
new Tranducers functioning?
comcode
Shuttle/Alarm ready?

Old parts to shipping

Remove start-up parts and purgings

Clean Tie Bars

Area Clean? (compound?)
Date:______________
Nozzle

Zone 1

Zone 2
Zone 3
Temps
Zone 4

Fixed Mold

Moveable Mold

Dryer

128
®
 Quality

Fill Time (set)

Actual Fill Time

Pack Time
Timers
Hold

Screw Run

Cool

Fill/Inj High

Pack/Inj Low
Pressure
Hold

Back

Shot Size

Trans. Point

Cavity Count

Misc. K.O. Count

Inj Velocity

Pack Vel

Suck Back

MMTC Tool Installation

MMTC Press Start-Up

Approval
Process Checker (#)

Operator (#)

129
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

130
®
COMPUTER-INTEGRATED
MANUFACTURING
DALE E. LUCAS
®

INTRODUCTION Next, CIM transformed to incorporate

methods for technicians to identify poor
Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)
has made major evolutionary improvements over production rates, scrap occurrence, and variation
several decades, paving the way for quality in an effort to prevent them. The technology level
systems now used by plastics processors of this CIM included the use of relational
worldwide. Although there are numerous quality databases providing information for integrated
programs available to plastics processors, most management reports. The application of high-
are either manual documentation systems speed statistical methods such as precontrol and
providing after-the-fact data or at best secondary absolute process control (APC) enabled the
computer systems, not directly linked to the processor to anticipate what to do as conditions
plastic processing machine and or related begin to deteriorate along with some event
auxiliary equipment. CIM directly linked to the management capabilities. This level is where most
machine via a data communication network systems have halted in their evolution.
provides distinct advantages to plastics processors Finally, the current and most effective
and technicians in injection, blow, extrusion, and evolvement of CIM is the new Smart
thermoforming disciplines. Manufacturing System (SMS) for specific plastic
Evolution of Computer-integrated Manufacturing applications. SMS is founded on an open
into Smart Manufacturing architecture relational database with dynamic
Initially, CIM systems were little more than flexibility for the individual processor using
cycle counters that measured production rates and modular design features and automation. SMS is
efficiencies. They identified subpar performance coupled with instrumentation grade sensors and
occurring in “real time.” CIM evolved to include preamplifiers to ensure absolute accuracy in data
process parameter monitoring and manual inputs acquisition. The importance of precise sensoring is
from shop floor personnel about defects. This was to provide an unbiased third-party verification of
done to understand why poor performance existed information from machine to machine using
with an indiscriminate use of X-bar and R charts identically calibrated hardware. Due to new and
on the process parameters without verification of streamlined operation methods at plants, a smart
what the normal population was. Evolution of manufacturing system consistently delivers an
CIM was dependent on shop production reports automatic online quality system that has preemp-
and the general application of statistics. tive problem detection capability based on specific

131
Society of Plastics Engineers

product requirements and machine or equipment accomplished with a manual or nonintegrated

performance criteria. Current CIM gives process record system maintained by the processor.
technicians and engineers a tool that increases their
The processor sets up this standalone quality
effectiveness and response to potential quality system to assure the product is produced properly but
problems automatically before unacceptable part is still using after-the-fact statistical packages in
production regardless of the process type. order to feed back information to the respective
It therefore becomes necessary to easily technicians. Statistical information such as this
integrate several process applications and typically arrives too late to impact any problem that
may already exist. Aside from broad-based statistical
peripherals into a single data acquisition source
projections of what might occur, these offline
and deliver automated alerts and information to
programs often fall short of delivering the tools that
key personnel as the conditions occur along with
can be used online, automatically, and now.
modular features such as barcode recognition for
flexible tracability and tracking requirements. A Smart Quality System has the process
dynamics to automatically identify machine
SETTING UP QUALITY capability and, in addition, to provide immediate
SYSTEMS performance alerts for product criteria of the
product when problems occur. The result is an
The selection of a quality system has established tooling and machine relationship or
traditionally been accomplished solely by the quality microcell within the system, supplying
customer’s attribute and dimensional requirements immediate information when variation causes out-
of the molded, extruded, or formed product. In of-specification performance before the
addition, there is often a documentation production of bad parts and automatically alerting
requirement by many customers that is traditionally the technician or process engineer.

Figure 1. Smart manufacturing quality system network.

[Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]

132
®
 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing

process types. Additional parameters are often

included based on the product, customer
requirements, and the technical needs of the
operator. A smart quality system will provide the
flexibility to readily change this configuration
from machine to tool combinations along with the
product specifications by simply adding the
required instrumentation grade sensors/preamps.
The charts in Figures 3 and 4 provide
examples of the configurable performance Class
Factor tables integrated into a smart
manufacturing quality system. Technicians and
Figure 2. Process variation indicator.
[Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]
engineers can establish the critical parameter(s)
automatically monitored by the system for each
Identifying the Machine Capability running tool and machine process type such as
Performance Baseline injection molding, blow molding, extrusion,
thermoforming, and compounding.
Identification of the equipment capability
provides the measure of variation the technician Additional benefits are realized when more
can expect to see under nominal operating in-depth diagnostics are required with the ability
conditions. More importantly, the technician to view the trend performance, of the process, that
needs to be informed, when variation begins to is constantly acquiring parameter data samples
increase, to respond before producing out-of- from the various machines networked to the
specification product. An example of this type of system. The trend charts provide the technician
automated alert is shown in Figure 2, along with with an accurate picture of the type of variation
precise identification of the process parameters and will guide them in making the proper decision
causing the variations. The scale used in for any corrective actions required, as seen in
determining the capability of the machine is an Figure 5. With this type of data being centrally
unbiased third-party tool used throughout the located and available to the various disciplines of
plastics industry. These Class Factors of the factory, operation resources can be assigned
performance, integrated into a Smart Quality quickly to maintain a high quality and
System, focus the technicians’ efforts toward performance level.
resolving the varying parameter(s), saving To ensure accuracy, these tools should be
lengthy diagnostics time and preventing quality combined with highly repeatable and accurate
issues fast. instrument-grade sensors installed on all the
Maintaining a molding machine with minimal machines in the network. These provide the
variation on the key process parameters provides technician with the ability to understand the
a stable platform for the development of the machine performance a mold/tooling requires. A
product specifications, which will directly smart quality system can provide the capability to
correlate to the parts quality requirements. The develop process specification limits that correlate
key process parameters for most injection to the molded, blown, extruded, or formed part
molders, in general, are cycle time, hold time, requirements, offering sound microcells of quality
inject time, plasticate (screw recovery) time, peak assurance within the process.
injection psi, hold psi, and back psi. Similar key For those integrated smart control systems
process specific parameters exist for the common specific to injection and blow molding, analysis
blow-molded, extrusion, and thermoforming can be conducted on intracycle pressure and

133
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 3. Injection molding class factor performance table.

[Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]

Figure 4. Class factor table for wheel blow molding process.

[Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]

134
®
 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing

parison control profile quality traces both locally based on what occurred possibly an hour or more
at the machine and in real time from networked in the past. Although the statistical methods
user stations from within the automatically mentioned here serve as a good starting point, the
updated quality system. process development method in a smart quality
Process Development and Quality Requirements
system focuses the technician directly on what is
occurring now with the machine performance and
The development of a process for a particular how it is truly impacting the quality requirements
product (tool) has traditionally been one that has of the product. It also provides a method to
been delegated to a shop’s most experienced develop a process that is effective, simply by
technician(s) and or process engineer(s). Many producing acceptable parts.
engineers use statistical methods such as design
of experiment (DOE), molding area diagram Once the machine or process is running at
(MAD), or hybrid variations of these to establish optimum condition, performance is stable, and the
where the machine setpoints for time, pressure, product quality is acceptable, the range of
distance, and several other parameters should be. permissible parameter operation is automatically
Often, this is a time consuming method and sampled and quickly utilized to develop upper
expensive because it is interruptive to the and lower specification limits and control criteria
production process and requires extensively (Figures 6 and 7). The user determines the
trained personnel. duration of the sampling period based on the
The refinement of the process by the product configuration and quality assurance
technician then takes place via a “best practices” guidelines used in the shop or that are specific to
method and is always “subjectively” modified the customer. Once the accepted time and quality
based on the depth of experience of the particular level criteria have been satisfied, the specification
person. This information concerning the setup of limits are saved and downloaded to the machine
the process is stored via some type of manual or and the process is then qualified; each and every
offline electronic format, with little or no cycle is based on what is required to maintain
reference to the machine and tool relationship at acceptable product automatically. In processes
that time. This practice creates an environment for where the operation is continuous, such as in
a “reactive” process that finds the technician extrusion and compounding, timed-based
adjusting process parameters somewhat blindly measurements are used.

Figure 5. Trend chart.

[Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]

135
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 6. Upper/lower specification limits.

[Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]

All noncompliant parameter occurrences are Figure 7. Blow molding control.

detected and a specific alert is automatically sent [Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]

through the quality system network that can be understanding and development of a robust quality
delivered directly to the technician assigned to the system that can be applied to all machines, tools,
machine/operation via electronic paging methods and process type combinations.
in plain language that is easy to understand The automatic alerts sent to the technician or
(Figure 8). This method allows for a preemptive process engineer when an issue arises indicate the
action by the technician to correct the process as exact nature or the process parameter deviation in
needed to prevent unacceptable production. plain language, allowing the technician to rapidly
direct attention to the most significant problems.
In applications where various downstream
equipment is used or operations are performed, Certain individuals and or groups can be
the rapid identification of quality bottlenecks is assigned to specific types of alerts, which further
invaluable. When peripheral equipment such as provides for immediate notification to designated
conveyors, fly cutters, cooling tables, and
offloaders is included in the smart quality system,
the technical personnel can correct adverse
conditions before processing through the primary
machine operation; this prevents interruptions or
shutdowns of production. In the continuous
process of extrusion, compounding, blow
molding, and some thermoforming, this will
greatly reduce scrap levels and help to ensure
improved product quality. With this process
monitoring system in place, the technician can
accurately make a product attribute to process Figure 8. Automatic alerts.
parameter correlation that is fundamental to the [Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]

136
®
 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing

assessment and often times prevents improper

adjustment. When fully integrated, the SMS
quality program becomes closed loop.
As the processor becomes more involved with
the customer in the development process today,
there is opportunity to utilize the quality system
to take them closer to the processing operation.
This allows the processor and the customer to
have a mutually beneficial relationship and a
clearer focus on what it takes to maintain a high
level of quality and production. Additionally, the
technical personnel will have an independent
third-party verification of the process accuracy, a
Figure 9. User-defined alert configuration chart. critical asset within the quality systems integrity.
[Courtesy of Hunkar Laborataories, Inc.]
Charts
personnel. An example is provided in Figure 9 There are numerous statistical charts used and
displaying a common user configuration for an maintained by the technical personnel who
injection molding process. A configurable setup respond to the process and product attributes. This
provides the technician with alerts that are method can be labor intensive, costly, and
specific to the machine and tool combination and typically provides the information well after the
the process parameters that are critical in product has been produced. Once the process has
maintaining acceptable product quality. The been developed and the upper/lower specification
immediate notification of the alerts to the limits are in place, a correlation exists and the
processing personnel ensures that out-of- traditional measuring of part dimensions is
specification performance is minimized. The completed less often. Also, each and every cycle
statistical methods and charting available for is measured at the machine rather than a sample
analysis and verification of repeatability and taken at set time intervals. The time interval
control are discussed under the chart section of traditionally used varies from once an hour to as
this chapter. seldom as once a shift, depending on the customer
requirements and quality guidelines, allowing the
Involving the customer in the quality process
opportunity of poor quality production to go
development of its products can build a strong
undetected.
relationship to help assure product quality will be
maintained. Additionally, integrated The qualification of the product in a smart
documentation of the process is available manufacturing quality system occurs constantly,
electronically without relying on manual inputs or every cycle on each machine in the network,
other stand-alone programs. As the plant’s providing nearly 100% quality assurance. This
processes become more fully developed, qualification of the key parameters on every
automated product qualification and sorting can machine and pieces of the downstream equipment
be implemented based on the equipment available for the process/product delivers the only effective
in the molding plant such as part removal method of not only assuring product quality but
robotics, automated conveyors, and other types of also reducing the impact when performance begins
part segregation devices. In the instance of to drift or when a breakdown occurs with
extrusion processors, it becomes a valuable tool immediate notification being sent to the technician.
when the performance of pullers, cutters, winding A smart quality system acquires process
apparatus, etc. are included in the quality performance data from the machine network

137
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

automatically, with no manual intervention on a highlighted to allow for immediate focus on the
routine basis. Although, provisions for manual problem area(s).
input should be readily available with relative ease
Such a diagnostic report will provide tools for
of use such as barcoding of reject reasons,
graphing the trend performance of any of the
downtime causes, and general observations data. It parameters along with distribution, X-bar and R,
should provide analysis tools and charts for and correlation, and provide multiple parameters
personnel to gauge the process progress or to plotting for visual comparison. The technician can
conduct diagnostics of trends to minimize view the performance of any or all monitored
variation and often eliminate significant parameters along with the statistical calculations
performance problems. and make decisions preemptively, on what and
how much to adjust the process, to maintain or
The charts most frequently used are
improve repeatability. It is not uncommon to
performance trend charts, X and R charts,
quickly experience that less frequent and more
distribution charts, and correlation charts. Along
accurate adjustments to the process occur based on
with statistical calculations for CpK and sigma,
this type of analysis capability method.
the quality system should have provisions for
these on the most recent data from the machine/ The performance graph first directs personnel
tool cell(s). It is of critical importance for these to the most significantly occurring problem, as
data to be updated in real time for making the indicated in Figure 11, along with other
most accurate quality decision. parameters that have experienced lesser
occurrences. The graph shows that the peak
The calculations for Cpk and sigma are injection pressure has a high occurrence of failure.
automatically computed when the data for a The other parameters listed are cautioning the
particular machine/tool are called up (Figure 10). technician to take action once the most significant
The areas of significant deviation are also problem(s) is addressed.

Figure 10. Statistical Diagnostics Report. [Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]

138
®
 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing

Figure 11. Process performance Pareto chart. [Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]
A view of the trend chart of the indicated limit alert if the process is left unchecked. The
parameter should provide a view of the machine trend analysis chart is a very important tool in
performance along with the upper/lower preventing bad parts when the technician
specification limits (USL/LSL) for the product responds to the automated alerts (Figure 8) that
(Figure 12). This tool normally presents a are electronically delivered to the process
preemptive opportunity for the technician to technician or engineer.
prevent bad component production. Taking Many customers require X and R charting that
corrective action based on the quality systems can be both time consuming and costly to
automated surveillance of process performance. produce. However, the smart quality system
The USL/LSL for the product is shown as dark delivers this charting for the parameter data on all
gray lines and the automated process wizard USL/ the running machine/tool and process
LSL displayed in light gray. Although there are combinations that are networked in the smart
significant alerts outside the wizard USL, the quality system automatically. Figure 13 displays
performance has not caused a product alert. An 8- the statistical calculations along with the graph.
to 20-min time frame is common before product The value added here to the X and R chart is that

Figure 12. Trend analysis chart. [Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]

139
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

The correlation chart allows for a more in-

depth analysis of any two parameters of any
process type. The technician can preemptively
assess the impact of a change in the process to the
other, often interdependent parameters. This
capability provides an insight to the impact of
process adjustments and frequently prevents
excessive adjustments that often lead to additional
production of noncompliant product. Simply put,
it will verify the quality of the decision
(adjustment) that the technician is about to make
and reveal how other parameter(s) will be affected.
Figure 13. X-bar and R chart
with statistical calculations. Figure 15 shows a correlation of hold and inject
[Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.] time with a correlation of 30% within 10% of the
now it relates directly to the process so that the data points. Any correlation of 25% or greater is
technician or engineer knows that a particular typically considered to be significant and thus, an
parameter will remain statistically sound within adjustment to either parameter has an impact on
the limits based on its CpK value. This the other. The correlation chart also provides a
source of verification once an adjustment is made
information usually prevents unnecessary
to the process and the impact it had on the other
adjustments and prompts rapid attention on
monitored parameters for a specific machine/tool
performance criteria because of the low CpK
combination.
value, indicating a severely deteriorated condition
that will result in bad part production if corrective A quality system equipped with multiple
action is not taken immediately. parameter analysis gives personnel a visual
reference of the automatically monitored
The distribution chart presents the data in parameters in one chart, along with the process
visual format for rapid identification of a specification limits. This overview of the process
particular parameter performance trend along with encourages rapid analysis and response and
a view of its distribution according to the process ultimately the prevention of out-of-control
specification limits (Figure 14). Process situations that almost always go unnoticed until
technicians and quality personnel commonly use after poor part production or process operation has
this chart for midrange analysis of trends. become a significant and costly problem.

Figure 14. Parameter distribution chart. [Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.]

140
®
 Computer-Integrated Manufacturing

SMART MANUFACTURING and or age of the equipment. This system provides

SYSTEMS VERSUS an unbiased third-party verification and is capable
MONITORING SYSTEMS of doing this with no human intervention.

The Quality Systems in today’s molding, Automated process problem detection and
extrusion, and compounding plants must have automated product qualification are incorporated
certain capabilities to allow the processing into the smart system, allowing preemptive
personnel to effectively and efficiently produce molding and processing to become the norm
increasingly higher quality products in increased rather than the exception in all industry. Tooling
quantities. In addition, there is a limited number and machine quality can be scheduled to provide
of skilled people a company can afford or has automatic alerts when maintenance should be
available to accomplish this task and yet remain performed at prescribed levels set by the user for
competitive. specific tools and machines. Additionally, a smart
quality system will automatically provide solution
A monitoring system alone is no longer
suggestions for the problems to the personnel
adequate for this task, as these require specifically
dedicated personnel to attain just a minimum assigned to that tool/machine or process quality
level of success. The personnel for this type of microcell.
system are scarce, as is the capital to keep them A quality system must have modular capa-
on board. Quality and production departments are bilities that allow a base system to function well
working closer than ever before and cannot afford for molders and processors, regardless of their
to use different offline information formats to level of sophistication, with program modules
make decisions concerning the quality level of delivering a high number of automated functions.
products and process running on the shop floor. Automation allows them to grow with its
The Smart Quality Manufacturing System changing customer base and industry quality
provides a single source of reliable and accurate requirements, simply by adding the desired
data from which various plant personnel can program module to the existing system, in a
make decisions. It utilizes highly accurate seamless manner. It becomes a dynamic system
instrumentation grade sensors and preamps, that enabling technicians and engineers to spend time
are traceable to a gold standard, to ensure the assuring quality and productivity rather than
accuracy of the data regardless of make, model, putting out fires.

Figure 15. Correlation chart. Courtesy of Hunkar Laboratories, Inc.

141
®
SAFETY
SUSAN R. HOWE AND HUGH PATRICK TONER

A TECHNICIAN’S • Assisting in the coordination of safety and

COMMITMENT TO SAFETY health activities among departments
Responsibility for a safe workplace lies with • Participating in accident investigations,
everyone involved with the manufacturing writing accident investigation reports, and
facility. Technicians, especially, are important role assisting in the identification of corrective
models in demonstrating safe work practices in actions
the plant.
Technician’s Role
Safety should be an essential part of a
technician’s job, and a technician’s commitment Technicians should familiarize themselves with
to safety should be a part of his/her overall the company’s safety policy and program. They
performance appraisal. Technicians should take should be knowledgeable of all safe operating
the lead and demonstrate their commitment to procedures for the equipment and facilities for
safety by such activities as these: which they are responsible and be able to explain
them to the other employees. Technicians should
• Attending safety meetings and participating know which procedures are safe and should be able
on safety committees to explain them to their peers. But, more than this,
• Providing one-on-one safety coaching or they should make certain that safe operating
training procedures are understood. To do so, they should
apply their process knowledge toward meeting
• Performing job safety analyses safety goals in the same way they would toward
meeting production goals. Technicians should
• Making safety inspections understand their jobs, know how to work with
• Spotting and correcting unsafe conditions people and, most of all, help others understand how
immediately to do their job safely. Most importantly, technicians
should set an example by following all safe
• Monitoring employee use of personal operating procedures.
protective equipment (PPE)
As a matter of routine, a technician should:
• Recommending policies and actions to
improve overall safety and health • Inspect the work area for unsafe conditions
conditions or actions before entering that work area

1
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Report any hazardous condition, injury, or Once unsafe conditions are identified for each
near-injury to supervisors and management step, approaches or activities to offset or avoid
them should be considered, including these:
• Encourage all employees to be responsible
for their own safety • Finding a new way to perform that step in
the job
• Perform a job safety analysis before starting
new equipment or instituting new • Changing materials, tools, equipment, or
procedures location

• Follow appropriate safety and health • Modifying the job procedure to eliminate
procedures the specific hazard

• Never operate unsafe equipment • Reducing the frequency of the procedure

Job Safety Analysis
• Adding protective equipment
Job safety analysis is the technique for • Using approved safety warning signs
breaking down any given work assignment into its Accident Investigations
basic steps, studying each for inherent or potential Accidents happen because of unsafe
hazards, and developing specific work procedures conditions or unsafe acts. An accident
that will eliminate or control each potential investigation should carefully seek out the causes
hazard. Job safety analysis is especially important for both conditions and acts. Corrective actions
for operations with new processes, locations, should be based on accurate and reliable data. The
procedures, or machinery for which hazards have investigation should not focus on finding fault. Its
not been identified. purpose is to find out why the accident happened
A job safety analysis breaks the job down into and what can be done to prevent this type of
successive steps narrow enough that any unsafe accident from happening again in the future.
practices or conditions may be detected. Careful In an accident investigation, all relevant details
observation and common sense are the essential should be recorded, including these:
components of job safety analysis. Technicians
should try to put themselves in the operator’s place • Any defects in plant equipment or design
and ask themselves the following questions and • Any unusual production demands
others like them:
• Instructions or training given to the operator
• Are adequate guards or safety mechanisms before the accident
in place?
• Condition of floors, lighting, and ventilation
• Could I be caught between two objects (such
as calender rolls, moving platens, etc.)?
• Position of guards, interlocks, and other
safety devices
• Will I be exposed to hot surfaces? • Positions and behavior of nearby personnel
• Are any potential health hazards such as before the accident
toxic chemicals, noise, heat stress, or • Whether standard operating procedures
radiation present in my work environment? were followed
• Are there any sharp or protruding objects • Whether personal protective equipment was
nearby? used and its condition
• Could I strain my back by pushing or The extra time needed to investigate and
lifting? document the causes of the accident and then to

2
®
 Safety

initiate a remedy will be small compared to the • Direct contact with exposed moving parts of a
benefits observed. machine or power-transmitting mechanisms
An accident may involve many different (gears, pulley, slides or couplings)
causes, such as these: • Machine failure from overloading, metal
• Malfunctioning component fatigue, or improper use

• Insufficient training • Contact with materials such as hot molten

plastic, hot equipment surfaces, or flash
• Lack of concentration from trimming operations
• Disregard of instructions • Operator error
• Lack of proper lighting • Direct contact with hazards such as
• Poorly designed or missing guards electricity from junction boxes, control
panels, or “hot,” improperly grounded
• Defective equipment machines
• Poor housekeeping A fundamental requirement for safe operation
• Inadequate personal protective equipment of plastic processing machinery is a thorough
working knowledge of the machinery, the
Summary
hazards, risks, and dangers, and its safeguarding
The technician’s role in creating a safety- devices and controls. When new equipment is
conscious workplace cannot be overstated. A installed, the technical manual(s) provided by the
technician, by virtue of his or her knowledge and manufacturer should be studied carefully. This
actions, becomes a role model for other employees. manual provides installation, operation, setup,
and maintenance instructions and describes the
MACHINERY SAFETY safety features of the equipment. To ensure
This section covers key general safety continued compliance, all the safety devices
features of plastics processing machinery and installed by the manufacturer should be identified
practical means to reduce the risk of physical and maintained in good working condition. The
injury during the operation of these machines. technical manual(s) should be retained in a place
readily accessible to those operating the machine.
Principles of Safeguarding
Safeguards for machinery reduce the risk of Plastic processing machinery should
physical injury from both operator error and • Conform to federal or state requirements
machinery failure. Machine safeguarding is part such as the Occupational Safety and Health
of the machine design that provides a reasonable Administration (OSHA) machine guarding
level of protection over and above that which is requirements in the Code of Federal
imparted by personnel through training programs Regulations (CFR): 29 CFR 1910, Subpart 0
and machinery experience.
• Conform to specifications and guidelines
Safeguarding a machine is more than simply
adopted by the American National
installing guards to prevent direct contact with the
Standards Institute (ANSI) for plastics
hazardous areas of the machinery. It includes
processing machinery
consideration of material handling hazards, type
of guarding, position of controls, operating • Provide for convenient access by
requirements, process adjustments, and authorized personnel for lubrication,
preventive maintenance procedures. Safeguarding inspection, adjustment, and repairs, with
can help to prevent injuries from these accidents: restricted access to other personnel

3
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Prevent access to the point of operation operators and passersby from contacting the
during the cycle moving parts of a machine during operation. Fixed
• Minimize environmental concerns such as guards cover danger points such as clamping
noise, air contaminants, radiation, heat, and mechanisms, hot barrels and surfaces, and
other potential health hazards electrical contacts. This type of guard is generally
used where required access to the danger zone is
Machine Safeguarding relatively infrequent.
Guarding is required over hazardous areas that
The interlocked guard, when it is opened,
are accessible to personnel. Areas that should be
automatically disengages the power and prevents
guarded include gears, belts, drive couplings,
movement in the point of operation. In plastics
rotating shafts, rotary unions, web cutting devices,
processing, the enclosures or guards are
etc. Plastic processing machinery should not be
interlocked electrically, hydraulically, and
run unless the safeguards are in place and in good
mechanically in injection molding. Another type
condition. Technicians should report defective or
of safeguard is the two-handed control, which
loose guards to the supervisor immediately. If a
requires that control circuits be simultaneously
guard has to be removed for maintenance, the
operated by two hands. The separate hand controls
machine should be shut down and locked out. All
are far enough apart so that one hand cannot
guards removed should be replaced in the same
operate both. The controls are usually installed in
manner as originally installed.
a series-type electrical circuit with an antirepeat
Some common operations that need guarding feature so that an employee cannot block or tie
in plastics processing: down one control and operate the other with only
• Clamping actions created by two platens one hand. For machines with two operators and no
coming together in a mold area helpers in the danger zone, a properly designed
four-handed control in series is generally
• Nip points created by having two parallel
appropriate. Other guarding devices developed to
objects rotating close together, such as in
fit unique operating requirements include light
calenders, conveyors, belts and pulleys,
curtains, wristlets attached to drawback straps,
rolling mills, and roll stacks downstream
electronic eyes, automatic stock loading, and
from sheet extruders
special tools.
• Cutting or shearing actions from sawing or
Electrical Safeguarding
trimming
Safeguarding workers from electrical hazards
Common types of point-of-operation
associated with machinery will prevent injuries
safeguards include these:
from electrical shock or burn. An electrical safety
• Fixed guards, enclosures, and barriers program for machinery should include these
• Robots and part removal systems measures:
• Automatic and semiautomatic feed devices • Design and installation of equipment in
accordance with standard specifications
• Interlocked guards and sensing devices
such as those in the National Fire Protection
• Two-handed controls or other similar Association (NFPA) 70, National Electrical
devices Code®, and ANSI/NFPA79, Electrical
• Safety warning signs Safety for Industrial Machines
The fixed guard acts as a barrier to, or • Establishment of procedures (i.e., Lockout/
enclosure of, the point of operation or power Tagout) for working safely around electrical
transmission source and can only be removed by equipment and machinery, and the training
the use of a tool. It is an effective way to prevent of personnel in these procedures

4
®
 Safety

• Checking the equipment and reviewing equipment that has the potential to strike an
procedures to ensure that the equipment operator. The color red is used to identify
functions with minimum risk from emergency stop buttons or trip cords. For signs:
electrical hazards Yellow = Caution; Red = Danger.
• Labeling of each circuit breaker to identify Safe Working Procedures
the machine(s) it controls (this is a good Machine safeguarding by itself cannot
practice at home as well!) eliminate the possibility of human error.
Common means of reducing electrical Instructions for any operation should include
hazards include: instructions and training in the safe operation of
• Proper grounding machinery. The following are typical
recommendations for safely operating plastics
• Guarding of live electrical parts processing machinery.
• Using equipment only within its rated • Permit only trained and qualified personnel
electrical capacity to operate and perform machine
• Deenergizing parts before working on them maintenance and setup. The company
should develop the criteria for qualifying
• Positively locking-out power before
their employees.
servicing equipment
• Careful design and placement of operator • Perform setup or maintenance on the
controls to preclude accidental operation machine only after the machine is locked
out.
• Properly labeling all control buttons,
switches, and power disconnects • Check machine safety devices and systems
before machine start-up to ensure they
• Providing protection from the possibility of function properly, report malfunctions, and
the machine restarting automatically after never start a defective machine.
power failure
• Keep the interlocks, guards, and covers free
Safety Signs and Controls
of obstructions.
Safety signs and nameplates are placed
conspicuously on the machinery to provide • Keep guard viewing windows clean and
important information on potential hazards and secured in place.
risks as well as to indicate the need for safe • Use wooden or plastic tools where
operating procedures. Bilingual or multilingual applicable to remove plastic spillage or
safety signs may be needed, depending on the jams.
diversity of the workforce. Various safety signs
are suggested for many types of plastics • Wear recommended eye protection and
processing machinery as specified by ANSI Z535, protective clothing during machine
Safety Color Code. These signs should never be operation, setup, and maintenance.
considered a substitute for eliminating the hazard • Keep the machine working area clean and
or installing effective safeguards. free from obstruction.
Signs are usually color-coded to specify the
nature and degree of potential hazard associated
• Stand clear of all plastic purging areas
(molds, dies, heads, etc.) until plastic flow
with a particular component. The color codes can
is established.
be used to alert personnel to dangerous areas and
specific emergency controls. For example, yellow • Limit unauthorized personnel in the
cautions against physical hazards such as moving machine operating area.

5
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Establish safe work methods and that feeds the machinery and places a properly
procedures. completed “Do Not Operate” tag on the machine.
The on/off switches must be tested after
• Instruct/train operators in safe procedures
completing a lockout to ensure that the equipment
with periodic follow-up to see that the
is inoperable. These tags should be signed and
training has been successful.
dated by the person locking out the equipment. A
• Maintain order and enforce all company lock can be removed only by the person who
safety rules and regulations. placed it on the energy-isolating device (e.g.,
• Wear a face shield when purging. electrical switch, valve).
Do Not: Clothing and Protective Gear
• Disconnect or bypass machine safety Technicians should understand the hazards of
devices or systems during operation, setup, loose clothing, jewelry, and long hair around
or maintenance (if possible). machinery. Where those hazards are significant,
• Operate a machine if any of the safety safe machine operation requires that (1) operators
interlocks are functioning improperly. wear appropriate clothing (in general, work
clothes should fit snugly, particularly around the
• Attempt to service or repair machine unless neck, wrists, and ankles to prevent clothing from
qualified to do so. becoming caught in the machine); (2) long hair be
• Attempt to correct a machine operation or restrained to prevent it from being caught in
maintenance problem without the assistance machinery; and (3) jewelry (e.g., rings, chains)
of experienced supervisors or qualified and any items of apparel (e.g., neckties) that could
maintenance support. easily be caught not be worn around machinery.
• Expose any part of the body to any hazard When protection from significant hazards
(e.g., reciprocating, rotating, or clamping cannot be provided by other methods such as
action or any heated machine parts). engineering controls, appropriate personal
protective equipment should be worn. Personal
• Use machinery as a substitute for ladders protective equipment (PPE) includes gloves,
(only approved ladders or ladder stands
hardhats, safety shoes, goggles, glasses, aprons,
should be employed).
respirators, hearing protectors, and faceshields.
Employees usually engage in unsafe acts Technicians must have access to any required
because they are not given specific instructions, PPE, which must be properly fitted, clean,
are unaware that what they are doing is wrong, appropriate for the task, and in good repair, and
misunderstand instructions that are given, do not must be trained in its use. Face protection must be
consider the instructions to be important, find it used by exposed workers during purging and at
hard to follow instructions, disregard instructions, start-up of extrusion. For further details on
or are distracted from the job at hand. personal protective equipment, see the section on
When performing alterations, repairs, “Personal Safety Protection.”
adjustments, or maintenance on machinery,
Machinery Standards
personnel should have a positive means to prevent
someone else from accidentally starting the Industry safety standards have been developed
machine. One such method is called “lockout and by the Machinery Division and the various
tag.” (See section on “Lockout/Tagout.”) Using processor divisions of The Society of the Plastics
this method, each person doing the work locks Industry, Inc. (SPI). The primary objective of
their individual identified padlock on each of the these standards is to minimize accidents and
energy-isolating devices for each power source injuries associated with machine operations.

6
®
 Safety

Following is a list of these ANSI/SPI standards: ANSI/SPI standards under development in

2001 include the following:
• Horizontal Injection Molding Machines—
ANSI/SPI B151.1: Horizontal Injection • Conveyors—B151.17: Safety
Molding Machines—Safety Requirements Requirements for the Construction, Care
for the Manufacture, Care and Use. and Use of Integral Vacuum Loaders;
Rotary Feeders; Compressed Air
• Plastic Sheet Production Machinery— (Pneumatic) Conveyors; Positive
ANSI/SPI B151.20: American National Displacement Pump Packages; Dust
Standard for Sheet Production Collectors, Air Separators and Cyclones;
Machinery—Manufacture, Care and Use. Indoor Storage Vessels; Vacuum Receivers,
and Actuated Valving; Vortex Blower;
• Vertical Clamp Injection Molding Piping and Couplings; Materials Handling
Machine—ANSI/SPI B151.29: Vertical Fans; and Fine Separation Systems
Clamp Injection Molding Machines— (aspirator).
Safety Requirements for the Manufacture,
Care and Use. • Granulators—B151.11: Granulators, Strand
Pelletizers and Dicers Used for Size
• Extrusion Blow Molding Machines— Reduction of Plastics Safety Requirements
ANSI/SPI B151.15: Extrusion Blow for Manufacture, Care and Use.
Molding Machines—Safety Requirements • Film and Sheet Winding—B151.5:
for Manufacture, Care and Use. American National Standard for Film and
• Injection Blow Molding Machines—ANSI/ Sheet Winding Machinery—Manufacture,
SPI B151.21: Injection Blow Molding Care and Use.
Machines—Safety Requirements for • Injection Mold Safety Guideline: Safety for
Manufacture, Care and Use. Molds on Horizontal Injection Molding
Machines.
• Robots—ANSI/SPI B151.27: Safety
Requirements for the Manufacture, Care, Safety Considerations for Plastic Processes
Use and Integration of Robots with Injection Molding Machines
Horizontal Injection Molding Machines Injection molding machines use heat and
(currently being revised to include pressure to melt plastic molding material in a
VCIMMs). barrel and force it into the mold cavity. Extremely
high clamping pressures are required to hold the
• Film Casting and Related Machinery— melt in the mold cavity. An operator’s gate,
ANSI/SPI B151.2: American National
usually with a window, is provided as a barrier to
Standard for Film Casting and Related
keep personnel away from the moving parts, the
Machinery—Manufacture, Care and Use.
mold, and protect them from splattering of hot
• Blown Film Machinery—ANSI/SPI melt while the machine is operating. The
B151.4: American National Standard for operator's gate should be in a fully closed position
Blown Film Machinery—Manufacture, before the clamp can be operated. It also should
Care and Use. be interlocked with the operation of the machine
so that when the gate is opened, the clamp stops
• Requirements for Extrusion Machines— or opens. In more modern equipment, there are
ANSI/SPI B151.7: Requirements for the usually three safety interlocks: one for the
Manufacture, Care and Use of Extrusion electrical system, one for the hydraulic system,
Machines. and one for the mechanical system. The electrical

7
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

interlock is normally an electrical switch that see the feed throat without any risk to
allows the molding cycle to continue only when yourself.
the operator’s gate is closed. The hydraulic
• Fingers, sticks, or tools should not be poked
interlock controls the hydraulic fluid flow so that,
into the feed throat. Pressurized materials
if not activated by the door closing, the hydraulic
and gases in the barrel may be released
pressure cannot be used to close the clamp. The
when removing the obstacle in the feed
mechanical device physically prevents the platen
throat.
from closing when the operator’s gate is opened
sufficiently to permit access to the mold area. • Caution should be exercised in viewing part
The mold area opposite the operator is ejection, mold actions, or core actions when
equipped with a rear guard with two interlocks that the mold is opening.
separately interrupt the control circuit and the • Avoid using compressed air to brush away
power circuit to prevent all movements if the guard pellets and dust because this just relocates
is open or removed. All interlocks and safety the problem and may cause particles to
devices connected with the operator’s gate or rear become airborne, making them an
guard should be checked regularly, including after inhalation risk.
setup and at the beginning of each shift.
Consult the machine instruction manual and
Following are points to be noted in the the manufacturer for additional information
production mode operation of injection molding concerning the injection molding machine.
machines:
Extrusion Machines
• The machine must not be operated with In extrusion machinery, plastic materials are
guards removed or interlocks bypassed. melted by heat and pressure in the extruder barrel
• Personnel must not reach over, under, or and then are continuously forced out through a
around any guard. die. Caution should be exercised in opening the
head to remove dies even when the machine is not
• When starting up a cold machine, the running. When the head is opened to change or
operator should check that the plasticating
clean dies or screens, residual pressure in the
barrel has reached the required operating
barrel may cause hot material to blow out forcibly
temperature before molding is begun.
or superheated vapor to be vented. An approved
• Molding materials should be purged from unbolting or unclamping procedure that allows
the plasticating barrel and the mold cavity any residual pressure to vent down and away from
before a machine is shut down. the operator should be followed. It also should be
standard operating procedure to stand clear of the
• Eye protection should be worn whenever
head when relieving jammed stock or preparing to
loading materials to the machine hopper by
open the head to clean the die. Other hazards
pneumatic transfer conveyor equipment or
include the possibility of fire from the venting of
when the machine hopper is opened for
superheated vapor.
inspection. A good policy is to always wear
eye protection in the processing area. Safety features in the machine can consist of
pressure-relief systems and shear bolts that are
• If the plasticating barrel is overheated or the actuated if dangerous pressures build up behind
nozzle is plugged, hot materials may be
the die. Caution should be exercised in screen or
expelled forcefully from the nozzle when it
die changing. If these safety features are installed
becomes activated.
on your equipment, it is good practice to make
• Never look directly into the feed throat. Use sure that they are in good operating condition
a mirror to reflect the image so that you can through periodic checks of your extruder.

8
®
 Safety

If plastic material being extruded is frothy, • Fires caused when air comes into contact
bubbly, popping, or has an odor of decomposing with hot stock and when polymer leaks
material, or if there is difficulty in maintaining onto the heaters
feed to the screw, the operator should avoid
• Explosion resulting from high pressure
looking into the hopper or standing in front of
build in the barrel that releases through a
dies and a supervised safety check should be
weak point in the equipment
initiated. This check may include steps to reduce
the temperature of the barrel, to check the Calenders and Mills
thermocouples, to make sure the heater bands and The Occupational Safety and Health
adapters are tight, and to make sure that all Administration (OSHA) standard for calenders
controls are properly seated. One note: It is and mills is set forth at 29 CFR 1910.216.
usually recommended that you keep the screw Calender roll bites (the nip point between any two
turning, during a troubleshooting step, so long as or more metal rolls) pose a hazard because the
the material is able to exit the die. If you turn off two in-running surfaces create a pinch point or
the screw, you might worsen the situation, bite that can grab and pull in hands and clothing.
especially with heat-sensitive resins. OSHA requires trip cables, wire-centered cords,
or trip rods along the face and both sides of the
If a water trough is used to cool the product calender rolls. The only exception to this rule is
coming out of the die, it should be rigidly secured where fixed barriers prevent contact with the roll
so that accidental bumping does not splash water bite. A performance check of the effectiveness of
on the hot die. If the water trough is brought too the safety trips should be made routinely before
close to the die, steam may be produced, starting operations. If a mechanized pusher is not
presenting a burn hazard to the employees in the practical, when feeding material into a calender or
work area. On the other hand, proximity of the mill, a blunt wooden pusher at least 2 ft long can
water trough may cool the die enough that the be used to feed the stock into the bite. Operators
plastic solidifies in the die, resulting in a should be instructed in the safety features and
dangerous pressure buildup within the extruder. hazards of the bite points.
Slippery floors and increased electrical shock
hazards also may result from water spills. Following are commonsense rules for
Auxiliary equipment should have guards or working around calenders or mills:
alternate protection for in-running nips, cutting • Store tools or loose items properly; do not
blades, and the power transmission train. leave on top of hoods or calender housings.
Potential hazards in plastics extrusion • Keep machine area clean, uncluttered, and
operation include these: well lit.

• Contact with the revolving screw through • Before working on the calender rolls or
vent ports or during maintenance drive, eliminate all possible sources of
accidental activation of machine
• Contact with cutoff knives components.
Do Not:
• Injury from pinch points on conveying
systems • Reach or lean into the machine during
operation.
• Burns from contact with hot stock, heater
plates, dies, screens, extruder barrels,
• Allow foreign objects to fall into the rolls.
blowback of steam or stock, and threading • Exceed established rating speeds and
polymer capacities.

9
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Remove or alter coupling and gear guards under development, may be found on the SPI Web
unless the machine is completely shut down site, www.plasticsindustry.org.
and locked out. Replace these items before
resuming operations.
• Product Safety Management Handbook:
Handbook that explains product safety
• Touch any machine part that may be hot, issues to plastic machinery equipment
unless adequately protected. manufacturers and users
Conveyors • Safety Signs: Recommended Guideline for
Conveyors employed in plastics processing Safety Signs for Plastics Machinery and
move materials by gravity, ball bearings, roller Related Equipment
bearings, push rods, chutes, belts, chains, screws,
pneumatics, monorails, and overhead trolley
• ISO 14121—Safety of Machinery:
Principles of Risk Assessment
mechanisms. All power transmission apparatus
such as gears, sprockets, belts, and pulleys should • ISO 13853—Safety of Machinery: Safety
be properly guarded. Proper handrails and toe Distances to Prevent Danger Zones Being
boards should be placed on crossovers, platforms, Reached by the Lower Limbs
catwalks, and openings through floor levels.
ANSI is a private, nonprofit organization that
Overhead conveyors should have guards or
administers and coordinates the U.S. voluntary
covered enclosures to prevent objects from falling
standardization and conformity assessment
on employees passing underneath.
system. Their mailing address is American
Start and stop controls for conveyors should be National Standards Institute, 25 West 43rd Street,
clearly labeled and strategically located New York, NY 10036. Their Web site is
(especially for open conveyors). Start buttons www.ansi.org. OSHA has online resources, which
should be located where the operator can see the can be found on their Web site: www.osha.gov.
majority of the line. If parts of the line are
obscured, check the line for any obstructions or CONTROL OF HAZARDOUS
potential contact by other employees before E N E R G Y (L O C K O U T /T A G O U T )
starting the conveyor. Know the location of the A technician should be very familiar with the
emergency stops. Emergency stop devices are company’s lockout/tagout program required by the
usually located: OSHA standard found in 29 CFR 1910.147. It is
• At the operator’s station intended to safeguard employees from the
unexpected startup of machines or equipment or
• Within 40 ft of each other release of hazardous energy while they are
• Where the conveyor passes through a floor performing servicing or maintenance.
or wall
The standard requires employers to establish a
If a conveyor has stopped unexpectedly, do not program for these measures:
restart it until you have discovered the reason for
the stoppage, corrected the problem, and inspected • Energy control procedures to ensure that,
the line for obstructions. whenever the possibility of unexpected
machine or equipment start-up or
Additional Resources energization exists or when the unexpected
In addition to developing the ANSI Machinery release of stored energy could occur and
Safety Standards, the SPI Machinery Division has cause injury during servicing and
created the publications listed below regarding maintenance, the equipment is isolated from
machine operations. Information on these its energy source(s) and rendered
publications, and ANSI/SPI standards currently inoperative before servicing or maintenance

10
®
 Safety

• Employee training and periodic inspections are required to follow the lockout/tagout
to ensure that equipment is isolated from procedure.
the energy source and rendered inoperative
before it is worked on Employers also must develop, document, and
implement procedures for the control of
This OSHA rule requires that machines or hazardous energy when employees are engaged in
equipment be turned off and disconnected from the activities covered by the rule. The procedures
the energy source, and that the energy-isolating must outline the scope, purpose, authorization,
device be either locked out or tagged out, before rules, and techniques to be utilized for the control
service or maintenance is performed. The of hazardous energy and the means to enforce
standard identifies minimum performance compliance. The procedures also should identify
practices and procedures necessary to shut down authorized employees. An authorized employee is
and lock out or tag out machines and equipment a person who locks out or tags out machines or
and requires that employees receive training in equipment to perform servicing or maintenance
their role in the lockout/tagout program. on that machine or equipment. The policy may
The standard applies to any source of provide for a technician to be an authorized
mechanical (including electromechanical), employee after training. Lockout or tagout can be
hydraulic, pneumatic, chemical, thermal, or other performed only by authorized employees. There
energy, but does not cover electrical shock should be procedures for shift or personnel
hazards. Examples of other regulations that cover changes to ensure the continuity of lockout or
specific lockout/tagout provisions for electrical tagout protection.
hazards include these:
Lockout/Tagout
• 29 CFR 1910 Subpart S (1910.301—
1910.399) Electrical—General Lockout/tagout is accomplished by means of
a mechanical energy-isolating device that
• 29 CFR 1910.146 Permit-Required physically prevents the transmission or release of
Confined Space energy. Push buttons, selector switches, and other
• 29 CFR 1910.269 Power Generation, control circuit type devices are not energy-
Transmission and Distribution isolating devices. A lockout device provides
When a servicing activity, such as lubricating, protection by preventing the machine or
cleaning, or unjamming the production equipment from becoming energized. If an
equipment, takes place during production, the energy-isolating device is not capable of being
lockout/tagout procedures must be followed: locked out, the company’s tagout procedures are
to be used. A tagout device identifies the energy-
1. When machine guards or other safety devices isolating device as a source of potential danger,
are removed or bypassed, resulting in expo- and it indicates that neither the energy-isolating
sure to hazards at the point of operation device nor the equipment being controlled may be
2. When an employee is required to place any operated while the tagout device is in place.
part of their body in the point of operation OSHA has determined that lockout is a more
of the machine or piece of equipment or in reliable means of deenergizing equipment than
a danger zone associated with a machine tagout and that locks should be used where
operating cycle practical unless the use of tags would provide
In addition, when other servicing tasks occur, equivalent protection. When a tagout device is
such as setting up equipment or making used on an energy-isolating device capable of
significant adjustments to machines, technicians being locked out, the tagout device must be
or authorized employees performing such tasks attached at the same location the lockout device

11
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

would have been attached, and some additional 3. Use the energy-isolating device(s) to iso-
protective measure(s) must be taken. late the machine or equipment from all haz-
Whichever devices are used, they must be ardous energy sources.
singularly identified, must be the only devices 4. Apply the lockout or tagout device.
used for controlling hazardous energy, and must
meet the following requirements: 5. Render safe all stored or residual energy.

• Durability: The devices must be capable of 6. Verify the isolation and deenergization of
withstanding the environments and the machine or equipment.
conditions to which they are exposed. Removal of Locks and Tags
• Standardized: Both lockout and tagout Before lockout or tagout devices are removed
devices must be standardized according to and energy is restored to the machine or
color, shape, or size. Tagout devices also equipment, the authorized employee(s) must take
must be standardized according to print and the following actions or observe the following
format. procedures:
• Substantial: The means of attachment of 1. Inspect the work area to ensure that nones-
tags must be nonreusable, attachable by sential items have been removed and that
hand, self-locking, and nonreleasable, with machine or equipment components are
a minimum unlocking strength of no less intact and capable of operating properly.
than 50 pounds (lb).
2. Check the area around the machine or
• Identifiable: Locks and tags must clearly equipment to ensure that all employees
identify the employee who applied them. have been safely positioned or removed.
• Tags must be legible and understandable by 3. Make sure that locks or tags are removed
all employees. only by those employees who attached
• Tags also must warn against hazardous them.
conditions if the machine or equipment is 4. Notify affected employees after removing
energized and must include a legend such as locks or tags and before starting equipment
the following: DO NOT START, DO NOT or machines.
OPEN, DO NOT CLOSE, DO NOT
Special Conditions
ENERGIZE, DO NOT OPERATE.
Tags have the following limitations: OSHA allows the temporary removal of locks
or tags and the reenergization of the machine or
• Tags are essentially warning devices affixed equipment only when necessary under special
to energy-isolating devices and do not conditions, for example, when power is needed for
provide the physical restraint of a lock. the testing or positioning of machines, equipment,
• Tags may evoke a false sense of security. or components. The reenergization must be
They are only one part of an overall energy conducted in accordance with the sequence of the
control program. following sequential steps:
Application of Lockout/Tagout Devices 1. Clear the machines or equipment of tools
The lockout/tagout procedure of applying and materials.
energy controls must include the following 2. Remove employees from the machines or
elements and actions in sequence: equipment area.
1. Prepare for shutdown. 3. Remove the lockout or tagout devices as
2. Shut down the machine or equipment. specified.

12
®
 Safety

4. Energize and proceed with testing or posi- products that are not determined to be a physical
tioning. or health hazard under the HCS.
5. Deenergize all systems, isolate the Employers that “use” hazardous chemicals
machine or equipment from the energy must have a program to ensure that information
source, and reapply lockout or tagout concerning potential physical and health hazards
devices as specified. of overexposure to these chemicals is provided to
exposed employees. To “use” means to package,
Summary handle, react, or transfer. For products determined
Technicians frequently are involved in to be hazardous under the HCS, MSDSs and
situations that fall under the lockout/tagout rule. labels must be transmitted to downstream
For their own safety and the safety of the other recipients and users of the products. Product
employees, technicians must be familiar with the MSDSs and labels also may be used as sources of
company’s lockout/tagout program and fully safety and handling information by firefighters
adhere to it. and other emergency responders and members of
the community.
THE OSHA HAZARD Most plastic resins are transformed into end-
COMMUNICATION STANDARD, use products by heating, forming, and other
MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEETS, methods to obtain the desired shape or properties.
AND L ABELS Therefore, the safety considerations for the plastic
resin when shipped by the manufacturer are not
The OSHA Hazard Communication Standard the same as those required in the workplace where
(HCS), set forth at 29 CFR 1910.1200, is a the resin is heated and molded. Furthermore,
comprehensive regulatory program first put into hazard determination considerations such as
effect on November 26, 1985. The original OSHA whether the plastic product is exempt from the
HCS, which covered only the manufacturing HCS, i.e., whether it is an article under the HCS,
sector, was amended on August 24, 1987 to also or the hazardous ingredients in the product are
cover nonmanufacturing employers, and amended inextricably bound and therefore cannot produce
again on February 9, 1994. an exposure to downstream users, are additional
The HCS is intended to ensure that employees issues that are unique to solid materials such as
receive information about the potential hazards plastics or plastic products. An MSDS should be
and protective measures regarding hazardous reviewed by the technician before a new plastic
chemicals and substances to which they may be resin is introduced into production.
exposed on the job under normal conditions of Health and Physical Hazard Determination
use or in a foreseeable emergency. Manufacturers
The HCS requires information to be prepared
and importers of these chemicals are required by
and transmitted regarding all hazardous chemicals.
the HCS to evaluate the physical and health
The HCS covers both physical hazards (such as
hazards of products they produce or import. This
flammability) and health hazards (such as
evaluation process is called hazard determination.
irritation, lung damage, and cancer). Most
For products that pose physical and/or health
chemicals used in the workplace have some hazard
hazards, the HCS requires that safety and
potential and thus will be covered by the rule.
handling information be included on a Material
Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) and that a label with What Is a Hazardous Chemical as Defined by
appropriate hazard warnings be prepared for the HCS?
containers of such products. As a customer The HCS defines “hazardous chemical” as
service, many manufacturers and importers also any chemical posing a physical or health hazard.
may choose to develop MSDSs and labels for Chemical manufacturers and importers must

13
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

evaluate chemicals they produce or import to chemicals that are carcinogens, toxic or highly
determine if they are hazardous. Downstream toxic agents, reproductive toxins, irritants,
employers that simply use but do not manufacture corrosives, sensitizers, hepatotoxins,
hazardous chemicals may rely on the information nephrotoxins, neurotoxins, agents that act on the
they receive from the manufacturer or may hematopoietic system, and agents that damage the
perform their own hazard evaluation. In making lungs, skin, eyes, or mucous membranes.
this determination, the manufacturer must
Material Safety Data Sheets and Labels
consider potential exposures that may occur when
downstream employers use the product. As The Hazard Communication Standard requires
defined in the HCS, workplace exposure includes that manufacturers of chemicals evaluate the
any route of entry (inhalation, ingestion, skin hazards of the chemicals they produce. Hazard
contact, absorption, etc.) and includes potential determination is the responsibility of the
(e.g., accidental or possible) exposure. producers and importers of the materials. Using
Certain specifically designated chemicals are that information, they must then prepare labels for
presumed to be “hazardous chemicals”: containers, and more detailed technical bulletins
called Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS).
• A chemical listed by OSHA (Permissible Producers and importers of chemicals are then
Exposure Limit, PEL) required to provide the hazard information to
• A chemical listed by the American employers that purchase their products.
Conference of Governmental Industrial Each MSDS must be in English and include
Hygienists (ACGIH) as having a Threshold information regarding the specific chemical
Limit Value (TLV) identity of the hazardous chemical(s) involved and
• A chemical listed as a carcinogen by the the common names. In addition, information must
National Toxicology Program (NTP), be provided on the physical and chemical
OSHA, or the International Agency for characteristics of the hazardous chemical; known
Research on Cancer (IARC) acute and chronic health effects and related health
“Physical hazard” means a chemical for which information; exposure limits; whether the
there is scientifically valid evidence that it chemical is considered to be a carcinogen by NTP,
IARC, or OSHA; precautionary measures;
• Is a combustible liquid emergency and first-aid procedures; and the
• Is a compressed gas identification (name, address and telephone
• Is explosive number) of the organization responsible for
preparing the sheet.
• Is flammable
There is no specified format for the MSDS
• Is an organic peroxide under the rule, although there are specific
• Is an oxidizer information requirements. OSHA has developed a
• Is unstable (reactive) nonmandatory format, OSHA Form 174, which
may be used by chemical manufacturers and
• Reacts with water to release a gas that is importers to comply with the rule. The American
either flammable or presents a health hazard National Standards Institute (ANSI) has adopted a
“Health hazard” means a chemical for which voluntary consensus standard that gives guidance
there is statistically significant evidence based on regarding preparation of Material Safety Data
at least one study conducted in accordance with Sheets. Entitled “American National Standard for
established scientific principles that acute or Hazardous Industrial Chemicals–Material Safety
chronic health effects may occur in exposed Data Sheets–Preparation,” it is available from
employees. The term health hazard includes ANSI. The standard number is Z400.1

14
®
 Safety

The chemical manufacturer must label, tag, or Using personal protective equipment requires
otherwise mark each container it ships with their hazard awareness and training on the part of the
name and address, the identity of the hazardous user. Employees must be aware that the
chemical, and appropriate hazard warnings. equipment does not eliminate the hazard.
Hazard Communication Program
Employers and employees must understand the
equipment's purpose and its limitations. If the
Employers must develop and implement a equipment fails, exposure will occur. To reduce
hazard communication program for the the possibility of failure, equipment must be
workplace. In-plant containers of hazardous properly fitted and maintained in a clean and
chemicals must be labeled, tagged, or marked serviceable condition. Selection of the proper
with the identity of the material and appropriate personal protective equipment for a job is
hazard warnings. MSDSs must be readily important. Personal protective equipment can be
accessible to exposed employees during their effective only if the equipment is selected based
workshifts. A written program must describe how on its intended use, employees are trained in its
labeling and other forms of warning, MSDSs, and use, and the equipment is properly tested and
employee information and training are to be maintained. Most importantly, the protective
implemented in the workplace. equipment must be worn.
Each employee who may be “exposed” to This section discusses those types of
hazardous chemicals must be provided with the equipment most commonly used for protection for
required information and trained before initial the head, eyes and face, ears, arms and hands, and
assignment to work with a hazardous chemical feet. It also addresses respiratory protection. This
and whenever the hazard changes. “Exposure” or section is applicable to all work environments,
“exposed” under the rule means that “an including the plastics processing industry.
employee is subjected to a hazardous chemical in
the course of employment through any route of Head Protection
entry (inhalation, ingestion, skin contact or The OSHA standard for head protection is
absorption, etc.) and includes potential (e.g., found in 29 CFR 1910.135. It requires the
accidental or possible) exposure.” employer to ensure that each affected employee
Summary wears a protective helmet when working in areas
where there is a potential for injury to the head
The plastics technician should be familiar
from falling objects.
with the company’s hazard communication
program. For industrial purposes, there are three classes
of protective helmets.
PERSONAL SAFETY • Class A: General service, limited voltage
PROTECTION protection. These helmets are intended for
The OSHA standard for personal protective protection against impact hazards. They are
equipment is found in 29 CFR 1910.132. Personal used in mining, construction, shipbuilding,
protective equipment should not be used as a tunneling, lumbering, and manufacturing.
substitute for engineering, work practice, or
administrative controls. Personal protective
• Class B: Utility service, high-voltage
helmets. Class B helmets are used
equipment should be used in conjunction with
extensively by electrical workers.
these controls to provide for employee safety and
health in the workplace. Personal protective • Class C: Special service, no voltage
equipment includes all clothing and other work protection. Class C helmets are designed
accessories designed to create a barrier against specifically for lightweight comfort and
workplace hazards. impact protection. This class is usually

15
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

manufactured from aluminum and offers no • Each affected employee uses eye protection
dielectric protection. that provides side protection when there is a
hazard from flying objects; detachable side
Each helmet consists essentially of a shell and
protectors are acceptable.
suspension. Ventilation is provided by a space
between the headband and the shell. Each helmet • Each affected employee who wears
should be accompanied by the instructions prescription lenses wears eye protection that
explaining the proper method of adjusting and incorporates the prescription in its design,
replacing the suspension and headband. or wears eye protection that can be worn
over the prescription lenses without
The wearer should be able to identify the type
disturbing the proper position of the
of helmet by looking inside the shell for the
prescription lenses or the protective lenses.
manufacturer, ANSI designation, and class. For
example: manufacturer’s name; ANSI Z89.1-1969 All these stipulations also apply to supervisors
(or later year); Class A. Helmets are date stamped and management personnel, as well as visitors
by the manufacturer and should be replaced no while they are in hazardous areas.
later than the date recommended by the Selection
manufacturer, e.g., 5 years.
Each eye, face, or face-and-eye protector is
Headbands are adjustable in 1/8 -size designed for a particular hazard. In selecting the
increments. When the headband is adjusted to the protector, consideration should be given to the
right size, it provides sufficient clearance between kind and degree of hazard, and the protector
the shell and the headband. The removable or should be selected on that basis.
replaceable type sweatband should cover at least
the forehead portion of the headband. The shell Over the years, many types and styles of eye
should be of one-piece seamless construction and and face-and-eye protective equipment have been
designed to resist the impact of a blow from developed to meet the demands for protection
falling material. The internal cradle of the against a variety of hazards. Goggles come in a
headband and sweatband forms the suspension. number of different styles: eyecups, flexible or
Any part that comes into contact with the wearer’s cushioned goggles, plastic eyeshield goggles, and
head must not be irritating to normal skin. foundrymen’s goggles. Goggles are manufactured
in several styles for specific uses such as
Helmets should not be stored or carried on the protecting against dusts and splashes, and in
rearwindow shelf of an automobile because chipper’s, welder’s, and cutter’s models.
sunlight and extreme heat may adversely affect the
Safety glasses require special frames.
degree of protection.
Combinations of normal streetwear frames with
Eye Protection safety lenses are not in compliance.
The OSHA standard for eye and face Protective eye and face devices purchased
protection is set forth at 29 CFR 1910.133. The after July 5, 1994, must comply with ANSI Z87.1
general provisions of the standard require the “American National Standard Practice for
employer to ensure that: Occupational and Educational Eye and Face
Protection.” Eye and face personal protective
• Each affected employee uses appropriate equipment (PPE) must be marked to identify the
eye or face protection when exposed to eye manufacturer.
or face hazards from flying particles, molten
metal, liquid chemicals, acids or caustic Fit
liquids, chemical gases or vapors, or Prescription safety glasses should be fitted
potentially injurious light radiation. only by qualified optical personnel.

16
®
 Safety

Inspection and Maintenance duration of exposure. The threshold for an 8-hr

It is essential that the lenses of eye protectors exposure is 90 decibels; the threshold for a 15-
be kept clean. Daily inspection and cleaning of min exposure is 115 decibels. Exposure to
the eye protector with soap and hot water, or with impulsive or impact noise should not exceed a
a cleaning solution and tissue, is recommended. 140-decibel peak sound pressure level.
Goggles should be kept in a case when not in use. The standard requires the employer to
Safety glasses, in particular, should be given the administer a hearing conservation program
same care as one’s own glasses, because the covering all employees whose noise exposures
frame, nose pads, and temples can be damaged by equal or exceed an 8-hr time-weighted average
rough usage. (TWA) sound level of 85 decibels. The hearing
Ear Protection conservation program must include an
audiometric testing program, and the provision of
Noise, or unwanted sound, is one of the most personal hearing protection (e.g., earplugs,
pervasive occupational health problems. It is a by- earmuffs) at no cost to employees.
product of many industrial processes. Sound
consists of pressure changes in a medium (usually Preformed or molded earplugs should be
air), caused by vibration or turbulence. These individually fitted by a professional. Waxed
pressure changes produce waves emanating away cotton, foam, or fiberglass wool earplugs are self-
from the turbulent or vibrating source. Exposure forming. When properly inserted, they work as
to high levels of noise causes hearing loss and well as most molded earplugs. Some earplugs are
may cause other harmful health effects. The disposable, to be used one time and then thrown
extent of damage depends primarily on the away. The nondisposable type should be cleaned
intensity of the noise and the duration of the after each use for proper protection. Special
exposure. equipment is available for use with eyeglasses or
beards. Plain cotton is ineffective as protection
Noise-induced hearing loss can be temporary against hazardous noise.
or permanent. Temporary hearing loss results
from short-term exposures to noise, with normal Arm and Hand Protection
hearing returning after a period of rest. Generally, The OSHA standard for hand protection is set
prolonged exposure to high noise levels over a forth at 29 CFR 1910.138. It requires employers
period of time gradually causes permanent to require employees to use appropriate hand
damage. There is no cure for permanent noise- protection when employees’ hands are exposed to
induced hearing loss, so the prevention of hazards such as those from skin absorption of
excessive noise exposure is the only way to avoid harmful substances, severe cuts or lacerations,
hearing damage. Specifically designed protection severe abrasions, punctures, chemical burns,
is required, depending on the type of noise thermal burns, harmful temperature extremes,
encountered and the auditory condition of the electrical shock, and absorption of chemicals.
employee. There is a wide assortment of gloves, hand pads,
The OSHA standard for occupational noise sleeves, and wristlets for protection against
exposure is set forth at 29 CFR 1910.95. It is various hazardous situations.
designed to protect workers with significant The selection of the appropriate hand
occupational noise exposures from suffering protection should be based on an evaluation of the
material hearing impairment even if they are performance characteristics of the hand protection
subject to such noise exposures over their entire relative to the task(s) to be performed, conditions
working lifetimes. It requires protection against present, duration of use, and the hazards and
the effects of noise exposure when the sound potential hazards identified. For example, some
levels exceed a sliding scale dependent on the gloves are designed to protect against specific

17
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

chemical hazards, others—such as wire mesh, • During the time period necessary to install
leather, and canvas—have been tested and provide or implement feasible engineering and work
insulation from burns and cuts. practice controls
Foot and Leg Protection • In those maintenance and repair activities
The OSHA standard for foot protection is set and during those brief or intermittent
forth at 29 CFR 1910.136. It requires the employer operations where engineering and work
to ensure that each affected employee uses practice controls are not feasible or are not
protective footwear when working in areas where required
there is a danger of foot injuries due to falling or • After the employer has implemented all
rolling objects, objects piercing the sole, hot feasible engineering and work practice
surfaces or wet floors, and where such employee’s controls
feet are exposed to electrical hazards.
For protection of feet and legs from falling or
• In regulated areas
rolling objects, sharp objects, molten metal, hot • In emergencies
surfaces, and wet slippery surfaces, workers should
The standard requires an employer to develop
use appropriate footguards, safety shoes, or boots
and implement a written respiratory protection
and leggings. Leggings protect the lower leg and
program administered by a trained administrator
feet from molten metal or welding sparks. Safety
whenever respirator use is required by the OSH
snaps permit their rapid removal. Footguards can be
Act (OSHA standards or general duty clause) or
worn over usual work shoes, although they may
the employer.
present the possibility of catching on something and
causing workers to trip. The employer must provide a NIOSH-certified
respirator based on the respiratory hazard(s) to
Safety shoes should be sturdy and have an
which the employee is exposed. The standard calls
impact-resistant toe. In some shoes, metal insoles
for fit testing of respirators to the employee.
protect against puncture wounds. Additional
Where a respirator is required, a tight-fitting
protection, such as metatarsal guards, may be
respirator may not be worn by employees who
found in some types of footwear. Safety shoes
have facial hair that comes between the sealing
come in a variety of styles and materials, such as
surface of the facepiece and the face or that
leather and rubber boots and oxfords.
interferes with the valve function. Respirators
Safety footwear is classified according to its must be kept clean, sanitary, and in good
ability to meet minimum requirements for both condition. Respirators used by more than one
compression and impact tests. These requirements employee must be cleaned and disinfected before
and testing procedures may be found in American being worn by different individuals.
National Standards Institute standards. Protective
footwear purchased after July 5, 1994, must MATERIALS HANDLING AND
comply with ANSI Z41, “American National HOUSEKEEPING
Standard for Personal Protection-Protective Personnel safety is a major objective when
Footwear.” considering materials handling in plant operations.
Respiratory Protection Housekeeping plays a major role in ensuring safe
The OSHA standard for respiratory protection materials handling.
is set forth at 29 CFR 1910.134. It requires the use Manual Lifting and Handling
of respirators in the following circumstances:
Strains, sprains, fractures, and bruises are the
• Where exposure levels exceed the more common injuries associated with manual
permissible exposure limit (PEL) handling. They are caused primarily by employees

18
®
 Safety

carrying too heavy a load or using improper Bagged materials are also best grasped at
gripping and lifting techniques. opposite corners. When you have reached a
Experience has shown that the simple act of standing position, swing the bag to one shoulder.
planning a lift can greatly reduce the incidence of In putting the bag down, swing it slowly from
back injuries. Before lifting an object, check the your shoulder until it rests against your hip and
position of the load and know how the body will stomach. If the bag is to be placed on the ground,
balance it, inspect the travel path, and know bend your legs and lower the bag, keeping your
where and how the object will be put down. back straight. When handling drums or barrels,
Before lifting an object inspect it for slivers, follow the manufacturer’s recommended
jagged edges, burrs, and rough or slippery procedures.
surfaces. Wipe off greasy, wet, slippery, or dirty Powered Industrial Trucks
objects before trying to handle them. Keep hands
free of oil and grease. When gloves are worn, they OSHA has issued a standard for powered
too should be dry and free of oil and grease. industrial trucks (29 CFR 1910.178). It contains
Clean, leather-faced gloves give better gripping safety requirements relating to design,
power on smooth objects than do cotton or other maintenance, and use of fork trucks, tractors,
glove materials. platform lift trucks, motorized hand trucks, and
other specialized industrial trucks powered by
The correct way to lift:
electric motors or internal combustion engines. It
• The feet should be parted, with one foot requires the employer to ensure that each person,
alongside the object being lifted and one including technicians, who operates a powered
behind. industrial truck is trained and certified as
• The body should be bent in a sit-down competent to operate a powered industrial truck.
position with the back straight. An operator must have a separate certification for
each type of truck that he or she will operate.
• The chin should be tucked in so the neck Refresher training must be provided at least once
and head continue the straight back line. every 3 years.
• The palm, not the fingertips, should be used
Housekeeping
to grip the object.
• The load should be drawn close, and the Housekeeping involves an orderly
arms and elbows should be tucked into the arrangement of tools, equipment, stored items,
side of the body. and supplies. Good housekeeping measures are
successful means of preventing employees from
• The body should be positioned so that its stumbling, falling, or dropping or bumping into
weight is centered over the feet. Start the objects. Good housekeeping reduces scrap.
lift with a thrust of the rear foot.
Technicians should take care to remove tools,
• Lowering an object to the floor is supplies, and equipment from plant work areas
essentially the reverse of lifting it, and the when they are finished with a job. Tools and
principles just enumerated apply to both fixtures should not be left on machines. Waste
lowering and lifting. materials and trash should be put in their
Handling Boxes, Cartons, Bagged Materials, respective disposal containers. Floor areas should
and Drums be kept clean and clear of obstacles and trip or fall
The type and size of the object should be hazards. Aisles should never be used as storage
carefully considered. Boxes and cartons should be space. Absorbents should be used to soak up spills
handled by grasping the alternate top and bottom and then removed promptly. Technicians should
corners then drawing a corner between the legs. set the example for good housekeeping.

19
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Safety should be part of a mind set that must believed to be accurate, all statements and
be adopted universally within a processing suggestions are made without warranty, express or
environment. Recognizing safety problems and implied, for any purpose. This material should not
improving conditions as a result of injury are steps be used in place of a workplace-initiated safety
in the right direction, but each employee has the training program.
obligation to perform tasks in a way that poses a
minimum of risk to themselves as well as their Correspondence should be addressed to the
fellow employees. Society of the Plastics Industry, Inc. (SPI), 1801 K
Though the information presented in this Street, N.W. Suite 600K, Washington, D.C.
chapter on safety is offered in good faith and 20006-1301.

20
®
HEAT TRANSFER
JOHN VLACHOPOULOS AND DAVID STRUTT

INTRODUCTION temperature is the measure of that heat. We know

that when we place our hand on something that
Heat transfer is the branch of engineering
has a lower temperature than our hand, we can
science that seeks to determine the rate of energy
increase the temperature of the cool object. What
transfer between bodies as a result of temperature
is happening? When molecules that have a high
differences. The concept of rate is the basic
energy (measured as a high temperature) come in
difference between heat transfer and
contact with molecules that are low energy, i.e.,
thermodynamics. Thermodynamics is concerned
low temperature, the energy is transferred to the
with the amount of heat required to change a
low-energy molecules until they are all at the
system from one state to another but does not
same energy level. In other words, fast molecules
answer the question of “how fast” a change is
will give some of their energy to slow molecules
accomplished. It is the science of heat transfer
until all the molecules are at an in-between speed.
that deals with this question.
What this means in terms of heat is that the heat is
transferred from the high-energy (hot) material to
BASIC CONCEPTS
the-low energy (cool) material. This describes the
The terms temperature and heat are heat transfer process of conduction. So, the
understood intuitively but to understand heat intuitive concept of temperature is really defined
transfer we need to have a much more rigorous by the heat exchange from one body to another.
understanding of these two properties. When we For more detailed explanations of these terms,
think of any matter, we know that it is composed there are several thermodynamics texts which
of millions and millions of tiny molecules. In might be of use.1-3
solids, liquids, and gases, each of the molecules
can move either by flying through a container Two temperature scales are commonly used
(like a gas) or by vibrating back and forth (like the for measurement purposes: the Fahrenheit (°F)
molecules of a solid). Because of this movement, scale and the Celsius (°C) scale. These scales
each of these molecules has an energy associated were established by specifying the number of
with it. In general, those that are moving fast have increments between the freezing (32°F, 0°C) and
a high energy and those that are moving slow have boiling point (212°F, 100°C) of water at standard
a low energy. Well, one way that we can describe atmospheric pressure. An absolute temperature
the energy is in terms of heat. So heat is the scale was based on the concept of absolute zero. A
amount of energy stored in a material. The material that has a temperature of absolute zero

21
Society of Plastics Engineers

shows no movement of molecules (or even of the required to melt a crystalline solid without raising
parts that make up molecules and atoms). Because its temperature. It is equal in magnitude (but
this was a physical reality, scientists decided to opposite in sign) to the heat of crystallization.
make a new temperature scale with that Here are some typical values:
temperature of no movement defined as zero Ice ∆Hf = 333,000 J/kg = 80 kcal/kg
degrees Kelvin. Below are some conversion
factors between the different temperatures. (This means that to melt 1 kg of ice we need
the same amount of energy as that required to raise
°F = 9/5 °C + 32 1 kg of water by 80°C, and yet with the actual
K = °C + 273.16 melting, there is no increase in temperature.)
Temperature is measured by observing the HDPE ∆Hf = 250,000 J/kg
effect that the heat energy in a material has on
LDPE ∆Hf = 200,000 J/kg
some easily observable property, such as the
expansion of mercury in a glass thermometer. For amorphous polymers such as polystyrene
Heat, or energy in general, can be measured in (PS), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), and
many different units: the British thermal unit polycarbonate (PC) ∆Hf = 0 because they do not
(Btu), calories (cal), kilocalories (kcal), and joules have any crystal structure.
(J) are just a few examples. Heat of reaction is the amount of heat involved
The following conversion relations apply: in a chemical reaction (added or removed). All
polymerization reactions (production of polymers)
1 Btu = 1055 J
are exothermic; i.e., they involve liberation of heat.
1 kcal = 4182 J
1 Btu = 252 cal HEAT TRANSFER MODES
J There are three modes of heat transfer:
1W = 1 - = 3.413 Btu/hr
s conduction, convection, and radiation.
Heat capacity, Cp (also called specific heat), is
the amount of heat required to raise the Conduction was described in the beginning of
temperature of a body by 1 degree. Some typical this chapter, but as a reminder, it describes the way
values can be found in Table 1. energy can pass from high-energy molecules to
lower-energy molecules to get to an equilibrium
kcal/kg°C J/kg°C where all the molecules have in-between energies.
Water Convection describes heat transport in liquids
1 4182
(at 20°C, 68°F) and gases. It describes how two fluids of different
temperatures mix and how this mixing allows the
Air
0.239 1000 transfer of the heat from high temperature
(approximately)
components to low temperature components of the
Polyethylene fluid. It can be forced, i.e., when assisted by a
0.550 2300
(approximately)
pump or fan, or free (also called natural
Steel convection), when the motion of a fluid occurs due
0.108 450
(approximately) to density differences. If there is an electrical
Brick heater in one corner of a room and air is blown
0.215 900 onto the heating element by a fan, this is forced
(approximately)
convection. In the absence of a fan, the air
Table 1. Heat Capacities for common materials.
surrounding the heating element will get hotter, its
For melting of a solid, heat must be added to density will decrease, and the hot air will move
shake and demolish the crystal structure present. upward pushing higher-density (colder) air lower,
Heat of fusion (∆Hf) is the amount of heat which can then heat up near the heater.

22
®
 Heat Transfer

Heat can also be transferred through radiation. The proportionality constant k is the thermal
Radiant heat transfer involves electromagnetic conductivity measured in W/m°C or Btu/hr ft°F
waves (some that we can see and many that we (Table 1).
cannot) which are given off by a material when it A plastic injected into a mold cavity is cooled
is heated. An example of this is in a standard light by heat conduction through the mold wall. In fact,
bulb. The light is given off because of the heat of one of the factors considered in choosing mold
the tungsten filament. Electromagnetic radiation materials is their thermal conductivity. Aluminum
has a broad spectrum from radio waves to x-rays. has roughly five times the conductivity of steel and
Between the two extremes, a narrow portion of the beryllium copper alloys have about three times
radiation spectrum is visible light, and a broader higher conductivity than steel. Higher conductivity
one covers thermal radiation. The earth is heated means faster heat removal (or addition).
by the sun’s radiation.
It is interesting to note the similarity between
Specific examples and further descriptions of Fourier’s law of heat conduction and Ohm’s law
the different heat transfer methods described of electricity. We may write:
follow. b
T 1 – T 2 = -------Q Fourier’s Law
kA
Conduction
E=R•I Ohm’s Law
Consider the solid wall shown in Figure 1. where E is the voltage (corresponds to T1–T2), R is
Temperature T1 is higher than temperature T2. We the resistance (corresponds to b/kA), and I is the
know that heat flows from the high-temperature electric current (corresponds to Q). The quantity b/kA
side to the low-temperature side. If we know the is sometimes referred to as thermal resistance.
temperature of the two sides, we can determine Now, let us consider a wall composed of three
how fast heat will flow from one side to the other different materials with thermal conductivities k1,
using Fourier’s law. If A is the area normal to the k2, and k3, as shown in Figure 2.
direction of heat flow (i.e., the area of contact
between the hot side and the cold side), Fourier’s
law states that the rate of heat flow is proportional b1
to the area A and to the temperature difference, T 1 – T 2 = ---------- Q
k1 A
T1–T2 and inversely proportional to the thickness
of the wall, b. b2
A T 2 – T 3 = ---------- Q
Q = k ---- ( T 1 – T 2 ) k2 A
b
b3
T 3 – T 4 = ---------- Q
k3 A

Figure 2. Heat conduction through a

composite wall.
Summing up the above expressions, we have
 b1 b2 b3 
T 1 – T 4 =  ---------- + ---------- + ---------- Q
 k 1 A k 2 A k 3 A
This equation is similar to the expression of
three electrical resistors in series:
Figure 1. Heat conduction through a solid wall. E = (R1 + R2 + R3) I

23
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

We can then write a general expression to temperature to penetrate inside? Such problems
calculate the rate of heat flow through a composite require the solution of differential equations.
wall for more than three layers as follows: However, many solutions of such problems for
common geometric shapes appear in the form of
T1 – Tn charts in specialized texts.1-3
Q = ------------------------------------------------
-
b1 b2 bn
---------- + ---------- + … ---------- Convection
k1 A k2 A kn A
In most heat transfer problems, we are
W/m°C Btu/hr ft°F concerned with solid walls separating liquids or
gases from each other. In such cases, we usually
Copper 380 220 do not know the temperatures on the wall surfaces,
Aluminum 204 118 but rather the temperatures of the bulk of fluids on
both sides. Careful experiments, supported also by
Carbon steel 43 25
theoretical considerations, have shown that the
Glass 0.78 0.45 greatest temperature drop is confined within a thin
Polymer 0.2 0.115
fluid layer attached to a solid surface, as shown in
Figure 4.
Water 0.6 0.347

Air 0.025 0.0144

Table 2. Some typical values of

thermal conductivity (k).

For the case of composite cylinder (as shown

in Figure 3), the above equation takes the form

T1 – T4
Q = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
r2 r3 r4
---------------- ln  ---- + ---------------- ln  ---- + ---------------- ln  ----
1 1 1
2πk 1 L r 1   2πk 2 L r 2   2πk 3 L r 3 

Figure 4. Heat transfer through a wall

separating two fluids.
To explain this observation, we may assume
that a thin film, of thickness δ, adheres to the wall,
whereas outside this film all temperature
differences vanish as a result of mixing motions.
Within the film, heat flow takes place by
conduction, as in a solid wall. Thus, in general, we
may write:
k
Q = --- A ( T – T w )
δ
Figure 3. Heat conduction through
a composite cylinder. The quantity k/δ = h is called the heat transfer
coefficient and is an extremely important concept
Unsteady heat conduction involves in heat transfer. This simplified model is very
temperature variations with time. For example, if useful for practical applications, because the
the surface of a body is suddenly raised to a higher calculation of heat transfer can be made in terms
temperature, how long will it take for the of the heat transfer coefficient:

24
®
 Heat Transfer

T 1 – T 2 =  ---------- + ------- + ---------- Q

1 b 1
Q = h A(T – Tw)
 h A kA h A
1 2
At this point it suffices to say that the heat or
T 1 – T 2 = ----  ----- + --- + ----- Q
1 1 b 1
transfer coefficient depends on the flow
A  h 1 k h 2
conditions and fluid properties. Typical values are
given in Table 3. The quantity in the brackets is called the total
Mode W/m2 °C Btu/hr ft2 °F thermal resistance. A more useful concept,
however, is the overall heat transfer coefficient,
Air, free
4 - 28 0.7 - 5 which is defined as follows:
convection
Air, forced 1 1 b 1
4 - 570 0.7 - 100 ---- = ----- + --- + -----
convection U h1 k h2
Water, free For a composite wall separating two fluids
284 - 1500 50 - 265
convection (a and b), we have:
Water, forced
284 - 17,000 50 - 3,000 1 1 b1 b2 1
convection ---- = ----- + ----- + ----- + … + -----
U ha k1 k2 hb
Water, boiling 2840 - 57,000 500 - 10,000
Then, in general, we have:
Steam,
5680 - 113,000 1,000 - 20,000 11
condensing T 1 – T 2 = ---- ---- Q
AU
Table 3. Typical values of convection heat transfer and
coefficients.
Q = U A ∆T
In the next section we present some The significance of the overall heat transfer
correlations that can be used for the more accurate coefficient is that it permits the calculation of the
determination of this coefficient. rate of heat flow by multiplying this quantity by
For the wall separating the two fluids of the heat exchange area (perpendicular to the heat
Figure 4, we have flow direction) and the temperature difference.
Example
Q = h 1 A ( T 1 – T w1 ) Determine the heat loss through an 8-ft by
4-ft glass window of 4-mm thickness. The inside
k temperature is assumed to be 24°C (75°F) and the
Q = --- A ( T w1 – T w 2 )
b outside temperature is –10°C (14°F). The inside
heat transfer coefficient is 5 W/m2°C and the
Q = h 2 A ( T w2 – T 2 ) outside about 20 W/m2°C (due to moderate
wind). The thermal conductivity of window glass
or is 0.78 W/m°C.
Solution
1 The overall heat transfer coefficient is
T 1 – T w1 = ---------- Q
h1 A 1 1 b 1 1
---- = ----- + --- + ----- = -------------------------
2
- +
U h1 k h2 5 W/m °C
b
T w1 – T w 2 = -------Q
kA 0.004 m 1
------------------------------- + ----------------------------
-
0.78 W/m°C 20 W/m 2 °C
1
T w 2 – T 2 = ---------- Q
h2 A = 0.2 + 0.005 + 0.05 = 0.255 m2°C/W

By summing up U = 3.92 W/m2°C

25
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

The rate of heat flow is The Prandtl number is defined as

Q = U A(T–T2) Cp µ
Pr = ---------
-
= 3.92 W/m2°C × k
(2.44 × 1.22 m2) (24°C–(–10°C)) where Cp is the heat capacity (J/kg°C or
= 3.92 × 2.98 × 34 = 397 W Btu/lb m°F), µ is the viscosity (Pa•s or lbf s/ft2)
and k is the thermal conductivity (W/m°C or Btu/
= 1355 Btu/hr hr ft°F).
Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient Calculation For laminar flow in tubes, the following
The most important step in heat convection correlation applies:
calculations is the determination of the appropriate 0.0668 ( D/L )RePr
heat transfer coefficient. The higher the fluid Nu = 3.66 + ----------------------------------------------------------
2⁄3
-
velocity is, the higher the heat transfer coefficient 1 + 0.04 [ ( D/L )RePr]
will be. Numerous correlations have been For turbulent flow in tubes, we have
developed for the calculation of the heat transfer Nu = 0.023 Re0.8 Prn
coefficient in terms of dimensionless groups.
where n = 0.4 for heating and n = 0.3 for cooling.
These different groups combine flow and fluid
properties such as velocity, heat transfer Numerous other correlations are available in
coefficient, thermal conductivity, density and specialized textbooks.1-3 Generally, for laminar
viscosity. Following are definitions of three groups flow Nu depends on the 0.3 power of Re and for
and examples of when they are used. turbulent flow on the 0.8 power of Re.
The Nusselt number is the dimensionless heat To calculate the heat transfer coefficient, we
transfer coefficient defined as plug the various quantities into the appropriate
correlation to calculate the Nusselt number, Nu.
hD Then, from the definition
Nu = -------
k
hD
where the heat transfer coefficient, h, has Nu = -------
k
dimensions of W/m2°C or Btu/hr ft2°F, the
thermal conductivity, k, has dimensions of W/m°C we can calculate
or Btu/hr ft°F, and D is a characteristic length (m k
h = Nu ----
or ft), such as the diameter of a pipe in which a D
fluid is flowing. The values given in Table 3 have been
The Reynolds number (see also the chapter on calculated from such correlations, assuming flow
Fluid Dynamics), is defined as conditions encountered in various practical heat
ρVD transfer situations.4
Re = ------------
µ Let us now see how much more effective
where ρ is the density (kg/m3 or lb m/ft3), V the turbulent flow is at transferring heat as compared
fluid velocity (m/s or ft/s), µ the viscosity (Pa•s or to laminar flow. Assuming D/L = 1/30, Re = 2000,
lbf s/ft2), and D a characteristic length (m or ft), and Pr = 1 (i.e., water at 200°C and under
such as the diameter of a pipe in which a fluid is pressure), the correlation for laminar flow gives
flowing. the following:
0.0668  ------ × 2000 × 1
1
When the value of the Reynolds number for  30
pipe flow is less than 2100, the flow is streamlined Nu = 3.66 + -----------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2/3
and regular and is called laminar. Above Re = 2100, 1 + 0.04 × ------ × 2000 × 1 ]
the flow is highly chaotic and irregular and is said to 30
be turbulent. = 6.37

26
®
 Heat Transfer

k
and h = 6.37 ---- escapes from the human body and can pass
D through air pockets and fabrics. Radiation
We repeat the calculation for turbulent flow scattering occurs because of equivalence of fiber
assuming Re = 3000, with the other quantities size and wavelength. Synthetic materials have
remaining the same. been manufactured that reportedly match goose
Nu = 0.023 (3000)0.8 × 10.4 = 13.9 down properties in both reducing conduction and
k radiation heat loss, again by scattering the
and h = 13.9 ---- radiation on micrometer-sized fibers.
D
We see that although the Reynolds number Radiant heat transfer (which is a form of
(i.e., velocity) was increased by 50%, the heat electromagnetic radiation) depends on the
transfer coefficient was increased by 118%, i.e., absolute temperature and nature of the radiating
(13.9/6.39) × 100 = 218% – 100% = 118%. surface. The best kind of radiating surface, which
Obviously, to maximize heat transfer rates, we is called a black body, can be described by the
should operate with turbulent flow conditions. For Stefan-Boltzmann law:
example, by increasing the channel diameter and Q = σAT4
the coolant velocity, the Reynolds number in the
cooling channels of a mold can be increased where T is the absolute temperature of the surface
beyond the critical value of 2100. The resulting of the body in degrees Kelvin (K), A is the surface
turbulent flow will be much more effective in area (m2 or ft2), and σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann
removing heat from the mold. constant (σ = 5.669 × 10-8 W/m2 K4 or 0.1714 ×
10-8 Btu/hr ft2 R4).
Molten polymers are very viscous and the
Reynolds number is in the range 0.0001 to 0.01, i.e., Black bodies are so called because such
polymer melt flows are always laminar. So, for a materials do not reflect any radiation and appear
polymer melt having k = 0.2 W/m°C, Pr ≈ 5 × 106, black to the eye. Thus, a black body absorbs all
and flowing through an 8-mm-diameter channel, the radiation incident upon it. The “blackness” of a
heat transfer coefficient will be roughly surface to thermal radiation can be quite
deceiving insofar as visual observations are
0.02
h = 7 ------------- = 175 W/m2°C concerned.4 Some visually black surfaces are
0.008
indeed black to thermal radiation. However, snow
Radiation
and ice appear white and bright but are essentially
Many types of thermoforming machines use “black” in thermal radiation.
radiation to heat the plastic sheet. Metal rod
heaters, halogen tubes, and ceramic plates are When a body with surface temperature T1 is
used frequently. Heater temperatures can reach placed in a closed environment of temperature T2,
700°C and the corresponding radiative heat the net amount of heat transfer depends on the
transfer coefficients can reach 100 W/m2°C. temperature difference, in the form
Radiation is important wherever very high Q = σ A1 (T14 – T24 )
temperatures are involved. However, radiative
effects play a significant role in other less obvious For gray bodies, not perfect radiators, we have
situations. Goose down is known as the most
effective insulation for two reasons: reduction of Q = ε1 σ A1 (T14 – T24)
heat conduction by air pockets trapped by clusters
of fibers, and entrapment of radiation. The goose where ε1 = emissivity (ε1 = 1 for black bodies,
down fibers have a diameter of a few ε1 < 1 for gray bodies). For lampblack, ε = 0.96,
micrometers, which is the wavelength of a for oxidized cast iron, ε = 0.7, and for polished
significant portion of the infrared radiation that steel, ε = 0.1.

27
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

If surface A1 is not completely enclosed by This value is significantly lower than the
surface A2, we must introduce an additional factor convective heat transfer coefficient (100 W/m2°C)
to account for the relative geometric orientation of and may be neglected in some calculations.
the two radiating surfaces:
HEAT EXCHANGERS
Q = σ A1 F1-2 (T14 – T24)
Heat exchangers are devices that transfer heat
F1-2 is called the shape or view factor or angle by convection and conduction between two fluids
factor. During the winter in the Northern Hemisphere, that are separated by a wall. The automobile
the temperatures are low because the sun’s radiation radiator is a heat exchanger in which convection
arrives with an unfavorable angle factor. and conduction take place, but no radiative heat
transfer. Radiative heat exchangers are used in
For practical problems, it is sometimes
specialized applications in space vehicles and are
advisable to define a radiative heat transfer
beyond the scope of most textbooks.
coefficient, hr, from the following:
The simplest type of heat exchanger, the
Q = hr A1 (T1 – T2) = σ A1 F1-2 (T14 – T24) double-pipe system shown in Figure 5, involves
tube and annular flow. If the two fluids flow in the
4 4
σ F 1–2 ( T1 – T2 ) same direction, the arrangement is called parallel
hr = --------------------------------------------- = σ F1-2(T12 + T22)(T 1 + T 2) flow, and if the flows are in opposite directions,
T1 – T2
counterflow. Because of the rather small surface
The radiative heat transfer coefficient depends
areas available for heat transfer, double-pipe heat
strongly on temperature and is less useful as a
exchangers are used for low to moderate heat
concept than the convective heat transfer
transfer rates. For high rates of heat transfer, other
coefficient. However, it is useful for practical
types of heat exchangers are used that provide
problems involving both convection and radiation,
large surface areas. In this category belong the
for which we can write the rate of heat flow as
shell-and-tube heat exchangers (that involve
Q = (h+hr)Aw (Tw–T∞) several tube passes) and crossflow configurations
(with interconnected passageways).
where Tw is the temperature of a wall and T∞ the
temperature of a surrounding medium that
completely encloses surface Aw.
Because of the fourth power dependence of
radiation heat exchange, this mode is more
important in very high temperature applications, as
in metallurgical operations. In some polymer
processing operations, radiation is less important
than convection. For example, in blown film
extrusion, the film is likely to emerge from the die
lips at 200°C (473 K) or so, and a tangentially
impinging cooling air jet is likely to have a heat
transfer coefficient of the order of 100 W/m2°C. Let
us calculate the radiative heat transfer coefficient
assuming F1–2 = 1, and T2 = 20°C (293 K):
Figure 5. Double-pipe heat exchanger (parallel flow).
hr = σ F1-2 (T12 + T22)(T 1 + T 2)
For the design and prediction of performance
= 5.669 × 10-8 W/m2 K4 (4732 + 2932) (473 + 293)
purposes, the concept of the overall heat transfer
= 13.44 W/m2°C coefficient is used, which was described earlier in

28
®
 Heat Transfer

this chapter. For the double-pipe arrangement of It is important to keep clean channels and
Figure 5, we can write again clean circulating water or oil in plastics
Q = U A ∆Tm processing machinery; otherwise, fouling will
result in significant cooling efficiency reduction.
where U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, A
is the heat transfer area, and ∆Tm a suitable SPECIAL HEAT TRANSFER
average temperature difference between the PROBLEMS IN PLASTICS
entering and exiting fluids. This average is the so- PROCESSING
called log-mean temperature difference (LMTD),
There are two properties of plastics that play a
which is defined as
very significant role during their processing: their
∆T 2 – ∆T 1 low thermal conductivity and their high viscosity
∆Tm = ----------------------------------
ln [ ∆T 2 ⁄ ∆T 1 ] in the molten state.
where ln represents the natural logarithm having The thermal conductivity of most plastics is
base e = 2.71828 (log has base 10). about 0.2 W/m°C (0.115 Btu/hr ft°F), which is
The foregoing relationships are valid for both roughly 200 times smaller than the conductivity of
parallel and counterflow heat exchangers. steel and 2000 times smaller than the conductivity
Injection molding machines involving hot oil and of copper. Due to low conductivities, cooling of
cold water are connected counterflow because this plastics is slow. In fact, in some processes, such as
arrangement removes roughly 10% more heat thick profile extrusion, pipe extrusion, and film
from the oil than parallel flow. blowing, cooling might be the output rate-limiting
step. Although the extruder might be capable of
For other types of heat exchangers (multipass pumping out more product, we might not be able to
shell-and-tube, crossflow, etc.), a correction factor cool the product fast enough.
is needed:
The viscosity of molten plastics decreases
∆Tm = (LMTD for counter flow) × Fcorrection factor with the rate of shearing, but it always remains
F is usually between 0.5 and 1.0, and values very high, roughly of the order of a million times
of this factor for various configurations of heat larger than the viscosity of water. Because of high
exchangers can be found in specialized viscosity, polymer melts flowing through
textbooks.1-3 channels, dies, and process equipment tend to
raise their temperature by a mechanism of internal
Heat exchangers may become coated with
friction. Under certain conditions, the frictional
various deposits present in the flow or become
heating might result in high temperatures, which
corroded. Because of fouling, a reduction in heat
can cause degradation of the material.
transfer efficiency is observed. The overall effect
is represented by the fouling factors, defined as Cooling of a Plastic Plate in a Mold

1 1 Let us assume that a HDPE plate of 10-mm

R f = ----------------- – --------------- thickness initially at 230°C is cooled in a mold
U fouled U clean
and the mold surface is at 30°C. How long will it
Tabulated values of Rf can be found in
take for the temperature to reach 90°C at the
specialized textbooks.1-3 For boilers used for long
midplane (xm = 10/2 = 5 mm)? Plots are available
periods of time, we may have Rf = 0.0002
in heat transfer books1-3 giving temperature as a
m2°C/W, while Uclean = 3000 W/m2°C. Thus,
function of dimensionless groups.
1 1 We use Figure 6 for Ti = 230°C, T0 = 30°C,
0.0002 = ----------------- – ------------
U fouled 3000 and Tm = 90°C. Using the temperature information
Ufouled = 1875 W/m2°C, which represents a and the following graph (Figure 6), which shows
significant reduction. how the Fourier number (Fo) changes as a function

29
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

of the temperature differences, we can calculate the Assuming that the mechanical work (due to
time until the plate would be cooled to the the pressure pushing the molten plastic) is
temperature of 90°C. converted into heat, we can easily prove that the
temperature rise will be
Tm – T0 90 – 30 60
------------------
- = --------------------- = --------- = 0.3 ∆P
Ti – T0 230 – 30 200 ∆T = ----------
ρC p
So, for a die that has a pressure drop ∆P =
4000 psi (27.58 × 106 Pa) and a molten polymer
having ρ = 780 kg/m3 and Cp = 2300 J/kg°C, we
obtain:
6
27.58 × 10
∆T = ---------------------------- = 15.4°C (27.7°F)
780 × 2300
which means that the average temperature of the
polymer coming out of the die will be 15.4°C
(27.7°F) higher than the temperature coming in.
Power Requirement of a Single-Screw Extruder
This example and the selected thermal
Figure 6. Plot for calculating the temperature Tm at properties given in the Appendix are taken from
the midplane of a plate as a function of time after the
two surfaces are suddenly raised to T0. Vlachopoulos and Wagner.5 In the extruder,
polymer pellets usually coming in at room
From the graph, the corresponding Fourier temperature (i.e., 20°C) are melted and
number is subsequently pumped at the extrusion temperature
through the die (i.e., ~200°C, depending on the
kt
Fo = -----------------2 = 0.58 polymer). Most of the energy comes from turning
ρC p x m the screw. Of course, some energy is supplied by
the heating bands around the barrel. In well-
Using typical thermal properties for high
running extruders, net energy input usually occurs
density polyethylene (HDPE) like those given in
in the first section (near the hopper) and net output
the Appendix at the end of this chapter:
in the second section (near the die), i.e., the heat
0.25t generated by the viscous dissipation is really
------------------------------------------------2- = 0.58
780 × 2300 × 0.005 heating the barrel.
t = 104 seconds The power required by the turning screw is
For computer-assisted mold cooling needed to
calculations and optimization procedures, the • Raise the temperature from room
reader is referred to a thesis.4 temperature to extrusion temperature in the
Temperature Rise Resulting from die
Frictional Heating
The average temperature rise caused by
• Melt the polymer (heat of fusion)
frictional heating (also called viscous dissipation) • Pump the molten polymer
can be calculated assuming that the process is
The power required by the turning screw is
adiabatic (i.e., there is no heat exchange with the
given by the following expression:
surroundings), which is actually not such a bad
assumption for flows through channels and dies. Po = ρ • Q • Cp • (Tout – Tin) + ρ • Q • ∆Hf + ∆P • Q

30
®
 Heat Transfer

where the values shown in Table 4 apply. For calculations with other polymers, see
Appendix.
Symbol Name Typical Values
Relative Contribution
Mass throughput Term
˙
m significance (kJ/hr)
(kg/hr)
Raise temperature
Heat capacity, average 1500-3000 Most important 50,580
Cp to 200°C
(J/kg °C) J/kg °C
Somewhat
Usually room Melt the polymer 14,612
Tin 20°C important
temperature, °C
Pump the molten
Extrusion temperature Insignificant 4,437
Tout 200°C-300°C polymer
in the die, °C
Total power
Density, average 700-1200 69,629
ρ requirement
(kg/m3) kg/m3
Table 5. Relative Contributions to Power
Volume flow rate Consumption.
Q
(m3/hr)

Pressure rise 10-50 SUMMARY

∆P
(Pa) MPa
Heat is a form of energy that is transferred
The heat of fusion from high temperatures to low temperatures by
can vary from zero three modes: conduction, convection, and
Heat of fusion (for amorphous
∆Hf radiation. Conduction through metals, e.g., copper,
(J/kg) polymers) to 300,000
J/kg (for a very
aluminum, and beryllium copper alloys is very fast,
crystalline HDPE) whereas through plastics it is very slow. The
thermal conductivity of aluminum is about 200
Table 4. Definition of Symbols and Typical Values. W/m°C and that of typical plastic about 0.20
Let us calculate the relative contributions for W/m°C, which means that heat is conducted 1000
ρQ = m˙ = 112.4 kg/hr of a typical polymer and times faster through aluminum than through a
pressure rise of 30 Mpa (see Table 5): plastic. In solid walls, the temperature drops
linearly from its high value on one side to the low
Po = 112.4 × 2500 × (200 – 20) + 112.4 × 130,000 value on the other side. Convection can be natural
112.4
+ 30 × 106 × ------------- (free) or forced. Natural convection involves the
760 motion of a gas or liquid due to density differences;
Po = 50,580 kJ/hr + 14,612 kJ/hr + 4,437 kJ/hr i.e., hot air is lighter and as it moves upward, new
= 69,629 kJ/hr air moves near the heating source, causing
Let us express the final answer in terms of circulation. In forced convection, the movement of
horsepower: a liquid or gas is assisted by a pump or fan. For
kJ hr convective heat transfer calculations, it is important
Po = 69,629 ----- × ---------------- = 19.34 kW to determine the heat transfer coefficient. The heat
hr 3600 s
transfer coefficient increases as the flow velocity
hp
× ------------------------ = 25.93 hp increases. Turbulent flow is much more effective
0.746 kW than laminar flow for transferring of heat.
So, we can size the horsepower of a motor.
Radiation is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic
But we must take into account its efficiency. If we
waves. It is important whenever high temperatures
assume 85% efficiency, then
are involved, such as in plastic sheet heating in
1
Motor Power = ---------- 25.93 hp = 30.51 hp thermoforming machines.
0.85
31
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

In plastics processing, heat is generated within and the equations of heat conduction, convection,
flowing highly viscous melts due to internal and radiation. For conduction, the thermal
friction (viscous dissipation). Most of the energy conductivity of the materials involved must be
necessary to heat and melt plastic pellets in an known. For convection, the key step is the
extruder comes from the motor turning the screw.
determination of the heat transfer coefficients,
This means we have conversion of mechanical
energy into heat. which are usually available as correlations
It is possible to carry out relatively accurate involving the Reynolds number of the flow.
calculations of temperature rise, drop, or Radiation calculations require the material
distribution and the energy requirements by emissivities and the relative geometric orientation
applying the principle of conservation of energy of the radiating surfaces.

REFERENCES
1. Holman J.P. (1990) Heat Transfer. McGraw-Hill, New York.
2. Bejan A. (1993) Heat Transfer. Wiley, New York.
3. Pitts D.R. and Sisson L.E. (1998) Heat Transfer. (Schaum’s Outline Series). McGraw-Hill, New York.
4. Reynolds D.W. (2000) “Optimization of Cooling Circuits in Injection Molds.” Thesis, McMaster
University, Hamilton, ON, Canada.
5. Vlachopoulos J. and Wagner J.R. (2001) The SPE Guide on Extrusion Technology and Troubleshooting.
Society of Plastics Engineers, Brookfield, CT.
6. Mark J.E. (1996) Physical Properties of Polymers Handbook. AIP Press, Woodbury, NY.

32
®
 Heat Transfer

APPENDIX
Selected thermal properties

Thermal Heat Heat of

Solid Glass Melting Usual melt Melt
conductivity, capacity, fusion
Polymer Density,a transition, point, processing density,a
k (W/m°C) Cp (J/kg°C) ∆Hf (J/kg)
ρ (g/cm3) Tg Tm range ρ (kg/m3)
(Btu/hrft°F) (Btu/lbm°F) (Btu/lb)

–130°C 130°-137°C 160°-240°C 0.25 2,200-2,400 210,000-300,000

HDPE 0.941-0.967 780
–202°F 266°-278°F 320°-464°F 0.145 0.52-0.57 90-130

–130°C 106°-112°C 160°-240°C 0.20 2,200-2,400 190,000-240,000

LDPE 0.915-0.935 760
–202°F 223°-234°F 320°-464°F 0.115 0.52-0.57 80-100

-130°C 125°C 160°-240°C 0.20 2,200-2,400 190,000-240,000

LLDPE 0.910-0.925 760
-202°F 257°F 320°-464°F 0.115 0.52-0.57 80-100

-20°C 165°C 180°-240°C 0.18 2,000-2,200

PP 0.890-0.910 730 210,000-260,000
-4°F 329°F 356°-464°F 0.10 0.48-0.52
90-110

80°C 175°C 165°-205°C 0.17 1,000-1,700 170,000-190,000

PVC (rigid) 1.30-1.58 1,250
176°F 347°F 329°-401°F 0.10 0.24-0.41 70-80

100°C 180°-240°C 0.15 1,300-2,000

PS 1.04-1.10
212°F Amorphousb 356°-464°F
1,000
0.09 0.31-0.48 Amorphousb

105°C 180°-230°C 0.19 1,400-2,400

PMMA 1.17-1.20
221°F Amorphousb 356°-446°F
1,050
0.11 0.33-0.57 Amorphousb

80°C 265°C 275°-290°C 0.18 1,800-2,000 120,000-140,000

PET 1.34-1.39 1,160
176°F 509°F 527°-554°F 0.10 0.43-0.48 50-60

105°-115°C b 200°-290°C 0.25 1,300-1,700

ABS 1.01-1.04
221-239°F Amorphous 392°-554°F
990
0.145 0.31-0.41 Amorphousb

90°C 265°C 275°-290°C 0.20 2,400-2,600 190,000-205,000

Nylon 66 1.13-1.15 980
194°F 509°F 527°-554°F 0.115 0.57-0.62 80-88

140°C 250°-305°C 0.22 1,300-2,200

PC 1.2
284°F Amorphousb 482°-581°F
1,050
0.13 0.31-0.52 Amorphousb

HDPE, high density polyethylene; LDPE, low density polyethylene; LLDPE, linear low density
polyethylene, PP, polypropylene; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; PS, polystyrene; PMMA, polymethyl
methacrylate; PET, polyethylene terepthalate; ABS, acryl butadiene styrene; PC, polycarbonate.
a
Melt densities have been estimated for roughly the mid-temperature of the processing range.
See Mark6 for expressions in the form ρ = A – BT ± CT2.
b
Amorphous resin does not possess crystallinity, and consequently no melting point or heat of fusion
(i.e., heat to break down crystal structure) can be determined.

33
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

34
®
PRINT READING
READING PART DRAWINGS, MOLD DRAWINGS,
AND INTERPRETING HYDRAULIC DIAGRAMS
ANDY ROUTSIS ®

Note to Participant: It is recommended that a • Scale

part drawing, mold drawing, and a molding • General tolerances
machine’s hydraulic diagram, specific to your • General information
company, accompany this article. The purpose of • Material
this document is to act as a reference and should not • Finish
be used in place of a structured training program. • Heat treatment
GENERAL LAYOUT Parts List
Overview A parts list is used with an assembly drawing,
Although most part drawings, mold drawings, such as a mold drawing, and shows the multiple
and hydraulic diagrams differ in appearance, there components used. This list is generally located
are general guidelines that should be followed. All above the title block on the right side of the
drawings contain a title block, and may also drawing (Figure 1). Information within the parts
include a parts list, revision block, and notes list includes the part name, part number, materials
section (Figure 1). used, and the manufacturer.
Title Block Revision Block
The title block is located in the lower right- The revision block is generally located at the
hand corner of the drawing (Figure 1). Included in upper right-hand corner of the drawing (Figure 1).
the title block is a wide variety of information This block contains information pertaining to
about the draft, such as: changes that have been made to the design, such
• Part name as the revision number or letter, date,
• Part number authorization, and an explanation of each change.
• Date started Symbols are often used next to the explanation to
• Date completed identify the location of the change on the drawing.
• Department Notes
• Company The notes section is most often located at the
• Address bottom of the drawing and is used to indicate any
• Approval general information about the drawing that does
• Draftsperson not appear in the title block, parts list, or revision
• Manufacturing method block (Figure 1). This information may refer to

35
Society of Plastics Engineers
Figure 1. Imaging.

36
®
 Print Reading

dimension and tolerance information, surface • Isometric

finish, color, or material.
• Top
PART DRAWING AND MOLD • Front
DRAWING READING
• Left side
Introduction
• Right side
Part drawings and mold drawings portray a
three-dimensional object within a two-dimensional • Bottom
draft. This is done using a variety of different
views, lines, and dimensions.
• Back

Views
• Sectional
In the case of a flat part with minimal detail, Lines
only a single top view may be required. To fully When drawing, a variety of lines are required
represent a part, most cases require multiple to express the different features present on the
views. There are eight views commonly used to part (Figure 2). The different lines used are listed
represent a three-dimensional part (Figure 1): in Table 1.

Table 1: Common lines used for drawings.

Object line: Shows detail on faces seen in the particular view

Hidden line: Indicates detail not visible in the particular view

Center line: Represents the center of circular detail

Cutting plane line: Shows the direction of cut for a sectional view

Cross-hatch: Identifies a cut surface used for a sectional view

Break line: Imaginary break used to shorten long parts such as rods or shafts

Extension line: Shows an extension of a part feature for dimensioning

Dimension line: Used to indicate the distance being dimensioned, generally

using arrows or hash marks on the ends

Leader: Line with arrows at the end which point to a radius being dimensioned,
to point out a note, or a part feature

37
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 2.
Dimensions center line or an extension line located at the
center or edge of the part (Figure 2).
Imperial or metric units can be used when
dimensioning. In some cases, the dimensions have Tolerances are used to indicate an upper and
indicators such as in. (inches) or mm (millimeters) lower limit for a given dimension. Tolerances
after the dimension. Dimensioning units can also be follow the dimension, using a ‘+’ for positive
called out as a note in either the title block or in the tolerances and a ‘–’ for the negative tolerances. If
both the positive and negative dimensions are
notes section. Length and diameter measurements
equal, the tolerances are represented with a ±. For
use dimensioning lines either inside or outside the
example, 12.000 ″+0.005/-0.005 can also be
lines being measured. Radius measurements use a
expressed as 12.000″ ± 0.005. The dimension here
leader that points to the inside or outside of the would range from 11.995″ to 12.005″.
radius (Figure 2).
Threads are shown on the blueprint using
Most dimensions require a base or datum, hidden lines around the hole and are labeled using a
which is used as a reference. This is typically a leader. The depth of the hole is also dimensioned

38
®
 Print Reading

Straightness Perpendicularity

Flatness Parallelism

Circularity Position

Cylindricity Concentricity

Profile of a line Symmetry

Profile of a surface Circular runout

Angularity Total runout

Table 2: Common geometric dimensioning and tolerancing GD&T symbols.

using hidden lines (Figure 3). The most common indicated with a triangle and labeled with a letter
thread types are the unified, metric, acme, and pipe. in a square (Figure 4).
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing The GD&T system uses features that indicate
the type of tolerance being used. For example, a ⊥
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing, or symbol with 0.006 in. in the feature box indicates
GD&T, is a more concise method of calling out the line must be perpendicular within 0.006 in.
dimensions and tolerances. This system uses a from the datum A (Figure 4). The other common
rectangle containing the type of feature, the features are listed in Table 2.
tolerance, maximum or lower material condition,
and the reference datum when necessary. The The maximum material limit, MML, and
datum is a reference line or surface, which is lower material limit, LML, involve the lower and
highest dimension that can be achieved. These are
labeled using a circled ‘M’ or ‘L’ in the label box.
Part Drawing Review
When reviewing part drawings, you should
discuss with your supervisor the key aspects of
the drawing such as critical dimensions,
tolerances, and surface finish requirements.

Figure 3. Figure 4.

39
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Mold Drawings Review the line. The direction of hydraulic flow is marked
Mold drawings typically comprise multiple with an arrow on the line. Enclosure lines are used
drawings. The first drawing is an assembly to identify hydraulic features that are housed in a
drawing that shows all the mold components single component or grouped, such as stack or
assembled from both the cavity and core sides of hydraulic valves.
the mold with accompanying drawings of the Pumps
various components within the mold. When A wide variety of pumps are used to generate
reviewing mold drawings, you should be able to hydraulic flow (Table 3). Fixed displacement pumps
identify aspects such as the gate and runner use a hydraulic pump that provides a constant
location, cooling line layout, support pillars, and hydraulic flow. Variable displacement pumps are
ejection actuation. You should also be able to capable of adjusting the hydraulic flow with the
identify any auxiliary connections for either hydraulic demands of the molding machine.
hydraulic or electrical components such as motors,
Valves
cylinders, and hot runner systems.
Valves adjust the flow of the hydraulic fluid
HYDRAULIC DIAGRAMS within the system (Table 3). The simplest valve is
Introduction the check valve, which allows hydraulic fluid to
Hydraulic diagrams are used to display the pass through the valve in only one direction. Flow
route of the hydraulic fluid from the reservoir, control valves use a dial to adjust the amount of
through the hydraulic line and components, and fluid that can flow through the valve. Direction
back to the reservoir. Unlike part drawings and valves use a spool, represented by squares, to alter
mold drawings, the hydraulic diagram is not made the flow of the fluid within the valve. The more
to scale. Hydraulics use pump powered by an common spools available can stop the flow, allow
electric motor to generate hydraulic flow. The the flow to pass through, cross two flows, join two
resistance to flow within the system generates flows, or allow fluid to change direction. These
hydraulic pressure. Valves control the flow of the valves are moved through the use of different
fluid and the pressure in the line. The hydraulic controls such as a spring, manual control,
fluid is converted to movement using actuators such pushbutton, lever, pedal, mechanical latch, pressure
as a screw motor and a carriage pullback cylinder. compensation, solenoid, servomotor, or pilot
pressure. Valves actuated by these devices show the
Hydraulic Lines symbol for the method next to the device (Table 3).
Different hydraulic lines are used to connect
Actuators
the different hydraulic components (Table 3). The
Hydraulic motors are rotary actuators that are
main line has the high-pressure hydraulic fluid.
used convert the hydraulic flow to rotational
The pilot line has a lower pressure and lower
movement. Cylinders are used to convert the
volume of flow and is typically used to control
hydraulic flow to linear movement (Table 3).
other hydraulic components such as a valve. Many
hydraulic components are lubricated with the Other Components
hydraulic fluid. This fluid is passes through a low- Heaters and coolers control the temperature of
pressure drain line back to the reservoir; the the hydraulic fluid. Filters are used to remove
reservoir line is used to indicate hydraulic fluid contaminates from the hydraulic fluid. Electric
being passed back to the hydraulic reservoir. motors are used to power the hydraulic pumps.
Intersecting, joined, hydraulic lines are Pressure switches are used to turn off and on
represented using a dot where the lines intersect. electrical components. Pressure and temperature
Lines that pass by each other without a dot or indicators are used to measure the status of the
semicircle indicated are not joined. Plugged fluid. The hydraulic fluid is stored at a low
hydraulic lines are indicated by an X at the end of pressure in a reservoir (Table 3).

40
®
 Print Reading

Hydraulic Diagram Review

When reviewing hydraulic diagrams, you should ask your hydraulic maintenance technician to help
you identify machine components such as pumps, valves, and actuators on the diagram and the molding
machine.

Main line Hydraulic cylinder

Pilot line Spring control

Drain line Manual control

Reservoir line Pushbutton control

Joined lines Lever control

Nonintersecting lines Pedal control

Plugged line Mechanical latch control

Flexible line Pressure compensated control

Direction of flow Servomotor control

Fixed displacement pump Pilot pressure control

Variable displacement pump Heater

Check valve Cooler

Flow control valve Filter

Valve spools Electric motor

Relief valve Pressure switch

Valve with controls Pressure gauge

Hydraulic motor Temperature gauge

Reservoir Enclosure

Table 3. Common hydraulic components.

41
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

42
®
ELECTRICITY
ROBERT E. FARRELL

INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

This section covers the fundamental aspects The Discovery of Electricity
of electricity in plastics processing equipment.
The science of electricity is relatively new, and
The first part of this section covers the basic
almost all our body of knowledge has been
physics involved in the creation, control, and use
developed within the last two centuries. The Greeks
of electrical current. The last part covers some of
knew that an electrical charge could be created by
the basic components that convert electrical
rubbing amber with animal fur. In fact, the word
power to useful work in processing plastic. The
electricity comes from the Greek word elektron.
scope of this section is limited to providing a
However, progress in the understanding and
basic understanding of the subject and does not
quantification of electricity did not occur until the
cover electrical troubleshooting. If it is part of a
beginning of the 18th century. Benjamin Franklin
technician’s job to provide all the electrical
(1706-1790) was one of the early investigators. We
support required for an operation, we suggest that
all know of his risky “don’t try this at home”
this entire chapter be studied. If these tasks are
experiment with a kite in a lightning storm. With a
left to a control systems technician (electrician), it
key attached to the kite string, he proved that
is good policy to not even attempt to tackle
lightning is a form of electricity. It was known that
electrical functions. Very little electricity is
when amber (or plastic) is rubbed, the charge is
required for a severe injury!
opposite to that produced by rubbing a glass rod.
To obtain a clear picture of your needs, please While the choice of assigning positive or negative to
discuss this chapter with your supervisor. It is either was arbitrary, Franklin argued that the charge
typical to understand the premises of lockout- on the glass rod should be considered positive and
tagout procedures and be able to identify many the charge on the amber should be negative. He
components in a machine electrical cabinet as well believed that electricity was a form of fluid and
as the safety precautions required. For example, when an object had a surplus of this “fluid” it was
hazards from stored electricity (e.g., static positively charged and when an object had less than
electricity or discharges from a capacitor) can catch normal it was negatively charged. Thus current
one by surprise when poking around “where one would flow from a surplus (positive) to a deficit
doesn’t belong.” We think the following pages (negative). His fame ensured that this concept was
present the most important aspects of electrical accepted, and even today “conventional” current
operation for any processing operation. flow is from positive to negative.

43
Society of Plastics Engineers

How Electricity Flows path is constricted, current flow decreases with the
Friction machines were the only method conductor’s resistance. This relationship is known
known for producing electrical charges, which as Ohm’s law and is expressed mathematically as
were often stored in foil-lined glass storage jars. It E
I = ---- (2)
was known then that when a negative charge was R
produced, an equal and opposite positive charge where I is the current flow (amps), E is the force
was also produced; this became known as the law pushing the charge through the conductor (volts),
of conservation of electric charge. Early and R is a measure of the material’s resistance
experiments showed that some materials such as (ohms, or Ω). The resistance can be thought of as
metals would allow the stored charge to flow from the drag on the electrons or, in terms of the analogy
a charged storage jar to an uncharged jar. These of water flowing through pipes, it would be stuff
materials were classified as conductors. Other blocking the pipes and slowing down the water.
materials such as glass, rubber, or wood would not The Discovery of the Electron
allow the charge to pass, and these became
During this period of time, it was known that
classified as nonconductors or insulators.
stationary electric charges were not affected by the
One of the major milestones in the science of presence of a stationary magnetic field, but if
electricity occurred when the Italian Alessandro either were moved relative to the other, a force
Volta (1745-1827) invented the battery. In his would be produced. The force deflecting the
studies of the electric potential of various charge is given by
materials, he found that if a disk of zinc and one of
F=qvB (3)
silver were separated by a piece of cloth soaked in
salt solution or dilute acid, a “potential” difference where F is the force (newtons) deflecting the
was created that could cause a current to flow in an charge, q (coulombs), moving at a velocity, v,
external circuit. The unit of measure for this cutting across the magnetic field, B (T). Tesla (T)
“potential” is the volt (V) in honor of his is the unit of measure for magnetic fields and is
discovery. Thus, researchers no longer had to rely used in honor of another famous researchers of the
on friction machines to generate the electricity late 19th century, Nikola Tesla (1856-1943). The
they needed; they could now use batteries. direction of deflection can be determined by using
The movement of charge (C) through a what is called the right-hand rule. To use this rule
conductor from one location to another is called for a positive charge, point your outstretched
current, and the unit in which current is measured fingers in the direction the charge is moving and
is the ampere, named after the French physicist then bend them to align with the direction of the
Andre Ampere (1775-1836). If one coulomb of magnetic field (north to south). Your thumb points
charge is transferred through a conductor in 1 in the direction the positive charge will deflect.
second (1 sec) then the current flow is 1 ampere In 1897, J.J. Thomson (1856-1940) used this
(abbreviated amp, or A). Thus effect in his studies of cathode rays. Cathode rays
A = C/sec (1) were the mysterious rays seen going from the
cathode (–) to the anode (+) under high voltage in
The German physicist Georg Simon Ohm an evacuated glass tube known as a cathode ray
(1787-1845) studied factors that affected the tube (CRT). By applying a magnetic field across the
amount of current which would be conducted. He direction of “flow” and measuring the deflection, he
observed that, just as the amount of water that determined that cathode rays behaved like charged
flows through a pipe increases with pressure, so particles and had a fixed ratio between charge and
too does the current increase as the potential mass (e/m) of 1.76 × 1011 C/kg. These particles are
(voltage) or electric “push” is increased. Also, just what we now call electrons. The value for the
as the amount of water flow decreases as the flow charge, e, was later determined by Robert A.

44
®
 Electricity

Millikan (1868-1953). In terms of the basic unit of magnetic field (north to south), the force is in the
charge (coulomb), the electron was found to have a direction your fingers will point as you bend them
charge of 1.6 × 10-19 coulombs. That means that it 90º around the conductor. It is this interaction
takes 6.25 × 1018 (that is, 6.25 with 18 zeros after between electric fields, magnetic fields, the flow
it) electrons to create a unit charge of 1 coulomb. If of electrons in a conductor, and the forces
a current of 1 amp is flowing through a wire, then produced that has led to the development of the
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons are passing whole electrical industry over the past century.
through the wire each second! The principles behind generators and motors are
Until the end of the 19th century, scientists based on these interactions.
viewed the world as being composed of indivisible
particles called atoms. After the discovery of the
CONDUCTORS, NONCONDUCTORS,
AND SEMICONDUCTORS
electron, the world looked different. We now know
that the atom is not indivisible but instead has Conductors are materials that allow current to
many components. The atom consists of a nucleus flow easily. Most metals are good conductors.
composed of protons and neutrons surrounded by Other materials such as glass, wood, rubber, and
electrons. The protons are much more massive most plastics are nonconductors (insulators).
than the electrons and have a positive charge equal Today, we have added a third class of materials,
in magnitude to the negative charge of the called semiconductors, that will conduct under
electron. It is the attraction between the negative certain circumstances.
electron and the positive proton that keeps the The degree to which a material will conduct
electrons in “orbit” around the nucleus. Because depends on a property called resistivity, ρ (ohm-
like charges repel each other, the protons would fly meters). Table 1 shows the value of resistivity for
apart and leave the nucleus if it were not for the various substances ranging from conductors to
binding power of the neutrons, which have no insulators. Note that even the best conductor,
charge. Neutrons do have a large mass, however, silver, has some resistivity. The resistance to
which is similar to the proton. The simplest atom current flow increases with the length of the
is hydrogen, which has 1 proton and 1 electron. conductor and the resistivity of the material. The
Copper, which is often used as a conductor, has 29 resistance decreases with the area of the
electrons. Each of these electrons “orbits” the conductor, so this means that the fatter the wire,
nucleus at different energy levels. The outermost the more conductive the wire will be. This
electrons are the ones that interact with other relationship can be expressed as
atoms, and it is the transfer of these weakly held L (meters)
R ( ohms ) = ρ ( ohm-meters ) × ------------------------------------------- (4)
electrons from atom to atom that provides the A (square meters)
current flow in a conductor. It is important to Resistivity is a function of temperature. For
remember that in electrical work one has to most materials, resistivity increases with
distinguish between the current flow of electrons temperature.
(from negative to positive) and what is often There are some materials that exhibit no
referred to as “conventional” current flow (from resistance at very low temperatures. These
positive to negative). materials fall into a unique class called
If a conductor is placed in a magnetic field a superconductors. Most superconductors work
force acts on the conductor as current flows. only near absolute zero which is –273°C. The first
Again, the right-hand rule can be used to superconductor, mercury, must be cooled by
determine the direction of the force. By grabbing liquid helium before it reaches zero, resistance.
the conductor with your thumb pointing in the Because of the commercial potential for materials
direction of the conventional current and with with no resistance, much work has been done
your fingers extended in the direction of the recently in developing materials that have zero

45
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Resistivity Temperature
Material
(Ohm•m) Coefficient

Conductors

Silver 1.59 × 10-8 0.0061

Copper 1.68 × 10-8 0.0068

Gold 2.44 × 10-8 0.0034

Aluminum 2.65 × 10-8 0.00429

Tungsten 5.6 × 10-8 0.0045

Iron 9.71 × 10-8 0.00651

Platinum 10.6 × 10-8 0.003927

Mercury 98 × 10-8 0.0009

Nichrome (alloy of Ni,
100 × 10-8 0.0004
Cr, Fe)
Semiconductors

Carbon (graphite) (3-60) × 10-5 -0.0005

Germanium (1-500) × 10-3 -0.05

Silicon 0.1-60 -0.07

Insulators

Glass 109-1012

Rubber 1013-1015

Table 1. Resistivity of various materials.

resistance closer to room temperature. The best P (watts) = E (volts) × I (amps) × Cos θ (5)
material to date superconducts at 160 K (–171°F),
which is not a very practical temperature for a where θ is the phase angle between current and
plastics processing shop. voltage (to be discussed in more detail latter). The
unit for power is watts (W), in honor of James
In the category of semiconductors, the value of Watt (1736-1819), an early investigator of heat
resistivity shown in Table 1 depends on the type energy and considered by many to be the inventor
and amount of impurities. Silicon crystals are one of the steam engine.
of the most common materials used to make
semiconducting devices such as diodes and DIRECT CURRENT AND
transistors. The character of these semiconductors ALTERNATING CURRENT
is determined by the type and amount of impurity
The electrical industry began to take off after
added during the “doping” process.
Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931) invented the
electric light, which was one of the early practical
ELECTRIC POWER applications for electricity. This development
Power is the combination of current and coupled with the development of mechanical
voltage, as given by generators started the rapid growth of this new

46
®
 Electricity

industry. Cities and homes began to replace gas The early electric industry, up until the 1890s,
lamps with these new light sources as a source of was all direct current. The Edison Electric
light. Also, the invention of the electric motor in Company was growing by “leaps and bounds” as
1833 allowed companies to replace horse and steam generating plants were being built every few
power with electric power for their machines. miles to feed the growing appetite for electricity.
The reason they had to be so close to the
In the last half of the 19th century, direct consumer was a fundamental problem with direct
current (DC) dominated research and the infant current. Although current was what was being
electrical industry. Direct current is the current sent to the customer, the customer was using
that flows from one terminal of a battery to “power” (see Equation 5). The transmission lines
another. The direction was always the same so have resistance. Rearranging Equation 2 so that
long as the polarity is the same. Because batteries E = IR and substituting this into Equation 5 shows
are not practical for continuous use, electricity that the power lost because of resistance in the
generators were developed. A simple DC transmission lines is
generator is shown in Figure 1. Remember that by
passing a conductor through an electric field, a P=I2R (6)
current can be produced. By applying a torque to
rotate a coiled conductor, current is made to flow where it can be seen that to reduce line losses for
through the two slip rings, and we have a DC a given size conductor, it is necessary to reduce
generator. The process can be reversed. By the current flow. Equation 5 shows that to send a
applying a current to the slip rings, the current customer a given amount of power, if current is to
flowing through the coils in the armature will be reduced, then the voltage must be raised.
produce a torque that will cause the shaft to rotate, Because the direct current generators of that
and we have a DC motor. To smooth out the flow period were limited to only a few hundred volts,
of current, many coils are wound on what is called the generators had to be near the customer.
an armature to produce a current as the armature is This problem created an opportunity in the
rotated inside a magnetic field (Figure 2). 1890s for people like George Westinghouse
(1846-1914) and Nikola Tesla, who were
advocating the use of alternating current (AC).
Alternating current is current that periodically
reverses direction, causing the voltage to
periodically reverse direction. Today, the
frequency with which the reversal occurs is 60
times each second. Thus, we say that the line
frequency is 60 Hertz (Hz). This name is given in

Figure 1. Simple DC generator. As winding on a

rotor rotates through a magnetic field, current is
induced that flows through the commutator on the
generator shaft. Figure 2. More advanced DC generator.
[Reprinted with permission. Technical Physics, 4th edition, Frederick [Reprinted with permission. Technical Physics, 4th edition, Frederick
Bueche & David L. Wallach. ©1994. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.] Bueche & David L. Wallach. ©1994. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.]

47
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 3. Simple AC generator. Figure 4. Sine wave of the generator output.

[Reprinted with permission. Technical Physics, 4th edition, Frederick
Bueche & David L. Wallach. ©1994. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.] miles from the customer. Because of this
advantage and his persistence, George
honor of Heinrich Hertz (1857-1894), an early
Westinghouse was given the contract to electrify
electrical pioneer. It should be noted that in
the 1893 Chicago’s World Fair with AC power.
Europe the line frequency is 50 Hz. Figure 3
Later, he was also given the contract to build the
shows a simple diagram of an AC generator. As
first hydroelectric generating plant, which used the
the shaft turns, the output (current or voltage) of
tremendous power of the Niagra Falls and was
the generator follows a sine wave (Figure 4).
located near Buffalo, New York. Thanks to the
One might ask why AC is better. Recall that as persistence of Tesla and Westinghouse, today all
current passes through a conductor, it produces a the electrical power generated is AC power.
magnetic field around the conductor. The strength
of this magnetic field depends on the magnitude of THREE BASIC ELECTRICAL
the current flow. Thus, if the current is varying, so ELEMENTS
will the magnetic field. If we place another Before we begin looking at some common
conductor parallel to the first, we will induce a electrical elements, it may help to review some of the
current to flow in the second conductor as the analogies between the flow of water (hydraulics) and
magnetic field expands and contract with the the flow of electric current. Ohm used these to
change in current within the first conductor. By formulate his famous law (Equation 2). The
placing a substance such as iron into the magnetic hydraulic analogy for voltage is pressure, which is
field, a stronger magnetic coupling can be made the driving force for causing flow. The voltage
between the two coils. The varying current in the (pressure) difference across a component causes
first coil (primary) will induce a varying voltage current (fluid) to flow in proportion to the magnitude
into the second coil (secondary) in proportion to of the difference. Resistance is the resistance to flow
the ratio between the windings of the first coil to whether we are discussing fluid or electric current.
that of the second coil. Thus, we can “transform” These analogies will also be helpful later when we
the voltage to a higher or lower voltage. This explore series and parallel circuits.
device is called a transformer. Note that this A resistor is one of the most basic and simple
cannot be done with direct current. Because AC elements. Remember, all electrical components
current allows us to boost the voltage from except superconductors have some resistance.
hundreds of volts at the generator to hundreds of However, some devices are made just to provide
thousands of volts before transmitting it to the some controlled resistance to flow. In other
customer, the line losses are greatly reduced and it words, a resistor is something that reduces the
is no longer necessary to have generators placed force of the flow of the electrons. If we are
every few miles; they can now be hundreds of talking about water in pipes, this would be like

48
®
 Electricity

water that can be used later for power. In its

Tolerance
Color Number Multiplier simplest form, a capacitor consists of two parallel
(%)
plates separated by an insulator. Two sheets of
Black 0 1 aluminum foil separated by a layer of waxed
Brown 1 101 paper would function as a capacitor. To make the
device more compact, the foils with waxed paper
Red 2 102
can be rolled into a cylinder. If the negative
Orange 3 103 terminal of a battery is attached to one of the foil
Yellow 4 104 “plates,” and the positive terminal is attached to
the other, electrons will flow. The negative
Green 5 105
terminal will charge this plate with electrons and
Blue 6 106 create a negative electric field that will repel the
Violet 7 107 electrons (because like charges repel) from the
Gray 8 108 other plate. Electrons will flow from the second
plate back to the positive terminal of the battery,
White 9 109
thus completing the circuit. Eventually
Gold 10-1 5% (depending on the resistance in the connecting
Silver 10-2 10% conductors) the voltage of the first plate will equal
the voltage on the negative battery terminal. The
Table 2. Color coding for resistors.
current flow will then stop. To use an hydraulic
narrowing a pipe or adding a bend in the line. analogy, consider two buckets (one full and one
Resistors vary in size depending on the amount empty) connected by a hose with a closed valve.
of power they have to dissipate. Recall that the When the valve is opened, water will flow from
power consumed by a device is proportional to the full bucket into the empty bucket. The rate at
the product of the resistance of the device and which the water flows depends on the resistance
the square of the current (Equation. 6). If a of the hose and valve. As the second bucket fills,
circuit is designed to pass a large current then the water level approaches that of the full bucket
the dimensions of the resistor must be large and the flow rate will decrease. Finally, the two
enough to provide surface area capable of levels will be equal (equilibrium is reached) and
dissipating the heat generated by the power loss the flow will stop. For most capacitors, this
through the resistor. The colored bands on the equilibrium is reached in much less than a second.
body of many resistors identify the resistance Thus, capacitors have very little use in DC
value and the precision of the resistor. The first circuits and are usually found in AC circuits.
two bands give the first two digits of the value,
Capacitors range from the size of a penny to
the third band gives the number of zeros
the size and shape of a large coffee can. The
following the first two digits, and the fourth band
larger they are, the larger their capacity to hold a
gives the precision. Table 2 shows the
charge (capacitance). The larger the area of the
relationship between the colored bands and the
plates, the larger the capacitance. The smaller the
value of resistance and precision. Resistors are
distance between the plates, the larger the
manufactured a number of ways. Some use a
capacitance. This relationship is given by
controlled amount of carbon (a semiconductor)
as a conductor, some use a fine wire wound on C = K ε0 A/l (7)
an insulator. In all cases, the body has an
insulating coating. where C is the capacitance in farads (F), A is the
plate area (m2), l is the distance (m) between the
A capacitor is a device that stores a limited plates, ε0 is the permittivity (a measured constant)
amount of charge, similar to how a dam stores of free space (8.85 × 10-12 C2/Nm2), and K is the

49
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

1
XC = ------------------ (8)
( 2πfC )
Dielectric where XC is the capacitive reactance (Ω) in ohms,
Material
Constant, K
f is the frequency (Hz) of the incoming electricity,
Vacuum 1.0000 and C is the capacitance (Farads). Notice that
Air (1 atm) 1.0006 when the frequency f is zero (direct current), the
Paraffin 2.2 capacitive reactance become infinite. Figure 5
Rubber, hard 2.8 shows the relationship between current and
Vinyl 2.8-4.5 voltage in an AC circuit with a capacitor. Note that
Paper 3-7
the current leads voltage (or voltage lags current)
by a quarter cycle (90°). We make use of these
Quartz 4.3
relationships later.
Glass 4-7
An inductor is any device that exhibits self-
Porcelain 6-8
induction. What does this mean? We have already
Mica 7
discussed a device in which the alternating
Ethyl alcohol 24 magnetic field produced around one conductor
Table 3. Dielectric constants of induces a current (or voltage) around a second
various materials. conductor. The transformer described earlier is one
example. Induction can also occur within a single
dielectric constant for the insulator between the
conductor. If the conductor is made into a loose
plates. Table 3 lists dielectric constant values for
coil, then the expanding magnetic field from one
various common substances. This constant tells
turn will induce a current in the adjacent turns. This
how well a charge can travel through a type of
self-induced current (or voltage) is in the opposite
medium (i.e., air, water, etc.) The higher the direction as the applied current and thus is often
number, the easier the charge can travel through referred to as back electromotive force (emf for
the insulator. Some of the larger capacitors used in short). It reduces the net current flow and thus acts
power substations are filled with oil. One of the as a resistance (reactance). This inductive reactance
uses for capacitors in a plastics molding plant is exists in transformers, solenoids, relays, and
for correcting power factor (more on this later). motors. The unit for inductance L is the henry (H),
For AC circuits that have capacitance, the named after Joseph Henry: 1 H = 1 (volt-sec)/amp.
capacitance offers a resistance to current flow that The magnitude of inductive reactance is given by
is called capacitive reactance, given by XL = 2π f L (9)

Figure 5. Voltage and current relationship for a capacitor. Note that current leads voltage by 90°.

50
®
 Electricity

Figure 6. Voltage and current relationship for an inductor. Note that current leads voltage by 90°.
where XL is the inductive reactance (Ω), f is the The series circuit shown in Figure 7 shows
line frequency (Hz), and L is the inductance (H). three resistors in series with a power supply
Notice that when the frequency f is zero (direct (battery). Whenever all the current flowing
current), the inductive reactance become zero. through one device also flows through another
Figure 6 shows the relationship between current device, the two components are said to be in
and voltage in an AC circuit with an inductor. series. This is true whether we are discussing
Note that the current lags voltage by a quarter electrical circuits or hydraulic circuits. As the
cycle (90º). We will make use of these conventional current, I, flows from the positive
relationships later. terminal, a (the large plate), through the resistor
R1, the voltage drop Ebc from point b to c is equal
DC C I R C U I T S to I×R1. The same current then flows through the
resistor R2 where the voltage drop Ecd from point
Before talking about circuits, the path that c to d is equal to I×R2. From there the current
electricity flows through, we need to know the continues to flow through the resistor R3 with a
symbols used to indicate the different components. voltage drop Ede from point d to e being equal to
Table 4 shows each of these symbols. I×R3. The current then flows back to the battery
from e to f with no voltage drop (neglecting any
Electrical Component Symbol resistance in the line). It can be seen that the sum
of the voltage drops across the three resistors is
Battery or DC Power Source equal to the applied voltage of the battery. Also, it
can be seen that the current that flows through
Electrical AC Generator ~ each component (including the battery) is the
same. Thus the following can be concluded about
Resistor series circuits.

Capacitor Etotal = E1 + E2 + E3 +…+ En (10)

Inductor Itotal = I1 = I2 = I3 =…= In (11)

Ammeter for Measuring Current A This series circuit can be replaced by an

equivalent circuit, as shown in Figure 8. The
Voltmeter for Measuring Current V equivalent resistance Req can be determined by
using Ohm’s law (E = IR) in Equation 11.
Table 4. Electrical components and symbols. Because the current flow is the same through each

51
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

component, the subscript can be dropped and This parallel circuit can be replaced by an
Equation 11 can be written: equivalent circuit (Figure 10). The equivalent
resistance Req can be determined by using Ohm’s
IReq = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 (12) law (E = IR) in Equation 15. Because the voltage
is the same across each component, the subscript
Dividing through by I yields
can be dropped and Equation 15 can be written:
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 (13) E/Req = E/R1 + E/R2 + E/R3 + … + E/Rn
Dividing through by E yields
In words, this means that the resistance
throughout this circuit is equal to the sum of the 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 + … + 1/Rn (16)
resistance of each resistor.

Figure 7. DC series circuit.

[Reprinted with permission. Technical Physics, 4th edition, Frederick
Bueche & David L. Wallach. ©1994. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.]

Figure 9. DC parallel circuit.

[Reprinted with permission. Technical Physics, 4th edition, Frederick
Bueche & David L. Wallach. ©1994. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.]

Figure 8. Equivalent resistance.

[Reprinted with permission. Technical Physics, 4th edition, Frederick
Bueche & David L. Wallach. ©1994. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.]

The parallel circuit shown in Figure 9 shows

three resistors in parallel with a power supply Figure 10. Equivalent resistance.
(battery). The current (fluid) flowing from the [Reprinted with permission. Technical Physics, 4th edition, Frederick
Bueche & David L. Wallach. ©1994. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.]
battery (pump) branches and flows through each
of the resistors (flow paths) depending on how
easily the flow can occur. This is true whether we AC C I R C U I T S
are discussing electrical circuits or hydraulic Life gets more complicated with AC circuits
circuits. As the conventional current, I, flows from because there are now three different elements that
the positive terminal, a (the large plate), it could be in the circuit. Not only are there resistors,
branches through the three resistors R1, R2, and but there can also be capacitors and inductors. We
R3. The voltage drop Ebc is the same for each. The can solve these by using capacitive reactance and
current flowing through each resistor is found by inductive reactance instead of capacitance and
using I = E/R. Thus, I1 = E1/R1, I2 = E2/R2, and inductance. Recall that the reactance is a function
I3 = E3/R3. The combined current then flows back of the line frequency, f.
to the battery. Thus, the following can be
The series circuit shown in Figure 11 cannot be
concluded about parallel circuits:
described by assuming that the voltage of the power
Etotal = E1 = E2 = E3 = … = En (14) supply equals the sum of the voltages across each
element. This is because the current flows through
Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3 + …+ In (15) each element; the voltage across the resistor is in

52
®
 Electricity

I (amps) = E/Z (19)

It should be noted that this circuit will result

in a phase shift between current and voltage, as
given by
θ = sin-1 (Xt/Z) (20)

The parallel circuit shown in Figure 12 cannot

be described by assuming that the current from
the power supply equals the sum of the currents
through each element. Again, the phase shift
through each element will be different. The
current through the resistor is in phase with the
voltage whereas the current leads for the capacitor
and lags for the inductor. To solve this circuit, the
first step is to find the total reactive current, IX,
where
IX = I L – I C (21)
Figure 11. AC series circuit.
[Reprinted with permission. Technical Physics, 4th edition, Frederick where IC = E/XC and IL = E/XL.
Bueche & David L. Wallach. ©1994. John Wiley and Sons, Inc.]
2 2
It (amps) = ( I r + Ix ) (22)
phase with the current whereas the voltage lags for
the capacitor and leads for the inductor. Before where IR = E/R. The impedance Z of the
going further, it should be made clear that the circuit is found by
elements shown in Figure 11 can represent the
Z = E/It (23)
equivalent resistance, capacitance, or inductance in
the circuit. It has already been shown the The phase angle between the current and
equivalent resistance of resistors in series is equal voltage is given by
to the sum of the resistors. The same can be said of
θ = sin-1 (IX/It) (24)
inductors in series but not of capacitors. For
capacitors, the reciprocal of the equivalent It should be noted that if XC = XL then IC = IL
capacitance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of and IXt = 0; this will result in a phase shift of zero.
each capacitor (similar to resistors in parallel in
Equation 16). Once the equivalent values are
determined (as represented by R, C, and L in
Figure 11), then the next step in solving the circuit
is to determine the total reactance, Xt, where
Xt = X L – X C (17)

where XC is found using Equation 8 and XL is

found using Equation 9. From this the total
impedance, Z, can be determined by
2 2
Z (ohms) = R + X t (18) Figure 12. AC parallel circuit.

From this, Ohm’s law can be applied to solve Note: The importance of this is that (without
for current by using giving the proof) when the voltage is in phase

53
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

with the current, maximum power transfer occurs. iron core is partially displaced out of the coil, it will
Thus, if you add a capacitor (typically called a be drawn back into the coil when current is sent
power factor capacitor) to the motor circuit of a through the wire. This is the principle behind the
molding machine (which is a highly inductive solenoids used to shift spools in hydraulic valves.
load) you can improve what is often referred to as
the power factor. Even though the capacitor will
be rather large, the energy savings can often pay
for this addition in 2 to 3 years.

C OMMON E LECTRICAL D EVICES

F OUND IN M OLDING S HOPS
Transformers have already been discussed
earlier in the chapter, but here we will see
examples of industrial-grade transformers. Inside
the control panel on most machines is a Figure 13. Simple relay circuit.
[Reprinted with permission. Vickers Industrial Hydraulics Manual,
transformer used to step down the incoming 3rd ed., 1993.]
voltage from 480 or 240 volts AC (VAC) to 110
Relays and contactors are examples of
VAC or lower as required to operate the various
electromechanical devices that operate on the
components inside the control enclosure.
same principle as the solenoid. When current
Typically transformers use a fuse to prevent an
passes through the relay coil, a moving armature is
overload from damaging the transformer
attracted to the coil (Figure 13). The contacts
windings. Transformers can be either step-up, or
attached to this armature move from one set of
step-down, and offer a selection of ratios. When
contacts to a different set. The armature is spring
the main buss power is the wrong voltage for a
loaded against the first set of contacts. Thus, a
machine, a larger transformer may have to be
closed circuit is formed with the first set of
installed near the machine to either step up or step
contacts when the relay is deenergized. This set is
down the voltage
known as the Normally Closed (N.C.) contacts.
Solenoids are created if we wrap a conductor When the relay is energized, the contacts on the
(i.e., a wire) into a coil creating an electromagnet. armature move over and touch the other set of
The magnitude of this magnetic field is contacts, closing a new circuit. These contacts are
proportional to the current flowing through the known as the Normally Open (N.O.) contacts. The
conductor and the number of conductors in the coil of a relay can be energized by either AC or
local region (turns per unit length). The magnitude DC and the contacts can be used to complete
of this magnetic field is given by either AC or DC circuits. There are three things to
B = km µ 0 × n × l (25) be considered in selecting a relay. The first
consideration is the voltage (AC or DC) level
where µ 0 is magnetic permeability of free space, n required to operate the relay coil. A second
is the number of turns of the conductor per unit consideration is the number of amps for which the
length, and l is the length of the coil. km is the contacts are rated. Because the contacts have some
relative permeability of a material that may be used resistance, there is a power loss in the contacts that
as a core in the solenoid. For most materials, the takes the form of heat. If the relay passes a current
value for this property is very close to 1.0. much above its rating, the contacts can weld
However, for ferromagnetic materials such as iron, closed or even melt. A third consideration is the
the value for this is several hundred. Thus, by voltage rating of the contacts. Under a high
adding an iron core inside the coil, the magnetic voltage application, arcing may occur that will
field becomes several hundred times larger. If the eventually pit the contacts, driving up the contact

54
®
 Electricity

resistance (and thus the power loss). The motors are the most common because they are
specifications for most relays are printed on the very efficient and extremely reliable. Because of
body of the relay. Logic circuits can be made by their design, they do not require brushes, which
combining several relays. Relays also have the are the largest maintenance item for electric
advantage that they can use a low voltage or motors. So long as the motor is not operated
current source to control high voltage and power. above its rated horsepower, these motors will run
Relays used to control the electrical power to many thousands of hours without any attention.
industrial heaters are usually referred to as
contactors. One contactor often used in heater
circuits is called a mercury displacement relay
(MDR). In operation, an energized coil draws a
plunger sleeve down into a pool of mercury in an
inert atmosphere. This causes the pool of mercury
to be displaced upward, making contact with the
top electrode to complete the power circuit. Thus,
a low voltage to the coil can control a high voltage
and high current circuit such as a heater circuit for
an extruder or injection molding machine. The
advantage of MDRs is that they are extremely
reliable because there are no contacts to pit or Figure 14. Squirrel cage rotor.
[Courtesy of Danfoss Electronic Drives.]
weld closed. The major disadvantage is that
mercury is extremely hazardous to health and the
These motors are classified as induction
environment. Always contact the manufacturer of
motors because the current necessary to
the MDR to determine the best way to dispose of
produce the reacting magnetic fields in the
them. Motor starters are similar to contactors but
armature is induced into a framework of copper
usually have thermal overloads that open the
rods embedded in the laminated iron core of the
contacts when the power to the electric motor
armature (Figure 14). This framework is often
exceeds the motor rating; this prevents damaging
referred to as a “squirrel cage,” which is why
the motor windings by overheating.
the motor is often referred to as a squirrel cage
Motors have already been discussed in motor. Figure 15 shows an exploded view of a
principle. A wide variety of motors are in use typical asynchronous motor. A rotating
today. The two main categories are DC, AC, and magnetic field is created by the stationary
universal motors. Under DC, the next windings in the stator (item 1). As the armature
categorization is permanent magnet, series (item 9) rotates through this field, the current
wound, shunt wound, and stepping motors. that is induced into the squirrel cage creates a
Under AC motors, there are single phase torque on the armature shaft (item 10). This
(usually for 110 VAC), split phase, and three torque is in proportion to the difference in
phase. As an entire textbook would be needed to rotation speed between squirrel cage and the
cover all of these different motors, we focus here rotating field produced by the stator windings.
on the most common motors used in plastic Thus, the output shaft of the motor rotates
processing equipment. slightly (typically 5%) slower than the field
The most common motor is the asynchronous rotation. For example, if the stator is producing
induction motor. These AC motors that are single a magnetic field that rotates at 1200 rpm, the
phase (usually 110 VAC) for the small motors and motor shaft may rotate at 1150 rpm. The
three phase (240 or 480 VAC) for motors larger difference in speed is referred to as the slip and
than one horsepower (1 hp). Asynchronous varies with the amount of torque placed on the

55
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

output shaft. Other significant components of a A standard motor can usually produce twice the
motor are the bearing (item 2), which must be full load, and motors that are specially wound on a
regreased periodically, the fan (item 4), which larger frame can produce torques even greater than
forces cooling air over the stator housing fins, this. If the peak torque does exceed the full load
and the housing (item 6) for making the torque, then it must be for only a small percent of
electrical connections, sometimes referred to as the overall machine cycle to give the motor time to
the “doghouse.” cool between peaks. The percent of the cycle that
can have the overload depends on the amount of
overload, but 10% duration is not uncommon for a
200% overload. A calculation can be made of the
machine cycle demand on the motor to ensure that
the motor is not being worked beyond its rated
Key
1. Finned Motor Housing containing the (nameplate) horsepower. This calculation is called
motor Stator Windings
2. Motor Bearing an rms calculation; it stands for root mean square,
3. Cover
4. Fan
which is beyond the scope of this section.
5. Fan Shroud
6. “Dog House” for connecting wires to motor
7. Motor Shaft Seal
8. Motor Lifting Eye
9. Rotor (Armature)
10. Motor Shaft

Figure 15. Exploded view of an asynchronous motor.

[Courtesy of Danfoss Electronic Drives.]

Figure 16 is a graph showing the relationship

between torque and speed. The horizontal axis is
the ratio of motor speed to the full load (rated)
speed. The vertical axis is the motor torque. Point
4 on the graph is the motor torque as the motor is
just starting. This torque is referred to as the
breakaway or starting torque. Point 3 is the
minimum or “pull-up” torque. It is important that Figure 16. Motor torque curve for a typical
asynchronous motor.
no torque demand greater than this be placed on
the motor as it is starting or the motor will not
Motors are manufactured by winding copper
reach rated speed and will overheat; this is why
wire on a laminated soft iron core or frame. The
hydraulic pumps are usually unloaded during the
wire is coated with an insulating material
start-up of a machine. Point 5 is the breakdown or
(sometimes plastic) before being wound; this is
“pull-out” torque. If the motor has a torque greater
necessary so that the copper coils do not short out
than this imposed on its shaft then it will come to a
against each other. The major enemy of electric
stop and overheat very quickly. Point 2 is the
motors is heat produced by the current flowing
torque for which the motor is rated, called the full
through the windings. As we learned earlier, even
load torque.
copper wire has some electrical resistance. The
The torque load imposed on the motor of an energy lost within the windings as current flows
injection molding machine varies considerably ends up as heat, causing the windings to become
throughout the molding cycle. The greatest hot. If the wire gets too hot, the insulation on the
demand (torque) is usually during the mold filling copper will degrade (or even melt), allowing the
phase when the greatest number of pumps are winding to short circuit, resulting in motor failure.
loaded simultaneously. It is not uncommon for this If this happens, the motor must be rewound. The
demand to be more than twice the full load torque. nameplate rating (in horsepower, or kW) is the

56
®
 Electricity

rms work the motor can do without overheating. One final comment about electric motors.
The assumption that is made by the motor Remember that electric motors appear as an
manufacturer is that the applied voltage will not inductive load in the overall plant electrical
“sag” by more than 10%. For example, if a motor circuit. It is usually well worth the cost to have the
is rated at 480 VAC then the line voltage to the machine manufacturer provide (as an option) a
motor must be at least 450 VAC. At voltages properly sized capacitor. The payback is usually
below this, the current required to perform the only a few years.
same “work” will cause the windings to overheat. Heaters are used in the processing of
As power is proportional to E × I, if voltage drops thermoplastic resins to raise the temperature to a
10% then current must rise by 10%. Because the forming (for thermoforming) or plasticating
power lost in the winding due to resistance is temperature so the shape can be changed. For
proportional to I2 × R, the heat generated in the thermoformers, the heat is supplied by radiant
windings increases. Utility companies are usually heater panels. For extrusion, blow molding, or
required to ensure that line voltage does not drop injection molding, the heat is applied to a barrel in
by more than 10%. which a screw provides the additional energy to
The nominal speed at which an asynchronous melt and pump the resin. No matter which type of
electric motor rotates is a function of the number heater is used, the basic operating principle is the
of poles in the stator and the line frequency. For same. Current is conducted through a special wire
example, for a motor to rotate at 1200 rpm with a element (typically Nichrome) and the resistance
60 Hz line voltage, the motor must have six poles. of the wire causes it to get hot (cherry red at
For 1800 rpm, the motor must have four poles. If times). Thus, the I2 × R loss results in heat. To
a line frequency other than 60 Hz is applied to prevent the wire from shorting against itself or
these motors, then they will rotate at a different other metal surfaces, the wire must be insulated
speed. This is the principle behind variable with a high-temperature material (mica or
frequency drives, which use a frequency inverter ceramic). Heater bands are tightly clamped to the
to control motor speed. The variation in motor outside of the barrel to conduct the heat generated
speed above and below the nominal motor speed by the bands into the barrel. A heater band is
(at 60 Hz) is limited. For example, at very low created by winding an electrical element around
speeds the cooling fan may not operate as an insulating board. Because heat is conducted
efficiently as at the nominal speed for which it into the barrel from the heater band, it is very
was designed. Thus, at very low speeds, the motor important to ensure that good thermal contact is
may overheat. Variable frequency drives have made between the heater and the extruder or
been applied to injection molding machines both injection barrel. When replacing bands, be sure to
by the original equipment manufacturer (OEM) thoroughly clean the barrel surface. Also, after
and as after-market retrofits. The advantage of running the machine for a few hours, it is advised
using variable frequency drives on injection that the heater clamps be retightened. Some of the
molding machines is primarily in energy savings. initial tightening will be lost because of the
The speed of the motor driving the fixed thermal cycling that occurs as the machine cycles.
displacement pumps can be varied for each part of The life of mica heater bands is reduced as the
the molding cycle, matching the pump output to processing temperature is increased and as the
the demand. Thus, extra oil is not being pumped rate of thermal cycling is increased.
(and diverted over a relief valve) and wasted. The Cast-in element heaters are also used by many
advantage of variable frequency drives for blow extruder manufacturers; these have the advantage
molding or extrusion machines is that the screw that cooling can be achieved by either blowing air
speed can be set by the operator at a convenient over the cast fins or by passing fluid through the
location on the operator’s panel. band. The plasticating screw frequently provides

57
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

all the energy required to plasticate through shear A feedback signal by means of a temperature
work once the process has stabilized. Thus, the sensor is required to the controller to let it know if
heaters are only used to get the process started. the actual temperature of that zone is the same as
Once the process is running, some cooling may be desired so as to properly control temperature. Two
required to maintain the melt temperature. Thus, common devices for sensing the temperature are
these bands give the option of using a cooling fluid thermocouples and RTDs (resistance temperature
or air. device). The external appearance for either of
Cartridge heaters are also used. In this type of these sensors is the same. However, the principle
heater the element is wound around an insulating of operation is completely different.
core. These heaters are often used in barrel
Thermocouples operate on the principle that
adaptors on injection molding machines and in the
different materials have different electrochemical
mold to heat hot runner systems. In thermoset
potentials (as discussed earlier). If two dissimilar
molding, the molds are often heated with cartridge
metals are fused together to form a junction, then a
heaters. Just as with band heaters, heat is
potential difference occurs that will create a small
conducted away from the heater. Thus, a good fit
between the heater and the hole is important. Most current to flow in an external circuit. As it turns out,
suppliers of cartridge heaters have recommended the magnitude of this current is a function of the
hole tolerances and finishes for their heaters. temperature of the junction. There are different
Heaters are usually considered a purely resistive types of thermocouples based on the metals that are
load. Frequently they are wired in a series and/or joined. The most common in the plastics industry is
parallel circuit to the contactor that proportions the known as the J-type, made by fusing iron wire to an
power to maintain the desired temperature. Barrels alloy wire called Constantan. Another type
usually have three or more zones with each zone sometimes found is known as the
having its own contactor. Troubleshooting faulty K-type. You can tell which type you have by the
heater circuits can usually be accomplished by color; the industry has standardized on black for the
applying the rules for series or parallel resistive J-type and yellow for the K-type. Although either
circuits discussed earlier. one will send a signal to the controller, the
relationship of the signal to the measured
Various devices are used for controlling the
temperature is different so care must be taken to
temperature of a heated component. Most modern
machines that are microprocessor controlled ensure that the proper type is connected to the
usually perform the temperature control within the controller. Plugging a yellow plug (K-type) into a
microprocessor. Older machines may use a controller calibrated for a J-type (black) will give a
variable transformer (Variac) or a discrete “plug- wrong temperature reading. Also, it should be noted
in” controller to control each zone. These that the signal from thermocouples is very small
controllers can easily be moved from one machine and must be amplified within the temperature
to another, which can be helpful if one machine is controller. Great care must be taken to ensure that
down due to a faulty controller. The controller stray voltages are not picked up by the wires
from a machine that may be down for a mold running from the thermocouple to the controller.
change can be borrowed while awaiting delivery Often shielded conductors are used. The time it
of a replacement controller. The main thing to takes for a thermocouple to respond to a
remember is that the substituted or replacement temperature change depends on the size (mass) of
controller must be “tuned” for that circuit. The the thermocouple junction. For barrel temperature
controller manufacturer gives procedures for control, the response time of most thermocouples is
doing this. Some of the newer controllers have an adequate. For sensing fast-changing temperatures
“autotuning” feature that will automatically adjust (such as melt temperature), selecting a
the internal tuning parameters. thermocouple design that has a low thermal mass is

58
®
 Electricity

important. Care should be taken to make sure that type semiconductors. If the silicon is “doped” with
thermocouples are properly seated. an element such as gallium, which has only three
RTDs operate on the principle that the valence electrons, the crystal lattice in the region
resistance of most substances change with of the gallium atom is missing an electron. It
temperature. Platinum is often used to make the appears to have a “hole” where the electron should
resistance element used in RTDs. The element is be. As the electron from one atom in the lattice
usually designed to have 100 ohms of resistance moves to fill the hole, a new hole is formed. Thus,
under standard conditions (room temperature and as electrons flow through the lattice in one
pressure). The resistance rise with temperature is direction, holes flow in the opposite direction.
nearly linear and can be used to measure the Silicon doped in this manner has an excess of
temperature to which the resistor is exposed. “holes” and is said to be a p-type semiconductor
RTDs tend to have a larger thermal mass and thus because it seems to have a positive charge.
a longer response time. For barrel temperature If an n-type and a p-type material are fused
control, most RTDs can follow the barrel together, a junction is formed between the two.
temperature very closely. Although the Even though each of the materials is electrically
thermocouple generates its own current, the RTD neutral, the free electrons in the n-type material
does not and requires a power supply within the migrate toward the “holes” in the p-type material
controller to provide the current that passes at the junction and diffuse across the junction,
through the resistor. For this reason, forming what appears to be an equivalent
thermocouples are referred to as active elements capacitor. Eventually equilibrium is reached and
and RTDs are referred to as passive elements. the diffusion stops. If we now connect a battery to
During the last half of the 20th century, much the device, so that the negative terminal of the
development work was done in creating solid-state battery is connected to the free end of the n-type
devices to replace what had been done by vacuum material and the positive terminal of the battery is
tubes. The key development was the invention of connected to the free end of the p-type material,
the transistor in 1948 by a group of Bell Lab electrons can flow from the battery into the n-type
scientists led by William Schockley (1910-1989). free end and over to the junction. The free
The list of semiconductor devices that were electrons on the other side of the junction are
developed since 1948 includes the diode and light- repelled over to the free end of the p-type material
emitting diode (LED), the transistor, and chips and from there over to the positive terminal of the
known as integrated circuits. These devices are battery. Thus, the device conducts freely with
used in all the personal computers now on the very little resistance. If we now reverse the
market and also in the microprocessor controls connections to the battery, the diffused negative
used to run most of the molding machines built charge in the p-type material at the junction repels
today. The theory of operation is as follows. Some the electrons trying to enter from the negative
elements such as silicon (Si) have four valence terminal of the battery and no current flows. Thus,
electrons in their outer orbit and thus are very this device conducts in one direction but not the
stable and do not conduct electricity. However, if other; this is called a diode. If the proper material
the silicon is “doped” with an element such as is selected, as the electrons “fall” into the holes
arsenic (As), which has five valence electrons (one they go to a lower energy level and release light;
more than needed for a perfect silicon lattice), the and so these devices are called light-emitting
crystal lattice in the region of the arsenic atom has diodes (LEDs).
a free electron. This electron is loosely held and If the n-type and the p-type materials are
thus is free to wander through the lattice, allowing fused together, we have made a transistor. By
current to flow. Semiconductors such as this where applying the proper potential to the base relative
there is an excess of negative charges are called n- to the emitter, electrons can be made to flow over

59
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

to the base within the n-type material and controls that have capabilities not even imagined
conventional current flows from the n-type 25 years ago.
material to the negative terminal of the battery. If
the collector is now connected to a terminal on the This chapter has introduced the basic concepts
battery of opposite polarity to the emitter, the of electricity and the electrical components that
majority of the emitter current (electrons) will you are likely to encounter in your day-to-day
flow across the base and through the collector and work in a plastics processing environment. As
on to the positive terminal of the battery. Only a stated throughout the chapter, charged electrical
small part of the electrons flowing through the components are very dangerous. Therefore, any
emitter will flow out of the base (conventional work on electrical equipment needs to be handled
current flows into the base). Thus, a small current
by trained professionals using standard safety
in the emitter-base circuit can control a large
procedures such as lockout and tagout. Many
current in the emitter-collector circuit; this is the
basis for an amplifier. These principles are used to deaths each year result from mishandling
combine diodes, transistors, resistors, capacitors, electrical equipment, so think before you act and
and other basic elements into extensive arrays always err on the side of caution when working on
forming the integrated circuits used in computers electrically operated machinery or components of
and microprocessors. These devices have led to your shop.

60
®
FLUID DYNAMICS
DR. NICK R. SCHOTT

INTRODUCTION the use of a hopper or vacuum loader where an air

Modern manufacturing and living require the stream sucks up the resin pellets and transports
use of technology to perform the functions that them to the hopper through a hose.
used to be performed manually a few hundred Momentum transport is the very act of making
years ago. In this automated world, three things a fluid flow due to some external power source.
must be transported from where they are stored to This is called forced convection, as opposed to
where they are needed: mass, energy, and natural (free) convection where the fluid circulates
momentum. Each of these is vital to make a by means of density gradients set up by differences
process run as it was designed. In plastics in temperature and gravitational fields. An example
processing, there are a number of processes that of free convection is the rising of hot air and the
can be cited as examples to make this clear. formation of clouds as the hot air rises and then
The transport of energy in a flowing fluid is a cools to condense the water vapor. In forced
common application. Heat exchange or removal is convection a blower or a pump makes the fluid
critical in injection molding and extrusion. move. In plastics processing, pumps are used to
Cooling water is circulated around the feed throat circulate the hydraulic oil in injection molding
of the injection molder and extruder to prevent machines and in portable chillers to circulate the
premature melting of the plastic pellets, which, if water/antifreeze mixture to carry heat away from
not prevented by a cooling system, would lead to the mold. For the circulation of gases, blowers are
bridging in the feed hoppers. Similarly, water, oil, used. A blower is a big fan enclosed in a housing
or a water/antifreeze mixture is often circulated that gas enters on one side and then is discharged
through the injection mold to either cool or heat on the other as the fan rotates. In blown film
the mold. extrusion, a blower is used to cool the bubble as it
travels up the cooling tower.
The transport of mass is illustrated in a
desiccant hopper drying operation. Some plastic So, as you read this chapter and build your
materials are hygroscopic and need to be dried understanding of the concepts presented, be sure
before processing. Hot dry air is blown through a to continually ask yourself about why the
hopper of pellets, which heats the pellets and then transport is needed and which of the three types of
carries the migrating moisture out of the resin movement described above (or combinations of
pellets and into the flowing air stream away from the above) is involved in the examples or within
the resin. Another example of mass transport is your own plant. This approach should help you

61
Society of Plastics Engineers

learn the value of fluid dynamics and gain a better CHARACTERIZING FLUIDS
understanding of the use of these ideas in your Before we can talk about what fluids can do
own life. when they flow, we need to understand how to
characterize different fluids in terms of their
FLUID DYNAMICS viscosity.
The field of fluid dynamics explains how Other words used to describe viscosity are
fluids (either liquids or gases) move. A liquid and “resistance to flow” and “the friction of fluids.”
a gas are two phases of matter in which the What viscosity really means is how easy it is to
molecules can move around relative to one move a fluid from one spot to another. Something
another, unlike a solid, where all the molecules are that is highly viscous, such as corn syrup, is very
difficult to pour or pump. Something with a low
fixed in place. Because the molecules can move
viscosity is easy to move and pour; an example of
relative to one another on the microscopic scale,
a low-viscosity liquid is water. The viscosity
we can watch fluids move or flow when they are varies from material to material. Generally, gases
exposed to an external force. Some sources of have the lowest viscosities. Liquids have a higher
external forces are things such as gravity, which viscosity and, as we talked about in the polymer
makes fluids pour down, pumps that push fluids chemistry section, many polymer melts have very
from one place to another, and a fan which blows high viscosities. Temperature also comes into play
air from one area to another. Some examples of when talking about fluid viscosity. The viscosity
fluids with which we are all very familiar are of a gas actually increases with temperature
water and air. Some examples of fluid dynamics in because the atoms or molecules collide more
describing these two fluids are water pouring out frequently, causing interference when they try to
of the faucet of the sink and using an air pump to flow. Liquids, including molten polymers, show a
fill the tires on your car. decrease in viscosity as the temperature increases.

CHARACTERIZING FLUID FLOW

FLUIDS IN MOTION
Now that we know what a fluid is and how to
Why do we need to know about fluid flow? describe it, we need to be able to describe how it
There are many places in a plastics processing flows. An early scientist, Osborne Reynolds, found
operation where fluid dynamic principles are used that the flow of a liquid in a round pipe could be
to make the machinery work or work more either laminar or turbulent. Laminar flow occurs
efficiently. For example, some fluids are great heat when all the fluid layers (a fluid layer is an
sinks. In other words, we can use the fluid to move imaginary “skin” of the fluid a set distance away
heat away from something hot (like a mold) to from a wall) do not mix but flow in parallel stream
keep it at a constant temperature. Others do the lines. The stream lines trace out the path of a
tracer particle that is carried in the fluid, similar to
opposite and help us heat equipment, such as oils
watching a float being carried along in a stream of
used to heat the rolls of many two-roll mills. Some
water. A laminar flow of cars can be seen during
fluids help us do work, like compressed air used to
rush hour when a bunch of cars (the molecules of
power tools or pneumatically lift heavy objects. the fluid) are traveling on a six-lane highway (each
Some fluids act to pressurize a system, as in blow lane represents a fluid layer) without changing
molding where air is blown into a parison, lanes. Turbulent flow occurs when the molecules
expanding the walls of the polymer melt into a of the fluid intermix as they are flowing. In the
mold to form a bottle, or in blown film production, highway analogy, turbulent flow happens when all
where air inflates the bubble. So there are many the cars start changing lanes. The Reynolds
reasons to know about fluid flow! number, Re, determines which type of flow

62
®
 Fluid Dynamics

prevails for a given situation. At low Reynolds

Temperature Viscosity Temperature Viscosity
numbers the flow is laminar. At high Reynolds (°F) (cS) (°F) (cS)
numbers the flow is turbulent with the fluid
32 1.79 100 0.69
mixing as it travels.
40 1.54 120 0.56
The Reynolds number may be calculated as
50 1.31 140 0.47
DρV DV
Re = ------------ or Re = --------- (1)
µ υ 60 1.12 160 0.40

where Re = Reynolds number (dimensionless) 70 0.98 180 0.35

80 0.86 200 0.31

D = diameter of the pipe (m)
90 0.76 212 0.28
V = average velocity (m/sec)
Table 1. Kinematic viscosity of water. 1
[Source: Injection Molding Reference Guide, 4th ed.]
ρ = density (kg/m3)
CONVEYING FLUIDS
υ = kinematic viscosity = µ/ρ (m /sec) 2
In a plastics processing facility, it is necessary
N–s to convey fluids to or from specific areas. For
µ = viscosity ------------ = (Pa•s) example, we need to be able to move pump oil
2
m from a heater to a mold or air from a pressure tank
In the United States, technicians and to a pneumatic air line. To do this, pipes, tubing,
hoses and fittings are used. We begin by looking
engineers are more familiar with the engineering
at how a fluid flows in a cylindrical tube and then
unit system. Using the English unit system, the
talk about how the tubes are characterized and
formulas for Reynolds number are then chosen for their use in specific situations
VD 3160 Q based on their properties.
Re = 7740 --------- = ----------------- (2)
υ Dυ The first case is laminar flow, where fluids
In Equation 2, the coefficients 7740 or 3160 flow slowly and layers of fluid glide past each
take care of the unit conversion but one must use other without mixing perpendicular to the flow
direction. In a hollow cylindrical tube, the fluid
the following quantities:
has different speeds depending on how far away
V = average fluid velocity in (ft/sec) from a wall the fluid layer is. The fastest flow
occurs in the center of the tube, the slowest flow
occurs near the walls. This is because the fluid
D = pipe diameter (in.)
drags along the walls and slows when it is in
contact with the walls with a zero velocity at the
υ = kinematic viscosity in centistokes (cS) edges. In Figure 1, the arrows represent the speed
of a fluid layer at that distance from the wall, so
Q = fluid flow rate in gallons per minute (gpm) that the smaller arrows represents a slower fluid
layer, the longer ones represent the area of faster
movement.
For water, the kinematic viscosity is highly Another flow regimen is turbulent flow, which
temperature dependent. Table 1 shows kinematic is much more chaotic. In perfectly turbulent flow
viscosity values for water from its freezing point the fluid flows randomly in all directions. Chunks
all the way to the boiling point. of fluid called eddies swirl around in the pipe that

63
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Profile

Figure 1. Velocity distribution for laminar pipe flow.

then flow all together. Eddies are distinct elements Figure 2. In this figure, notice that the speed of the
of fluid that move as a unit. On average, they are fluid at the very edges of the pipes is still the
largest at the center of the pipe or channel and slowest and that the turbulence changes the
decrease in size and energy as they approach a velocity profile as compared to Figure 1.
wall where they decay to zero. The eddies are
In turbulent flow the average velocity is about
large groups of molecules that move as a unit in a 7/8of the maximum velocity. Table 2 shows the
random fashion. They cannot be seen by the naked
type of flow regimen as a function of Reynolds
eye unless a tracer of dye is injected as a thin number.
stream into the center of the main flow. The
dissipation of the dye shows the movement of the Range of Re Flow regimen
eddies. The main movement of the fluid is in the
0-2100 Laminar flow
axial direction down the pipe or channel, while the
eddies will also have a radial (transverse) 2100-3300 Transition flow
component that cancels out because of the >3300 Turbulent flow
symmetry about the axis so that only the net flow
down the tube axis contributes to the flow coming Table 2. Type of flow in a pipe versus
Reynolds number.
out of the pipe. However, the eddies contribute to
the mixing of the fluid in the radial direction. As Now that we know how fluids flow based on
the fluid flow becomes more turbulent, the eddies their Reynolds number, we now need to be able to
penetrate closer to the pipe wall and thus give determine what is the best type of hollow tube for
better mixing. The eddies are strongest (biggest) the job at hand. Some things to consider when
in the center and decay (disappear) as they choosing the conduit for your application are the
approach the sidewall. The velocity distribution is desired flow rate of your fluid, the desired pressure
no longer bullet shaped but instead is very blunt. It through the conduit, the required flexibility of the
continuously fluctuates with time but if averaged carrier, and the acceptable pressure drop through
over time the profile would look as shown in the system.

Time Averaged

Figure 2. Time-averaged velocity profile in a pipe for turbulent flow.

64
®
 Fluid Dynamics

Pipe interior Flow rate Pipe interior Flow rate Pipe interior Flow rate
diameter (in.) (gpm) diameter (in.) (gpm) diameter (in.) (gpm)

1/2 2 1 1/2 30 4 320

3/4 5 2 50 5 600

1 10 21/2 90 6 1200

1 1/4 20 3 160 8 2000

Table 3. Pipe sizing guide (based on 10 Ft.HD loss/100 ft. pipe)

Flow Rate and Pressure the wall is a description of the internal pressure
that pipe can withstand, a schedule number is
To calculate the turbulent flow rate of a fluid
through a pipe, use Equation 3. The flow rate is related to the pipe’s acceptable pressure
defined as the average velocity of the fluid as it maximum. To determine this, the equation is
goes through the pipe.
Schedule number ≈ 1000 P/S (4)

where P is the maximum internal working

Ft.HD pressure (lb/in.2) and S is the allowable stress
V = C -------------------- (3)
L + 54D (lb/in.2). The allowable stress is the stress that is
where: V = average velocity (ft/sec) deemed safe based on the properties of the pipe
and the temperature and use conditions. For
C = coefficient (see Table 3 )
example, a schedule 40 pipe is rated at 125 psig.
D = pipe diameter (i.d.) (in.) (A description of pressure readings is included at
Ft.HD = pressure drop expressed as Ft. of the end of the chapter for reference.) Table 4 lists
H2O (1 psi = 2.31 Ft.HD) the dimensions of common schedule 40 and
L = total length of pipe (ft) schedule 80 pipe sizes from which you can
determine the internal diameter and the pipe
So, the determining factors for the flow rate,
coefficient described in Equation 4.
V, are the inner diameter of the tube and the
pressure drop from one point in the tube to Q = VA (5)
another. One thing to keep in mind is that you
have to make an entrance correction for the flow Finally, as seen in Equation 3, the turbulent
to establish itself as it enters into the hollow tube velocity or flow varies with the square root of the
from a reservoir; in other words, it takes some pressure drop. Guidelines in Table 3 report
time for the fluid to flow as it wants to because it reasonable flow rates for a given pipe internal
has just entered a small opening from a large vat. diameter, assuming a low pressure drop of 10 ft of
Pipes head loss. The table describes the flow rate
through a pipe as a function of the interior
Pipes are described in terms of their American
diameter of the pipe. One psi is equivalent to the
Pipe Industry (API) schedule. Ten schedule
numbers are in use: 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, pressure developed at the bottom of a column of
120, 140, and 160. The pipe wall thickness water 2.31 ft high. You can use this as a quick
increases as the schedule number increases. For reference in cases where you need to get an idea
steel pipe, schedule 40 is the most common (see of the right pipe to use but do not need an exact
Table 3 for dimensions). Because the thickness of solution to the equation.

65
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Pipe size Schedule ID CSA OD Wall Pipe

(in.) no. (in.) (ft2) (in.) (in.) coefficient
1/8 40 0.269 0.0004 0.405 0.068
1/4 40 0.364 0.0007 0.540 0.088
3/8 40 0.493 0.0013 0.675 0.091
1/2 40 0.622 0.0021 0.840 0.109
3/4 40 0.824 0.0037 1.050 0.113
1 40 1.049 0.0060 1.315 0.133 20.00
1 80 0.957 0.0050 1.315 0.179 19.5
1 1/4 40 1.380 0.0104 1.660 0.140 24.05
1 1/4 80 1.278 0.0089 1.660 0.191 23.46
1 1/2 40 1.610 0.0141 1.900 0.145 25.39
1 1/2 80 1.500 0.0123 1.900 0.200 24.75
2 40 2.067 0.0233 2.375 0.154 28.06
2 80 1.939 0.0205 2.375 0.218 27.31
2 1/2 40 2.469 0.0332 2.875 0.203 30.23
3 40 3.068 0.0513 3.500 0.216 32.23
3 80 2.900 0.0459 3.500 0.300 31.67
4 40 4.026 0.0884 4.500 0.237 35.07
4 80 3.826 0.0798 4.500 0.337 34.57
6 40 6.065 0.2006 6.625 0.280 39.16
6 80 5.761 0.1810 6.625 0.432 38.60
8 40 7.981 0.3474 8.625 0.322 43.30
8 80 7.625 0.3171 8.625 0.500 42.71
Table 4. Specifications for commercial pipe: API Schedule 40 and 80 Pipe Data (Applies to Steel and PVC).
The volumetric flow rate is the average velocity times the cross-sectional area (CSA) available for flow. It is
commonly reported in gallons per minute (gpm).
[Source: Injection Molding Reference Guide, 4th ed.]

Pipe Couplings on the thread before assembly to ensure a leak-

proof connection. Regardless of the wall
Because we have to be able to connect pipes
thickness, pipes with the same nominal diameter
and redirect the direction of flow or split the
have the same outside diameter, which allows the
streams of a single pipe to several pipes or
interchange of fittings. The term fittings refers to a
recombine several streams into one pipe, we need
piece of pipe that can do one of the following4:
to understand the effect of couplings on the flow
rate and internal pressure every time a fluid meets 1. Join two pieces of pipe such as couplings
one of these junctures. or unions.

Connections are made via threads on the pipes 2. Change pipe direction such as elbows or
and the fittings. A special tapered thread called a tees.
pipe thread is used. Teflon tape or pipe dope is put 3. Change pipe diameter such as reducers.

66
®
 Fluid Dynamics

4. Terminate (close) a pipe as with plugs, channel takes the tap for a 1/4 -in. pipe thread, but
valves. the 1/4 -in. pipe fitting has a bore diameter of only
0.364 in.! For plant cooling water flow, most
5. Join two streams to form a third as with
installations require less than the rated pressure of
tees, Y’s, or crosses.
the pipe and the inlet pressure, so the use of
6. Control flow as with valves. fittings and their associated pressure drop should
not cause a problem. Most systems should be able
To describe the effect of these fittings on the
to get by on less than 35 psig. In the case where
flow of a fluid, each fitting is characterized in
the pressure drops below this point, it is likely that
terms of the length of pipe that would cause the
there is a plumbing mistake, so check your
same change in pressure. Table 5, describes
fittings!
several types of fittings and their equivalent pipe
length. An equivalent pipe length is the length of Tubing
pipe that has the same pressure drop as seen in the Metal Tubing
fitting; the higher the number, the greater the Unlike pipe, tubing is sold on the basis of the
pressure loss through that type of fitting. As you actual outside diameter. Common tubing is
can see, a fitting has a major impact on the flow of available in copper, aluminum, steel, or stainless
the fluids. steel. The subject matter is complex because of
the many variables in tubing materials, wall
Equivalent length in
Fitting description pipe diameters thickness, hardness and surface finishes.
(L/D) Aluminum tubing is available from 3/16 in. to 1.0
in. outer diameter (o.d.) with wall thicknesses of
90° standard elbow 30 0.035, 0.049, 0.058, 0.065, 0.083, and 0.095.
45° standard elbow 16 Table 6 shows the allowable pressure charts.
Similarly, Tables 7, 8, and 9 show the dimensions
90° long radius elbow 20
and pressure ratings for copper, carbon steel, and
90° street elbow 50 stainless steel tubing. Tubing is assembled with
Swagelok® tube fittings. These fittings simplify
45° street elbow 26
and lower the cost of an installation. The tubing
Square corner elbow 57 material must be softer than the fitting material of
Standard tee construction. The aluminum used in aluminum
tubing has a minimum ultimate tensile strength of
With flow through run 20 38,000 psi and is used in systems where the
With flow through branch 60 expected temperature range is from –20° to
100°F. In all cases, you choose tubing based on
Close pattern return bend 50
the pressure requirements, the chemical nature of
Table 5. Pressure losses for common fittings expressed the fluid, and the anticipated pressures during use.
as equivalent length of pipe diameters.3 The following tables are taken from Swagelok
Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., literature13 (reprinted with permission of
from Principles of Unit Operations, edited by Foust, et al.,
Swagelok Co.) describing tubing o.d., wall
©1960.
thickness, required fitting, and the available
Because the pressure losses in straight pipes working pressures for the different types of
are so low, most of the head loss in real systems tubing. Any time you purchase tubing, check with
comes from the plumbing fittings, which choke the manufacturer on the suitability for your
off the flow. Another thing to remember is that the application. Some tubing described in the
bore diameter of the fitting is much smaller than following tables are not appropriate for
the channel diameter. For example, a 7/16 -in. pressurized gas lines.

67
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Tube wall thickness (in.) Swagelok®

Tube o.d.
Fitting
(in.)
0.035 0.049 0.065 0.083 0.095 Series
1/8 8600 Working pressure (psig) 200
3/16 5600 8000 300
1/4 4000 5900 400
5/16 3100 4600 500
3/8 2600 3700 600
1/2 1900 2700 3700 810
5/8 1500 2100 2900 1010
3/4 1700 2400 3100 1210
7/8 1500 2000 1410
1 1300 1700 2300 2700 1610

Table 6. Aluminum tubing working pressures as a function of wall thickness.13

High-quality aluminum-alloy drawn seamless tubing, ASTM B210 or equivalent.
[From Swagelok® Tubing Data Catalog MS-01-82; permission by Swagelok® Company © 2001.]

Tube Tube wall thickness (in.) Swagelok®

o.d. Fitting
(in.) 0.028 0.035 0.049 0.065 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.120 Series

1/8 2700 3600 Working Pressure (psig) 200

3/16 1800 2300 3400 300
1/4 1300 1600 2500 3500 400
5/16 1300 1900 2700 500
3/8 1000 1600 2200 600
1/2 800 1100 1600 2100 810
5/8 900 1200 1600 1900 1010
3/4 700 1000 1300 1500 1800 1210
7/8 600 800 1100 1300 1500 1410

1 500 700 900 1000 1300 1500 1610

Table 7. Copper tubing working pressures as a function of a wall thickness.13

High-quality soft annealed seamless copper tubing, ASTM B75 or equivalent
and type K or type L as defined by ASTM B88.
[From Swagelok® Tubing Data Catalog MS-01-82; permission by Swagelok® Company © 2001.]

68
®
 Fluid Dynamics

Tube Tube wall thickness (in.) Swagelok®

o.d. Fitting
(in.) 0.028 0.035 0.049 0.065 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.120 0.134 0.148 0.165 0.180 0.220 Series

1/8 8000 10200 Working pressure (psig) 200

3/16 5100 6600 9600 300
1/4 3700 4800 7000 9600 400
5/16 3700 5500 7500 500
3/ 3100 4500 6200 600
8
1/2 2300 3200 4500 5900 810
5/8 1800 2600 3500 4600 5300 1010
3/4 2100 2900 3700 4300 5100 1210
7/8 1800 2400 3200 3700 4300 5100 1410
1 1500 2100 2700 3200 3700 4100 1610
1 1/4 1600 2100 2500 2900 3200 3600 4000 4600 5000 2000
1 1/2 1800 1500 1700 1900 2100 2400 2700 3000 3700 3200

Table 8. Carbon steel tubing working pressures as a function of wall thickness.13

High-quality soft annealed seamless carbon steel tubing ASTM A179 or equivalent.
[From Swagelok® Tubing Data Catalog MS-01-82; permission by Swagelok® Company © 2001.]

Tube Tube wall thickness (in.) Swagelok®

o.d. Fitting
(in.) 0.028 0.035 0.049 0.065 0.083 0.095 0.109 0.120 0.134 0.156 0.180 Series

1/8 8500 10900 Working Pressure (psig) 200‘

3/16 5400 7000 10200 300
1/4 4000 5100 7500 10200 400
5/16 4000 5800 8000 500
3/8 3300 4800 6500 600
1/2 2600 3700 5100 6700 810
5/8 2900 4000 5200 6000 1010
3/4 2400 3300 4200 4900 5800 1210
7/8 2000 2800 3600 4200 4800 1410
1 2400 2800 3300 3600 4100 4900 1610
1 1/4 2400 2800 3300 3600 4100 4900 2000
1 1/2 2300 2700 3000 3400 4000 4900 2400
2 2000 2200 2500 2900 3600 3200
Table 9. Stainless steel tubing working pressures as a function of wall thickness.
Annealed 304 or 316 stainless steel tubing ASTM A269 or equivalent.
[From Swagelok® Tubing Data Catalog MS-01-82; permission by Swagelok® Company © 2001.]

69
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Aluminum Copper Steel 304 S.S. 316 S.S.

°F
ASTM B-210 ASTM B-85 ASTM A-179 ASTM A-269 ASTM A-269

200 1.00 0.80 0.95 1.00 1.00

400 0.40 0.50 0.87 0.93 0.96

600 0.82 0.85

800 0.76 0.79

1000 0.69 0.76

1200 0.30 0.37

Table 10. Pressure ratings at elevated temperatures.

[From Swagelok® Tubing Data Catalog MS-01-82; permission by Swagelok® Company © 2001.]
Table 10 shows factors for calculating working Construction specifications are covered under
pressures at elevated temperatures. For a given SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) standards
material, multiply the factor shown based on the (see SAEJ 517). All SAE hoses are identified with
type of tubing by the permissible working pressure a dash size numeral that is the nominal size in
found in the foregoing tables. 16ths of an inch. The primary factor for hose
Hydraulic Hoses selection is the pressure capability. This capability
depends on the reinforcement material. Fiber braid
Hydraulic machinery such as injection
with a maximum working pressure of 1000 psi is
molding machines requires flexible hoses14 for
considered for low-pressure applications; wire
those components where the parts of the machine
braid coverings are used for applications requiring
attached to the hose move. An example is the
a 3000-psi maximum pressure and are considered
retractable carriage of the injection cylinder.
a medium-pressure covering, and spiral wire is
Hoses and couplings are used to conduct the fluid
used in high-pressure applications up to 6000-psi
from the pump to the actuating mechanism that
systems. Pressure capability varies with size and
converts fluid flow into force and motion. Hoses
number of reinforcement layers. Some hoses are
and assemblies have a limited life, which depends
now marketed for a given pressure rating so one
on service conditions under actual use. Factors
need not be concerned with construction but just
that influence and shorten the service life are
the performance.
continuous use at maximum working pressure,
operating temperature, and minimum bend radius. Size Selection
Assemblies have to be periodically replaced A hose size is determined by first knowing the
throughout the life of the equipment because of required flow. The recommended velocity range is
fatigue properties of the elastomers that make up then selected, 7 to 25 ft/sec for pressure lines and
the hose. The fatigue process is accelerated with 2 to 4 ft/sec for section lines. Using literature from
repeated heating, pressurization, and bending. a hose supplier it is possible to select a hose based
Hose Construction on the required i.d. and working pressure.
A modern hydraulic hose typically consists of Couplings
at least three parts:
Much confusion exists about the couplings12
1. Inner tube that carries the fluid
on hoses. Permanent-type couplings are usually
2. Reinforcement layer used by original equipment manufacturer (OEMs),
3. Outer cover large-scale builders, or maintenance shops. The

70
®
 Fluid Dynamics

other type is called field attachable. Foreign rating of 125 psig for schedule 40 piping. The
couplings can be metric or inches. Both the seat horsepower requirement for an air compressor
angle and the flanging will vary in addition to the can be calculated as
threads. To identify the couplings, the following is Air Comp. 1 hp = 4 SCFM@100psig (7)
required14:
• Type of seat—inverted (BSPP & DIN), where SCFM stands for cubic feet per minute at
regular (JIS and Komatsu) or flat (flange, standard conditions. Because air is a mixture of
flat face) gases, its velocity, at high pressures, will vary
significantly as temperature and humidity change.
• Seat angle—30° (JIS, BSP, DIN and Special slide rules can be obtained from Dwyer
Komatsu) or 12° (DIN) Instruments that allow one to quickly calculate the
• Type of threads—metric (DIN or volumetric velocity while making corrections for
Komatsu), BSP (BSPP, BSPT, or JIS), temperature, humidity, and barometric pressure.
or tapered (BSPT or JIS tapered) Pumps

BLOWERS AND PUMPS Pumps are used to pull liquids from one
container to another. The easiest way to describe
It is often necessary to force a fluid from one
one is through the use of an example. Figure 3
place to another. To do this, you must use a pump
shows a schematic symbol for a centrifugal pump.
or a blower, depending on whether the fluid is a
liquid or a gas.
Flow of Gases
Air is the most common gas used in plastics
processing. A blower is a fan whose discharge air
is transported through a duct. Low-pressure air
from a blower is used to cool the bubble in blown
film extrusion. To determine the power required in
Figure 3. Schematics of positive displacement pumps.
a blower, you need to know the volumetric flow [Source: Vickers, Inc.]
rate in cubic feet per minute that you are trying to
attain. Because the volume varies with both In the figure, the inlet side is on the left and is at
pressure and temperature, a standard cubic foot is the lowest pressure in the system. This pressure is
defined at a temperature of 32°F and a pressure of known as the suction head. The discharge side on
1 atmosphere (which is 760 mmHg) and the the right has the highest pressure, and that
pressure drop as you go through the blower in pressure drops as the fluid circulates through the
inches of water (in H2O) as well as an efficiency loop. The theory of operation for all positive
factor, E, for the electric motor, which value displacement pumps is the same. As the pump
varies from 0.65 to 0.90 depending on the blower shaft is rotated, the increasing swept volume
itself. Knowing these factors, you can calculate allows the fluid to enter the inlet port. Further
the required horsepower of the blower using rotation decreases the swept volume, forcing the
Equation 6. fluid out at the discharge port. Any resistance to
CFM × in. H 2 O flow causes the fluid to be slightly compressed,
Blower HP = ---------------------------------------------------- (6)
6350 × E ( 0.65 to 0.9 ) thereby causing the outlet pressure at the
For air requirements at pressures much higher discharge port to rise as required to force the fluid
than atmospheric pressure, a compressor is used. through the restriction(s) in the circuit or to
The compressor compresses atmospheric air and perform useful work. Some basic rules of thumb:
stores it in a tank pressure vessel. Typical shop air the discharge head cannot exceed the maximum
is available at 100 psig, which is below the safety pressure rating of the plumbing, and the suction

71
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

side pressure cannot fall below a minimum value

150 90
at a given liquid temperature where the liquid

η, Efficiency.
140 80
starts to boil. If the fluid boils, pump cavitation

H, total head, feet of fluid flowing.

130 η–Q 70
occurs because vapor bubbles form and then
120 60
collapse on the backside of the impeller, leading to
110 50
impeller damage through both corrosion and 100
erosion mechanisms. For plain water, the water 90 100

P, brake horsepower.
can be heated to about 250°F provided the suction 80 90
side pressure is greater than 29 pounds per square 70 80
inch above atmospheric pressure (psia), as 60 70
determined from a steam table. 50 60

40 50
Pump Equations H–Q 40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
To describe the required power for a pump, we Q, Capacity in 100 gpm.
use pump equations. Power is defined as the rate Figure 4. Typical centrifugal pump efficiency curves.
of doing work. If fluid such as water, a water/
antifreeze mixture, or oil is to be circulated, an MEASURING FLOW
external energy source must be supplied to pump Simple flowmeters are used to indicate the
the fluid. When fluid is circulated by an external flow rate for both liquids and gases. The most
power source, this is called forced convection. The common device for liquids is a rotameter. This is
size of the motor to pump the liquid is given as called an area meter because the device works on
Q × ∆P the principle of maintaining a constant pressure
Pump hp = --------------------- (8)
3960 × E drop while the area of flow changes. A schematic
of the rotameter is shown in Figure 5.
Q = volumetric flow rate in gallons per
minute (gpm) The fluid passes through the constriction
between the float and the tube wall so that a
∆P = pressure drop in feet of head constant pressure is maintained. The fluid enters at
E = pump efficiency (0.65-0.75) the bottom and exits at the top. As it passes around
the float, it exerts an upward force. When the
The coefficient 1/3960 takes care of the unit upward force is equal to the gravitational force
conversion. that acts downward, the float becomes stationary
Each pump manufacturer supplies a pump at some position and a reading can be taken. To
efficiency chart showing that the efficiency starts take a reading of flow rate the top of the float is
low, increases to a maximum, and then drops off sighted against a scale affixed on the outside of the
as the flow rate is further increased. Figure 4 tube. In cases of higher pressures, the tapered tube
shows a typical pump efficiency curve for a may be made out of metal. The float position can
centrifugal pump such as is used in a chiller or still be detected magnetically through the wall of
mold temperature control units. In Figure 4, the the tube. The most common application in plastics
head, H, is in feet of fluid flowing, the volumetric processing is for the flow indication of the cooling
flow rate is in gal/min, the efficiency is in percent, water. Care must be taken to keep the water clean
and P is the brake horsepower. The brake (treated) as otherwise rust, mineral deposits, algae,
horsepower is determined experimentally from the etc. will obscure the sight glass.
torque measurement of the output shaft. The Most floats are cylindrical in shape with a
centrifugal pump is designed to operate at a pointed bottom end, sharp edges to create
constant speed. A pump should be selected to turbulence and helical grooves around the top rim
operate near its maximum efficiency. to cause spinning of the float and stabilize it about

72
®
 Fluid Dynamics

(a) The rotameter. (b) Schematic

Reprinted with permission of Ramsay, D.C., (1996) representation of rotameter.
Principles of Engineering Instrumentation, Reprinted with permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Butterworth-Heineman Publishers. A Division of from Principles of Unit Operations, edited by Foust,
Elsivier Science and Technology. et al., © 1960.
Figure 5. Rotameter.
the vertical axis. Other floats are spherical,
particularly for the flow of gases. However, the
behavior of spherical floats is quite viscosity
dependent and the meter must be operated at a
given temperature, pressure, and for a specified
fluid. Rotameters typically have an accuracy of
± 2% of full scale and a repeatability of 0.25% of Figure 6. Water
the reading. h stored in a tank.

THE APPLICATION OF
FLUID FLOW CONCEPTS
Now that we have discussed the theory and
mechanisms behind fluid flow, let’s look at some
examples in plastics processing that utilize this
information. The column of water in the tank generates a
Using Moving Fluids to Do Work pressure that can be used to make the water flow
when the valve is opened. The pressure at the
Potential energy is the energy that is stored in
bottom of the tank can be calculated as
a system that is available to do work. Work is the
product of force times distance. P = ρgh (10)
W = (F) (X) (9)
where P = pressure
where F is force and X is distance. ρ = density of the fluid
When water is stored in a tank, as shown in g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.8 m/sec2
Figure 6, the water in the tank above the discharge
h = height of fluid
point has the ability to do work because it wants to
flow out of the faucet when the faucet is opened. ρg is the force in Pascals (Pa).

73
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

In the SI system (International System at expressed in tons of refrigeration where one

Units; SI, Systeme Internationale d’ Unités), one chiller ton is 12,000 btu/hr. A chiller is like a
can use the correct units and the density of water, refrigerator that cools the water or the water and
in this example, and find: antifreeze mixture below ambient temperatures.
P =  1000 ------
kg  
- 9.8 ---------- ( h m )
m
=  9800 ------- ( h m ) =9800 hPa
N Portable units come in sizes of 1 to 40 tons.
3  2  2
m sec m Instead of chillers, one can also use melt
For a height, h, of 10 m, the pressure is temperature controllers; these units can only heat
(9,800)(10) Pa = 98,000 Pa. the water above ambient temperatures. Excess
water is dumped and new cold water is added to
Mold Cooling maintain the temperature.
Good turbulent flow improves mixing and heat Most large molders and extruders have a
transfer. In injection mold cooling, a Reynolds centralized water system. The most common
number of 8,000 to 10,000 is recommended. practice is to use cooling towers to cool down the
Based on the discussion on good turbulent flow process water. In a cooling tower, the water is
and chiller efficiency, one can say that a chiller pumped to the top of a tower on the roof or the
performs best at about 55°F. This temperature side of a building and the water falls down over
gives the best heat transfer because the viscosity is slats while a blower blows air in the up direction.
relatively low and would increase as the mold A part of the water evaporates and cools the rest. A
temperature is lowered; this would raise the pump tower ton is defined as 15,000 Btu/hr. Hence, the
power requirements and also would force one to following formulas are different. Because part of
increase the flow rate to maintain a high Reynolds the water evaporates in the cooling tower, the
number. Also, even for large molds cooling following formulas start to accumulate. It is
passages are usually less than 3/4 in. in diameter. recommended to add makeup water. The
The water or coolant would have to flow much requirements are 2% of the flow rate, in gallons
faster as the diameter increases to keep the per minute (gpm), for untreated water and 1.5% of
Reynolds number high. For a typical cooling flow rate for treated water. The ∆T for mold
passage ( 11/16 in.) the linear velocity of water or cooling should be 3 to 5°F.
coolant is about 3 to 4 ft/sec. Also, for good
cooling it is not how cold the coolant is but how gpm × ∆T
1 chiller ton = ------------------------- (11)
much coolant is flowing. Very few resins need 24
mold temperatures below 55°F. One resin that gpm × ∆T
1 tower ton = ------------------------- (12)
does require it is PET (polyester), for which a cold 30
mold is required to suppress crystallinity to keep
(lb/min) × ∆T
the resin clear and also to prevent parts from --------------------------------- = 1 chiller ton (13)
200
sticking. Water is best for 55°F whereas lower
mold temperatures require water and antifreeze (lb/min) × ∆T
--------------------------------- = 1 tower ton (14)
combinations with the inherent increase in 25
viscosity and higher energy pumping costs. If ∆T is greater than 5°F, part cooling may be
Weighed Water Tests nonuniform and parts may warp.
In injection molding, water is circulated to Hydraulic Oils
accomplish heat transfer to cool the mold or the Hydraulic oil is used to actuate many
hydraulic oil. In both extrusion or injection mechanical movements on the injection molding
molding, water also circulates around the feed machine such as mold open/close, part ejection,
throat of the hopper. One can measure the and screw rotation during plastication. Injection
performance of the equipment using simple molding machines typically use three grades of
buckets and scales. The rate of heat removal is oil. They are ISO (International Standards

74
®
 Fluid Dynamics

Organization) grades 32, 46, and 68, with grade and other units of viscosity such as centistokes
46 being the most common. Table 11 shows the (cS). The equations that can be used for
viscosity data from several oil suppliers10. The conversion are
viscosity of the oil is important because it varies
cS = (0.226) (SUS) – 195/SUS for SUS <100 (15)
with grade and, more importantly, with
temperature. The variation can affect the rate at
cS = (0.220) (SUS) – 135/SUS for SUS >100 (16)
which values shift as well as the pressure losses as
the oil flows. The units for viscosity are in Saybolt
Because centistokes are units of kinematic
Universal Seconds (SUS), which is a measure of
viscosity in the cgs system, the conversion to
the time it takes for 60 mL of oil to drain out of a
absolute viscosity in centipoise (cS) is given by
cup with a specified orifice. The test is carried out
at 100ºF and 210ºF. The test is a relative cS = (cS)ρ (17)
measurement of how the viscosity changes with
temperature but there is a correlation between it where ρ is the oil density (in g/cm3).

Viscosity
Brand ISO Viscosity Viscosity Specific
Manufacturer grade SUS/
name grade SUS/210 index gravity
100F
Atlantic Richfield ARCO AW 32 155 44 100 0.8681
Atlantic Richfield DURO AW S-150 32 155 44 95 0.8681
Atlantic Richfield DURO AW S-215 46 205 47 95 0.8708
Atlantic Richfield DURO AW S-315 68 305 53 95 0.8762
BP Oil Energol HLP 32 32 153 43 95 0.8612
BP Oil Energol HLP 46 46 221 47 95 0.8654
BP Oil Energol HLP 68 68 339 54 95 0.8703
Chevron Oil Co. Chevron EP 32 32 150 44 95 0.873
Chevron Oil Co. Chevron EP 46 46 215 48 95 0.8762
Chevron Oil Co. Chevron EP 68 68 315 54 95 0.88
Exxon Company NUTO H 32 32 155 43.7 103 0.871
Exxon Company NUTO H 46 46 220 48 102 0.873
Exxon Company NUTO H 68 68 329 54.5 101 0.878
Gulf Oil Corp. 32AW 32 155 43.9 106 0.8703
Gulf Oil Corp. 46AW 46 220 48.2 105 0.8756
Gulf Oil Corp. 68AW 68 325 54.6 104 0.8789
Mobil Oil Corp. DTE 24 32 150/165 43.6 95 0.867
Mobil Oil Corp. DTE 25 46 215/240 47 95 0.873
Mobil Oil Corp. DTE 26 68 315/355 54.2 95 0.877
Shell Oil Corp. TELLUS 32 32 150 5.8
Shell Oil Corp. TELLUS 46 46 215 6.4
Shell Oil Corp. TELLUS 68 68 315 8.2
Sun Oil Co. SUNVIS 700 706 32 155 43.8 105 0.8659
Sun Oil Co. SUNVIS 700 747 46 208 47.4 104 0.8692
Sun Oil Co. SUNVIS 700 754 68 310 53.4 101 0.8719
Table 11. Viscosity information for several hydraulic fluids (hydrocarbon base oils)
commonly used in injection molding machines.10
[Data are from Fluid Power Designer’s Lightning Reference Book, 5th ed. (1982) Paul Monroe Hydraulics, pp. 104-118.]

75
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

The oil grade most often used is ISO 46 and equipment to be sure that it is adequate in terms of
the temperature range is 70°-130°F. Operating flow rate, power, and pressure drops. The
below 70°F leads to pump cavitation and technician must also know the chemical nature of
operating above 130°F leads to excessive the fluid to select materials of construction that
oxidation and shortened life of the oil because of can handle these chemical fluids at the
the formation of varnish and sludge. A tighter temperatures and pressures anticipated and still
range, 100°-120°F, is preferred. Caution must also have a margin of safety.
be used to prevent contamination of oil with water.
The viscosity index is a relative measure of oil APPENDIX
viscosity stability with temperature. Injection
molding machine manufacturers recommend oils Pressure is defined as the force applied to a
with a VI of 95 or higher. surface per unit area. Common units are pounds
per square inch (psi) and pascals, where a pascal is
a force of 1 newton/square meter in the SI system
SUMMARY
(International System). In the United States,
Fluid flow is vital for modern manufacturing technicians and engineers still prefer to use the psi
to transport mass, momentum and energy. A free designation. A vacuum represents pressure less
market system dictates that the methods to than 1 atmosphere. A perfect vacuum is zero
accomplish these needs be both economically absolute pressure. Sometimes the vacuum pressure
reasonable and safe. To do this, you need to be is reported in inches of water because it is such a
able to understand the theory and to translate the small quantity. Figure 7 is a diagram that shows
theory into application so that you can operate and the relationship between atmospheric pressure and
build your equipment for your process. The prior the meaning of the recorded gauge pressure
discussion has presented both the physical relative to atmospheric pressure. What this shows
concepts and the actual hardware such as pumps, is that the pressure recorded on a standard gauge is
fittings, hoses, and pipes. The proper selection of actually not the true pressure in the container but
each as well as the materials of construction are is the actual pressure minus the atmospheric
important for proper operation and safety. The pressure. It also shows that the pressure in a
technician has to determine the proper size for the vacuum is less than atmospheric pressure.

psia psig
Absolute Pressure (psia)

1 atm
14.7

Vacuum
0

Figure 7. Relationship between absolute and gauge pressure.

76
®
 Fluid Dynamics

REFERENCES
1. Injection Molding Reference Guide, (1990) 4th ed., p. 37, Advanced Process Engineering, Phoenix, AZ.
2. Injection Molding Reference Guide, (1990) 4th ed., p. 38, Advanced Process Engineering, 26216 No. 45th
Street, Phoenix, AZ 85050-8562.
3. Foust A.S., Wenzel L., Clump C., Mans L., and Anderson L. (1967), Principles of Unit Operations, p. 542,
John Wiley and Sons, New York.
4. ibid. Foust, et al., p. 396-397.
5. ibid. Foust, et al., p. 431.
6. Vickers, Inc., 2730 Research Drive, Rochester Hills, MI 48305-5045.
7. Dwyer Instruments (Love Controls), 102 Hwy. 212, Michigan City, IN 46361-0373.
8. Foust, et al., p. 410.
9. Ramsey D.C., Principles of Engineering Instrumentation, (1996) p. 93, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
10. Fluid Power Designer’s Lightning Reference Book (1982), 5th ed., pp. 104-118.
11. Farrell R. (2001) “Modeling for an Injection Molding Expert System.” Doctoral dissertation, University of
Massachusetts, Lowell.
12. Parker Hannifin Corp., Tube Fittings Division, 3885 Gateway Blvd., Columbus, OH 43228.
13. Swagelok Co., Solon, OH 44139.
14. 1994/1995 Fluid Power Handbook and Directory, Penton Publishing, Subsidiary of Pittway Corp., Cleve-
land, OH 44114.

77
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

78
®
HYDRAULIC BASICS
PETER L. EVERTS

Hydraulics is a means of transmitting energy.

It is used to multiply force and control motion.
[Editor’s note: Because most machinists and
technicians are familiar with common units
(e.g., psi), these are used throughout this chapter.]

OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this chapter is to familiarize
the reader with the fundamental principles of Figure 1. Pascal’s law.
hydraulics as a power and motion control
technology and with the components and the container equally and at right angles, in all
subsystems typical of industrial process directions.
applications. Although basic theory, in the form of
equations, is discussed and applied, the focus From the equation F = P × A, where F is force
should be on the variables presented in the in pounds, P is pressure in pounds per square inch
formulas and their effect on each other and on (psi), and A is area in square inches, we can also
machine function. determine that P = F ÷ A and A = F ÷ P.

Pressure gauges anywhere in the system

BASIC HYDRAULICS
measure the actual workload at the point of
PRINCIPLES
measurement and the resistance to flow at that
Pascal’s Law point. As an example, if an input force of 500
The core principle of applied hydraulics is pounds is applied over an input piston area of one
stated in Pascal’s Law: Pressure in a confined square inch, the resultant pressure in the confined
fluid is transmitted, undiminished, in all fluid would be 500 psi or 500 pounds acting on
directions, acting equally on equal areas and at each square inch of the vessel. If the area of the
right angles. bottom of the vessel is 200 in.2, the output force
In Figure 1, we can see that a force applied to on the bottom of the vessel would be 500 psi
the stopper in the container creates pressure in the times 200 in.2 or 100,000 pounds of output force,
liquid. This pressure, measured in pounds per illustrating the force multiplication of hydrostatic
square inch (psi), is then transmitted to all areas of or hydraulic applications.

79
Society of Plastics Engineers

To find the area of a circle, such as the effective ACTUATOR VELOCITY:

area of a cylinder, the area of a circle is pi times the THEORY AND FORMULAE
radius (of the circle) squared or A = πr2. This
Actuation or movement in hydraulics is
formula is also typically stated as A = D2 × 0.7854,
usually accomplished by two fundamental types of
which is solving the previous formula for D actuators: cylinders for linear actuation and
(diameter). In this way we can determine the motors for rotary actuation.
theoretical working pressures and maximum force
capabilities of cylinders. It is important to The speed or velocity of a cylinder or motor
remember that the effective area of a single-rod, depends on the available flow into the actuator and
double-acting cylinder, on the rod end, is found by its size or displacement. So long as pressure
subtracting the area of the rod from the total area of controls are properly adjusted, pressure changes do
not affect actuator (cylinder and motor) speeds
the piston; this is called the annulus or effective area
unless excess internal or external leakage is present.
of the rod end (Figure 2). Because only the piston is
movable, the effective areas upon which the fluid Cylinders
pushes are on either side of the piston. Pressure on To calculate the speed of a cylinder piston and
these areas is determined by the load and static rod, hence the load (a mold half, for instance),
friction during cylinder movement and by the relief consider the area to be filled by available pump
valve when the cylinder reaches the end of its flow. Flow (Q) in cubic inches per minute is equal
stroke, for example, in a clamping operation. to velocity in inches per minute times area in
square inches: Q= V × A. Permutations of the
formula are V = Q ÷ A and A = Q ÷ V.
In the previous example of Figure 2 in which
the area of the piston is 10 in.2 and the annulus is
5 in.2, consider the velocity of the cylinder,
Figure 2. Differential area cylinder.
extending and retracting with 10 gallon per minute
(gpm) actual pump flow. First, you must know that
In the foregoing example, if the cap or blind there are 231 cubic inches of fluid in 1 gal. Hence,
end area is 10 in.2 and the annulus is 5 in.2, the convert the 10 gpm to 2310 cubic inches per minute
pressure required to clamp a work piece at 10,000 of available flow; this is divided by the 10 in.2 area
pounds of clamp force would be 1000 psi. The of the piston on extension to give a velocity of 231
extension working pressure, that is, the pressure in./min for the cylinder. Extension, filling half the
required to move a resistant load extending, would area, thus half the volume, would be twice as fast,
be dependent on pressure drop from the pump and i.e., 462 in./min. Changing pump output or the size
the weight of the tool plus friction. Retraction of the actuator directly affects cylinder speeds and
working pressure would be approximately double pressures, as stated previously.
extension working pressure because the area of the
To calculate cycle times, you must consider
annulus is one-half the total piston area. By the
the stroke length of the cylinder. Here, T = A × L ×
same token, the same pressure applied to the rod
60 ÷ gpm × 231, where T is time in seconds, A is
end as applied to the cap end (via relief or other
the area of the cylinder in square inches, 60 is 60
pressure limiters) would produce half the force seconds per minute, gpm is pump flow in gallons
capability on the rod end as on the cap end. per minute, and 231 is the conversion for gpm to
Force capability and working pressures are cubic inches per minute flow.
not affected by small internal or external leaks. If the cylinder in Figure 1 had a usable stroke
Increasing pressure settings do not increase length of 16 in. we could calculate the extension
actuator velocities. time as follows:

80
®
 Hydraulic Basics

Effect on working
Change Speed Output force
pressure

Increase pressure setting No effect No effect Increases

Decrease pressure setting No effect No effect Decreases

Increase flow (gpm) Increases No effect No effect

Decrease flow (gpm) Decreases No effect No effect

Increase cylinder diameter Decreases Decreases Increases

Decrease cylinder diameter Increases Increases Decreases

Table 1. Effects of changes on cylinder operation.

(10 in.2 × 16 in. × 60 sec/min) ÷ (10 gal/min × displacement motors provide constant speed and
231 in.3/gallon) = 4.16 sec extension time torque relative to loads and flow rates.
where 10 square inches times 16-in. stroke length
Torque, that is, rotary or twisting force, is
times 60 sec/min divided by 10 gpm times 231
typically expressed in inch-pounds or foot-
cubic inches/gal equals 4.16 sec extension time.
pounds. Breakaway torque is the force required to
You may use 5 in.2 to calculate retraction time or
initiate rotation of the motor and load whereas
consider the 2:1 area ratio and determine that
retraction in this case will be twice as fast as running torque is the force required to keep the
extension, or 2.08 sec. motor and load rotating. In hydraulic motors, the
twisting force or torque capability of the motor is
You must keep in mind that the foregoing
found by using the following formula: T = cir ×
calculations do not consider acceleration or
psi ÷ 6.28, where T is torque in inch-pounds, psi
deceleration times. The calculations may be used
is pressure in pounds per square inch and 6.28 is a
to troubleshoot and for general-use calculating
capabilities, but these do not provide precise cycle constant (2π). To find torque in foot-pounds, use
times for the reasons stated. 24π or 75.40. Most motor specifications provide a
torque rating per 100 psi and a maximum
Table 1 illustrates how changes in settings or
continuous pressure rating; this translates into the
cylinder size affect the circuit operation (a
maximum torque capability of the motor.
constant workload is assumed).
Motors
Hydraulic motors are rotary actuators; they may
be of gear, vane, or piston type construction. Their
displacement, that is, the amount of fluid required to
turn them one revolution, determines their speed
and load capability relative to specific input flows
and pressure. Motor ratings usually include
displacement and torque capability, maximum
speed, and maximum pressure capability.
Motor displacement is typically given in
cubic inches per revolution, also noted as cir, cid,
Fixed displacement Variable displacement
or in.3/rev. Motors may have fixed or variable
displacement. Variable displacement motors Figure 3. Hydraulic motor symbols—unidirectional,
provide variable speed and torque. Fixed bidirectional, fixed, and variable displacement.

81
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Effect on working
Change Speed Output force
pressure

Increase pressure setting No effect No effect Increases

Decrease pressure setting No effect No effect Decreases

Increase flow (gpm) Increases No effect No effect

Decrease flow (gpm) Decreases No effect No effect

Increase cir Decreases Decreases Increases

Decrease cir Increases Increases Decreases

Table 2. Effects of changes on motor operation.

To find the theoretical speed of a motor, the isolated by very close clearances. Nonpositive
following formula is used: displacement pumps, such as the water pump in an
rpm = gpm × 231 ÷ cir automobile, have large clearances and low pressure
capability and are greatly affected by load changes.
where rpm is revolutions per minute, gpm is
Positive displacement pumps provide more
gallons per minute of input flow, 231 is the
consistent flow with system pressure changes.
conversion of gpm to cubic inches per minute, and
cir is the displacement of the motor. Hydraulic positive displacement pumps may
Hydraulic motors are typically classified as be of gear, vane, or piston type. Bidirectional
high speed, low torque (HSLT), low speed, high pumps are typically overcenter piston pumps.
torque (LSHT), and limited rotation (less than Positive displacement hydraulic pumps provide
360º). Table 2 illustrates how changes affect motor flow to the system. Resistance to that flow creates
operation with a constant load. pressure (pumps do not pump pressure). For fluid
to enter the pump inlet, there must be a difference
PUMPS: PUMPING PRINCIPLES in pressure, or pressure drop (∆P), across the
Pumps used in hydraulics are positive pump inlet. This pressure difference is a function
displacement pumps, that is, inlet and outlet are of increased volume in the pump creating a
pressure lower than atmosphere in the pump.
Atmospheric pressure then pushes the fluid into
the pump. It is often desirable to mount pumps
below the reservoir to allow the weight of the fluid
to create “head pressure” to the pump inlet, thus
preventing cavitation, which is caused by
excessive pump inlet vacuum (typically more than
5-7 in. of mercury vacuum). Installing vacuum
gauges on pump inlets is a cost-effective way to
ensure cavitation is not occurring. Cavitation is a
serious condition that will cause catastrophic
pump failure and expensive system damage.
Fixed displacement Variable displacement
Cavitation results from the release of air entrapped
under excessive inlet vacuum followed by
Figure 4. Hydraulics pump symbols–fixed and
variable displacement, unidirectional flow, bidi- imploding the vapor or cavitation bubbles at the
rectional flow (pump rotates in only one direction). high-pressure outlet of the pump. This creates heat

82
®
 Hydraulic Basics

(up to 2000ºF) and severe damage to the pump gpm = 1.75 × 1200 ÷ 231 = 9.1
and fluid. If we determine, with a flowmeter or by
Cavitation should not be confused with calculating actual actuator speed, that the actual
aeration or the introduction of free air into the flow rate is 8.4 gpm, we would find the pump is
system caused by a leaky inlet fitting on the pump about 92% efficient, i.e., actual output divided by
or low oil level in the reservoir. Aeration also theoretical output times gives us efficiency
causes heat and severe damage to the pump but percentage. So long as this is within acceptable
will also result in air being trapped elsewhere in the values provided by the manufacturer, we know
circuit, causing sluggish movement, erratic and the pump is good.
spongy actuators, and lack of response (air is much
Horsepower
more compressible than liquid hydraulic fluids).
Horsepower is a measurement of the rate of
Hydraulic pumps may be of gear, vane, or
doing work. One horsepower (HP) is equal to
piston design and, with the exception of gear
33,000 foot-pounds per minute or 550 foot-
pumps, may be of fixed or variable displacement.
pounds per second; one horsepower is also equal
Gear pumps are virtually always fixed
to 736 watts (W) of electrical energy or 42.4
displacement. The type of pump used on any
BTU/min of thermal energy (heat).
specific application is determined by the
application requirements. Contamination The general formula for fluid power
tolerance, type of fluid, speed, pressure, horsepower is
efficiencies, fixed or variable delivery options,
and general environment may all be considered HP = (gpm × psi) ÷ 1714 or
when selecting pumps.
HP = gpm × psi × 0.000583 (inverse of 1714)
Pumps are rated by their displacement,
pressure capability, speed capability, and This formula assumes 100% efficiency.
efficiency (volumetric and mechanical). It is Consequently, when calculating input versus
important to remember that pump sizing (gpm/ output, we must know the efficiency of our pump
cir) is done at low pressures, typically 100 psi. and also divide that into flow times pressure.
Manufacturers then provide expected flow rates Because we rarely have this information, we use a
under higher-pressure conditions. Actual flow will constant that assumes an overall efficiency of
always be less than theoretical flow because of 83.3%:
internal leakage. Typical efficiencies are gear
pumps, 84%-91%; vane pumps 90%-95%; and HPinput =
piston pumps 92%-97%. You must rely on your gpm × psi ÷ 14,428 or gpm × psi × 0.0007
pump manufacturer’s specific data when
evaluating pump performance. This constant is typically used in design to
size an electric motor or other prime mover (such
Theoretical pump output is found by the as internal combustion engines) requirements
following formula: relative to system requirements of maximum
gpm = (cir × rpm) ÷ 231 load/pressure requirements and flow
where gpm is gallons per minute flow, cir is pump requirements.
displacement in cubic inches per minute, and 231 In the following example, we size a fixed
is the conversion of cubic inches to gallons. displacement motor that puts out a theoretical flow
Using this formula to find the theoretical of 10 gpm. Our maximum pressure requirement is
output of a pump that is being rotated at 1200 rpm 2500 psi (typically relief pressure) and working
with a displacement of 1.75 in.3/rev shows us that pressures are 350 and 700 psi. The application is a
the pump’s theoretical delivery is 9.1 gpm: clamp cylinder that must hold a part at 2500 psi;

83
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

extension working pressure is 350 psi and retraction of welded fittings is common, but these must also
working pressure is 700 psi. be kept in good repair to avoid external leakage.
Input HP is calculated at the maximum Steel pipe is sized by nominal designations,
pressure and flow without regard to internal e.g., 1", 2", 1 1/2 ", etc. Strength is determined by
leakage (volumetric efficiency): wall thickness, or “schedule.” Standard pipe is
available in schedule 40, 80, 160, and double extra
HPIn = 10 × 2500 × 0.0007 = 17.5 HP heavy. The nominal outside diameter for each is
the same. As the strength increases, the inside
which is the horsepower requirement during
diameter decreases because of increased wall
the clamping operation.
thickness. Sizing charts and table must be used
During extension, the actual HP usage would when sizing steel pipe for flow and pressure
be 10 × 350 × 0.0007 or 2.45 HP. During capabilities.
retraction, as pressure is doubled, the HP
Steel Tube
requirement would be almost 5 HP (4.9). In actual
practice these values could be somewhat less Steel tubing, with many variations of fittings
depending on the actual pump efficiencies. It is available, can reduce leakage points, eliminate
easy to see now why pumps and motors do not leakage at fittings with proper installation
seem to be working with the same energy during techniques, and is often reusable, neater, and more
all machine cycles. The actual workload and HP cost-effective than steel pipe. Nominal standard
requirements change as loads, pressures, and flow outside diameters include numerous wall
rates may change. thickness options for a wide range of pressure and
flow capabilities. Steel tube may be bent, rather
In the case of motor selection, we must
having to use fitting for angles as with steel pipe,
consider the next larger frame size or service
this makes for neater, less leakprone assemblies.
factors provided by the electric motor
As with all conductors, tubing must be secured at
manufacturer. Different pump combinations, such
frequent intervals to reduce vibration and
as double pumps with unloading valves (high/low
conducted noise.
systems, i.e., high-pressure, low-volume pump
with low-pressure, high-volume pump ) may be Flexible Hose
considered as well as variable volume pumps that The industry standard for hose is Society of
match flow to system requirements. In all cases, Automotive Engineers (SAE) 100R specification.
energy consumption, heat generation, cost Most hose manufacturers exceed this
analysis, and efficiencies must be part of the specification, but you must be familiar with your
design process. manufacturer’s data for pressure and flow
capabilities.
FLUID CONDUCTORS Hose is typically classified for inside diameter,
Fluid conductors in hydraulic systems are which determines flow capability; this is generally
typically hose, steel pipe, and steel tubing. In this stated as a dash number, e.g., SAE 100R13-8 hose
section, we look at the various attributes and includes the minimum constructions specification of
requirements of each of these general categories. 100R13 and the nominal inside diameter (-8) is 8/16
Steel Pipe of an inch or 1/2 -in. inside diameter (i.d.). Hence, a
Seamless steel pipe has been used longer than “-12” would be 12/16 or 3/4 in. i.d., and so forth.
any other type of conductor for hydraulics. In Most hose includes a “lay line” or data printed
high-volume, high-pressure applications, it may or embossed on the outside cover of the hose that
be the only choice. Unfortunately, the use of details these specifications. The lay line is also
National Pipe Thread Fuel (NPTF) fittings creates used to determine if an installed hose assembly
a very high potential for external leakage. The use has been twisted. A twist as small as 10º in a hose

84
®
 Hydraulic Basics

assembly can reduce the life of the hose by as velocity means less friction, lower pressure drop
much as 90%. Hose manufacturers also provide across the conductor, and less heat generated.
minimum bend radius data at different pressures, Generally accepted maximum velocities for
which must be used to prevent hose failure. hydraulics systems are these:
Various fittings are available for hose • Inlet line = 4 feet per second (fps)
assemblies with different attributes. Specific
application requirements must be considered • Working line = 20 fps
when selecting hose and fittings. For instance, a • Return line = 10 fps
hose may be capable of 6000 psi continuous
working pressure, but the selected fitting may be Exceptions for higher pressure systems that
capable of only 3000 psi. This difference means exceed 20 fps for working or high-pressure lines
that the rating for the assembly is 3000 psi, not are acceptable, but inlet and return lines should
6000 psi! not exceed these maximums.
Differential flow from cylinders must be
It is important to use compatible hoses and
considered when sizing return lines, directional
fittings. Do not mix hoses and fittings from
controls, and return line filters. For example,
different manufacturers. Proper assembly and test
return flow from a 2:1 area ratio cylinder with 10
is necessary when making up hose assemblies.
gpm ported to the rod end will be 20 gpm! The
Hose failures at fittings are almost always the
formula to determine inside area requirements for
fault of the assembler, not the manufacturer.
specific velocities as stated above is:
Ensuring that replacement parts are the equivalent
in specification to, or better than, those replaced is A (in.2) = (gpm × 0.3208) ÷ velocity (fps)
essential.
To size the return line in our example above:
GENERAL GUIDELINES A = 20 × .3208 ÷ 10 = 0.64 in.2
FOR FLUID CONDUCTORS To determine inside diameter, we use a
Pressure and flow limitations determine the variation of the formula for the area of a circle:
options available when selecting fluid conductors. A = D2 × 0.7854. Solving for D,
To determine flow capacity, we must determine
the acceptable flow velocities for flow rates. D = ( A ÷ 0.7854 ); D = 0.64 ÷ 0.7854 = 0.90 in.
Consider that a 10 gpm flow rate will produce
different flow velocities depending on the size of We would then size our conductor accordingly.
the opening the fluid must flow through. A garden Practically, there are many references
hose with no nozzle on it produce a flow rate at a available for use in sizing conductors that provide
very low velocity. When you put a nozzle on the pressure, flow and velocity capabilities, and
hose, the flow rate is about the same, but the water pressure drop/foot as an easy reference. Fluid
must increase in velocity through a smaller hole power manufacturers can provide these reference
in the nozzle. materials on request and often at no cost.
Similarly, as a fluid conductor’s inside FLOW CONTROLS
diameter is decreased (the “hole” is smaller), the
same flow rate (e.g., 10 gpm) has an increased Flow, through restrictions in conductors and
flow velocity. If we increase the inside diameter, components, is controlled by the following factors:
the same flow rate has a lower velocity. High 1. Size of the restriction
velocity results in higher friction, more
2. ∆P or pressure difference (drop)
turbulence, and more heat generated as well as a
higher pressure drop across the conductor. Lower 3. Viscosity and temperature of the fluid

85
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

all aspects to minimize pressure drop merely to

move the fluid from the pump(s) to actuators.

Velocity/Speed Control

To control the speed or velocity of actuators in a

hydraulic system, it is necessary to control the flow
rate to the actuators. Because pump output can vary
with pressure and load changes and with normal
wear over the life of the pump, flow controls are
used when precise speed control is required.
Typically, restrictor type flow controls are
used, which may be simple needle valves or
pressure- and temperature-compensated units.
Proportional valves are also used as restrictor type
Figure 5. Restrictor type flow control symbols. flow controls. The symbols for restrictor type flow
controls are shown in Figure 5.
Changing any of these values results in a
change of flow or the other values. For example, The three types of flow control circuits are
making the size of fluid passage smaller would meter-in, meter-out, and bleed-off. The type of
increase the upstream pressure, increasing the circuit describes the controlled flow. Meter-in
pressure drop and vice versa. A high-viscosity means that the controlled or metered flow is
fluid would create a higher-pressure drop across directed into the actuator, meter-out circuits
the same-sized orifice when compared to a lower control flow leaving the actuator, and a bleed-off
viscosity-fluid flowing at the same rate. control is essentially a controlled leak that allows
Pressure Drop
excess flow to return to the reservoir at load
pressure before it reaches the actuator. Meter-in
Pressure drop or pressure difference is a key
and bleed-off circuits may be used to control loads
element in all hydraulic circuits. There must exist a
that are always resistive to pump output and
pressure difference or ∆P for there to be flow.
actuator movement.
Without a pressure difference, there can be no flow.
All components in a system add to the resistance A meter-out circuit must be used for
that creates flow and increase the total pressure overrunning loads. A phenomenon of meter-out
required in the system, Hence, sizing is important in circuits is intensified pressure, particularly when

Figure 6. Intensified pressure created by meter-out

control of an overrunning load.

86
®
 Hydraulic Basics

used to control overrunning loads on extension system pressure, they limit cylinder force and
with single-rod end cylinders. motor torque.
The circuit in Figure 6 illustrates intensified On process machines such as plastics
pressure. Note the requirement of a check valve injection molding, numerous different pressures
(see directional control section) for reverse free are required during the process that are often
flow around the restriction during retraction of the selected relative to controller input to a
cylinder to prevent the restriction from acting in proportional pressure control valve, typically
both directions of cylinder movement. called electrohydraulic. The valve offers
Given: pump output = 10 gpm; piston area = resistance in the circuit directly proportional to
10 in.2; annulus = 5 in.2; load = 4000 lb. The flow the input command signal.
control is set to pass 4 gpm, and the relief valve is
set for 2500 psi, the following would be the
dynamics of the circuit:
P1 = 2500 psi, as 2 gpm would be relieved over
the relief at relief setting
P2 = 5800 psi= [(2500 psi × 10 in.2) + 4000-lb.
load)] ÷ 5 in.2 annulus
P3 = Theoretically 0 psi as this fluid is Figure 7. Relief valve symbol.
returning to tank
Relief flow is 2 gpm as 4 gpm is entering the cap Pressure-Reducing Valves
end of the cylinder (4 gpm from the rod end with a Pressure-reducing valves (Figure 8) limit the
2:1 area ratio) maximum pressure in a branch circuit, which may
Increasing the relief setting or increasing the be necessary to limit force at an actuator while
load would increase intensified pressure and permitting higher pressures elsewhere in the
could cause serious damage to the circuit. circuit. Pressure-reducing valves must have
Meter-in and meter-out flow controls cause external drain connections to function. A reverse
excess pump flow to be directed to the tank over free-flow check valve is required on double-acting
the relief valve at maximum system pressure. This cylinders because the valve tends to close off if
will create heat and care must be taken to fluid flow is reversed.
minimize this excess flow by design. Pressure Sequence Valves
The use of proportional throttle valves (DC Pressure sequence valves are normally closed
variable solenoids) to control speeds or as pilots pressure controls that open to cause an actuator to
on slip-in cartridge valve controls is common in
processes such as plastics injection molding. By
using feedback devices on the machine and to
monitor spool position on the valve (LVDT—
linear variable differential transformer), precise
control of speed is possible.

PRESSURE CONTROLS
Relief valves
Relief valves set maximum system pressure.
They may be direct acting, pilot operated, or Figure 8. Pressure-reducing valve
proportional. Because they determine maximum without check.

87
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

be sequenced after another operation. They must Brake Valves

also be adjusted to ensure sufficient pressure Brake valves are internally and externally
availability for the first operation. Sequence valves operated, normally closed pressure controls. They
must also be externally drained to function are used to control the deceleration and stopping
properly. Because of the prevalent use of of loads on hydraulic motors that may overrun.
electronic controls, newer machines typically do
not use pressure sequence valves but rather PRESSURE CONTROLS
solenoid-operated valves to coordinate actuators. SUMMARY
Because they are normally closed, a check valve is Pressure controls and their symbols are very
required for double-acting cylinders or similar. The effect of the component on the circuit
bidirectional motors. Sequence valves may be must be determined or a machine reference used to
internally or remotely operated depending on understand what type of pressure control is being
circuit requirements (Figure 9). identified. It is essential that operating lines and
drains are properly plumbed for each type of
pressure control. As with all other controls,
pressure controls must be adjusted with machines
at operating temperatures.
Hydraulic Shock and Decompression
Excessive shock, often caused by high-
pressure transients or “spikes,” can cause serious
damage to fluids and components. In extreme
cases, fluid conductors will break, causing danger
Figure 9. Sequence valve with internal operator, to personnel and further damage to the machine as
external drain, and no check valve.
well as a significant loss of system fluid.
Unloading Valves Because hydraulic machinery affects actuation
by essentially moving columns of fluid,
Unloading or “dump” valves are normally acceleration and deceleration must be considered
closed and are used to relieve trapped pressure as and dealt with to reduce shock. Slamming a
in a regenerative circuit or to unload excess flow cylinder into its end cap at high velocity means the
from a tandem pump (high-low) system. They fluid moving the cylinder and load is also subject
may also be used with accumulators in systems to to a sudden stop. This can cause very high
allow use of the accumulator while unloading a pressure transients to be transmitted through to
fixed displacement pump at low pressure. fluid to act on all exposed surfaces. The resulting
Unloading valves are always remotely operated to output force can cause severe damage or
allow the unloaded or “dumped” flow/pressure to catastrophic failure.
escape the circuit at low pressure. Shock can also be caused by releasing
Counterbalance Valves compressed fluid too rapidly into the system.
Consider that a typical hydraulic oil is
Counterbalance circuits allow the control of a approximately 1.1% compressible at 3000 psi and
dynamic load at full pump output speed on 120ºF. If 1000 gallons of oil is subject to 3000 psi,
cylinders. Remotely operated, they also allow for there would be approximately 11 gallons under
full extension force at the end of the compression. If this 11 gallons (gal) were released
counterbalanced stroke. Because they are (not decompressed under control) in 200
normally closed, a check valve must provide milliseconds (msec), the effective flow rate would
reverse free flow for double-acting cylinders. be approximately 3300 gpm, which is 11 gal times

88
®
 Hydraulic Basics

1000 msec/sec divided by 20 msec times 60 sec/ important to minimize pressure drop, reduce heat/
min, or 11 gal × (1000 msec/sec ÷ 200 msec) × 60 shock, and so forth. Samples of various symbols
sec/min = 3300 gal/min. are shown in Figures 10, 11, and 12.
As you can see, this type of flow rate, even for
fractions of a second, can cause extremes of
pressure in the system. For this reason, extended
decompression times are allowed to reduce shock
and damage. Extending the decompression time
to 2 sec would reduce the flow rate to 330 gpm Figure 10. Symbol for two-position, spring-offset,
solenoid operated directional control valve.
(tenfold increase in time, 200 to 2000 msec,
decreases the rate proportionally).
Decompression is accomplished in numerous
ways including drilled orifices and metering. Often
small accumulators are used to absorb whatever
shock remains. It is necessary to allow the energy
stored by an accumulator absorbing shock to be Figure 11. Three-position, solenoid-operated, spring
relieved during normal machine cycling. centered, directional control valve.

DIRECTIONAL CONTROLS
Directional control is simply the control of Typical flow paths
fluid paths in the system. Directional controls may
be ball/poppet valves, rotary valves, or sliding
spool valves. Directional controls are used not only
to control actuator movement but also to operate in
conjunction with slip-in cartridge valve circuits, as
pressure control selectors, and so forth. Closed center
Directional sliding spool valve symbols
typically tell us the following:
1. Number of finite (selectable) positions
2. Number of flow paths/active ports Float center

3. Center porting condition

4. Operator or how the spool shifts
(spring, solenoid, lever, etc.)
Open center (motor spool)
Other information we must have:
5. Interface—port size/configuration Figure 12. Flow paths, typical center conditions.
6. Flow/pressure drop specifications
7. Special features/options/plumbing FLUID HANDLING
requirements AND FILTRATION
These controls are typically shown “de- Fluids
energized” or in their “at rest” condition or Many types of fluids are available for
positions on prints. It is necessary to imagine them hydraulic machinery. The general classifications
shifted to different positions to determine how they are petroleum based, water based, synthetic, and
affect the circuit and actuation. Again, sizing is vegetable oils.

89
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Each of these classifications has specific • Gas—including free air or nitrogen from
attributes, requirements, and operating parameters. accumulators
It is essential to review with your fluid supplier the
operating requirements, capabilities, and • Failed additives (forced out of solution by
limitations of the specific fluid(s) you are using. shock, heat)

Key elements to discuss are viscosity, viscosity Adequate filtration is an absolute necessity,
index, min/max operating temperatures, not an option, for hydraulic machinery. A few
compatibility with seals/materials in system dollars “saved” by not providing replacement
components, specific gravity/allowable pump inlet elements or by purchasing inadequate filter
vacuum, additive package (e.g., antioxidants, elements will result in excessive machine
viscosity extenders, demulsifiers, antiwear, etc.). downtime, component and system excess wear,
For water-based/glycol-type fluids, your hydraulic and finally failure.
component/system supplier or machine builder Filters are rated by beta ratio, dirt-holding
must be consulted to determine new operating
capacity, flow capability, and so forth.
parameters based on using nonpetroleum fluids.
Contamination is measured in microns or
The ratios of glycol, water, and additives in these
millionths of a meter. Even contamination smaller
fluids must be maintained to optimize performance.
than 5 microns can cause damage to machines and
Temperature is an overriding concern lead to failure. Periodic, dedicated sampling of
regardless of the type of fluid used. Although fluids and tracking the presence of contamination
synthetics typically handle higher temperatures, is a necessary ongoing program for all hydraulics
petroleum- and water-based fluids must be users. Consider that the smallest particle visible to
temperature monitored. Petroleum-based fluids the naked eye is about 40 microns. The
lose viscosity at higher temperatures and will International Standards Organization, (ISO)
rapidly oxidize above 140ºF (for each 18ºF contamination standard for particle counting
increment above this temperature, the life of the measures particles 4 microns, 7 microns, and 13
fluid is halved). Optimum temperature at the microns in size. It is not possible to visually verify
reservoir for oil is 120ºF; this is an upper limit for fluid cleanliness; laboratory analysis is necessary.
water-based fluids because warmer temperatures
cook off the water very quickly in vented systems One major source of contamination is oil that
and interfere with the ratio of additives and fluid comes directly from the drum or shipping
elements (such as glycol). container. It is most important that this fluid be
properly filtered before loading it into the
Filtration equipment.
It is widely accepted that up to 80% of
hydraulic failures are caused by contaminated SUMMARY
fluid. Contamination is considered anything A technician armed with the knowledge
present in the fluid on system that does not presented here should have a good idea of what
contribute to the performance of the fluid or makes the hydraulic system work on any piece of
machine. Contamination can be equipment. Although these are sound principles,
your specific machine operations manual and
• Solid
hydraulic circuit drawing should be used for
• Other liquids further understanding of your machine operation.

90
®
ELECTROMECHANICAL
CIRCUITS
JOHN D. COLLUCCINI
®

INTRODUCTION TERMINOLOGY
The purpose of this chapter is to give the As with mechanical valves for hydraulic and
pneumatic applications, electrical devices such as
technician the ability to read an electrical print
limit switches, pushbuttons, relay contacts, etc.
and thus acquire a better understanding of the
also use the terms “normally open” (NO) and
electrical side of the molding machine. The “normally closed” (NC).
hydraulic print may completely show all piping,
Although both fluid flow applications and
valves, cylinders, etc. but this diagram is not electrical applications use the terminology, one
complete without the associated electrical must remember that the electrical meaning of NO
diagram that shows how all the solenoids, relays, and NC is, in a sense, opposite of the fluid flow
limit switches, etc. are connected and how they meaning. That is, when a mechanical valve is in a
control the action and sequence of the machine. closed position no fluid flow is possible, whereas
The electrical diagram is often called a “ladder” when an electrical set of contacts is closed,
diagram because of its resemblance to the many current flow is possible.
parallel rungs of a ladder. A wide variety of relay contact arrangements
is available. Figure 1 shows a typical set. (For
The electromagnetic or electromechanical reference, SPSTNO means single pole, single
relay is discussed at length for two reasons. First of throw, normally open.)
all, it has been the predominate mode of control for
a long time and is installed in a tremendous number NFPA V E R S U S NFPA
of machines. Second, even in more recent machine Unfortunately, two different agencies
technology that utilizes programmable logic sometimes have the same acronym. The National
controllers (PLCs) and in the current trend to Fluid Power Association (NFPA) has the same
initials as the National Fire Protection Association
control directly with personal computers (PCs),
(NFPA). Obviously the National Fluid Power
studying relay circuits is an excellent way to learn
Association is one society—and not the only
how the machine functions and sequencing are one—concerned with standards for hydraulic and
controlled. Much of the relay logic also carries pneumatic equipment and systems. In addition to
over to PLC and PC operations and is helpful in their codes and standards in the area of fire
understanding those technologies. prevention and control, the National Fire

91
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 1. Relay Contacts.

Robot Technology Fundamentals, 1st Ed. J.G. Keramas © 1999.
Reprinted with permission of Delmar a division of Thomson Learning.

92
®
 Electromechanical Circuits

Protection Association also is responsible for example are intended to represent the moving
publishing the National Electrical Code (NEC), contact in an electromechanical relay and are
the standard for all safe wiring practice in the sometimes called the “common” pin connection.
United States and the document all journeyman From the diagram it is clear that pin 1 is touching
electricians must study to pass their license pin 4 but not touching pin 3 in the deenergized
examination. Confusion may arise when just the (normal) state of the relay. Just as a hydraulic or
acronym is used. Sometimes the discussion pneumatic valve is shown in its normal or
context makes it clear. For example, if a brochure deenergized position, the relay is similarly shown
on double-acting hydraulic cylinders mentions in its normal position. Thus, contacts 1 and 4
NFPA, one can infer this is the fluid power constitute a normally closed (NC) set, while
organization. On the other hand, an electrical contacts 1 and 3 constitute a normally open (NO)
switch specification sheet may refer to an NFPA set. As the pivoting “flapper” contact between pins
standard and that reference would most likely be 3 and 4, the common pin 1 will change its position
the electrical standard of the fire protection when the relay is energized by sending current
organization. In the case of a solenoid-activated through coil connections 2 and 7. When the coil is
directional control valve, it is a device in which energized, contacts 1 and 4 will open and contacts
both groups have an interest. The National Fluid 1 and 3 will close. Similarly, for common pin 8 on
Power Association is concerned with the the other side, 8 and 5 are NC while 8 and 6 are
mechanical aspects of the valve whereas the NO. At the same time the coil is energized, set 8
National Fire Protection Association is concerned and 5 will open while 8 and 6 will close.
with the wiring aspects. In the 11-pin example, coil contacts are pins 2
and 10, and the remaining 9 pins are distributed in
STANDARD RELAYS three sets of three pin contacts (one more set than
Figure 2 shows a common electromechanical the 8-pin relay). In the 11-pin relay, pins 1, 6, and
relay in two standard configurations, an 8-pin and 11 are the common pins and form the following
an 11-pin. These relays are plugged into a socket sets: 1 and 4, 6 and 5, and 11 and 8 are all NC sets
with a matching number of pin holes, and this whereas 1 and 3, 6 and 7, and 11 and 9 are all NO
configuration is often called an “octal” relay socket sets. (Editor’s note: When coil connection 2 and
(even though combinations other than 8-pin are 10 are energized, contacts 6 and 7 will also close,
available and sometimes used). The 8- and 11-pin and 6 and 5 will open.)
relays are very common. This relay type is also Because the common pin moves between the
known as an “ice cube” relay for its similar shape. normally open and normally closed contacts, it is
considered a “double-throw” arrangement. Both
the 8-pin and 11-pin sets in the figure are double
throw. The number of complete sets is the number
of “poles.” The 8-pin has two sets so it is also a
two-pole relay. Its complete specification is
double pole, double throw (DPDT). Similarly, the
11-pin has three sets so it is a three pole. Its
complete specification is three pole, double throw
Figure 2. Common 8-pin and 11-pin relays. (3PDT). Figure 3 shows the schematic for a four-
pole, double-throw relay (4PDT).
In the 8-pin schematic shown, the coil Note also that in any given wiring
connections are through pins 2 and 7. Pin 1 is arrangement, not all the sets of contacts in a relay
associated with pins 3 and 4, and similarly pin 8 is may be used. When the relay is energized, all the
associated with pins 5 and 6. Pins 1 and 8 in this contacts will shift their electrical positions. That

93
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

button. Consider L1 to be the side of higher

potential (the “hot” side). Current cannot pass
from L1 to L2 because there is an open circuit on
both rungs 1 and 2. When the start button is hit,
rung 1 is now closed and current flows from L1 to
L2 and through the relay coil of 1CR. Because
Figure 3. A four-pole, double-throw 1CR is now energized, contacts 1CR-A flip to
(4PDT) relay. their closed (energized) position.
is, all the NCs will open and all the NOs will
close. Of course, nothing will happen electrically
to the ones that are not connected.
Finally, note the unfortunate similarity between
the symbol for a relay contact (two short parallel
lines separated by a small space) and the symbol
(Figure 4) for a capacitor (a short straight line and a Figure 5. Holding circuit.
short curved line separated by a small space).
Actually, a capacitor may sometimes be drawn with Current is flowing through rung 1 and rung 2.
two straight lines, looking exactly like a relay When the start button is released, current
contact! The difference between the two possible continues along the path from L1 to L2 by going
symbols for a capacitor is a subtle but important around the start button through the parallel path of
one. The symbol with the curved line is a contacts 1CR-A on rung 2. This is the holding
“polarized” capacitor, meaning that the polarity of circuit. The current going through contacts 1CR-A
the device—the positive and negative sides—must keeps the coil energized, which in turn keeps
be observed when connected in a circuit. The contacts 1CR-A in the closed condition. Hitting
capacitor drawn with two straight lines, the same the stop button interrupts the holding circuit.
symbol as a relay contact, means that this capacitor
is nonpolarized and thus polarity does not matter SIMPLE CONTROL CIRCUIT
when connecting it. The context of the schematic Figure 6 shows a simple control circuit that
will usually make it clear which device—relay has the typical elements such as limit switches,
contact or capacitor—is called for. A further check relays, and solenoid directional control valves.
on the schematic usually shows the units of farads Limit switch 2LS is a NC switch that the double-
(F) or microfarads if the device is a capacitor. acting cylinder hits at the end of its extension
stroke. The valve is a 2-position, 4-way, spring-
offset, single solenoid valve that in its normal
position would retract the cylinder. In its activated
position, the solenoid shifts the spool to extend the
cylinder. From the ladder diagram, it is clear that
Figure 4. Capacitors: polarized and nonpolarized. no current gets to the solenoid until the control
relay 2CR is energized. When the start button is
hit, current flows to the relay coil and contacts
FOLDING CIRCUIT 2CR-A and 2CR-B close. After the start button is
A very important element of most machine released, a holding circuit as described earlier is
control schemes is the “holding” circuit shown in set up through contacts 2CR-A. The solenoid gets
Figure 5. It consists of a control relay and one set current at the same time through contacts 2CR-B,
(pole) of normally open (NO) contacts from that and thus the cylinder starts to extend. When the
relay along with a NO start button and a NC stop cylinder hits limit switch 2LS, the current to the

94
®
 Electromechanical Circuits

Figure 6. Simple control circuit.

Introduction to Control System Technology, 3rd Ed. Bateson ©2001. Reprinted by permission
of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

coil is cut, which will open the contacts and LATCHING VERSUS
deenergize the solenoid. The valve will shift and REGULAR RELAY
the cylinder will retract, ending the cycle. (Note:
This example is intended for illustration purposes Up to now, all the relays in the circuits studied
only and may not contain details that are found in have been regular or standard relays. That is,
complicated machine operations diagrams.) when the current to the coil is cut off the relay
reverts to its deenergized position and all the
contacts switch back to their normal state.
Normally open contacts that were being held

95
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

closed by electromagnetic force will open again, “flip-flop” device in computer circuitry. Of course,
and normally closed contacts that were being held the solid-state electronic version accomplishes the
open will close again. In this kind of relay, the coil same function but does it without moving parts.
current must be maintained for the contacts to stay Today, even the traditional electromechanical relay
in their activated (energized) position. can be duplicated in function but without moving
parts in semiconductor material to form a solid-
state relay, SSR.)

T I M E -D E L A Y R E L A Y S
The circuit shown in Figure 8 has red and
green light bulbs, start and stop pushbuttons, and
two control relays (1CR and 1TR). When
Figure 7. A latching relay. pushbutton 1PB is closed, current will flow
through 1PB, 2PB, and through relays 1CR and
There is another kind of relay called a 1TR. Relay 1TR is a time-delay relay; this means
“latching” relay. The latching relay is just a slight that contacts associated with 1TR will not jump
variation on the standard relay and is usually immediately to their energized positions but will
constructed with two coils (Figure 7). Those two wait for a prescribed time delay before switching.
coils are electrically separate (i.e., the current in (The amount of this time delay is often adjustable
one is independent of the other). The latching relay within a certain range on many time-delay relays.)
is designed to allow all the relay contacts to stay in Because current is now flowing through 1CR,
their activated or energized position even after the contacts 1CR-A and 1CR-B will close. Pushbutton
coil current is cut off. This first coil is responsible 1PB can now be released because a holding circuit
for switching the contacts from their normal is now established through contacts 1CR-A.
position to their activated position (a “set” Current through contacts 1CR-B in rung three will
condition); usually, this will be accomplished with allow the red light to go on. After the time delay
some sort of ratcheting mechanism. When coil passes, contact 1TR-A will open and contact 1TR-
number one is energized, the moving arm will go B will close. Opening 1TR-A cuts the current to
past the tooth of a ratchet and stay there even when the red light and closing 1TR-B will allow current
current to coil number one is cut. This “sets” the to flow through the green light on rung four.
relay in its activated state and, unlike the standard
relay, it does not return to its normal position by
just cutting the coil current. Instead, some positive
action is needed to return the contacts to their
normal state, which is accomplished with coil
number two. The function of coil number two is to
“reset” the relay to its normal condition, where
“NO” contacts are open and “NC” contacts are
closed. In an electromechanical relay, this is
usually done by positioning coil number two so
that its electromagnetic force will pull the
ratcheting mechanism out of play so that its spring
force will make the contacts snap back to their Figure 8. Circuit with a time-delay relay.
normal positions. This kind of relay could be
considered a “set-reset” or “latch-unlatch” type of SEQUENTIAL ACTION
device. (Electronic and computer circuit students In practice it is quite common to require two
will recognize this as analogous to the set-reset or more cylinders to extend (or retract) at different

96
®
 Electromechanical Circuits

-A

-B

Figure 9. Sequential action.

Fluid Power with Applications, 4th Ed. A Esposito ©1999. Reprinted by
permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.

times in some prescribed sequence. In injection their associated contacts (1CR-A, 1CR-B, 2CR-
molding, clamping takes place before injection. A, 2CR-B).
The circuit shown in Figure 9 illustrates a typical
The NC stop, NO start, and NO relay contacts
example of two cylinders operating in a certain
in parallel with the start button constitute a
sequence.
standard wiring control scheme. When the start
This circuit consists of two double-acting button is pressed, relay 1CR is energized and NO
cylinders, two identical valves (2-position, 4-way, contacts 1CR-A and 1CR-B close. Releasing the
spring-offset, single-solenoid), a pushbutton start start button does not kill the connection because
(NO), a pushbutton stop (NC), limit switch 2LS current from L1 will bypass the start button
(NC), limit switch 1LS (a double-throw switch through parallel path 1CR-A (which is now
with one set of NC contacts and one set of NO closed) and still reach relay coil 1CR. This is the
contacts), two relay coils (1CR and 2CR), and traditional “holding circuit” described earlier.

97
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Note that relay coil 2CR is not yet energized as the spool in valve V2 to shift back to normal
there is an open circuit to 2CR on rungs 3 and 4. position and cylinder 2 to retract. As cylinder 2
Because 1CR-B is also closed because of the starts to retract, limit switch 2LS will snap closed
action just described, solenoid A is energized, and again, but open circuits exist on all 6 rungs so
this shifts the valve spool on valve V1 and allows nothing changes.
cylinder 1 to extend. As cylinder 1 extends, Thus, the full sequence of operations is as
nothing will change electrically until the rod of follows:
cylinder 1 hits limit switch 1LS. The dashed line
(not to be confused with the fluid power dashed • Cylinder 1 extends
line that represents a pilot line) between 1LS-A • Cylinder 2 extends while Cylinder 1 retracts
and 1LS-B shows that these two sets of contacts
will move together and change state together. That • Cylinder 2 retracts
is, as the rod end hits the limit switch, the NC Note that this is not the only way to
contacts 1LS-A will open and the NO contacts accomplish sequencing, but it demonstrates the
1LS-B will close. Because 1LS-A is on rung 1, principle. The foregoing circuit could have used
when it opens it will cut the current to relay coil time-delay relays to implement parts of the
1CR. Contacts 1CR-A and 1CR-B will return to sequence or mechanical sequence valves.
their normally open state, which will cut the
holding circuit for rung 1 and cut the current to CLAMP AND WORK
solenoid A. As valve V1 is spring offset, it will A slight but important variation of the
return to its normal spool position where the flow previous example is one in which the first cylinder
direction arrows will make cylinder 1 retract. (the “clamping” cylinder) extends and stays
At the same time that contacts 1LS-A open, extended until the second cylinder (the “working”
contacts 1LS-B close, which allows current to cylinder) goes through a full cycle of extension
reach relay coil 2CR. This immediately closes and retraction. The first cylinder then retracts to
contacts 2CR-A and 2CR-B. Solenoid B is now complete the sequence. Examples of this kind of
energized through 2CR-B on rung 6, and so valve circuit abound in manufacturing and in other
V2 shifts spool position, making cylinder 2 areas. Even a front-end loader exhibits this.
extend. Thus, cylinder 1 is retracting at the same Although it is not “clamping,” the front-end loader
time cylinder 2 is extending. Note that as cylinder first lifts the bucket with the heavy main boom
1 just starts to retract, it will ride off the limit cylinders, and then at the top position the smaller
switch 1LS and contacts 1LS-A and 1LS-B will cylinders tilt the bucket to drop the dirt in a truck
snap back to their normal positions of closed and or other location and then return. Thus, the
open, respectively. However, coil 1CR will not sequence of this nonmanufacturing application is
reenergize because there is an open circuit to it, the same.
and coil 2CR will stay energized because the The paper cutter machine in Figure 10 is
parallel path to 2CR through limit switch 2LS on another good example of clamp and work. This
rung 4 creates a holding circuit for relay 2CR. circuit uses mechanical sequence valves to carry
Thus, 2CR stays energized, allowing solenoid B to out the sequencing of clamping with double-
stay energized and cylinder 2 to extend. acting cylinders and “working” (cutting paper)
Nothing electrically will change until cylinder with a rotational hydraulic motor. Although this
2 reaches the end of its stroke. When fully circuit is slightly more mechanical than the
extended, cylinder 2 hits limit switch 2LS, which previous example, the directional control valves
opens it and thus cuts the current to relay coil are solenoid actuated so there is still a need to
2CR. This opens contacts 2CR-A and 2CR-B interact with the electrical side. Also note the
again so that solenoid B is deenergized, allowing clamping is actually done on the retract stroke of

98
®
 Electromechanical Circuits

the cylinders, not the extend stroke (the usual The most recent trend today is to start to
situation) where more force is available. control machine functions with a personal
computer (PC). The PCs are appearing more
RELAYS TO PLC S TO PC S frequently in new injection molding machines as
control elements. In fact, there is considerable
In terms of machine control technology, relay discussion and debate as to whether the PC will
circuitry was the earliest and was followed by the displace the PLC in much of machine automation.
technology known as programmable logic control Some manufacturers are offering a kind of hybrid
(PLC). Since 1985, the PLC has been the machine where the operator interface is PC based
dominant machine control scheme. However, as and the machine control sequencing is run by a
mentioned earlier, the PLC logic is very similar to dedicated PLC.
the ladder diagrams of the relay circuits discussed One major advantage of both PLCs and PCs
here. Thus, studying and understanding relay is the flexibility gained from the ability to
logic first is a good starting point before moving program these systems and thus do a lot in
on to PLC circuits. software rather than hard wiring.

REFERENCES
1. Bateson R.N. (2001), 3rd Ed. Introduction to Control System Technology. Prentice Hall, Pearson Educa-
tion Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
2. Esposito A. (1999), 4th Ed. Fluid Power with Applications. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
3. Keramas J.G. (1999) Robot Technology Fundamentals. Delmar, Albany, NY.
4. Kokernak R.P. (1998), 2nd Ed. Fluid Power Technology. Prentice Hall, Pearson Education, Inc., Upper
Saddle River, NJ.

99
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 10. A clamp and work circuit.

Fluid Power Technology, 2nd Ed. by R.P. Kokernak ©1998.
Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc.,
Upper Saddle River, NJ.

100
®
HYDRAULIC CIRCUITS
PETER EVERTS AND ED ZIMMERMAN

CHAPTER OBJECTIVE direction; however, the principles behind the

hydraulic circuits apply throughout the industry.
For the technician to optimize the
performance, cycle, and consistency of an No matter how large the machine or
injection molding machine operation and to complicated the circuit, it must be broken down
troubleshoot problems, he must understand what into small segments that can then be understood
makes it work. Every movement of the machine is and related to the full circuit in a logical manner.
the result of a hydraulic circuit and the electronic The hydraulics chapter explains the formulas that
controls and feedback devices that affect that govern fluid power and apply to all the
circuit. The circuit print is the “road map” for the movements controlled by the hydraulic circuit.
specific machine that matches the number of the When a mold is changed, it may be necessary
print. The hydraulic and electric technicians must to adjust the hydraulic circuit for the new
have an understanding of how their two parameters dictated by the mold change. The
technologies combine to properly operate each changes required obviously include speed (flow
machine cycle. requirements) and pressure (load/hold-on/dwell,
Understanding the hydraulic circuit will tell etc.) adjustments. Then there are changes to the
you what the machine is capable of and how each machine function that “happen all by themselves”
hydraulic component operates in the circuit and and must be corrected for the new mold by
machine function. The electrical or control circuit making adjustments. This is the critical time for
will tell you how the hydraulics are controlled and the technician to understand what is being
the sequence of operation. The control circuit adjusted and how it will affect the hydraulic
includes pressure switches, transducers, tach performance of the system. When a correct
generators, proximity switches, and linear adjustment is made, a desired improvement
positioners. Understanding the combination of should result. If there is no improvement, or the
these two circuits will enable you to maximize the machine operation change is different from what
performance and efficiency of the machine. was expected, chances are the wrong adjustment
was made. A review of hydraulic fundamentals is
INTRODUCTION recommended.
Note: Because the most complicated Modern plastics injection molding machines
machinery in plastics processing is in injection utilize cartridge valve technology to simplify
molding, the examples may lean strongly in that plumbing, reduce leaks, optimize energy use,

101
Society of Plastics Engineers

improve response and increase production. These

“slip-in” cartridge valves are of sleeve and poppet
design and are incorporated in machined steel
manifold blocks. These blocks typically house the
majority of the hydraulic circuit or circuits. They
are often called P/Q manifolds in that they offer a
complete pressure (P)/flow (Q) demand system
that matches flow (speed) and pressure (force)
requirements to system demand.
Combinations of cartridge valves provide
directional control, pressure control (often
proportional), and flow or speed control for the
entire machine. A single large tonnage machine
may use two or more P/Q blocks for various
separate functions on the machine. It is absolutely
essential that the technician become proficient at Figure 1. Slip-in cartridge valve construction.
reading circuit schematics that incorporate
cartridge valve technology. opening and closing of the cartridge valves in the
circuit are controlled by the directional valve
Slip-in cartridge valves are similar in control of the pilot flow on top (AP) of the
construction to right-angle check valves. Different cartridge poppets. The inserts work in pairs to
covers for control and different ratios of the A area extend and retract the cylinder. With the three-
to the area of the pilot or top of the insert poppet position directional control in the center condition,
are available. The opening and closing of the
pressure is sensed on the tops (AP) of all poppets,
cartridge poppet is affected by the fluid control on
the “B” ports of the two bottom inserts are
top of the poppet at the area of the poppet, X in
connected to tank—no pressure. The cylinder is
Figure 1. The poppet is also held on its seat by a
effectively locked in place because none of the
spring. To open the poppet, pressures and forces at
inserts can open and allow a displacement of fluid
A (or A and B) must be able to overcome spring
and pressure forces on X. Plugs of different orifice to or from either end of the cylinder.
sizes are available to control the opening speed of To extend the cylinder, the three-position
the poppet to “tune out” shock and optimize directional control is shifted to the parallel flow
operation. paths, allowing the top left insert to be
In the drawing, the area of the pilot is the sum depressurized on the “AP.” If the two-position
of the areas of the poppet at the B port and A port. valve is left unshifted, intensified pressure allows
Ratios of cartridge poppets are always given as the the bottom left cartridge to open, causing
area of A to the area of the pilot. The area of B, if regenerative flow and cylinder velocity higher than
there is one, is the difference. For example, the pump output. This condition of the valves creates
poppet in Figure 1 is a 1:1.6 area ratio. The area of a regenerative circuit where the rod end fluid is
the pilot is 1.6, the area of A is always 1.0, thus the directed into the cap end rather than to the tank.
area of B acted on by fluid at the B port is 0.6. Returning the two-position valve to its spring
Typical ratios of cartridge valves are 1:1, 1:1.1, offset condition and shifting the three-position
1:2, and 1:1.6. Other ratios may be available from valve to the crossed flow paths allows the cylinder
specific manufacturers. to retract by depressurizing the top right and
Figure 2 is a typical directional circuit using bottom left inserts while pressurizing the top left
cartridge valves for cylinder reciprocation. The and bottom right inserts.

102
®
 Hydraulic Circuits

Figure 2. Typical four-way cartridge valve circuit.

SCREWS Multispeed Screw Motors

Some machines have hydraulic motors built
Screw Rotation
with two equal-sized displacement sections; these
The screw is turned by the hydraulic motor are often vane-type motors. If each section were
and fills the barrel with pellets. As the barrel fills, the same displacement (e.g., 0.5 gallons per
the screw and injection cylinder are pushed back. revolution), then it would require 1 full gallon to
Two factors determine the shot volume: turn the motor one revolution. If a 60 gallons per
minute (gpm) pump flow were directed to this
1. What is the run time for the motor? motor, the output would be 60 rpm. If the rpm
were less than 60, that would indicate internal
2. What is the rpm of the motor? leakage. There is no loss of pressure/torque, only
lower speed. If the inlet to one section of this
These factors also affect the material temperature
motor were blocked, forcing the 60 gpm to only
and, as a result, are processing decisions.
one section with a displacement of 0.5 gal/
Screw Speed revolution, then the motor speed would be 120
rpm; however, because the displacement is
The maximum rpm is determined by dividing halved, the available torque will be halved. If the
the screw motor displacement in cubic inches per motor had two sections of unequal displacements
revolution (in.3/rev) into the total available pump (e.g., 1/3 gal/revolution and 2/3 gal/revolution)
flow in cubic inches per minute. You must measure then the motor would be capable of three speeds
actual input flow to the motor and measure motor and corresponding torques; that is, each section
slippage via the external case drain. A tach may alone (two selections) or the sections combined
also be used to determine motor speed. (third selection).

103
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

PRESSURE necessarily the control of the process. The critical

Controlling Screw Speed with a Bleed-Off Flow
element of injection is the precise control and
Control repeatability of injection speed. If injection
Screw speed may be controlled by “bleeding pressure should vary, the pressure compensated
off” excess pump output with a flow control; this flow control will maintain the same cylinder
is done to “fine tune” the actual screw speed. speed.

Injection Cylinder Backpressure The set up specification sheet for a mold must
While the screw is turning, the material pushes be written for each machine that the mold is
it and the injection cylinder back; there is a placed in. Trying to get machine A to run at the
pressure control on the outlet of the injection same parameters as machine B is usually a waste
cylinder that creates and regulates the pressure on of time. There may be cases when, after the setup
the oil leaving the cylinder. The resistance to the adjustments are made, problems develop after
cylinder retracting must be overcome by the numerous cycles; these can be caused by
pressure of the material in front of the screw. The variations in temperature, fluid degradation,
amount of backpressure is determined by process excess wear, and so forth. Measuring the operating
considerations and can affect material temperature conditions and comparing them to baseline data
and curing time. Once the optimum backpressure can help isolate the causes of failure.
is decided, the hydraulic system should maintain it
Shifting from Injection High to
consistently. The screw speed has no effect on this Low Pressure
backpressure when controlled by a separate
control valve. If this backpressure adjustment is A common problem with this generation of
made electrically from the control panel, then a machines occurs when the injection pressure is
proportional or servo-actuated pressure control changed from “Injection High” to “Injection
valve is being used. Low.” Sometimes the injection cylinder will
Injection Forward Speed and
actually back up (bounce), and then continue
Pressure forward, causing shock. Pressures are changed by
The injection cylinder is controlled in a using a solenoid valve to shift the pilot oil from
manner very similar to the screw motor; however, one relief valve to another (Inj.High to Inj.Low);
the repeatability and accuracy are extremely this is usually done with a relief valve containing
critical to the process control. Variables that affect two pressure adjustments and a single solenoid
the process are these: that are assembled as one unit. Some older
machines may use separate valves. As the solenoid
• Mold design shifts the spool from one position to another, it
• Shot size crosses over a center position that must have all
ports open to tank (open center). The normal spool
• Injection speed
shift time can be 35-55 milliseconds (msec).
• Material temperature However, if the oil is dirty or there is an
• Mold temperature accumulation of varnish on the spool, spool shift
can be extended, allowing pressures to decay. If
• Nozzle orifice size
the hydraulic pressure drops below the force
If all these factors remain constant, then a requirement of the material being injected, then
consistent injection profile can be maintained. If the injection cylinder will hesitate and can even
the hydraulic system is capable of operating under reverse momentarily, until the injection low
these conditions, setup time should be minimal. pressure is reached again. If separate valves are
There may be changes in some factors that used to change pressures, the problem is usually in
will affect the injection pressure profile but not the timing of the electrical sequencing.

104
®
 Hydraulic Circuits

(Note: With the increased sensitivity of spool to direct the 200-400 gpm pump flow to the
readout transducers on machines since 1990, or if clamp cylinder. With two stage pilot operated
an audit is done on an older machine, there may valves this shift time is about 70 msec; however, on
be a noticeable drop or bounce in pressure from the valve controlling clamp close, the pilot oil goes
Injection High to Injection Low. It is not possible from the solenoid to a safety gate valve, which is
to adjust out the normal shift time of a solenoid. usually a cam-type valve that must be depressed
Do not spend time trying to correct a with the gate being in the closed position. If the
“nonproblem” that does not affect the part.) gate is closed, then pilot oil goes through the safety
gate valve, back to the main stage of the directional
If the injection pressure is controlled with a
valve, to shift the large spool and direct oil to the
proportional or servovalve, an adjustment to the
ramp function of the valve may improve the clamp. If the gate is opened while the clamp is
performance; however, because these types of moving, pilot oil is stopped, causing springs in the
valves are built to tighter tolerances, they are far main stage to shift the spool to a center position,
more sensitive to dirt and varnishing that will stopping flow to the clamp.
cause erratic pressure changes. As the clamp closes at fast speed, it must slow
down just before the mold halves meet. Just before
CLAMP CLOSE AND contact a limit switch, or equivalent device (e.g.,
MOLD PROTECTION proximity switch), will shift from the low pressure
Closing the clamp occurs after the screw and setting to the full clamp pressure relief valve. If a
injection cylinder have retracted and before sprue or part remains between the mold faces, the
injection. On most machines the maximum pump low pressure setting for fast clamp close (300 psi)
volume is used to close the clamp. One reason is will not damage the mold, but it will prevent
that the pressure required to move the mold is closing the mold far enough to make the mold
very low. With a “High-Low” circuit using an protection switch; this will prevent clamp pressure
unloading valve, the high-volume pump is from increasing. A pressure switch must read full
unloaded at about 300 psi; this allows high clamp pressure before the injection sequence can
volume at low pressure, which results in minimal begin. The mold protection switch not only
horsepower load on the electrical motor and protects the mold but also stops the cycle.
maximum closing speed.
Reaching clamp pressure after the mold
Several safety features are built into machines protection sequence has occurred should be
for clamp close. There are mechanical, hydraulic almost instantaneous. If this time suddenly
and electric safeties. When the electric signal is increases or has been unusually long on a
given to the solenoid directional valve, the spool machine, the solution is fairly simple and does not
shifts, directing pilot oil to shift the main stage require replacement parts.
Solenoid S1 S2 S3 S4 S5

Idle 0 0 0 0 0

Inject 0 1 0 0 1

Hold 0 0 1 0 1

Return by extruder motor 1 1 0 0 0

Return rod-end flow 0 0 0 1 0

Table 1. Solenoid truth table.

105
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 3. Typical injection circuit.

CORE PULL AND and determine quickly what components are
EJECTOR CIRCUITS involved. Simply making random adjustments or
The core pull and ejector portion of the component replacement is costly, ineffective, and
machine circuit is often an add-on option or indicative of poor training and a lack of
aftermarket addition. The efficient match of fundamental skills and knowledge.
plumbing and valves to your machine is an For example, in Figure 3, the injection speed is
important consideration. Figure 3 is a typical slow, the cylinder is hot (when compared to
injection circuit. baseline data), and retract is also slow. Pressures
Use the solenoid truth table (Table 1) to “shift” read as desired. The problem is likely a leaking
the directional control valves and determine how piston seal, which could be a result of wear,
pilot pressure affects the cartridge valves and scoring of the cylinder barrel, incorrect assembly
operation of the circuit. Each pressure control of the seals (was the cylinder recently rebuilt?),
(Back psi, Inject, and Hold) would be set to and so forth. If pressure controls were set too low,
machine parameters. The three-position directional causing a loss of fluid over the reliefs at close to
control with solenoids 2 and 3 selects the pressure load requirements, the cylinder would not be hot,
desired for the process at hand. and the relief valve would show a temperature
By developing truth tables and typical cycle anomaly. The cylinder would likely not be slow in
sequences, it is much easier to verify problems retract.

106
®
GLOSSARY

A “shots” and is stored or “accumulated” until the

a-stage—An early stage in the reaction of a plunger is required to deliver the next parison.
thermosetting resin in which the material is still acetal resins—The molecular structure of the
soluble in certain liquids and fusible. See also polymer is that of a linear acetal, consisting of
B-and C-Stage. unbranched polyoxymethylene chains.
ablative plastics—This description applies to a acrylic ester—An ester of acrylic acid, or of a
material which absorbs heat (while part of it is structural derivative of acrylic acid, e.g., methyl
being consumed by heat) through a decompo- methacrylate.
sition process known as pyrolysis, which takes acrylic resin—A synthetic resin prepared from
place in the near surface layer exposed to heat. acrylic acid or from a derivative of acrylic acid.
abrasive wear—Wear caused by contact of hard acrylonitrile—A monomer with the structure (CH2
particles that move while they’re forced against a =CHCN). It is most useful in copolymers. Its
surface, such as a screw or barrel. copolymer with butadiene is nitrile rubber, and
absolute viscosity—Of a fluid, the tangential force several copolymers with styrene exist that are
on unit area of either of two parallel planes at unit tougher than polystyrene. It is also used as a
distance apart when the space between the planes synthetic fiber and as a chemical intermediate.
is filled with the fluid in question and one of the acrylontrile-butadiene styrene
planes moves with unit differential velocity in its (abbreviated ABS)—Acyrlontrile and styrene liquids
own plane. and butadiene gas are polymerized together in a
The C.G.S. unit for absolute (or dynamic) variety of ratios to produce the family of ABS
viscosity is the poise (dyne-sec./sq.cm.). The resins.
centipoise (0.01 poise) is often used. adapter—In an extruder, the portion of the die
absorptance—That fraction of radiant energy that is assembly that attaches the die to the extruder and
retained by the sheet. provides a flow channel for the molten plastic
accelerator —A substance that hastens a reaction, between the extruder and the die.
particularly one which speeds up the vulcanization addition polymerization—Polymerization in which
of rubber. Also known as promoter. monomers are linked together without the splitting
accumulator—A term used mainly with reference to off of water or other simple molecules.
blow molding equipment which designates an additive —Anything compounded into a polymer to
auxiliary ram extruder which is used to provide modify its characteristics, such as flame
extremely fast parison delivery. The accumulator retardants, pigments, etc.
cylinder is filled with plasticated melt coming adiabatic—An adjective used to describe a process or
from the extruder between parison deliveries or transformation in which no heat is added to or

1
Society of Plastics Engineers

allowed to escape from the system under aliphatic hydrocarbons—Saturated hydrocarbons

consideration. It is used, somewhat incorrectly, to having an open chain structure. Familiar examples:
describe a mode of extrusion in which no external gasoline and propane.
heat is added to the extruder although heat may be alkyd resin—Polyester resins made with some fatty
removed by cooling to keep the output temperature acid as a modifier. See polyester, fatty acid.
of the melt passing through the extruder constant. alkyl—A general term for monovalent aliphatic
The heat input in such a process is developed by hydrocarbon radicals.
the screw as its mechanical energy is converted to
alloy—Composite material made up by blending
thermal energy.
polymers or copolymers with other polymer or
adhesion promoter—A coating which is applied to elastomers under selected conditions, e.g., styrene-
the substrate before it is extrusion coated with the acrylonitrile copolymer resins blended with
plastic and which improves the adhesion of the butadiene-acrylonitrile rubbers.
plastic to the substrate. allyl resin—A synthetic resin formed by the
adhesive—A substance which applied as an polymerization of chemical compounds containing
intermediate is capable of holding materials the group CH2=CH-CH2-. The principal
together by surface attachment. commercial allyl resin is a casting material that
adhesive wear—Wear resulting from metal-to-metal yields allyl carbonate polymer.
contact such as screw flights and the inside of a alpha-cellulose—A very pure cellulose prepared by
barrel. special chemical treatment.
adsorption—The adhesion of the molecules of gases, amino—Indicates the presence of an –NS2 or –NH
dissolved substances, or liquids in more or less group.
concentrated form to the surfaces of solids or amorphous phase—Devoid of crystallinity—no
liquids with which they are in contact. definite order. At processing temperatures, the
affinity—The attraction for another substance. plastic is normally in the amorphous state.
amorphous polymer—A polymer having no
aging—The change of a material with time under
crystallinity. Polystyrene is an amorphous
defined environmental conditions, leading to
polymer, while HDPE is semicrystalline.
improvement or deterioration of properties.
amps—Amperes, a measure of electrical current flow.
air-assist forming—A method of thermoforming
It is significant on extruders because the barrel and
q.v., in which air flow or air pressure is employed die heaters must produce a certain amount of heat,
to partially preform the sheet immediately prior to and use a certain amount of electric current to do it.
the final pulldown onto the mold using vacuum. If they are faulty, the AMPS reading will be lower.
air gap—In extrusion coating, the distance from the The result could be processing or part quality
die opening to the nip formed by the pressure roll problems.
and the chill roll. angle press—A hydraulic molding press equipped
air ring—A circular manifold used to distribute an with horizontal and vertical rams, and specially
even flow of the cooling medium, air, onto a designed for the production of complex moldings
hollow tubular form passing through the center of containing deep undercuts.
the ring. In blown tubing, the air cools the tubing aniline—C6 H5 NH2. An important organic base made
uniformly to provide uniform film thickness. by reacting chlorobenzene with aqueous ammonia
air-slip forming—A variation of snap-back forming in the presence of a catalyst. It is used in the
in which the male mold is enclosed in a box in production of aniline formaldehyde resins, e.g.,,
such a way that when the mold moves forward and in the manufacture of certain rubber
toward the hot plastic, air is trapped between the accelerators and antioxidants.
mold and the plastic sheet. As the mold advances, aniline formaldehyde resins—Members of the
the plastic is kept away from it by the air cushion aminoplastics family made by the condensation of
formed as described above, until the full travel of formaldehyde and aniline in an acid solution. The
the mold is reached, at which point a vacuum is resins are thermoplastic and used to a limited
applied, destroying the cushion and forming the extent in the production of molded and laminated
part against the plug. insulating materials. Products made from these

2
®
 Glossary

resins have high dielectric strength and good cable. Braided armor is sometimes used in lieu of
chemical resistance. solid armor for improved flexibility.
anisotropy—The situation where properties vary aromatic hydrocarbons—Hydrocarbons derived
according to the direction in which they are from or characterized by presence of unsaturated
measured. resonant ring structures.
annealing—A process of holding a material at a artificial ageing—The accelerated testing of plastics
temperature near, but below, its melting point, the specimens to determine their changes in
objective being to permit stress relaxation without properties. Carried out over a short period of time,
distortion of shape. It is often used on molded such tests are indicative of what may be expected
articles to relieve stresses set up by flow into the of a material under service conditions over
mold. extended periods. Typical investigations include
anti-friction compounds—Materials specifically those for dimensional stability; the effect of
formulated to reduce or eliminate friction. immersion in water, chemicals and solvents; light
antioxidants—Substance which prevents or slow stability and resistance to fatigue.
down oxidation of material exposed to air. artificial weathering—Exposure to cyclic laboratory
antistatic agents—Methods of minimizing static conditions involving changes in temperature,
electricity in plastics materials. Such agents are of relative humidity and radiant energy, with or
two basics types: (1) metallic devices which come without direct water spray, in an attempt to
into contact with the plastics and conduct the produce changes in the material similar to those
static to earth. Such devices give complete observed after long-term continuous outdoor
neutralization at the time, but because they do not exposure.
modify the surface of the material it can become asbestos—A gray, non-burning, non-conducting and
prone to further static during subsequent handling; chemical resistant amphibole occurring in long
(2) chemical additives which, mixed with the fibers or fibrous masses, sometimes used as a filler
compound during processing, give a reasonable for reinforcement.
degree of protection to the finished products. ASTM—Abbreviation of American Society for Testing
apparent shear rate—The shear rate determined in and Materials, an association for establishing
capillary viscometers without making a correction standard testing and reporting procedures.
(Rabinowitsch) for shear thinning. It turns out that atactic—A chain of molecules in which the position
the apparent shear rate is equal to 4Q/πR3 where of the methyl groups is more or less random.
Q is the volumetric flow rate (m3/s) and R is the
autoclave—(1) Closed strong vessel for conducting
radius (m) of the capillary.
chemical reactions under high pressure; (2) in
apparent viscosity —The viscosity determined in low-pressure laminating, a round or cylindrical
capillary viscometry without making a correction container in which heat and gas pressure can be
(Rabinowitsch) for shear thinning. The apparent applied to a resin impregnated paper or fabric
viscosity is equal to the shear stress divided by the positioned in layers over a mold.
apparent shear rate, which is
autoclave molding—Modification of the pressure
∆P bag method for molding reinforced plastics. After
------- R
2L lay-up, entire assembly is placed in stream
-------------------
4Q autoclave at 50 to 100 psi. Additional pressure
----------
3
πR achieves higher reinforcement loadings and
where ∆P is the pressure drop (Pa), Q is the improved removal of air.
volumetric flow rate (m3/s), L is the length and R automatic mold—A mold for injection or
is the radius of the capillary die. compression molding that repeatedly goes through
arc resistance—Time required for a given electrical the entire cycle, including ejection , without
current to render the surface of a material human assistance.
conductive because of carbonization by the arc average molecular weight (viscosity method)—
flame. The molecular weight of polymeric materials
armor—A solid or braided metal jacket for imparting determined by the viscosity of the polymer in
maximum abrasion resistance to the completed solution at a specific temperature. This gives an

3
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

average molecular weight of the molecular chains Hendrik Baekeland (1863-1944), a Belgian who,
in the polymer independent of specific chain through his work on synthesis of phenolic resins
length. Falls between weight average and number and their commercial development in the early
average molecular weight. 1900’s, is generally considered to be the “father”
of the plastics industry.
B ball check—A specific design type of non-return
B-stage—An intermediate stage in the reaction of a valve which accomplishes its job by using a ball
thermosetting resin in which the material softens which allows the material to flow in one direction,
when heated and swells in contact with certain but restricts the flow in the other.
liquids but does not entirely fuse or dissolve.
Banbury—An apparatus for compounding materials
Resins in thermosetting molding compounds are
composed of a pair of contra-rotating rotors which
usually in this stage. See also A-stage and C-stage.
masticate the materials to form a homogeneous
backing plate (support plate)—In injection blend. This is an internal type mixer which
molding, a plate used as a support for the cavity produces excellent mixing.
blocks, guide pins, bushings, etc.
barrel—An integral part of a plastic processing
back pressure—In injection molding, the pressure operation since it is used to convey material, via a
exerted by the hydraulic system behind the screw or other device, toward the tooling involved
injection piston to resist the force of the plastic in in the process. Barrels usually comprise the
pushing the screw back to the shot size position. external barrel and a liner which is typically made
Back pressure results in more mechanical energy from bimetallic materials. Also, barrels are
being put into the plastic. In extrusion, the normally fitted with heater bands or cooling
resistance to the forward flow of molten material. devices.
baffle—A device used to restrict or divert the passage barrier screw—A screw in a plastics processing
of fluid through a pipeline or channel. In hydraulic machine which has alternating flights of two
systems the device, which often consists of a disc different diameters to separate solid from melted
with a small central perforation, that restricts the polymer.
flow of hydraulic fluid in a high pressure line. A
common location for the disc is in a joint in the benzene ring—The basic structure of benzene, the
line. When applied to molds, the term is indicative most important aromatic chemical. It is an
of a plug or similar device located in a stream or unsaturated, resonant 6-carbon ring having three
water channel in the mold and designed to divert double bonds. One or more of the 6 hydrogen
and restrict the flow to a desired path. atoms of benzene may be replaced by other atoms
or groups.
bag molding—A method of applying pressure during
bonding or molding, in which a flexible cover, beta gage (or beta-ray gage)—A gage consisting of
usually in connection with a rigid die or mold, two facing elements, a B-ray-emitting source and a
exerts pressure on the material being molded, B-ray detector. When a sheet material is passed
through the application of air pressure or drawing between the elements, some of the B-rays are
of a vacuum. absorbed, the percent absorbed being a measure of
the areal density or the thickness of the sheet.
Bagley correction—A term used in capillary
viscometry to describe the excess pressure drop in biaxial deformation—Stretching in two directions.
the entrance to the capillary due to extensional billow—Prestretching sheet by inflation with air
(elongational) viscosity. It is usually negligible pressure.
when very long capillaries are used (i.e. L/D > 35). bimetallic liner—A liner which is centrifugally cast
If shorter capillaries are used, the viscosity and made of two or more metals.
measurement errors may be 10%–30% or even
higher. binder—In a reinforced plastic, the continuous phase
which holds together the reinforcement.
Bakelite—The proprietary name for phenolic and
other plastics materials produced by Bakelite black body—A body that emits the maximum amount
Limited, but often used indiscriminately to of radiant energy at a given wavelength.
describe any phenolic molding material or blanking—The cutting of flat sheet stock to shape by
molding. The name is derived from that of Dr. Leo striking it sharply with a punch while it is

4
®
 Glossary

supported on a mating die. Punch presses are used. locating of the container in a printing of labeling
Also called die cutting. machine. See lug
bleed—To give up color when in contact with water bore—The inside diameter of a barrel.
or a solvent; undesired movement of certain
boss—Protuberance on a plastic part designed to add
materials in a plastic (e.g. plasticizers in vinyl) to
strength, to facilitate alignment during assembly,
the surface of the finished article or into an
to provide for fastening, etc.
adjacent material. Also called migration.
boston round—A particular shape of container;
blend—An intimate combination of two or more
cross section as well as shoulders are round.
polymer chains having different features that are
not bonded to each other. bottom blow—A specific type of blow molding
blister—A raised area on the surface of a molding machine which forms hollow articles by injecting
caused by the pressure of gases inside it on its the blowing air into the parison from the bottom of
incompletely hardened surface. the mold.
block copolymer—An essentially linear copolymer bottom plate—Part of the mold which contains the
in which there are repeated sequences of heel radius and the push-up.
polymeric segments of different chemical branched—In molecular structure of polymers (as
structure. opposed to linear), refers to side chains attached
blocking—An undesired adhesion between touching to the main chain. Side chains may be long or
layers of a material, such as occurs under short.
moderate pressure during storage or usage. branched polymers—Polymers can be classified as
bloom—A visible exudation or efflorescence on the linear or branched. Linear polymers have the
surface of a material. monomeric units linked together, linearly, with
blow molding—A method of fabrication in which a little or no long chain branching. In branched
parison (hollow tube) is forced into the shape of polymers, side chains are attached to the
the mold cavity by internal air pressure. molecular chain backbone. High-density
blow pressure—The air pressure used to form a polyethylene (HDPE) is linear, while low-density
hollow part by blow molding. polyethylene (LDPE) contains both short and long
blow rate—The speed at which the air enters the chain branches. Linear LDPE (LLDPE) is a
parison during the blow molding cycle. copolymer with controlled short chain branches.
This results in polymer that is "stiffer" than LDPE
blowing agents—See foaming agents.
in shear but "softer" in extension. In extension the
blowup ratio—In blow molding, the ratio of the mold LLDPE chains slide by without getting entangled
cavity diameter to the parison diameter. In blown since the chain branches are very short.
tubing (film), the ratio of the final tube diameter
breakdown voltage—The voltage required, under
(before gusseting, if any) to the original die
diameter. specific conditions, to cause the failure of an
insulating material. See dielectric strength.
blown tubing—The thermoplastic film which is
produced by extruding a tube, applying a slight breaker plate—A perforated plate located at the rear
internal pressure to the tube to expand it while still end of an extruder head. It often supports the
molten and subsequent cooling to set the tube. The screens that prevent foreign particles from
tube is then flattened through guides and wound entering the die.
up flat on rolls. The size of blown tubing is breathing—The opening and closing of a mold to
determined by the flat width in inches as wound allow gases to escape early in the molding cycle.
rather than by the diameter as in the case of rigid Also called degassing. When referring to plastic
types of tubing. sheeting, “breathing” indicates permeability to air.
blueing—A mold blemish in the form of a blue oxide bubbler mold cooling (injection molding)—A
film which occurs on the polished surface of a method of cooling an injection mold in which a
mold as a result of the use of abnormally high stream of cooling liquid flows continuously into a
mold temperatures. cooling cavity equipped with a coolant outlet
blunt thread start—The thread design where the normally positioned at the end opposite the inlet.
start of a thread has been squared off for the exact Uniform cooling can be achieved in this manner.

5
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

bulk density—The mass per unit volume of a molding resins in a fully cured plastids are in this stage. See
powder as determined in a reasonably large A-stage and B-stage.
volume. The recommended test method is ASTM cable—A standard conductor; or a group of solid or
D1182-54. standard conductors laid together but insulated
bulk factor—Ratio of the volume of loose molding from one another.
powder to the volume of the same weight of resin calender—(v.) To prepare sheets of material by
after molding. pressure between two or more counter-rotating
burning behavior—The characteristics exhibited by rolls. (n) – the machine performing this action.
the substance when it ignites and burns. capillary viscometer—An instrument used to
burning rate—A term describing the tendency of measure polymer melt viscosity. It consists of a
plastics articles to burn at given temperatures. heated reservoir used to melt the polymer, which is
Certain plastics, such as those based on shellac, subsequently pushed by a piston and flows through
burn readily at comparatively low temperatures. a 1-mm- to 2-mm-diameter round die. From the
Others will melt or disintegrate without actually force required to move the piston and the
burning, or will burn only if exposed to direct corresponding volumetric flow rate, the viscosity
flame. These latter are often referred to as self- can be determined. The Rabinowitsch correction is
extinguishing. necessary to account for the shear thinning effects
bushing (extrusion)—The outer ring of any type of a and the Bagley correction to account for the excess
circular tubing or pipe die which forms the outer pressure drop at the die entrance (see rabinowitsch
surface of the tube or pipe. correction and bagley correction).
caprolactam—A cyclic amidetype compound,
butadiene—CH2 =CH− CH=CH2 . A gas, insoluble in
water but soluble in alcohol and ether, obtained containing 6 carbon atoms. When the ring is
from the cracking of petroleum, from coal tar opened, caprolactam is polymerizable into a nylon
benzene or from acetylene produced from coke and resin known as type-6 nylon or polycaprolactam.
lime. It is widely used in the formation of carbon black—A black pigment produced by the
copolymers with styrene, acrylonitrile, vinyl incomplete burning of natural gas or oil. It is
chloride and other monomeric substances, where it widely used as a filler, particularly in the rubber
imparts flexibility to the subsequent moldings. industry. Because it possesses useful ultraviolet
protective properties, it is also much used in
butadiene styrene plastics—A synthetic resin
polyethylene compounds intended for such
derived from the copolymerization of butadiene
applications as cold water piping and black
gas and styrene liquids.
agricultural sheet.
butt-fusion—A method of joining pipe, sheet, or other
Carreau model—A mathematical expression
similar forms of a thermoplastic resin wherein the
describing the shear thinning behavior of
ends of the two pieces to be joined are heated to the
polymers. It is more realistic than the power-law
molten state and then rapidly pressed together to
model because it fits the data very well at both high
form a homogeneous bond.
and low shear rates. n–1
buttress thread—A type of threading in which the ------------
. 2 2
thread sides terminate abruptly in threading η = η0 ( 1 + ( λ γ ) )
.
gradually tapering down to the neck finish. where: η0, λ, n are curve fitting parameters and γ
Designed to withstand maximum force in one is the shear rate. Because of the mathematical
direction only. Cross section of thread is triangular. complexities it is not possible to obtain analytical
butylene plastics—Plastics based on resins made by solutions with this model, but it is excellent for
the polymerization of butene or copolymerization numerical simulations of flow processes.
by butene with one or more unsaturated casein—A protein material precipitated from
compounds, the butene being in greatest amount skimmed milk by the action of either rennet or
by weight. dilute acid. Rennet casein finds its main
C-stage—The final stage in the reactions of a application in the manufacture of plastics. Acid
thermosetting resin in which the material is casein is a raw material used in a number of
relatively insoluble and infusible. Thermosetting industries including the manufacture of adhesives.

6
®
 Glossary

cast—(1) To form a “plastic” object by pouring a fluid from cotton linters. All three available hydroxyl
monomer-polymer solution into an open mold groups in each glucose unit of the cellulose can be
where it finishes polymerizing. (2) Forming acetylated but inn the material normally used for
plastic film and sheet pouring the liquid resin onto plastics it is usual to acetylate fully and then to
a moving belt or by precipitation in a chemical lower the acetyl value (expressed as acetic acid) to
bath. 52-56% by partial hydrolysis. When compounded
cast film—A film made by depositing a layer of with suitable plasticizers it gives a tough
plastic, either molten in solution, or in a thermoplastic material.
dispersion, onto a surface, solidifying and cellulose acetate butyrate—A ester of cellulose
removing the film from the surface. made by the action of a mixture of acetic and
casting (n.)—The finished product of a casting butyric acids and their anhydrides on purified
operation; should not be used for molding, e.g., cellulose. It is used in the manufacture of plastics
casting area—The moldable area of a thermoplastic which are similar in general properties to cellulose
in square inches for a given thickness and under a acetate but are tougher and have better moisture
given set of injection molding conditions. Casting resistance and dimensional stability.
area is a measure of flow under actual molding cellulose ester—A derivative a cellulose in which
conditions where flow is unrestricted by cavity the free hydroxyl groups attached to the cellulose
boundaries. chain have been replaced wholly or in part by
catalyst—A substance which markedly speeds ups acetic groups, e.g., nitrate, acetate, or stearate
the cure of a compound when added in minor groups. Esterification is effected by the use of a
quantity as compared to the amounts of primary mixture of an acid with its anhydride in the
reactants. See hardner, inhibitor, promoter. presence of a catalyst, such as sulfuric acid. Mixed
esters of cellulose, e.g., cellulose acetyate
cavity—Depression in a mold made by casting,
butyrate, are prepared by the use of mixed acids
machinery, hobbing, or a combination of these
and mixed anhydrides. Esters and mixed esters, a
methods; depending on number of such
wide range of which is known differ in their
depressions, molds are designed as single-cavity
compatibility with plasticizers, in molding
or multi-cavity.
properties, and in physical characteristics. These
cell—A small particle or completely enclosed cavity. esters and mixed esters are used in the
cell (closed)—A cell totally enclosed by its walls and manufacture of thermoplastic molding
hence not interconnecting with other cells. (See compositions.
cell and cell, open).
cellulose nitrate (Nitrocellulose)—A nitric acid
cell (open)—A cell not totally enclosed by its walls ester of cellulose manufactured by the action of a
and hence interconnecting with other cells. (See mixture of sulfuric acid and nitric acid on
cell and cell, closed). cellulose, such as purified cotton linters. The type
cellular plastics—Plastics containing numerous of cellulose nitrate used for celluloid manufacture
small cavities (cells), interconnecting or not usually contains 10.8-11.1% of nitrogen. The
distributed throughout the mass. latter figure is the nitrogen content of dinitrate.
celluloid—A thermoplastic material made by the cellulose propionate—An ester of cellulose made
intimate blending of cellulose nitrate with by the action of propionic acid and its anhydride
camphor. Alcohol is normally employed as a on purified cellulose. It is used as the basis of a
volatile solvent to assist plasticization, and is thermoplastic molding material.
subsequently removed. cellulose triacetate—A cellulose material made by
cellulose—A natural high polymeric carbohydrate reacting purified cellulose with acetic anhydride in
found in most plants; the main constituent of dried the presence of a catalyst. It is used in the form of
woods, jute, flax, hemp, ramie, etc. Cotton is film and fibers. Films and sheet are cast from clear
almost pure cellulose. solutions on to “drums” with highly polished
cellulose acetate—An acetic acid ester of cellulose. surfaces. The film, which is of excellent clarity,
It is obtained by the action, under rigidly has high tensile strength, and good heat resistance
controlled conditions, of acetic acid and acetic and dimensional stability. Applications include
anhydride on purified cellulose usually obtained book jackets, magnetic recording tapes, and

7
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

various types of packaging. Cellulose triacetate chill roll—A cored roll, usually temperature controlled
sheet has somewhat similar properties to those of with circulating water, which cools the web before
the film and is used to make such articles as safety winding. For chill roll (cast) film, the surface of the
goggles. Map wallets and transparent covers of roll is highly polished. In extrusion coating, either
may kinds. a polished or a matte surface may be used
center gated mold—An injection mold wherein the depending on the surface desired on the finished
cavity is filled with resin through an orifice coating.
interconnecting the nozzle and the center of the chill roll extrusion (or cast film extrusion)—The
cavity area. Normally, this orifice is located at the extruded film is cooled while being drawn around
bottom of the cavity when forming items such as two or more highly polished chill rolls cored for
containers, tumblers, bowls, etc. water cooling for exact temperature control.
centrifugal casting—A method of forming chlorinated polyether—The polymer is obtained
thermoplastic resins in which the granular resin is from pentaerythritol by preparing a chlorinated
placed in a rotatable container, heated to a molten oxetane and polymerizing it to a polyether by
condition by the transfer of heat through the walls means of opening the ring structure.
of the container, and rotated so that the centrifugal choked neck—Narrowed or constricted opening in
force induced will force the molten resin to the neck of a container.
conform to the configuration of the interior surface
chlorinated polyvinyl chloride plastics—Plastics
of the container. Used to fabricate large diameter
based on chlorinated polyvinyl chloride in which
pipes and similar cylindrical items.
the chlorinated polyvinyl chloride is in the greatest
chain length—see degree of polymerization. amount by weight.
chalking—A powdery residue on the surface of a chlorofluorocarbon plastics—Plastics based on
material often resulting from degradation. polymers made with monomers composed of
channel (screw)—The space between the flights chlorine, fluorine, and carbon only.
within which the plastic flows. chromium plating—An electrolytic process that
channel depth—The radial distance from the screw deposits a hard film of chromium metal onto
root diameter to the barrel bore. working surfaces of other metals where resistance
channel volume—The total amount of volume within
to corrosion, abrasion, and/or erosion is needed.
one complete revolution between the screw and CIL (flow test)—A method of determining the
barrel. The total channel volume would include all rheology of flow properties of thermoplastic resins
of the volume from one end to the other end of the developed by Canadian Industries Limited. In this
screw. test, the amount of the molten resin which is forced
through a specified size orifice per unit time when
charge—The measurement of weight of material used
a specified, variable force is applied gives a relative
to load a mold at one time or during one cycle.
indication of the flow properties of various resins.
chase—An enclosure of any shape, used to (a) shrink-
circuit—In filament winding, the winding produced by
fit parts of a mold cavity in place; (b) prevent
a single revolution of mandrel or form.
spreading or distortion in hobbing; (c) enclose an
assembly of two or more parts of a split cavity clamping plate—A plate fitted to a mold and used to
block. fasten the mold to a molding machine.
check ring—A non-return valve in which the material clamping pressure—In injection molding and in
flow is controlled by activating a ring which allows transfer molding, the pressure which is applied to
flow when pushed into the forward position and the mold to keep it closed, in opposition to the fluid
then inhibits flow when seated as the screw goes pressure of the compressed molding material.
forward. clarifier—An additive that increases the transparency
chemically foamed polymeric material—A cellular of a material.
material in which the cells are formed by gases clearance—A controlled distance by which one part
generated from thermal decomposition or other of an object is kept separated from another part.
chemical reaction. coalesce—To combine into one body or to grow
chill mark—A surface blemish on a formed part. together.

8
®
 Glossary

coating—See specific type of coating such as curtain, compounding—The compounding process adds
extrusion, kiss-roll spray. other materials to polymers to make them fit for
coating weight—The weight of coating per unit area. use. Compounds can be made by mechanical (dry)
In the United States usually “per ream,” i.e., 500 blending or melt state blending.
sheets 24”x36” (3000 sq. ft.), but sometimes 1000 compression mold—A mold which is open when
sq ft. the material is introduced and which shapes the
coefficient of expansion—The fractional change in material by heat and by the pressure of closing.
length (sometimes volume, specified) of a material
compression molding—A technique of thermoset
for a unit change in temperature. Values for
molding in which the molding compound
plastics range from 0.01 to 0.2 mils/in/°C.
(generally preheated) is placed in the open mold
coefficient of friction—A measure of the resistance cavity, mold is closed, and heat and pressure (in
to sliding of one surface in contact with another. the form of a downward moving ram) are applied
Low values mean easy sliding. The coefficient of until the material has cured.
friction of a packed bed of plastic pellets on a
polished screw surface is around 0.25, and about compression ratio—In single-screw extruders the
0.4 on the barrel (rougher) surface. Pressure, channel depth in the solids-conveying zone under
temperature and surface characteristics affect the the hopper is much larger than in the metering
value of the coefficient of friction. (pumping) zone. The depth ratio, usually in the
range of 2.0–4.0, is referred to as the compression
co-extrusion—The process used to form a multilayer
ratio. The low bulk density solid polymer bed is
structure from two or more polymers.
compressed as it is forced to go through a
Cogswell’s method—An approximate method gradually decreasing depth and melts as it is
extensional viscosity measurement. It uses the sheared against the barrel wall.
excess pressure drop value in the die entrance (i.e.
from the Bagley Correction). Reproducible compression strength—Crushing load at the failure
measurements are usually possible in the of a specimen divided by the original sectional
elongation (extension, or stretch) rate range of area of the specimen.
5 s-1 to 50 s-1. compression zone—The second zone in an extruder
cold flow—See creep. screw. It receives material from the feed zone and
cold molding—A procedure in which a composition delivers it to the metering zone. It is sometimes
is shaped at room temperature and cured by referred to as the melting zone.
subsequent baking. computer-aided design—Computer design of part
cold slug—The first material to enter an injection wall thickness using geometry or FEM (Finite
mold; so called because in passing through the Element Method). Also known as CAD.
sprue orifice it is cooled below the effective concentricity—For a container, the shape in which
molding temperature. various cross sections have a common center.
cold slug well—Space provided directly opposite the
condensation—A chemical reaction in which two or
sprue opening in an injection mold to trap the cold
more molecules combine with the separation of
slug.
water or some other simple substance. If a
cold stretch—Pulling operation, usually on extruded polymer is formed, the condensation process is
filaments, to improve tensile properties. called polycondensation. See also polymerization.
collapse—Contraction of the walls of a container,
condensation resin—A resin formed by
e.g., upon cooling, leading to a permanent
polycondensation, e.g., the alkyd, phenolaldehyde,
indentation.
and urea formaldehyde resins.
commodity resin—High-volume, low-priced resins
like polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), conditioning—The subjection of a material to a
styrene (PS, etc), acrylic (PMMA), vinyl (PVC stipulated treatment so that it will respond in a
etc.). uniform way to subsequent testing processing.
compound—An intimate admixture of (a) polymer(s) The term is frequently used to refer to the
with all the materials necessary for the finished treatment given to specimens before testing.
product. conduction—Energy transfer by direct solid contact.

9
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

conductor—A wire, or combination of wires not core—(1) The central member of a sandwich
insulated from each other, suitable for carrying construction (can be honeycomb material, foamed
electricity. plastic, or solid sheet) to which the faces of the
cone and plate instrument (also called the sandwich are attached; the central member of a
Weissenberg Rheogoniometer)—A device to plywood assembly (2) A channel in a mold for
measure viscosity by determining the torque circulation of heat-transfer media. (3) Part of a
necessary to rotate a cone over a flat plate with complex mold that molds undercut parts. Cores are
molten polymer in between. The angle is very usually withdrawn to one side before the main
small so that the rotational flow is nearly parallel. sections of the mold open. Also called core pin.
The device can also be used to determine the (first) core drill—A device for making cooling channels in a
normal stress difference by measuring the normal mold.
force tending to separate the cone from the plate corona treatment—Surface treatment of plastic parts
surface (see normal stresses). by exposing them to an electrical corona discharge
consistency index—In the power-law viscosity to increase their receptivity to inks, paints and
model η = m ⋅ γ& n− 1 , which describes the adhesives.
reduction of viscosity as the shear rate increases corrective—What must be done when a problem has
(shear thinning), m is the consistency index (which already occurred. It usually includes finding a way
is a function of temperature). It corresponds to the to keep it from happening again.
viscosity value when the shear rate = 1 s-1.
corona resisitance—A current passing through a
contact pressure resins—Liquid resins which conductor induces a surrounding electrostatic field.
thicken or resinify on heating and, when used for When voids exist in the insulation near the
bonding laminates, require little or no pressure. conductor, the high voltage electrostatic field may
contamination —The accidental mixing of dirt, other ionize and rapidly accelerate some of the air
plastics, trash, or other such materials into clean molecules in the void. These ions can then collide
plastic raw materials. It usually occurs during with the other molecules, ionizing them, and
material handling, which includes storage, mixing, thereby “eating” a hole in the insulation.
blending, and material changeover. Resistance to this process is called corona
continuous thread—A spiral, protruding finish on resistance.
the neck of a container to hold a screw-type corrosion resistance—The ability to withstand the
closure. effect of oxidation.
convection—Energy transfer by moving or flowing corrosive wear—Wear that results from components
fluids. being attacked by acids or other corrosive agents
convergent die—A die in which the internal channels produced in plastics processing.
leading to the orifice are converging (only couette flow—See drag flow.
applicable to dies for hollow bodies). cover—In wire coating, a coating whose primary
conveyor—A mechanical device to transport material purpose is to “weather proof” or to prevent casual
from one point to another, often continuously. grounding (such as contact with a wet tree branch),
cooling channels—Channels or passageways located or to otherwise protect a conductor.
within the body of a mold through which a cooling crater—A small, shallow surface imperfection.
medium can be circulated to control temperature crazing—Fine cracks which may extend in a network
on the mold surface. on or under the surface or through a layer of a
cooling fixture—Block of metal or wood holding the plastic material.
shape of a molded piece which is used to maintain Cox-Merz rule—Frequency, instead of (steady)
the proper shape or dimensional accuracy of a viscosity measurements in a capillary and/or a
molding after it is removed from the mold until it is cone-and-plate instrument, dynamic measurements
cool enough to retain its shape without further are performed (more easily) by applying a
appreciable distortion. Also known as shrink sinusoidal deformation in the cone-and-plate. The
fixture. cox-merz rule states that the (steady) viscosity
copolymer—Two monomers polymerized together to versus shear rate curve is virtually identical to the
form a polymer. dynamic viscosity versus frequency curve. It is

10
®
 Glossary

valid for most common polymers. Since it is easier crystallinity—A state of molecular structure in some
to get the dynamic data over a very wide range of resins which demotes uniformity and compactness
frequencies, it is used extensively in industry. of the molecular chains forming the polymer.
creep—The dimensional change with time of a Normally can be attributed to the formation of
material under load, following the initial solid crystals having a definite geometric form.
instantaneous elastic deformation. Creep at room cull—Material remaining in a transfer chamber after
temperature is sometimes called cold flow. mold has been filled. Unless there is a slight
creeping flow—Flow at very low Reynolds Number excess in the charge, the operator cannot be sure
i.e. Re << 1, where the dimensionless Reynolds the cavity is filled. Charge is generally regulated to
number is defined as: control thickness of cull.
D ( Diameter ) × ρ ( Density ) × υ ( Velocity ) cure—To change the properties of a polymeric system
Re = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
µ ( Vis cos ity ) into a more stable, usable condition by the use of
From Fluid Mechanics, it is known that when Re heat, radiation, or reaction with chemical
is more than 2100, the flow is turbulent, and below additives. Note: Cure may be accomplished, for
2100, the flow is laminar. Molten polymer flows example, by removal of solvent or cross-linking.
through channels and process equipment usually cure cycle—The schedule of time periods at specified
occur at Re = 10-4–10-2, that is, under creeping conditions to which a reacting thermosetting
flow conditions. The creeping flow assumption material is subjected to reach a specified property
implies that the fluid inertia is negligible. level.
crosshead (extrusion)—A device generally curing temperature—Temperature at which a cast,
employed in wire coating which is attached to the molded, or extruded product, a resin-impregnated
discharge end of the extruder cylinder, designed to reinforcing material, an adhesive, etc., is subjected
facilitate extruding material at an angle. Normally, to curing.
this is a 90 degree angle to the longitudinal axis of cure time—The period of time that a reacting
the screw. thermosetting material is exposed to specific
cross laminate—A laminate in which some of the conditions to reach a specified property level.
layers of material are oriented approximately at curling—A condition in which the parison curls
right angles to the remaining layers with respect to upwards and outwards, sticking to the outer face
the grain or strongest direction in tension. of the die ring. Balance of temperatures between
cross-linking—Applied to polymer molecules, the die and mandrel will normally relieve this
setting-up of chemical links between the problem.
molecular chains. When extensive, as in most curtain coating—A method of coating which may be
thermosetting resins, cross-linking makes one employed with low viscosity resins or solutions,
infusible super-molecule of all the chains. suspensions, or emulsions of resins in which the
Cross model—A mathematical expression substrate to be coated is passed through and
describing the shear thinning behavior of perpendicular to a freely falling liquid “curtain”
polymers. It is more realistic than the power-law (or “waterfall”). The flow rate of the falling liquid
model because it fits the data very well at both and the linear speed of the substrate passing
high and low shear rates. through the curtain are coordinated in accordance
η0 with the thickness of the coating desired.
η = ------------------------------ -
. 1–n curvature—A condition in which the parison is not
1 + (λγ )
. straight, but somewhat bending and shifting to one
where: η0, λ, n are curve fitting parameters and γ
side, leading to a deviation from the vertical
is the shear rate. Because of the mathematical
direction of extrusion. Centering of ring and
complexities it is not possible to obtain analytical
mandrel can often relieve this defect.
solutions with this model, but it is excellent for
numerical simulations of flow processes. This cut-off—The line where the two halves of a
model is very popular in injection molding compression mold come together; also called flash
simulations (cavity filling) and in the groove or pinch-off.
characterization of the flow behavior of polymers cut sheet—Usually, heavy-gage sheet, fed one at a
produced with metallocene catalysts. time to rotary or shuttle thermoformers.

11
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

cycle—The complete, repeating sequence of degree of polymerization (DP)—The number of

operations in a process or part of a process. In structural units or mers in the “average” polymer
molding, the cycle time is the period, or elapsed molecule in a particular sample. In most plastics
time, between a certain point in one cycle and the the DP must reach several thousand if worthwhile
same point in the next. physical properties are to be had.
cylindrical—Refers to the shape of a container which delamination—The separation of the layers in a
has a circular cross section parallel to the minor laminate caused by the failure of the adhesive.
axis and a rectangular cross section parallel to the deliquescent—Capable of attracting moisture from
major axis. the air.
denier—The weight (in grams) of 9000 meters of
D synthetic fiber in the form of continuous filament.
dash-pot—A device used in hydraulic systems for
density—Weight per unit volume of a substance,
damping down vibration. It consists of a piston
expressed in grams per cubic centimeter, pounds
attached to the part to be damped and fitted into a
per cubic foot, etc.
vessel containing fluid or air. It absorbs shocks by
reducing the rate of change in the momentum of desiccant—Substance which can be used for drying
moving parts of machinery. purposes because of its affinity for water.
data—Information, often in the form of numbers. design basis—Term used for long term strength of
plastic pipe determined in accordance with ASTM
daylight opening—Clearance between two platens of
D2837.
a press in the open position.
design of experiments (DOE)—A methodology for
Deborah number (De)—The ratio of a characteristic
planning experiments where purposeful changes to
material time to a characteristic process time. As the inputs (factors) to a process (or activity) are
the characteristic material time we can use the made in order to observe corresponding changes in
relaxation time, and as a characteristic process the outputs (responses). A means of gaining
time the inverse of the shear rate. Under usual knowledge about a process or activity with
extrusion conditions, the relaxation might be 0.1 minimal effort.
and the shear rate 100 s-1 and thus De = 10 (0.1
divided by 1/100). When De << 1, the polymer destaticization—Treating plastics materials to
behaves as a purely viscous fluid, while for De >> minimize their accumulation of static electricity
1 as an elastic solid. The phenomena of extrudate and, consequently, the amount of dust picked up by
swell and melt flow instability are evidence of the plastics because of such charges.
polymer elasticity. detergents—Substance with a high surface activity.
debossed—An indent or cut in design or lettering of a Similar in general to soaps; made synthetically to a
surface. large extent.
deckle rod—A small rod, or similar device, inserted at die—The metal component affixed to the end of an
each end of the extrusion coating die which is used extruder barrel, though which a material flows,
to adjust the length of the die opening. usually in a desired shape. The die can comprise an
adaptor to hold a die block which contains the
decomposition product—The constituent elements orifice that forms the shape.
or simpler compounds formed when a substance
decays or decomposes. die blades—Deformable member(s) attached to a die
body which determine the slot opening and which
decorative sheet—A laminated plastics sheet used are adjusted to product uniform thickness across
for decorative purposes in which the color and/or the film or sheet produced.
surface pattern is an integral part of the sheet.
die cutting—(1) Blanking e.g., (2) Cutting shapes
deflashing—Covers the range of finishing techniques from sheet stock by striking it sharply with a
used to remove the flash (excess, unwanted shaped knife edge known as XXsteel-rule die.
material) on a plastic molding. Clicking and Dinking are other names for die
degassing—See breathing. cutting of this kind.
degradation—A deleterious change in the chemical die gap—The distance between the metal faces
structure of plastic. forming the die opening.

12
®
 Glossary

die head—A heated, cylindrical device that is dimensional stability—Ability of a plastic part to
fastened to the nose of the extruder and forms the retain the precise shape in which it was molded,
tubular parison. fabricated, or cast.
die lines—Vertical marks on the parison caused by dimer—A substance (comprising molecules) formed
damage of die parts or contamination. from two molecules of a monomer.
die lip buildup (also known as die drool)—The dip coating—Applying a plastic coating by dipping
gradual formation of an initially liquid deposit at the article to be coated into a tank of melted resin
the die exit edge, which solidifies and may or plastisol, then chilling the adhering melt.
partially obstruct the extruded product flow and/or discoloration—Any change from the original color,
cause defective extrudate surface. Depending often caused by overheating, light exposure,
upon the severity of the problem, continuous irradiation, or chemical attack.
extrusion must be interrupted every few hours or dispersion—Finely divided particles of a material in
few days and the solid deposit must be removed suspension in another substance.
from the die lips. dispersive mixing (also called intensive
die swell—See extrudate swell. mixing)—An operation that reduces the size of
agglomerates or liquid drops of a minor
die swell ratio—The ratio of the outer parison
component within a major fluid matrix.
diameter (or parison thickness) to the outer
dissipation factor—See Power Factor.
diameter of the die (or die gap). Die swell ratio is
influenced by polymer type, head construction, distributive mixing (also called laminar or
land length, extrusion speed, and temperature. extensive mixing)—An operation that increases the
minor component randomness or spatial
dielectric—Insulating material. In radio frequency distribution within the major fluid matrix.
preheating, dielectric may refer specifically to the
divergent die—A die in which the internal channels
material which is being heated.
leading to the orifice are diverging (applicable
dielectric constant—Normally the relative dielectric only to dies for hollow bodies).
constant; for practical purposes, the ratio of the dome—In reinforced plastics, an end of a filament
capacitance of an assembly of two electrodes wound cylindrical container.
separated solely by a plastics insulating material
double-shot molding (a.k.a. multi-injection)—A
to its capacitance when the electrodes area
means of turning out two-color parts in
separated by air. (ASTM D150-59T)
thermoplastics materials by successive molding
dielectric heating (electronic heating)—The operations.
plastic to be heated forms the dielectric of a draft—The degree of taper of a side wall or the angle
condenser to which is applied a high-frequency of clearance designed to facilitate removal of parts
(20 to 80 mcmhz.) voltage. Dielectric loss in the from a mold.
material is the basis. Process used for sealing vinyl
drag flow (also called couette flow)—The flow
films and preheating thermoset molding
between two surfaces caused by the movement of
compounds.
one relative to the other. The fluid is literally
dielectric strength—The electric voltage gradient at dragged by the moving wall. For parallel flat
which an insulating material is broken down or surfaces, the resulting velocity profile is linear,
“arced through,” in volts per mil of thickness. varying from zero at the stationary wall to the
differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)—A velocity of the moving surface. In an extruder, the
thermal analysis technique, which measures the output is equal to the drag flow minus the pressure
difference between a reference and a sample flow and the leakage flow over the flights.
during a controlled temperature change. Changes drape assist frame—In sheet thermoforming, a
in the heating rate can be converted into heat frame (made up of anything from thin wire to
capacity and enthalpy changes. It is used to thick bars) shaped to the peripheries of the
measure the Specific Heat (Heat Capacity Cp), depressed areas of the mold and suspended above
Glass Transition Temperature (Tg), and Melting the sheet to be formed. During forming, the assist
Temperature (Tm), and to probe the structure of frame drops down, drawing the sheet tightly into
polymer blends. the mold and thereby preventing webbing between

13
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

high areas of the mold and permitting closer ejector pin (on sleeve)—A pin or thin plate that is
spacing in multiple molds. driven into a mold cavity from the rear as the mold
drape forming—Method of forming thermoplastic opens, forcing out the finished piece. Also
sheet in which the sheet is clamped into a movable knockout pin.
frame, heated, and draped over high points of a ejector return pins—Projections that push the ejector
male mold. Vacuum is then pulled to complete the assembly back as the mold closes; also called
forming operation. surface pins and return pins.
draw down ratio—The ratio of the thickness of the ejector rod—Bar that actuates the ejector assembly
die opening to the final thickness of the product. when mold is opened.
draw resonance—A phenomenon by which a elastic deformation—The part of the deformation of
continuous drawing process becomes unsteady, an object under load which is recoverable when the
alternating between thick and thin sections. It is load is removed.
often encountered in fiber spinning and cast film
elastomer—A material which at room temperature
production.
stretches under low stress to at least twice its
drawing—The process of stretching a thermoplastic length and snaps back to the original length upon
sheet or rod to reduce its cross-sectional area. release of stress. See also rubber.
dry-blend—A free-flowing dry compound prepared
electric discharge machining (edm)—A
without fluxing or addition of solvent also called metalworking process in which controlled sparking
powder blend. is used to erode the workpiece.
dry coloring—Method commonly used by fabricators
electroformed molds—A mold made by
for coloring plastics by tumble blending uncolored
electroplating metal on the reverse pattern on the
particles of the plastic material with selected dyes
cavity. Molten steel may be then sprayed on the
and pigments.
back of the mold to increase its strength.
dry strength—The strength of an adhesive joint
electronic treating—A method of oxidizing a film of
determined immediately after drying under
specified conditions or after a period of polyethylene to render it printable by passing the
conditioning in the standard laboratory film between the electrodes and subjecting it to a
atmosphere. See wet strength. high voltage corona discharge.

ductility—The extent to which a solid material can be electroplating—The deposition of a layer of metal on
drawn into a thinner cross section. base of metal or conducting surface by electrolysis.
dwell—A pause in the application of pressure to a elongation—The fractional increase in length of a
mold, made just before the mold is completely material stressed in tension.
closed, to allow the escape of gas from the molding elongational viscosity (also called extensional
material. viscosity)—The resistance to extension (while the
dyes—Synthetic or natural organic chemicals that are (common) viscosity term describes the resistance
soluble in most common solvents. Characterized to shearing). For Newtonian fluids the elongational
by good transparency, high tinctorial strength, and viscosity is equal to 3 times the (common)
low specific gravity. viscosity (3 is known as the Trouton Ratio).
Polymer melts are non-Newtonian and the
dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA)—In this
elongational viscosity is usually between 3 and 100
technique the response of a material to an
times the viscosity. Melt strength is just a rough
oscillatory load is measured during a temperature
engineering measure of the elongational viscosity,
cycle. It provides information on material modulus
determined from the force required to break an
of elasticity, which in turn can be related to impact
extruded strand of polymer by a pair of rollers (see
strength, tensile strength, toughness and creep rate.
melt strength).
E embossing—Techniques used to create depressions
effective thread turns—The number of full 360° of a specific pattern in plastics film and sheeting.
turns on a threaded closure that are actually in emulsion—A suspension of fine droplets of one liquid
contact with the neck thread. in another.

14
®
 Glossary

end cap—Usually mounted to the end of an injection flexibility for their density – elongation and
molding machine barrel, this is where the nozzle is impact resistance are also increased.
mounted. exotherm—(1) The temperature/time curve of a
encapsulating—Enclosing an article (usually an chemical reaction giving off heat, particularly the
electronic component or the like) in a closed polymerization of casting resins. (2) The amount
envelope of plastic, by immersing the object in a of heat given off. The term has not been
casting resin and allowing the resin to polymerize standardized with respect to sample size, ambient
or, if hot, to cool. temperature, degree of mixing, etc.
endothermic reaction—A chemical reaction in exothermic reaction—A chemical reaction in which
which heat is absorbed. heat is evolved.
engineering resins—Resins for high-performance expanded plastics—See open-cell foamed plastics.
applications. This category includes
extender—A substance generally having some
polycarbonates (PC) and polyamides (PA) like
adhesive action, added to a plastic composition to
nylon.
reduce the amount of the primary resin required
engraved-roll (or gravure) coating—The amount per unit area.
of coating applied to the web is metered by the
extrudate—The product or material delivered by an
depth of the over-all engraved pattern in a print
extruder, such as film, pipe, the coating on wire,
roll. This process is frequently modified by
etc.
interposing a resilient offset roll between the
engraved roll and the web. extrudate swell (sometimes called die swell)—
enthalpy—A thermodynamic measure of the intrinsic Whenever a polymer melt emerges from a die, the
heat content of a polymer. diameter or thickness is larger than the diameter
entrance angle—Maximum angle at which the
(or gap) of the die. At usual production
molten material enters the land area of an throughputs, diameter or thickness ratios range
extrusion die, measured from the center line of the from 1.20–1.40 for PVC to 1.50–2.00 for
mandrel. commercial grade polyethylenes and are much
more for some polymers containing a high-
environmental stress cracking (ESC)—The molecular-weight tail. It is an indication of the
susceptibility of a thermoplastic article to crack or polymer elasticity. The more elastic polymers give
craze formation under the influence of certain larger swell. Pulling the extrudate reduces the
chemicals and stress. swell, and extrudates can be drawn down to
epoxy resins—Based on ethylene oxide, its diameters (or thicknesses) much smaller than the
derivatives or homologs, epoxy resins form die diameter or gap.
straight-chain thermoplastics and thermosetting extrusion—The compacting of a plastic material and
resins, e.g., by the condensation of bisphenol and the forcing of it through an orifice in more or less
epichlorohydrin. continuous fashion.
equilibrium—A condition in which temperatures,
extrusion coating—The resin is coated on a
heat input, and heat output are all stable and substrate by extruding a thin film of molten resin
unchanging. Necessary for a consistent blow and pressing it onto or into the substrates, or both,
molding process. without the use of an adhesive.
ESC or ESCR—See environmental stress cracking.
ester—The reaction product of an alcohol and an acid. F
ethylene plastics—Plastics based on polymers of fabricate—To work a material into a finished form by
ethylene or copolymers of ethylene with other machining, forming, or other operation to make
monomer, the ethylene being the greatest amount flexible film or sheeting into end product by
by mass. sewing, cutting, sealing, or other operation.
ethylene-vinyl acetate—Copolymers from these fadeometer—An apparatus for determining the
two monomers form a new class of plastic resistance of resins and other materials to fading.
materials. They retain many of the properties of This apparatus accelerates the fading by
polyethylene, but have considerably increased subjecting the article to high intensity ultraviolet

15
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

rays and approximately the same wave length as been applied, the wound mandrel is cured at room
those found in sunlight. temperature or in an oven.
false neck—A neck construction which is additional fill-and-wipe—Parts are molded with depressed
to the neck finish of a container and which is only designs; after application of paint, surplus is wiped
intended to facilitate the blow molding operation. off, leaving paint remaining only in the depressed
Afterwards the false neck part is removed from the areas.
container. fill point—The level to which a container must be
family mold (injection)—A multi-cavity mold filled to furnish a designated quantity of the
wherein each of the cavities forms one of the content.
component parts of the assembled finished object. filler—A cheap, inert substance added to a plastic to
fatty acid—An organic acid obtained by the make it less costly. Fillers may also improve
hydrolysis (saponification) of natural fats and oils, physical properties, particularly hardness, stiffness,
e.g., stearic and palmitic acids. These acids are and impact strength. The particles are usually
monobasic, may or may not have some double small, in contrast to those of reinforcements e.g.,
bonds, contain 16 or more C atoms. but there is some overlap between the functions of
fault—An electrical short circuit or leakage path to the two.
ground or from phase to phase inadvertently fillet—A rounded filling of the internal angle between
created. two surfaces of a plastic molding.
feed throat—A component of the injection unit which films—In the plastics and packaging industries, films
includes the opening for material to feed through. are usually considered to be a web under 10 mils
(0.010 inch or 250 microns) thick. Webs greater
feed section—Part of a screw under the feed section
than 10 mils are considered sheet.
of a machine where material is fed. Typically, has a
root diameter which does not vary. fin—The web of material remaining in holes or
openings in a molded part which must be removed
feed zone—The first zone of an extruder screw. It
in finishing.
receives material from the hopper and delivers it to
the compression zone. fines—Very small particles (usually under 200 mesh)
accompanying larger grains, usually of molding
female—In molding practice, the indented half of a
powder.
mold designed to receive the male half.
finish—The plastic forming the opening of a container
fiber—This term usually refers to relatively short
shaped to accommodate a specific closure. Also,
lengths of very small cross-sections of various the ultimate surface structure of an article.
materials. Fibers can be made by chopping
filaments (converting). Staple fibers may be 1/2 to a finish insert—A removable part of a blow mold to
few inches in length and usually 1 to 5 denier (1/2 form a specific neck finish of a plastic bottle.
to 1 mils in diameter in Marlex polyethylene). Sometimes called neck insert.
fiber show—Strands or bundles of fibers that are not finite element method (FEM)—A computer
covered by resin and that are at or above the technique for predicting how a sheet of plastic
surface of a reinforced plastic. deforms under load.
fish eye—A fault in transparent or translucent plastics
filament—A variety of fiber characterized by extreme
materials, such as film or sheet, appearing as a
length, which permits its use in yarn with little or
small globular mass and caused by incomplete
no twist and usually without the spinning operation
blending of the mass with surrounding material.
required for fibers.
fitment—A device used as a part of a closure assembly
filament winding—Roving or single stands of glass,
to accomplish certain purposes such as a dropper
metal, or other reinforcement are wound in a
sprinker, powder shaker, etc.
predetermined pattern onto a suitable mandrel. The
pattern is so designed as to give the maximum flake—Used to denote the dry, unplasticized base of
strength in the directions required. The strands can cellulosic plastics.
either be run from a creel through a resin bath flame retardant resin—A resin which is
before winding or pre-impregnated materials can compounded with certain chemicals to reduce or
be used. When the right number of layers have eliminate its tendency to burn. For polyethylene

16
®
 Glossary

and similar resins, chemicals such as antimony flight pitch—The axial distance from a point on one
trioxide and chlorinated paraffins are useful. screw flight to the corresponding point on the next
flame spraying—Method of applying a plastic flight.
coating in which finely powdered fragments of the floating platen —A platen located between the main
plastic, together with suitable fluxes, are projected head and the press table in a multi-daylight press
through a cone of flame onto a surface. and capable of being moved independently of
flame treating—A method of rendering inert them.
thermoplastic objects receptive to inks, lacquers, flock—Short fibers of cotton, etc., used as fillers, e.g.,
paints, adhesives, etc. in which the object is for molding materials.
bathed in an open flame to promote oxidation of
the surface of the article. flocking—A method of coating by spraying finely
dispersed powders or fibers.
flammability—Measure of the extent to which a
material will support combustion. flow—A qualitative description of the fluidity of a
flash—Extra plastic attached to a molding along the plastic material during the process of molding.
parting line; it must be removed before the part flow lines or streaks—Flow lines or streaks in the
can be considered finished. machine direction are visual defects in the form of
flash gate—A long, shallow rectangular gate. continuous lines or streaks, which occur in the
flash line—A raised line appearing on the surface of a same axial location. They may appear and be very
molding and formed at the junction of mold faces. persistent after a change in material, screw or die.
flash mold—A mold designed to permit excess flow marks—Wavy surface appearance of an object
molding material to escape during closing. molded from thermoplastic resins caused by
flash point—The lowest temperature at which a improper flow of the resin into the mold.
combustible liquid will give off a flammable vapor fluidized bed coating—A method of applying a
that will burn momentarily. coating of a thermoplastic resin to an article in
flexible molds—Molds made of rubber or which the heated article is immersed in a dense-
elastomeric plastics used for casting plastics. They phase fluidized bed of powdered resin and
can be stretched to remove cured pieces with thereafter heated in an oven to provide a smooth,
undercuts. pin-hole-free coating.
flexibilizer—An additive that makes a resin or rubber fluorescent pigments—By absorbing unwanted
more flexible, i.e., less stiff. Also a plasticizer. wavelengths of light and converting them into
flexographic printing—A rubber roll, partially light of desired wavelengths, these colors seem to
immersed in an ink fountain, transfers the ink to a possess an actual glow of their own.
fine, screen-lined steel roller which, in turn, fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP)—A member
deposits a thin layer of ink on the printing plate. of the fluorocarbon family of plastics, it is a
flexural modulus—A measure of the strain imposed copolymer of tetrafluoroethylene and
in the outermost fibers of a bent specimen. hexafluoropropylene, possessing most of the
flexural strength—The strength of a material in properties of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), e.g.,
blending, expressed as the tensile stress of the and also having a melt viscosity low enough to
outermost fibers of a bent test sample at the instant permit conventional thermoplastic processing.
of failure. With plastics, this value is usually Available in pellet form for molding and
higher than the straight tensile strength. extrusion, and as dispersions for spray or dip-
flight —In an extruder, it is the helical metal left after coating processes.
machining the screw channels. The screw flight fluorine (F)—The most reactive non-metallic
diameter is the barrel inside diameter minus a element. A pale yellow gas which is both corrosive
specified flight clearance to allow the screw to fit and poisonous, it reacts vigorously with most
into the barrel. A rule of thumb is 0.001 inch (25 oxidizable substances at room temperature, and
microns) of radial clearance for every inch (25 forms fluorides. It is used in the production of
mm) of barrel diameter. metallic and other fluorides, some of which are
flight depth—The distance measured from the top of used to introduce fluorine into organic
the screw flight to the root diameter of a screw. compounds, i.e., the fluorocarbons.

17
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

fluorocarbon plastics—Plastics based on polymers Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)—

made with monomers composed of fluorine and In this technique, infrared radiation is passed
carbon only. through a sample and the amount absorbed is
fluorocarbons—The family of plastics including measured as a function of wavelength. FTIR
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE); quickly scans a wide wavelength range.
polycholortrifluoroethylene (PCTFE); Comparing to known spectra identifies the polymer
polyvinylidene (FEP), e.g., They are characterized structure. This technique is used extensively for
by properties including good thermal and chemical polymer identification purposes.
resistance and non-adhesiveness, and possess a low fracture toughness—A measure of the stress
dissipation factor and low dielectric constant. intensity at a crack tip needed to propagate a
Depending upon which of the fluorocarbons is sustained fracture.
used, they are available as molding materials,
fractional melt index—A melt flow index of less than
extrusion materials, dispersions, film or tape.
1.0.
fluoroplastics—Plastics based on polymer with
free sintering—See sintering.
monomers containing one or more atoms of
fluorine or copolymers of such monomers with friction calendering—A process whereby an
other monomers, the fluorine containing elastomeric compound is forced into the interstices
monomer(s) being the greatest amount by mass. of woven or cord fabrics while passing through the
rolls of calender.
flux—(1) An additive to a plastics composition during
processing to improve its flow. For example, friction coefficient—A number expressing the
coumarone-indene resins are used as a flux during amount of frictional effect.
the milling of vinyl polymers. (2) Indicating a state friction welding—A method of welding
of fluidity. thermoplastics materials whereby the heat
foaming agents—Chemicals added to plastics and necessary to soften the components is provided by
rubbers that generate inert gases on heating, friction.
causing the resin to assume a cellular structure. frictional heating—Whenever a highly viscous
foam-in-place—Refers to the deposition of foams polymer melt is forced to flow through a channel,
which requires that the foaming machine be considerable heat is generated by internal friction.
brought to the work which is “in place” as opposed The rotating screw typically supplies more than
to bringing the work to the foaming machine. 70% of the heat required to melt a polymer in an
foil decorating—Molding paper, textile, or plastic extruder through this frictional heating
foils printed with compatible inks directly into a mechanism. During flow through dies, the
plastic part so that the foil is visible below the frictional heating can cause a significant local
surface of the part as integral decoration. temperature increase (hot spots) and thermal
degradation, with an eventual discoloration of the
force plate—The plate that carries the plunger or
product, black specks, pinking, etc.
force plug of a mold and guide pins or bushings.
Since it is usually drilled for steam or water lines, frost line—In the extrusion of polyethylene lay-flat
it is also called the steam plate. film, a ring-shaped zone located at the point where
the film reaches its final diameter. This zone is
force plug—The portion of a mold that enters the
characterized by a “frosty” appearance to the film
cavity block and exerts pressure on the molding
caused by the film temperature falling below the
compound, designated as top force or bottom force
softening range of the resin.
by position in the assembly; also called plunger or
piston. frothing—Technique for applying urethane foam in
formaldehyde (HCHO)—A colorless gas (usually which blowing agents or tiny air bubbles are
employed as a solution in water) which possesses a introduced under pressure into the liquid mixture
suffocating, pungent odor. It is derived from the of foam ingredients.
oxidation of methanol or low-boiling petroleum furan resins—Dark colored, thermosetting resins
gases such as methane, ethane, propane and available primarily as liquids ranging from low-
butane. It is widely used in the production of viscosity polymers to thick, heavy syrups.
phenol formaldehyde (urea), and melamine furfural resin—A dark-colored synthetic resin of the
formaldehyde (melamine) resins. thermosetting variety obtained by the condensation

18
®
 Glossary

of furfural with phenol or its homologues. It is glass transition—The reversible change in an

used in the manufacture of molding materials, amorphous polymer or in amorphous regions of a
adhesives and impregnating varnishes. Properties partially crystalline polymer from (or to) a viscous
include high resistance to acids and alkalis. or rubbery condition to (or from) a hard and
fuse—In plastisol molding, to heat the temperature at relatively brittle one. Note: The glass transition
which it becomes a single homogeneous phase. In generally occurs over a relatively narrow
this sense, cure is the same as fuse. temperature region and is similar to the
solidification of a liquid to a glassy state: it is not a
G phase transition. Not only do hardness and
G’ —See storage modulus. brittleness undergo rapid changes in this
temperature region but other properties, such as
G” —See loss modulus.
thermal expansibility and specific heat also change
gate—In injection and transfer molding, the orifice rapidly. This phenomenon has been called second
through which the melt enters the cavity. order transition, rubber transition and rubbery
Sometimes the gate has the same cross-section as transition. The word transformation has also been
the runner leading to it. Often, it is severely used instead of transition. Where more than one
restricted. amorphous transition occurs in a polymer, the one
gel—(n.) In polyethylene, a small amorphous resin associated with segmental motions of the polymer
particle which differs from its surroundings by backbone chain or accompanied by the largest
being of higher molecular weight and/or change in properties is usually considered to be
crosslinked, so that its processing characteristics the glass transition.
differ from the surrounding resin to such a degree glass transition temperature (Tg)—The lowest
that it is not easily dispersed in the surrounding temperature at which a polymer can be considered
resin. A gel is readily discernible in thin films. softened and possibly flowable. For HDPE and
gel coat—A thin, outer layer of resin, sometimes LDPE, it is –100°C and for PS +100°C.
containing pigment, applied to a reinforced glitter (or flitter or spangles)—A group of special
plastics molding as a cosmetic. decorative materials consisting of flakes large
gel permeation chromatography (GPC)—This enough so that each separate flake produces a
measurement technique separates polymer plainly visible sparkle or reflection. They are
fractions by flowing a polymer solution pulse incorporated directly into the plastic during
through a porous particle packed bed. By compounding.
measuring the polymer concentration in the gloss—The shine or luster of the surface of a material
effluent stream, and comparing to calibration graduated—Molded in scale to indicate content level
standards, the molecular weight distribution can in container.
be determined. graft copolymers—A chain of one type of polymer
gel point—The stage at which a liquid begins to to which side chains of a different type are
exhibit pseudo-elastic properties. attached or grafted (i.e., polymerizing butadiene
gel time—The time required for a liquid material to and styrene monomer at the same time).
form a gel under specified conditions of granulator—A powerful machine that is used to chop
temperature as measured by a specific test. up flash and bad molded parts into small, uniform
gels—In polymer science, a gel is defined as a 3- pieces that can be re-melted and used again to
dimensional network of sufficient crosslink make products.
density that prevents flow. However, in extrusion granular structure—Nonuniform appearance of
practice, the term "GEL" encompasses various finished plastic material due to retention of, or
visual defects in the final product, which incomplete fusion of, particles of composition,
sometimes appear as elongated ellipses and even either within the mass or on the surface.
includes various contaminants called "fisheyes" gravure printing—Depositing ink on plastic film or
(see fisheye). sheeting or product from depressions of a specific
glass thread—A type of threading in which the depth, pattern and spacing, which have been either
thread sides gradually taper down to the neck mechanically or chemically engraved into a
finish. Cross section of threads are semi-circular. printing cylinder.

19
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

gray body—A body emitting a fixed fraction of the brinell hardness, rockwell hardness and shore
maximum amount of energy, regardless of the hardness.
wavelength. haze—The degree of cloudiness in a plastics material.
grit blasted—A surface treatment of a mold in which head—The end section of a blow molding machine (in
steel grit or sand materials are blown to the walls a general extruder) in which the melt is
of the cavity to produce a roughened surface. Air transformed into a hollow parison.
escape from mold is improved and special
head space—The space between the fill level of a
appearance of molded article is often obtained by
container and the sealing plane.
this method.
heat deflection temperature—See heat-distortion
grooved (barrel) extruders—The forward conveying
action of a single-screw extruder can be increased point.
by intentionally roughening the barrel surface heat distortion point—The temperature at which a
(grooves) in the solids-conveying zone. Grooved standard test bar (ASTM D648) deflects 0.010 in.
extruders can produce rapid pressure rise, which under a stated load or either 66 or 264 p.s.i.
can sometimes be high enough to damage the heat of fusion—The heat required to mobilize the
screw or barrel. Grooved extruders produce higher molecules of a solid polymer to produce a fluid
throughputs, but they might be susceptible to melt, i.e., the heat required to destroy the solid
output instabilities and surging problems. crystal structure without increasing the
guide pins—Devices that maintain proper alignment temperature. For amorphous polymers like
of force plug and cavity as mold closes. polystyrene (PS), the heat of fusion is zero. For
gum—An amorphous substance or mixture which, at LDPE it is about 130,000 J/kg, which is roughly
ordinary temperatures, is either a very viscous equivalent to the heat required to raise the
liquid or a solid which softens gradually on temperature of 1 kg of LDPE by about 50°C.
heating, and which either swells in water or is heat-sealing—A method of joining plastic films by
soluble in it. Natural gums, obtained from the cell simultaneous application of heat and pressure to
walls of plants, are carbohydrates or carbohydrate areas in contact. Heat may be supplied
derivatives of intermediate molecular weight. conductively or dielectrically.
gusset—A tuck placed in each side of a tube of blown heater bands—Electrical heating components
tubing as produced to provide a convenient square mounted around the barrel, adapter and nozzle.
or rectangular package, similar to that of the heating chamber—In injection molding, that part of
familiar brown paper bag or sack, in subsequent the machine in which the cold feed is reduced to a
packaging. hot melt. Also heating cylinder.
gutta-percha—A rubber-like material obtained from heel—The part of a container between the bottom
the leaves and bark of certain tropical trees. bearing surface and the side wall.
Sometimes used for the insulation of electrical
heel radius—The degree of curvature at the extreme
wiring, and for transmission belting and various
bottom end of a container extending upward from
adhesives.
the bearing surface. Also called base radius.
H helix angle—The angle of a screw flight relative to a
halocarbon plastics—Plastics based on resins made plane perpendicular to the axis of the screw.
by the polymerization of monomers composed h.f. preheating—See dielectric heating.
only of carbon and a halogen or halogens. high-load melt index—The rate of flow of a molten
hardener—A substance or mixture of substances resin through a 0.0285 inch orifice when subjected
added to plastic composition, or an adhesive to to a force of 21,600 grams at 190˚C. See melt
promote or control the curing reaction by taking index.
part in it. The term is also used to designate a high polymer—A macromolecular substance which,
substance added to control the degree of hardness as indicated by the term “polymer” and by the
of the cured film. See also catalyst. name (e.g., polyvinyl chloride) and formula (e.g.,
hardness—The resistance of a plastics material to CH2CHCl) by which it is identified, consists of
compression and indentation. Among the most molecules which are (at least approximately)
important methods of testing this property are multiples of the low molecular unit.

20
®
 Glossary

high-pressure laminates—Laminates molded and hydraulic—A system in which energy is transferred

cured at pressures not lower than 1000 p.s.i. and from one place to another by means of
more commonly in the range of 1200 to 2000 p.s.i. compression and flow of a fluid (e.g., water, oil).
hob—A master model in hardened steel used to sink hydrocarbon plastics—Plastics based on resins
the shape of a mold into a soft steel block. made by the polymerization of monomers
composed of carbon and hydrogen only.
hobbing—Forming multiple mold cavities by forcing
hydrogenation—Chemical process whereby
a hob e.g., into soft steel (for beryllium-copper)
cavity blanks. hydrogen is introduced into a compound.
hydrolysis—Chemical decomposition of a substance
homopolymer—A polymer, consisting of (neglecting involving the addition of water.
the ends, branch junctions, and other minor
hygroscopic—Tending to absorb moisture.
irregularities) a single type of repeating unit.
honeycomb—Manufactured product consisting of I
sheet metal or a resin impregnated sheet material immiscible—Descriptive of two or more fluids which
(paper, fibrous glass, etc.) which has been formed are not mutually soluble. Incapable of mixing.
into hexagonal-shaped cells. Used as core material
impact bar (Specimen)—A test specimen of
for sandwich constructions.
specified dimensions which is utilized to
hoop stress—The force per unit area in the wall of determine the relative resistance of a plastic to
the pipe in the circumferential orientation due to fracture by shock.
internal hydrostatic pressure. impact resistance—Relative susceptibility of
hopper—Conical feed reservoir into which molding plastics to fracture by shock, e.g., as indicated by
powder is loaded and from which it falls into a the energy expended by a standard pendulum type
molding machine or extruder, sometimes through impact machine in breaking a standard specimen
a metering device. in one below.
hopper dryer—A combination feeding and drying impact strength—(1) The ability of a material to
device for extrusion and injection molding of withstand shock loading. (2) The work done in
thermoplastics. Hot air flows upward through the fracturing, under shock loading, a specified test
hopper containing the feed pellets. specimen in a specified manner.
impregnation—The process of thoroughly soaking a
hopper loader—A curved pipe through which
material such as wood, paper or fabric, with a
molding powders are pneumatically conveyed
synthetic resin so that the resin gets within the
from shipping drums to machine hoppers.
body of the material. The process is usually
hot gas welding—A technique of joining carried out in an impregnator.
thermoplastic materials (usually sheet) whereby impulse sealing—A heat sealing technique in which
the materials are softened by a jet of hot air from a a pulse of intense thermal energy is applied to the
welding torch, joined together at the softened sealing area for a very short time, followed
points. Generally a thin rod of the same material is immediately by cooling. It is usually
used to fill and consolidate the gap. accomplished by using an RF heated metal bar
hot-runner (or runnerless) mold—A mold in which is cored for water cooling or is of such a
which the runners are insulated from the chilled mass that it will cool rapidly at ambient
cavities and are kept hot. Parting line is at gate of temperatures.
cavity, runners are in separate plate(s), so they are index—To move a sheet forward a fixed length.
not, as is the case usually, ejected with the piece. infra-red—Part of the electromagnetic spectrum
hot-stamping—Engraving operation for marking between the visible light range and the radar
plastics in which roll leaf is stamped with heated range. Radiant heat is in this range, and infra-red
metal dies onto the face of the plastics. Ink heaters are much used in sheet thermoforming.
compounds can also be used. By means of felt inhibitor—A substance that slows down chemical
rolls, ink is applied to type and by means of heat reaction. Inhibitors are sometimes used in certain
and pressure, type is impressed into the material, types of monomers and resins to prolong storage
leaving the marking compound in the indentation. life.

21
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

injection blow molding—A blow molding process in interfacial instability in co-extrusion—Highly

which the parison to be blown is formed by irregular or sometimes regular waviness, which
injection molding. appears in co-extruded structures at the polymer/
injection mold—A mold into which a plasticated polymer interface. Two types of interfacial
material is introduced from an exterior heating instability are common: zigzag and wave.
cylinder. interlock—A safety device designed to insure that a
injection molding—A molding procedure whereby a piece of apparatus will not operate until certain
heat-softened plastic material is forced from a precautions have been taken.
cylinder into a relatively cool cavity which gives intermittent—“Stop and go”. The melted material
the article the desired shape. does not flow continuously. A parison is formed
injection molding cycle—The complete time cycle and molded, then another parison is formed and
of operation utilized in injection molding of an molded.
object including injection; die close and die open internal mixers—Mixing machines using the
time. principle of cylindrical containers in which the
materials are deformed by rotating blades or rotors.
injection pressure—The pressure on the face of the
The containers and rotors are cored so that they can
injection ram at which molding material is injected
be heated or cooled to control the temperature of a
into a mold. It is usually expressed in p.s.i.
batch. These mixers are extensively used in the
injection ram—The ram which applies pressure to the compounding of plastics and rubber materials and
plunger in the process of injection molding or have the inherent advantage of keeping dust and
transfer molding. fume hazards to a minimum.
injection rate—The rate of plastic flow, in cubic intrinsic viscosity—The intrinsic viscosity of a
inches per second, through an injection molding polymer is the limiting value of infinite dilution of
machine nozzle. Also the velocity of the screw the ratio at the specific viscosity of the polymer
during the fill section of the molding cycle. solution to its concentration in moles per liter.
inorganic pigments—Natural or synthetic metallic sp
oxides, sulfides, and other salts, calcined during n 1 = CLim n
→0
-------
processing at 1200˚F. They are outstanding in heat- C
and light-stability, weather resistance, and
Where n1 = intrinsic viscosity, nsp = specific
migration resistance.
viscosity, C = concentration in moles per liter.
insert—An integral part of a plastics molding Intrinsic viscosity is usually estimated by
consisting of metal or other material which may be determining the specific viscosity at several low
molded into position or may be pressed into the concentrations and extrapolating the values of
sp
molding after the molding is completed. n
-------- to C = 0. The concentration is expressed in
C
in situ foaming—The technique of depositing a units of grams of polymer per liter or solution, g/L.
foamable plastics (prior to foaming) into the place introfaction—The change in fluidity and wetting
where it is intended that foaming shall take place. properties of an impregnating material, produced
An example is the placing of foamable plastics into by the addition of an introfier,
cavity brickwork to provide insulation. After being introfier—A chemical which will convert a colloidal
positioned, the liquid mix foams to fill the cavity. solution into a molecular one. See also
See also foamed plastics. introfaction.
Instron—An instrument utilized to determine the ion exchange resins—Small granular or bead-like
tensile and compressive properties of material. particles containing acidic or basic groups, which
insulation—A coating of a dielectric or essentially will trade ions with salts in solutions. Generally
non-conducting material whose purpose it is to used for softening and purifying water.
prevent the transmission of electricity. ionomer resins—A new polymer which has ethylene
insulation resistance—The electrical resistance of as its major component, but containing both
an insulating material to a direct voltage. It is covalent and ionic bonds. The polymer exhibits
determined by measuring the leakage of current very strong interchain ionic forces. The anions
which flows through the insulation. hang from the hydrocarbon chain and the cations

22
®
 Glossary

are metallic—sodium, potassium magnesium. or jet of hot gas to “pull” molten polymer from a
These resins have many of the same features as die lip and extend it into fine fibers.
polyethylene plus high transparency, tenacity, jetting—“Non-slip” flow of resin from an undersize
resilience and increased resistance to oils, greases gate or thin section into a thicker mold section, as
and solvents. Fabrication is carried out as the opposed to laminar flow radially from a gate to
polyethylene. the extremities of the cavity, resulting in a “string
irradiation (atomic)—As applied to plastics, refers to of plastic” until conditions change enough to
bombardment with a variety of subatomic establish pressure-driven flow.
particles, generally alpha-, beta-, or gamma-rays. jig—Tool for holding component parts of an assembly
Atomic irradiation has been used to initiate during the manufacturing process, or for holding
polymerization and co-polymerization of plastics other tools. Also called a fixture.
and in some cases to bring about changes in the jute—A fiber obtained from the stems of several
physical properties of a plastic material. species of the plant Corchorus found mainly in
isinglass—A white, tasteless gelatine derived from India and Pakistan. Used as a filler, e.g., for
the bladder of fishes, usually the sturgeon. It is plastics molding materials, and more recently as a
used as an adhesive and clarifying agent. reinforcement for polyester resins in the
ISO—The European based International Organization fabrication or reinforced plastics.
for Standardization equivalent to ASTM.
isocyanate resins—Most applications for this resin K
are based on its combination with polyols (e.g., kirksite—An alloy of aluminum and zinc used for the
polyesters, polyethers, etc.). During this reaction, construction of blow molds; it imparts high degree
the reactants are joined through the formation of of heat conductivity to the mold.
the urethane linkage- and hence this field of kiss-roll coating—This roll arrangement carries a
technology is generally known as urethane metered film of coating to the web; at the line of
chemistry. web contact, it is split with part remaining on the
isotactic—Pertaining to a type of polymeric roll, the remainder of the coating adhering to the
molecular structure containing a sequence of web.
regularly spaced asymmetric atoms arranged in knife coating—A method of coating a substrate
like configuration in a polymer chain. (usually paper or fabric) in which the substrate, in
isotropy—The situation where properties are the form of a continuous moving web, is coated
independent of the direction in which they are with a material whose thickness is controlled by
measured. an adjustable knife or bar set at a suitable angle to
the substrate. In the plastics industry PVC
Izod impact test—A test designed to determine the
formulations are widely used in this work and
resistance of a plastics material to a shock loading.
curing is effected by passing the coated substrate
It involves the notching of a specimen, which is
into a special oven, usually heated by infrared
then placed in the jaws of the machine and struck
lamps or convected air. There are a number of
with a weighted pendulum. See also impact
variations of this basic technique and they vary
strength.
according to the type of product required.
J knit lines—See weld mark.
jacket—A tough sheath to protect an insulated wire or knockout pin—A device for knocking a cured piece
cable, or to permanently group two or more from a mold. Also called ejector pin.
insulated wires or cables. knot tenacity (knot strength)—The tenacity in
jet molding—Processing technique characterized by grams per denier of a yarn where an overhand knot
the fact that most of the heat is applied to the is put into the filament or yarn being pulled to
material as it passes through the nozzle or jet, show up sensitivity to compressive or shearing
rather than in a heating cylinder as is done in forces.
conventional processes. kraft paper—Paper made from sulfate wood pulp.
jet spinning—For most purposes similar to melt K-value of PVC—A measure of PVC molecular
spinning. Hot gas jet spinning uses a directed blast weight based on measurements of a PVC solution

23
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

viscosity. It ranges usually between 35 and 80. leach—To extract a soluble component from a mixture
Low K-values imply low molecular weight (which by the process of percolation.
is easy to process but has inferior properties) and leaker—Any condition of the finish where the normal
high K-values imply high molecular weight (which sealing device or closure will not retain the air or
is difficult to process, but has outstanding liquid content of the bottle.
properties). leakage flow—The backward flow through the
clearance between the flight lands and the barrel
L wall.
label panel—The plain portion of a decorated
light-resistance—The ability of a plastics material to
container set up for application of labels.
resist fading after exposure to sunlight or ultra-
lacquer—Solution of natural or synthetic resins, etc., violet light. Nearly all plastics tend to darken under
in readily evaporating solvents, which is used as a these conditions.
protective coating.
lignin plastics—Plastics based on lignin resins.
laminar flow—Laminar flow of thermoplastic resins
lignin resin—A resin made by heating lignin or by
in a mold is accompanied by solidification of the
reaction of lignin with chemicals or resins, the
layer in contact with the mold surface that acts as
lignin being in greatest amount of mass.
an insulating tube through which material flows to
fill the remainder of the cavity. This type of flow is limiting oxygen index (LOI)—The concentration of
essential to duplication of the mold surface. oxygen required to maintain burning. See ASTM
laminate—A product made by bonding together two
Procedure D2863-74.
or more layers of material or materials. linear molecule—A long chain molecule as
laminated plastics (Synthetic Resin-Bonded contrasted to one having many side chains or
Laminate)—A plastics material consisting of branches.
superimposed layers of a synthetic resin- linters—Short fibers that adhere to the cotton seed
impregnated or –coated filler which have been after ginning. Used in rayon manufacture, as fillers
bonded together, usually by means of heat and for plastics, and as a base for the manufacture of
pressure, to form a single piece. cellulosic plastics.
laminated wood—A high-pressure bonded wood linear polymers—Polymers can be classified as linear
product composed of layers of wood with resin as or branched. In linear polymers, the monomeric
the laminating agent. The term plywood covers a units are linked together, linearly, with little or no
form of laminated wood in which successive layers long chain branching. In branched polymers, side
of veneer are ordinarily cross laminated, the core chains are attached to the backbone of the
of which may be veneer or sawn lumber in one molecular chain. High-density polyethylene
piece or several pieces. (HDPE) is linear, while low-density polyethylene
land—(1) The horizontal bearing surface of a (LDPE) is branched. Linear LDPE (LLDPE) is
semipositive or flash mold by which excess “stiffer” than LDPE in shear but “softer” in
material escapes. See cut-off. (2) The bearing extension. In extension the LLDPE chains slide by
surface along the top of the flights of a screw in a without getting entangled (since the chain branches
screw extruder. (3) The surface of an extrusion die are very short).
parallel to the direction of melt flow. lip—The extreme outer edge of the top of a container
lattice pattern—In reinforced plastics, a pattern of intended to facilitate pouring.
filament winding with a fixed arrangement of open litharge—PbO. An oxide of lead used as an inorganic
voids. accelerator, as a vulcanizing agent for neoprene,
lay-up—(n.) As used in reinforced plastics, the and as an ingredient of paints.
reinforcing material placed in position in the mold; loading tray (charging tray)—A device in the form
also the resin-impregnated reinforcement. (v.) – of a specially designed tray which is used to load
The process of placing the reinforcing material in the charge simultaneously into each cavity of a
position in the mold. multi-cavity mold by the withdrawal of a sliding
L/D ratio—A term used to define an extrusion screw bottom from the tray.
which denotes the ratio of the screw length to the loop tenacity (loop strength)—The tenacity or
screw diameter. strength value obtained by pulling two loops, as

24
®
 Glossary

two links in a chain, against each other to molding equipment. It refers to the distribution or
demonstrate the susceptibility that a yarn, cord or piping system which takes the single channel flow
rope has for cutting or crushing itself. output of the extruder or injection cylinder and
loss factor—The product of the power factor and the divides it to feed several blow molding heads or
dielectric constant. injection nozzles.
loss modulus (denoted as G”)—An indirect masterbatch—A plastics compound which includes
measure of polymer viscosity using a cone-and- a high concentration of an additive or additives.
plate instrument subjected to dynamic (sinusoidal) Masterbatches are designed for use in appropriate
deformation (see also storage modulus G’). quantities with the basic resin or mix so that the
low pressure laminates—In general, laminates correct end concentration is achieved. For
molded and cured in the range of pressures from example, color masterbatches for a variety of
400 p.s.i. down to and including pressures plastics are extensively used as they provide a
obtained by the mere contact of the plies. clean and convenient method of obtaining
lubricants, solid—A solid substance that will reduce accurate color shades.
the friction or prevent sticking when placed mat—A randomly distributed felt of glass fibers used
between two moving parts, i.e., graphite, in reinforced plastics lay-up molding.
molybdenum disulfide, etc. material well—Space provided in a compression or
lug—An indentation or raised portion of the surface of transfer mold to care for bulk factor.
a container, provided to control automatic matched metal molding—Method of molding
(multicolor) decorating operations. reinforced plastics between two close-fitting metal
luminescent pigments—Special pigments available molds mounted in a hydraulic press.
to produce striking effects in the dark. Basically
melamine plastics—Thermosetting plastics made
there are two types: one is activated by ultra-violet
from melamine and formaldehyde resins.
radiation, producing very strong luminescence
and, consequently, very eyecatching effects; the melt blockage—The sudden drop of output rate of an
other type, known as phosphorescent pigments, extruder due to insufficient forward transport of
does not require any separate source of radiation. the solid packed bed in the feeding zone of the
luminous transmittance—The ratio of the luminous machine.
flux transmitted by a body to the flux incident melt extractor—Usually refers to a type of injection
upon it. machine torpedo but could refer to any type of
device which is placed in a plasticating system for
M the purpose of separating fully plasticated melt
macerate—( v.) To chop or shread fabric for use as a from partially molten pellets and material. It thus
filler for a molding resin. (n.) The molding insures a fully plasticated discharge of melt from
compound obtained when so filled. the plasticating system.
machine shot capacity—Refers to the maximum melt—Plastic in a molten state (e.g. melt
weight of thermoplastic resin which can be temperature).
displaced or injected by the injection ram in a
melt flow index (also called melt index or melt
single stroke. flow rate)—The number of grams of polymer that can
macromolecule—The large (“giant”) molecules be pushed out of a capillary die of standard
which make up the high polymers. dimensions (diameter: 2.095 mm, length: 8.0 mm)
malfunction—The failure of a machine to do its job under the action of standard weight (2.16 kg for
properly. It may not be working correctly, or it PE, at 190˚C). in 10 minutes (ASTM Standard
may stop altogether. 1238). The usual melt index range is from less
mandrel—(1) The core around which paper, fabric, or than 1.0 (called fractional) to more than 25 (up to
resin-impregnated fibrous glass is wound to form 100 for injection molding). For PP it is usually
pipes or tubes. (2) In extrusion, the central finger called melt flow rate and the standard temperature
of a pipe or tubing die. is 230˚C.
manifold—A term used mainly with reference to melt fracture—An instability in the melt flow
blow molding and sometimes with injection through a die starting at the entry to the die. It

25
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

leads to surface irregularities on the finished article metallic “ring”—The audible sound emitted when
like a regular helix or irregularly-spaced ripples. most metals are dropped upon a hard surface.
melt index—The amount, in grams, of a thermoplastic metallocene polymers—Most polyolefins are
resin which can be forced through a 0.0825 inch produced nowadays with the help of so-called
orifice when subjected to 2160 gms. Force in 10 Ziegler-Natta catalysts. Recent developments in
minutes at 190˚C. metallocene catalysts give the possibility to tailor
melt instability—An instability in the melt flow the structure in such a way as to produce polymers
through a die starting at the land of the die. It leads having significantly improved mechanical and
to the same surface irregularities on the finished physical properties.
part as melt fracture. metering screw—An extrusion screw which has a
melt strength—A measure of the extensional shallow constant depth, and constant pitch section
viscosity of polymer melts. It represents the over, usually the last 3 to 4 flights.
maximum tension that can be applied to the melt metering zone—The single-screw extrusion process
without rupture or tearing. Usually a capillary consists of three functional zones:
viscometer is used to extrude a polymer strand and • solids-conveying zone is where the polymer
the strand is pulled until rupture by a pair of pellets or powder are compacted and transported
rollers. forward;
melt temperature—The temperature of the molten
plastic just prior to entering the mold or extruded
• compression or melting zone is where the
polymer melts mainly under the action of shear
through the die.
on the barrel wall;
melting point—The temperature at which the
structure of a crystalline polymer is destroyed to • metering zone (pumping zone) is where the
yield a liquid. For HDPE it is about 135°C, and for polymer is transported forward by drag flow
LDPE it is about 110°C. It is not scientifically caused by the rotating action of the screw.
correct to talk about the melting point of an methyl methacrylate—CH2CCH3COOCH3. A
amorphous polymer like PS, because it has no colorless, volatile liquid derived from acetone
crystalline structure. However, in extrusion cyanohydrin, methanol and dilute sulphuric acid,
practice it is often practical to use the glass and used in the production of acrylic resins.
transition temperature plus 50°C to define an Mn (Number-average molecular weight)—The
equivalent melting point of such amorphous total weight of all molecules divided by the total
polymers. For PS this would be 100°C + 50°C = number of molecules.
150°C (see glass transition). modified—Containing ingredients such as fillers,
meniscus—The free surface of a liquid in a container, pigments or other additives, that help to vary the
for example, water in contact with air confined in a physical properties of a plastics material. An
capillary tube. The meniscus may be convex, e.g., example is oil modified resin.
mercury vs. air in glass, or concave, e.g., water vs. modulus of elasticity—The ratio of stress to strain in
air in glass. a material that is elastically deformed.
mer—The repeating structural unit of any high moisture vapor transmission—The rate at which
polymer. water vapor permeates through a plastic film or
metallizing—Applying a thin coating of metal to a wall at a specified temperature and relative
nonmetallic surface. May be done by chemical humidity.
deposition or by exposing the surface to vaporized mold—(v.) To shape plastic parts or finished articles by
metal in a vacuum chamber. heat and pressure. (n.) (1) The cavity or matrix into
metallic pigments—A class of pigments consisting which the plastic composition is placed and from
of thin opaque aluminum flakes (made by ball which it takes its form. (2) The assembly of all the
milling either a disintegrated aluminum foil or a parts that function collectively in the molding
rough metal powder and then polishing to obtain a process.
flat, brilliant surface on each particle) or copper mold efficiency—In a multimold blowing system the
alloy flakes (known as bronze pigments). percentage of the total turnaround time of the mold
Incorporated into plastics, they produce unusual actually required for forming, cooling and ejection
silvery and other metal-like effects. of the container.

26
®
 Glossary

molding cycle—(1) The period of time occupied by in the fabrication of bristles, surgical sutures,
the complete sequence of operations on a molding fishing leaders, tennis racquet strings, screen
press requisite for the production of one set of materials, ropes and nets; the finer monofilaments
moldings. (2) The operations necessary to produce are woven and knitted on textile machinery.
a set of moldings without reference to the time monomer—A relatively simple compound which can
taken. react to form a polymer. See also polymer.
molding powder—Plastic material in varying stages mounting plate—The part of the blow molding unit
of granulation, and comprising resin, filler, to which the mold is attached.
pigments, plasticizers, and other ingredients,
movable platen—The large back platen of an
ready for use in the molding operation.
injection molding machine to which the back half
molding pressure—The pressure applied to the ram of the mold is secured during operation. This
of an injection machine or press to force the platen is moved either by a hydraulic ram or a
softened plastic completely to fill the mold toggle mechanism.
cavities.
multi-cavity mold—A mold with two or more mold
molding shrinkage (mold shrinkage, shrinkage, impressions, i.e., a mold which produces more
contraction)—The difference in dimensions,
than one molding per molding cycle.
expressed in inches per inch, between a molding
and the mold cavity in which it was molded, both multifilament yarn—The multifilament yarn is
the mold and the molding being at normal room composed of a multitude of fine continuous
temperature when measured. filaments, often 5 to 100 individual filaments,
usually with some twist in the yarn to facilitate
mold release—See parting agent.
handling. Multifilament yarn sizes are described in
mold seam—A vertical line formed at the point of denier and range from 5-10 denier up to a few
contact of the mold halves. The prominence of the hundred denier. The larger deniers, even in the
line depends on the accuracy with which the thousands, are usually obtained by plying smaller
mating mold halves are matched. See parting yarns together. Individual filaments in a
Line. multifilament yarn are usually about 1 to 5 denier
molecular weight—Polymers are composed of long (which is about 1/2 mil to1 mil diameter in Marlex
chain molecules. The monomer unit is repeated polyethylene).
many times to give average molecular weights multiple head machine—A (blow molding)
ranging from 50,000 to 500,000 for most common machine in which the plastic melt prepared by the
polymers. Of course, not all polymer chains are of extruder is divided into a multiplicity of separate
the same length, so we have a molecular weight streams (parisons) each giving ultimately a
distribution (MWD). Different molecular weight finished item.
averages are defined to express the breadth of the
Mw (Weight-average molecular weight)—The sum
distribution. The number average molecular
of the total weights of molecules of each size
weight , Mn, is the sum of the individual molecular
multiplied by their respective weights divided by
weights divided by their number. The weight
the total weight of all molecules.
average molecular weight, Mw, is the sum of the
squares of the weights divided by the sum of the
molecular weights. The polydispersity index (PDI)
N
Mw/Mn (weight average / number average) would neck—The part of a container where the shoulder
be 1.0 if all chains had exactly the same length cross section area decreases to form the finish.
(only theoretically possible). Usual grades of neck bead—A protruding circle on a container at the
polymers have PDI values from 1.5 to 30. Broad- point where the neck meets the finish, the diameter
distribution polymers usually have lower of which usually equals the outside diameter of
viscosity, but higher elasticity. the closure.
“moly”—Common abbreviation used to denote a neck-in—In extrusion coating, the difference between
compound containing molybdenum. the width of the extruded web as it leaves the die
monofilament (monofil)—A single filament of and the width of the coating on the substrate.
indefinite length. Monofilaments are generally neck insert—Part of the mold assembly which forms
produced by extrusion. Their outstanding uses are the neck and finish. Sometimes called Neck Ring.

27
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

needle blow—A specific blow molding technique permanently thermoplastic. See also resinoid and
where the blowing air is injected into the hollow thermoplastic.
article through a sharpened hollow needle which nozzle—The hollow cored metal nose screwed into the
pierces the parison. extrusion end of (a) the heating cylinder of an
nest plate—A retainer plate with a depressed area for injection machine or (b) a transfer chamber where
cavity blocks used in injection molding. this is a separate structure. A nozzle is designed to
Newtonian fluids—Fluids that exhibit constant form under pressure a seal between the heating
viscosities independent of the shear rate. Water, cylinder or the transfer chamber and the mold. The
glycerin, oil and other small-molecule fluids are front end of a nozzle may be either flat or spherical
Newtonian. in shape.
nylon—The generic name for all synthetic fiber-
nip—The “V” formed where the pressure roll contacts
forming polyamides; they can be formed into
the chill roll.
monofilaments and yarns characterized by great
non-Newtonian fluids—Fluids having viscosities toughness, strength and elasticity, high melting
that depend upon the shear rate. Polymer solutions point; and good resistance to water and chemicals.
and melts are non-Newtonian fluids. They also The material is widely used for bristles in
exhibit other non-Newtonian properties such as industrial and domestic brushes, and for many
stress relaxation and normal stresses. textile applications; it is also used in injection
nonpolar—Having no concentrations of electrical molding gears, bearings, combs, etc.
charge on a molecular scale, thus, incapable of
significant dielectric loss. Examples among resins O
are polystyrene and polyethylene. oblong—A particular shape. A container which has a
non return valve—Components assembled to the end rectangular cross section perpendicular to the
of an injection molding screw that allow material major axis.
to flow toward the front of the barrel, but shut off off center—Any condition where the finish opening is
during the injection part of the cycle to keep not centered over the bottom of the container. Also,
material from flowing backwards. the condition where the mandrel is not concentric
nonrigid plastic—A non-rigid plastic is one which with the ring of the blowing head.
has a stiffness or apparent modulus of elasticity of offset—A printing technique in which ink is
not over 50,000 p.s.i. at 25˚C when determined transferred from a bath onto the raised surface of
according to ASTM test procedure D747-43 T. the printing plate by rollers. Subsequently, the
normal stresses—A polymer melt, when sheared printing plates transfer the ink to the object to be
(i.e. when subjected to tangential forces), gives rise printed.
to perpendicular (normal) stresses. This means that oil-soluble resin—Resin which at moderate
when a fluid is flowing in a tube it is less temperatures will dissolve in, disperse in, or react
compressed in the axial direction than in the radial with, drying oils to give a homogeneous film of
direction. These normal stresses are responsible modified characteristics.
for the phenomenon of extrudate swell at the exit olefins—A group of unsaturated hydrocarbons of the
of the die. Polymers containing a high-molecular- general formula CnH2n, and named after the
weight tail tend to give larger normal stresses (i.e. corresponding paraffins by the addition of “ene” or
they are more elastic). “ylene” to the stem. Examples are ethylene and
notch sensitivity—The extent to which the sensitivity propylene.
of a material to fracture is increased by the oleo resins—Semi-solid mixtures of the resin and
presence of a surface in homogeneity such as a essential oil of the plant from which they exude,
notch, a sudden change in section, a crack, or a and sometimes referred to as balsams. Oleo-
scratch. Low notch sensitivity is usually associated resinous materials also consist of products of
with ductile materials, and high notch sensitivity drying oils and natural or synthetic resins.
with brittle materials. oligomer—A polymer consisting of only a few
novolac—A phenolic-aldehyde resin which, unless a monomer units such as a dimmer, trimer, tetramer,
source of methylene groups is added, remains etc., or their mixtures.

28
®
 Glossary

one-shot molding—In the urethane foam field, overlay sheet (surfacing mat)—A nonwoven
indicates a system whereby the isocyanate, polyol, fibrous mat (either in glass, synthetic fiber, etc.)
catalyst, and other additives are mixed together used as the top layer in a cloth or mat layup to
directly and a foam is produced immediately (as provide a smoother finish or minimize the
distinguished from prepolymer). appearance of the fibrous pattern.
opaque—Descriptive of a material or substance oxidation—The addition of oxygen to a compound or
which will not transmit light. Opposite of the reduction of hydrogen.
transparent. Materials which are neither opaque oxygen index—See limiting oxygen index.
nor transparent are sometimes described as semi-
opaque, but are more properly classified as P
translucent. paneling—Distortion of a container occurring during
open-cell foamed plastic—A cellular plastic in aging or storage, caused by the development of a
which there is a predominance of interconnected reduced pressure inside the container.
cells. parallels—(1) Spacers placed between the steam plate
orange-peel—Said of injection moldings that have and press platen to prevent the middle section of
unintentionally rough surfaces. the mold from bending under pressure. (2)
organic pigments—Characterized by good Pressure pads or spacers between the steam plates
brightness and brilliance. They are divided into of a mold to control height when closed and to
toners and lakes. Toners, in turn, are divided into prevent crushing the parts of the mold when the
insoluble organic toners and lake toners. The land area is inadequate.
insoluble organic toners are usually free from salt- parison—The hollow plastic tube from which a
forming groups. Lake toners, are practically pure, container, toy, etc. is blow molded.
water-insoluble heavy metal salts of dyes without parison swell—In blow molding the ratio of the
the fillers or substrates of ordinary lakes. Lakes, cross-sectional area of the parison to the cross-
which are not as strong as lake toners, are water sectional area of the die opening.
insoluble heavy metal salts or other dye parting agent—A lubricant, often wax, used to coat a
complexes precipitated upon or admixed with a mold cavity to prevent the molded piece from
base or filler. sticking to it, and thus to facilitate its removal
organosol—A vinyl or nylon dispersion, the liquid from the mold. Also called release agent.
phase of which contains one or more organic parting line—Mark on a molding or casting where
solvents. See also plastisol. halves of mold met in closing.
orientation—The alignment of the crystalline partitioned mold cooling—A large diameter hole
structure in polymeric materials so as to produce a drilled into the mold (usually the core) and
highly uniform structure. Can be accomplished by partitioned by a metal plate extending to near the
cold drawing or stretching during fabrication. bottom end of the channel. Water is introduced
orifice—The opening in the extruder die formed by near the top of one side of the partition and
the orifice bushing (ring) and mandrel. removed on the other side.
orifice bushing—The outer part of the die in an pearlescent pigments—A class of pigments
extruder head. consisting of particles that are essentially
out-of-round—A plastic container manufacturing transparent crystals of a high refractive index. The
variance in which a round container, when optical effect is one of partial reflection from the
formed, does not remain round. two sides of each flake. When reflections from
oval—A particular shape. A container which has an parallel plates reinforce each other, the result is a
egg-shaped cross section perpendicular to the silvery luster. Effects possible range from brilliant
major axis. highlighting to moderate enhancement of the
overcoating—In extrusion coating, the practice of normal surface gloss.
extruding a web beyond the edge of the substrate pellet—A small ball or spherical shape.
web. pelletizing—A process of producing pellets.
overflow capacity—The capacity of a container to permanent set—The increase in length, expressed in
the top of the finish or to the point of overflow. a percentage of the original length, by which an

29
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

elastic material fails to return to original length excess material as the mold closes around the
after being stressed for a standard period of time. parison in the blow molding operation.
permeability—(1) The passage or diffusion of a gas, pinch-off blades—The part of the mold which
vapor, liquid, or solid through a barrier without compresses the parison to effect sealing of the
physically or chemically affecting it. (2) The rate parison prior to blowing and to permit easy
of such passage. removal and cooling of flash.
pH—An expression of the degree of acidity or pinch-off land—The width of pinch-off blade which
alkalinity of a substance. Neutrality is pH7 – acid effects sealing of the parison.
solutions being under 7 and alkaline solutions over pinch-off tail—The bottom of the parison that is
7. pH meters are commercially available for pinched off when the mold closes.
accurate readings. pinhole—A very small hole in the extruded resin
phenolic resin—A synthetic resin produced by the coating.
condensation of an aromatic alcohol with an pinpoint gate—A restricted orifice of 0.030 inches or
aldehyde, particularly of phenol with less in diameter through which molten resin flows
formaldehyde. Phenolic resins form the basis of into a mold cavity.
thermosetting molding materials, laminated sheet, pipe train—A term used in extrusion of pipe which
and stoving varnishes. They are also used as denotes the entire equipment assembly used to
impregnating agents and as components of paints, fabricate the pipe, e.g., extruder, die, cooling bath,
varnishes, lacquers, and adhesives. haul-off and cutter.
phenoxy resins—A high molecular weight pit—An imperfection, a small crater in the surface of
thermoplastic polyester resin based on bisphenol-A the plastic, with its width of approximately the
and epichorohydrin. Recently developed in the same order of magnitude as its depth.
United States, the material is available in grades pitch—The distance from any point on the flight of a
suitable for injection molding, extrusion, coatings screw line to the corresponding point on an
and adhesives. adjacent flight, measured parallel to the axis of the
phthalate esters—A main group of plasticizers, e.g., screw line or threading.
produced by the direct action of alcohol on plastic—(n.) One of many high-polymeric substances,
phthalic anhydride. The phthalates are the most including both natural and synthetic products, but
widely used of all plasticizers, and are generally excluding the rubbers. At some stage in its
characterized by moderate cost, good stability, and manufacture every plastic is capable of flowing,
good all-round properties. under heat and pressure, if necessary, into the
phthalocyanine pigments—Organic pigments, e.g., desired final shape. (adj.) Made of plastic; capable
of extremely stable chemical configuration of flow under pressure or tensile stress.
resulting in very good fastness properties. These plastic deformation—A change in dimensions of an
properties are enhanced by the formation of the object under load that is not recovered when the
copper complex which is the phthalocyanine blue load is removed; opposed to elastic deformation.
most used. The introduction of chlorine atoms into
plastic memory—A phenomenon of plastics to return
the molecule of blue gives the well-known
to its original molded form. Different plastics
phthalocyanine green, also usually in the form of
possess varying degrees of this characteristic.
copper complex.
plastics tooling—Tools, e.g., dies, jigs, fixtures, etc.,
pigment—Any colorant, usually an insoluble for the metal forming trades constructed of
powdered substance used to produce a desired plastics, generally laminates or casting materials.
color or hue.
plasticate—To soften by heating or kneading.
pill —See preform. Synonyms are: plastify, flux, and, (imprecisely)
pimple—An imperfection, a small, sharp, or conical plasticize.
elevation on the surface of a plastic product. plasticity—The quality of being able to be shaped by
pin-chain—Chains used to accurately feed roll-fed plastic flow.
sheet. plasticize—To soften a material and make it plastic or
pinch-off—A raised edge around the cavity in the moldable, either by means of a plasticizer or the
mold which seals off the part and separates the application of heat.

30
®
 Glossary

plasticizer—Chemical agent added to plastic poise—The unit of viscosity, e.g., expressed as one
compositions to make them softer and more dyne per second per square centimeter.
flexible. Poiseuille flow (also called pressure flow)—The
plastigel—A plastisol exhibiting gel-like flow flow of a fluid caused by a pressure difference.
properties. The resulting velocity profile is parabolic for
plastisols—Mixtures of resins and plasticizers which Newtonian fluids and somewhat “flatter” for
can be molded, cast, or converted to continuous polymer melts. The pressure drop is linear in the
films by the application of heat. If the mixtures direction of flow for tubes or channels with
contain volatile thinners also, they are known as parallel walls.
organosols. polar—See nonpolar.
plastometer—An instrument for determining the polishing roll (s)—A roll or series or rolls, which
flow properties of a thermoplastic resin by forcing have a highly polished chrome plated surface, that
the molten resin through a die or orifice of specific are utilized to produce a smooth surface on sheet
size at a specified temperature and pressure. as it is extruded.
plate dispersion plug—Two perforated plates held polyacrylate—A thermoplastic resin made by the
together with a connecting rod which are placed in polymerization of an acrylic compound such as
the nozzle of an injection molding machine to aid methyl methacrylate.
in dispersing a colorant in a resin as it flows polyallomers—Crystalline polymers produced from
through the orifices in the plates. two or more olefin monomers.
plate-mark—Any imperfection in a pressed plastic polyamide—A polymer in which the structural units
sheet resulting from the surface of the pressing are linked by amide or thioamide groupings. Many
plate. polyamides are fiber-forming.
plate-out—The undesirable deposition of additives or polyblends—Colloquial term generally used in the
pigments on machinery parts during processing of styrene field to apply to mechanical mixtures of
plastics. polystyrene and rubber.
polybutylene—A polymer prepared by the
platens—The mounting plates of a press to which the
polymerization of butene as the sole monomer.
entire mold assembly is bolted.
(See polybutylene plastics and butylene plastics).
platform blowing—A special technique for blowing
polybutylene plastics—Plastics based on polymers
large parts. To prevent excessive sag of the heavy
made with butene as essentially the sole monomer.
parison the machine employs a table which after
rising to meet the parison at the die descends with polycarbonate resins—Polymers derived from the
the parison but at a slightly lower rate than the direct reaction between aromatic and aliphatic
parison extrusion speed. dihydroxy compounds with phosgene or by the
ester exchange reaction with appropriate
plug-and-ring—Method of sheet forming in which a phosgene-derived precursors.
plug, functioning as a male mold, is forced into a
polycondensation—See condensation.
heated plastic sheet held in place by a clamping
ring. polydispersity index (PDI)—The ratio of weight
average to number average molecular weight
plug forming—A thermoforming process in which a
(Mw/Mn) (see also molecular weight).
plug or male mold is used to partially perform the
polyester—A resin formed by the reaction between a
part before forming is completed using vacuum or
pressure. dibasic acid and a dihydroxy alcohol, both
organic. Modification with multi-functional acids
plunger—See force plug. and/or bases and some unsaturated reactants
pneumatic—A system in which energy is transferred permit crosslinking to thermosetting resins.
by compression, flow and expansion of air. Polyesters modified with fatty acids are called
pock marks—Irregular indentations on the surface of alkyds.
a blown container caused by insufficient contact of polyethylene—A thermoplastic material composed
the blown parison with the mold surface. They are by polymers of ethylene. It is normally a
due to low blow pressure, air gas entrapment or translucent, tough, waxy solid which is unaffected
moisture condensation on mold surface. by water and by a large range of chemicals.

31
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

polyimide resins—A new group of resins recently polyoxymethylene—A polymer in which the
introduced in the United States. The material is an repeated structural unit in the chain is
aromatic polyimide made by reacting pyromellitic oxymethylene.
dianhydride with aromatic diamines. The polymer polyoxymethylene plastics—Plastics based on
is characterized by the fact that it has rings of four polymers in which oxymethylene is essentially the
carbon atoms tightly bound together, and the sole repeated structural unit in the chains.
manufacturers claim that the new resin has greater
polyphenylene oxide—Presently made
resistance to heat than any other unfilled organic
material yet discovered. Suggested applications commercially as a polyether of 2, 6-dimethyl-
include components for internal combustion phenol via an oxidative coupling process by means
engines. of air or pure oxygen in the presence of a copper-
amine complex catalyst. These resins have a useful
polyisobutylene—The polymerization product of temperature range from less than - 275˚F to 375˚F
isobutylene. It varies in consistency from a viscous with intermittent use up to 400˚F possible.
liquid to a rubber-like solid with corresponding
variation in molecular weight from 1000 to polyphenylene sulfide—A crystalline aromatic
400,000. thermoplastic polymer with a symmetrical, rigid
backbone chain consisting of para-substituted
polyliner—A perforated longitudinally ribbed sleeve
benzene rings connected by a single sulfur atom
that fits inside the cylinder of an injection molding
between rings. Exhibits extremely high heat and
machine; used as a replacement for conventional
chemical resistance.
injection cylinder torpedos.
polypropylene—A tough, lightweight rigid plastic
polymer—A high-molecular-weight organic
compound, natural or synthetic, whose structure made by the polymerization of high-purity
can be represented by a repeated small unit, the propylene gas in the presence of an organometallic
mer; e.g., polyethylene, rubber, cellulose. catalyst at relatively low pressures and
Synthetic polymers are formed by addition or temperatures.
condensation polymerization of monomers. If two polystyrene—A water-white thermoplastic produced
or more monomers are involved, a copolymer is by the polymerization of styrene (vinyl benzene).
obtained. Some polymers are elastomers, some The electrical insulating properties of polystyrene
plastics. are outstandingly good and the material is
polymerization—A chemical reaction in which the relatively unaffected by moisture. In particular the
molecules of a monomer are linked together to power loss factor is extremely low over the
form large molecules whose molecular weight is a frequency range 103 –10 c.p.s.
multiple of that of the original substance. When polyterpene resins—Thermoplastic resins obtained
two or more monomers are involved, the process is by polymerization of turpentine in the presence of
called copolymerization or heteropolymerization. catalysts. These resins are used in the manufacture
See also degree of, condensation, and polymer. of adhesives, coatings, and varnishes, and in food
polymethyl methacrylate—A thermoplastic material packaging. They are compatible with waxes,
composed of polymers of methyl methacrylate. It natural and synthetic rubbers, and polyethylene.
is a transparent solid with exceptional optical polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) resins—Members
properties and good resistance to water. It is of the fluorocarbons, e.g., family of plastics made
obtainable in the form of sheets, granules, by the polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene. PTFE
solutions, and emulsions. It is extensively used for is characterized by its extreme inertness to
aircraft domes, lighting fixtures, decorative chemicals, very high thermal stability and low
articles, etc.; it is also used in optical instruments frictional properties. Among the applications for
and surgical appliances. these materials are bearings, fuel hoses, gaskets
polyolefin—A polymer prepared by the and tapes, and coatings for metal and fabric.
polymerization of an olefin(s) as the sole polyurethane resins—A family of resins produced
monomer(s). (See Polyolefin plastics). by reacting diisocyanate with organic compounds
polyolefin plastics—Plastics based on polymer made containing two or more active hydrogens to form
with an olefin(s) as essentially the sole polymers having free isocyanate groups. These
monomer(s). groups, under the influence of heat or certain

32
®
 Glossary

catalysts, will react with each other, or with water, cable and wire coverings, in chemical plants, and
glycols, etc., to form a thermosetting material. in the manufacture of protective garments.
polyvinyl acetal—A member of the family of vinyl polyvinyl chloride acetate—A thermoplastic
plastics, e.g., polyvinyl acetal is the general name material composed of copolymers of vinyl
for resins produced from a condensation of chloride and vinyl acetate; a colorless solid with
polyvinyl alcohol with an aldehyde. There are good resistance to water, and concentrated acids
three main groups: polyvinyl acetal itself; and alkalies. It is obtainable in the form of
polyvinyl butyral, and polyvinyl formal, e.g., granules, solutions, and emulsions. Compounded
polyvinyl acetal resins are thermoplastics which with plasticizers it yields a flexible material
can be processed by casting, extruding, molding superior to rubber in aging properties. It is widely
and coating, but their main uses are in adhesives, used for cable and wire coverings, in chemical
lacquers, coatings and films. plants, and in protective garments.
polyvinyl acetate—A thermoplastic material polyvinyl formal—One of the groups of polyvinyl
composed of polymers of vinyl acetate in the form acetal resins, e.g., made by the condensation of
of a colorless solid. It is obtainable in the form of formaldehyde in the presence of polyvinyl
granules, solutions, lattices, and pastes, and is alcohol. It is used mainly in combination with
used extensively in adhesives, for paper and fabric cresylic phenolics, for wire coatings and for
coatings, and in bases for inks and lacquers. impregnations, but can also be molded, extruded
polyvinyl alcohol—A thermoplastic material or cast. It is resistant to greases and oils.
composed of polymers of the hypothetical vinyl
polyvinylidene chloride—A thermoplastic material
alcohol. Usually a colorless solid, insoluble in
composed of polymers of vinylidene chloride (1,
most organic solvents and oils, but soluble in
1-dichloroethylene). It is a white powder with
water when the content of hydroxy groups in the
softening temperature at 185-200˚C. The material
polymer is sufficiently high. The product is
is also supplied as a copolymer with acrylonitrile
normally granular. It is obtained by the partial
or vinyl chloride, giving products which range
hydrolysis or by the complete hydrolysis of
from the soft flexible type to the rigid type. Also
polyvinyl esters, usually by the complete
known as saran.
hydrolysis of polyvinyl acetate. It is mainly used
for adhesives and coatings. polyvinylidene fluoride resins—This recent
polyvinyl butyral—A thermoplastic material derived
member of the fluorocarbons, e.g., family of
from a polyvinyl ester in which some or all of the plastics is a homopolymer of vinylidene fluoride.
acid groups have been replaced by hydroxyl It is supplied as powders and pellets for molding
groups and some or all of these hydroxyl groups and extrusion and in solution form for casting. The
replaced by butyral groups by reaction with resin has good tensile and compressive strength
butyraldehyde. It is a colorless flexible tough and high impact strength. Among anticipated
solid. applications are chemical equipment such as
gaskets, impellers and other pump parts, and
It is used primarily in interlayers for laminated packaging uses such as drum linings and
safety glass. protective coatings.
polyvinyl carbazole—A thermoplastic resin, brown
porous molds—Molds which are made up of bonded
in color, obtained by reacting acetylene with
or fused aggregate (powdered metal, coarse
carbazole. The resin has excellent electrical
pellets, etc.) in such a manner that the resulting
properties and good heat and chemical resistance.
mass contains numerous open interstices of
It is used as an impregnant for paper capacitors.
regular or irregular size through which either air or
polyvinyl chloride (PVC)—A thermoplastic material liquids may pass through the mass of the mold.
composed of polymers of vinyl chloride; a
colorless solid with outstanding resistance to positive mold—A mold designed to trap all the
water, alcohols, and concentrated acids and molding material when it closes.
alkalies. It is obtainable in the form of granules, postcure—Those additional operations to which a
solutions, lattices, and pastes. Compounded with cured thermosetting plastic or rubber composition
plasticizers it yields a flexible material superior to are subjected to enhance the level of one or more
rubber in aging properties. It is widely used for properties.

33
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

postforming—The forming, bending, or shaping of preheat roll—In extrusion coating, a heated roll
fully cured, C-stage thermoset laminates that have installed between the pressure roll and unwind roll
been heated to make them flexible. On cooling, the whose purpose is to heat the substrate before it is
formed laminate retains the contours and shape of coated.
the mold over which it has been formed. preimpregnation—The practice of mixing resin and
pot life—See working life. reinforcement before shipping it to the molder.
potting—Similar to encapsulating e.g., except that premix—In reinforced plastics molding, the material
steps are taken to insure complete penetration of all made by “do-it-yourselfers,” molders, or end-users
the voids in the object before the resin who purchase polyester or phenolic resin,
polymerizes. reinforcement, fillers, etc., separately and mix the
pour out finish—A container finish with an undercut reinforced molding compounds on their own
below the top, designed to facilitate pouring premises.
without dripping. preplastication—Technique of premelting injection
powder molding—General term used to denote molding powders in a separate chamber, then
several techniques for producing objects of varying transferring the melt to the injection cylinder.
sizes and shapes by melting polyethylene powder, Device used for preplastication is commonly
usually against the inside of a mold. The known as a preplasticizer. See plasticate.
techniques vary as to whether the molds are preplasticize (preplasticizer)—See preplastication.
stationary (e.g., as in variations on slush molding
techniques) or rotating (e.g., as in variations on prepolymer molding—In the urethane foam field,
rotational molding). indicates a system whereby a portion of the polyol
is pre-reacted with the isocyanate to form a liquid
power factor—In a perfect condenser, the current
propolymer with a viscosity range suitable for
leads the voltage by 90˚ relationship out according
pumping or metering. This component is supplied
to the proportion of current absorbed by the
to end-users with a second premixed blend of
dielectric. The power factor is the cosine of the
additional polyol, catalyst, blowing agent, etc.
angle between voltage applied and the current
When the two components are mixed together,
resulting. Measurements are usually made at
foaming occurs. (See one-shot molding).
million-cycle frequencies.
prepreg—A term generally used in reinforced plastics
power-law model—A simple mathematical
expression describing the shear thinning behavior to mean the reinforcing material containing or
of polymers: combined with the full complement of resin before
.n – 1 molding.
η = m⋅γ
preprinting—In sheet thermoforming, the distorted
Where m is the consistency index, the shear rate
printing of sheets before they are formed. During
and n is the power-law index, γ. (for polymer melts
forming the print assumes its proper proportions.
0.2 < n < 0.8). The power-law model does a good
job in fitting high shear rate viscosity data but a press polish—A finish for sheet stock produced by
poor job for fitting low shear rate viscosity data. In contact, under heat and pressure, with a very
.
fact for γ → 0 , the power-law model gives smooth metal which gives the plastic a high sheen.
η → ∞, which is, of course, unrealistic. The pressure break—As applied to a defect in a
usefulness of the power-law model is derived from laminated plastic a break apparent in one or more
the fact that several analytical solutions are outer sheets of the paper, fabric, or other base
possible and many practical flow problems occur at visible through the surface layer of resin which
high shear rates, where the power-law model gives covers it.
an excellent fit of viscosity data. pressure flow (also called Poiseuille flow)—Fluid
preform—(n.) A compressed tablet or biscuit of plastic flow caused by a pressure difference. The resulting
composition used for efficiency in handling and velocity profile is parabolic for Newtonian fluids
accuracy in weighing materials. (v.) To make and somewhat “flatter” for polymer melts. The
plastic molding powder into pellets or tablets. pressure drop is linear in the direction of flow for
preheating—The heating of a compound prior to tubes or channels with parallel walls. In the
molding or casting in order to facilitate the metering section of an extruder screw, pressure
operation or to reduce the molding cycle. flow is the relatively backward flow of material

34
®
 Glossary

down the screw channel caused by pressure in the prototype mold—A simplified mold construction
head. often made from a light metal casting alloy or
pressure forming—A thermoforming process from an epoxy resin in order to obtain information
wherein pressure is used to push the sheet to be for the final mold and/or part design.
formed against the mold surface as opposed to pseudoplastic flow—This term is synonymous with
using a vacuum to suck the sheet flat against the shear thinning flow, i.e., viscosity decreases as the
mold. shear rate increases.
pressure pads—Reinforcements of hardened steel pulp—A form of cellulose obtained from wood or
distributed around the dead areas in the faces of a other vegetable matter by prolonged cooking with
mold to help the land absorb the final pressure of chemicals.
closing without collapsing. pulp molding—Process by which a resin-
pressure roll—In extrusion coating, the roll which impregnated pulp material is preformed by
with the chill roll applies pressure to the substrate application of a vacuum and subsequently oven
and the molten extruded web. cured or molded.
pressure sensitive adhesive—An adhesive which purging—Cleaning one color or type of material from
develops maximum bonding power by applying the cylinder of an injection molding machine or
only a light pressure. extruder by forcing it out with the new color or
preventive—What must be done to keep problems material to be used in subsequent production.
from happening in the first place. Purging materials are also available.
primary plasticizer—Has sufficient affinity to the push up—The bottom contour of a plastic container
polymer or resin so that it is considered designed in such a manner as to allow an even
compatible and therefore it may be used as the bearing surface on the outside edge and to prevent
sole plasticizer. the bottle from rocking.
printed circuit—An electrical or electronic circuit pv value—The maximum combination of pressure
produced mainly from copper clad laminates. and velocity at which a material will operate
continuously without lubrication.
printing of plastics—Methods of printing plastics
materials, particularly thermoplastic film and pyrolysis—The chemical decomposition by the
sheet, have developed side by side with the growth action of heat.
of usage of the materials, and are today an pyrometer—A device for measuring high
important part of finishing techniques. Basically, temperatures, usually by radiation. Radiation
the printing processes used are the same as in devices have the advantage of not having to touch
other industries, but the adaptation of machinery the material being measured.
and development of special inks have been a
constant necessity, particularly as new plastics Q
materials have arrived, each with its own problems quench (thermoplastics)—A process of shock
of surface decoration. Among the printing cooling thermoplastic materials from the molten
processes commonly used are gravure, state.
flexographic, inlay (or valley) and silk screen. quench bath—The cooling medium used to quench
programming—The extrusion of a parison which molten thermoplastic materials to the solid state.
differs in thickness in the length direction in order quench-tank extrusion—The extruded film is
to equalize wall thickness of the blown container. cooled in a quench-water bath.
It can be done with a pneumatic or hydraulic
device which activates the mandrel shaft and R
adjusts the mandrel position during parison Rabinowitsch correction— Viscosity data obtained
extrusion (parison programmer, controller, or from a capillary viscometer requires a correction
variator). It can also be done by varying extrusion to account for the fact that the viscosity decreases
speed on accumulator-type blow molding as the shear rate increases. Without this
machines. (Rabinowitsch) correction, the viscosity is
promoter—A chemical, itself a feeble catalyst, that referred to as apparent viscosity. Errors up to
greatly increases the activity of a given catalyst. 10%–20% in viscosity are common when this

35
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

correction has not been made. For the power-law rectangular—A particular shape of a container which
viscosity model η = m ⋅ γ.
• n – 1
the Rabinowitsch has right angles with adjacent sides of unequal
correction gives dimensions.
n
m ( true ) = m ( apparent ) ⋅  ----------------
4 recycled plastic—A plastic prepared from used
 3n + 1
articles which have been cleaned and reground.
(i.e. for n=0.45, m(true) = 0.89 m(apparent)).
reformulated plastic—Recycled plastic that has been
radiation—Electromagnetic energy transfer or upgraded to alter or improve performance
interchange. capability or to change characteristics through use
radio frequency (R.F.) preheating—A method of of plasticizers, fillers, stabilizers, pigments, etc.
preheating used for molding materials to facilitate regenerated cellulose (cellophane)—A transparent
the molding operation or reduce the molding cycle. cellulose plastics material made by mixing
The frequencies most commonly used are between cellulose xanthate with a dilute sodium hydroxide
10 and 100 Mc./sec. solution to form a viscose. Regeneration is carried
radio frequency welding—A method of welding out by extruding the viscose, in sheet form, into an
thermoplastics using a radio frequency field to acid bath to create regenerated cellulose. The
apply the necessary heat. Also known as high material is very widely used as a packaging and
frequency welding. overwrapping material of exceptional clarity. The
film also has good electrical properties and is the
ram —See force plug.
use of the material as a release agent in reinforced
ram travel—The distance the injection ram moves in plastics molding.
filling the mold, in either injection or transfer
regeneration—The practice of heating a desiccant
molding.
material to very high temperature to drive off the
random copolymer—A random copolymer occurs moisture that it has absorbed from the air that was
when one of the two monomers polymerized used to dry the plastic. The moisture is allowed to
together to form a polymer is in a random or re-enter the atmosphere.
statistical distribution in the polymer chain. regrind—Waste material that has been reclaimed by
rayon—The generic term for fibers, staple, and shredding or granulating. See reworked plastic.
continuous filament yarns composed of reinforced molding compound—Compound
regenerated cellulose, e.g., but also frequently used supplied by raw material produced in the form of
to describe fibers obtained from cellulose acetate ready-to-use materials; as distinguished from
or cellulose triacetate. Rayon fibers are similar in premix.
chemical structure to natural cellulose fibers (e.g.,
reinforced plastics—A plastic with high strength
cotton) except that the synthetic fiber contains
fillers imbedded in the composition, resulting in
shorter polymer units. Most rayon is made by the
some mechanical properties superior to those of
viscose process.
the base resin. (See also filler)
ream—Usually 500 sheets, 24" x 36" of industrial
reinforcement—A strong inert material bound into a
paper. Sometimes expressed as 3000 sq. ft.
plastic to improve its strength, stiffness, and impact
recessed panel—A container design in which the flat resistance. Reinforcements are usually long fibers
area for labeling is indented or recessed. Also, see of glass, sisal, cotton, etc.—in woven or nonwoven
Label Panel. form. To be effective, the reinforcing material must
reciprocating screw—An extruder system in which form a strong adhesive bond with the resin.
the screw when rotating is pushed backwards by relative humidity—Ratio of the quantity of water
the molten polymer which collects in front of the vapor present in the air to the quantity which
screw. When sufficient material has been collected, would saturate it at any given temperature.
the screw moves forward and forces the material relative viscosity—The relative viscosity of a
through the head and die at a high speed. polymer in solution is the ratio of the absolute
recovery rate—The volume of material that can be viscosities of the solution (of stated concentration)
discharged from the injection unit per second as and of the pure solvent at the same temperature.
determined by SPI test procedure. Normally
expressed in cubic inches per second.
η
η r = ------
η0
36
®
 Glossary

Where ηr = relative viscosity, η = absolute the piece is ejected, this gate breaks cleanly,
viscosity of polymer solution, η0 = absolute simplifying separation of runner from piece.
viscosity of pure solvent. restrictor ring—A ring-shaped part protruding from
relaxation—Whenever polymer melts are subjected the torpedo surface which provides increase of
to mechanical work, they develop stresses, which pressure in the mold to improve, e.g., welding of
do not become immediately zero when the two streams.
mechanical influence is removed. The time retainer plate—The plate on which demountable
required for the stresses relax is referred to as pieces, such as mold cavities, ejector pins, guide
relaxation time. There is no universally accepted pins, and bushings are mounted during molding;
definition of the most characteristic relaxation usually drilled for steam or water.
time for a polymer melt. Some authors use the λ of retarder—See inhibitor.
the Carreau or Cross viscosity models, but this is reverse-roll coating—The coating is premetered
considered a poor choice by theoreticians. The between rolls and then wiped off on the web. The
best choice is perhaps the “longest relaxation amount of coating is controlled by the metering
time” determined in dynamic measurements as gap and also by the speed of rotation of the
G′
λ = ------------2- where G ′ is the storage modulus, η′ is the
η ′ω coating roll.
dynamic viscosity and ω is the frequency.
reworked plastic—A thermoplastic from a
Polymers with higher molecular weight have long
processor’s own production that has been
relaxation times. When the polymer solidifies
reground or pelletized after having been
without the stresses having been relaxed, the
previously processed by molding, extrusion, etc.
product includes frozen-in stresses, which will be
released when the plastic part is reheated. The Reynolds Number: A dimensionless quantity
accompanying changes in dimensions, shrinkage defined as:
or warpage may be significant. D ( Diameter ) × ρ ( Density ) × υ ( Velocity )
Re = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
release agent—See parting agent. µ ( Vis cos ity )
relief angle—The angle of the cutaway portion of the which is equivalent to the ratio of inertia forces to
pinch-off blade measured from a line parallel to viscous forces. The flow is turbulent when the
the pinch-off land. Reynolds number is more than 2100 for tubes.
reprocessed plastic—A thermoplastic prepared
Below 2100 the flow is laminar (i.e., streamlines
from scrap industrial plastic by other than the without disturbances). For molten polymer flow,
original processor. the Reynolds Number is usually in the range 10-4
to 10-2 (see also creeping flow).
resiliency—Ability to quickly regain an original
rheology—The science of deformation and flow of
shape after being strained or distorted.
materials including polymers. Viscosity,
resin—Any of a class of solid or semi-solid organic elongational viscosity, normal stresses, relaxation
products of natural or synthetic origin, generally time, G′, G′′, etc., are rheological properties.
of high molecular weight with no definite melting
rib—A reinforcing member of a fabricated or molded
point. Most resins are polymers.
part.
resinoid—Any of the class of thermosetting synthetic rigid plastics—For purposes of general
resins, either in their initial temporarily fusible classification, a plastic that has a modulus of
state or in their final infusible state. Compare with elasticity either in flexure or in tension greater
thermoset. than 100,000 psi at 23°C and 50% relative
resin pocket—An apparent accumulation of excess humidity when tested in accordance with ASTM
resin in a small, localized section visible on cut Methods D 747 or D 790 test for stiffness of
edges of molded surfaces. plastics.
resistivity—The ability of a material to resist passage rigid pvc—Polyvinyl chloride or a polyvinyl chloride/
of electrical current either through its bulk or on a acetate copolymer characterized by a relatively
surface. The unit of volume resistivity is the ohm- high degree of hardness; it may be formulated
cm., of surface resistivity, the ohm. with or without a small percentage of plasticizer.
restricted gate—A very small orifice between runner rigid resin—One having a modulus high enough to be
and cavity in an injection or transfer mold. When of practical importance, e.g., 10,000 psi or greater.

37
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

rocker—A plastic container with a bulged or deformed turns, the more the material can be melted in a
bottom, causing rocking of the container in the certain time. In practice, there is a limit on how fast
upright position. the screw can be turned before the material is no
Rockwell hardness—A common method of testing a longer melted correctly.
plastics material for resistance to indentation in rubber—An elastomer capable of rapid elastic
which a diamond or steel ball, under pressure, is recovery after being stretched to at least twice its
used to pierce the test specimen. The load used is length at temperature from 0 to 150° F, at any
expressed in kilograms and a 10-kilogram weight humidity. Specifically, Hevea or natural rubber, the
is first applied and the degree of penetration noted. standard of comparison for elastomers.
The so-called major load (60 to 150 kilograms) is runner—In an injection or transfer mold, the channel,
next applied and a second reading obtained. The usually circular, that connects the sprue with the
hardness is then calculated as the difference gate to the cavity.
between the two loads and expressed with nine
different prefix letters to denote the type of S
penetrator used and the weight applied as the major sag—The extension locally (often near the die face) of
load. the parison during extrusion by gravitational
roller coating—Used for applying paints to raised forces. This results in neck-down of the parison.
designs or letters. Also refers to the flow of a molten sheet in a
roll mill—Two rolls placed in close relationship to one thermoforming operation.
another used to admix a plastic material with other sample—A small part or portion of a material or
substances. The rolls turn at different speeds to product intended to be representative of the whole.
produce a shearing action to the materials sandblasted—See grit blasted.
compounded. sandwich construction—Panels composed of a
rosin—The hard resin, amber to black in color, left lightweight core material – honeycomb, foamed
after the distillation of turpentine. plastics, etc., e.g., – to which two relatively thin,
rotating spreader—A type of injection torpedo dense, high strength faces or skins are adhered.
which consists of a finned torpedo which is rotated sandwich heating—A method of heating a
by a shaft extending through a tubular cross- thermoplastic sheet prior to forming which consists
section injection ram behind it. of heating both sides of the sheet simultaneously.
rotational casting (or molding)—A method used to saran plastic—See vinylidene chloride plastics.
make hollow articles from plastisols and lattices. saturated compounds—Organic compounds which
Plastisol is charged into hollow mold capable of do not contain double or triple bonds and thus
being rotated in one or two planes. The hot mold cannot add on elements or compounds.
fuses the plastisol into a gel after the rotation has scar—A characteristic mark on plastic containers
caused it to cover all surfaces. The mold is then which is confined mostly to the bottom. It is caused
chilled and the product stripped out. by the pinch-off operation and is often referred to
round square—Particular shape of a container which as the length of the pinch-off.
has sides of equal width with well-rounded corners scrap—Any product of a molding operation that is not
and shoulders. part of the primary product. In compression
router—A fast-spinning, sharp cutting device that is molding, this includes flash, culls, runners, and is
used to make holes and trim excess plastics from not reusable as a molding compound. Injection
large parts, The cutter head is usually 1/8" to π" in molding and extrusion scrap (runners, rejected
diameter and may be moved by hand or parts, sprues, etc.) can usually be reground and
automatically. remolded.
roving—A form of fibrous glass in which spun strands screw motor torque—The amount of torque exerted
are woven into a tubular rope. The number of by the screw motor during the plastication section
strands is variable but 60 is usual. Chopped roving of the molding cycle.
is commonly used in performing. screw plasticating injection molding—A
rpm—Revolutions per minute. The speed that a screw technique in which the plastic is converted from
is turning. All else being equal, the faster the screw pellets to viscous melt by means of an extruder

38
®
 Glossary

screw which is an integral part of the molding set—To convert a liquid resin or adhesive into a solid
machine. Machines injection units are either state by curing e.g., or by evaporation of solvent or
single stage (in which plastication and injection suspending medium or by gelling.
are done by the same cylinder) or double stage in setting temperature—The temperature to which a
which the material is plasticated in one cylinder liquid resin, an adhesive, or products or
and then fed to a second for injection into a mold. assemblies involving either is subjected to set the
screw speed—The number of screw revolutions per resin or adhesive.
minute. setting time—The period of time during which a
SDR—Standard Dimension Ratio for Plastic Pipe. The molded or extruded product, an assembly, etc., is
ratio of O.D. or I.D. to wall thickness. subjected to heat and/or pressure to set the resin or
sealing plane—The plane on the inside of a bottle adhesive.
cap along the sealing surface. shark skin—A surface irregularity of container in the
sealing surface—The surface of the finish of the form of finely-spaced sharp ridges caused by a
container on which the closure forms the seal. relaxation effect of the melt at the die exit.
secondary plasticizer (or extender plasticizer)— shear flow—The sliding of imaginary fluid creates
Has insufficient affinity for the resin to be compatible slices that slide parallel to each other, like a deck
as the sole plasticizer and must be blended with a of cards. Shearing occurs whenever fluids flow
primary plasticizer. The secondary acts as a through tubes and channels. The velocity is zero at
diluent with respect to the primary and the the wall surface and maximum at the center. So
primary-secondary blend has less affinity for the the fluid is being sheared as it flows through a tube
resin than does the primary alone. or channel.
segmented molding cycle—Cycle in which the shear rate—The overall velocity over the cross
injection portion is broken into fill, pack and hold section of a channel with which molten polymer
portions. layers are gliding along each other or along the
segregation—A close succession of parallel, wall in laminar flow.
relatively narrow and sharply defined, wavy lines
of color on the surface of a plastic which differ in velocity cm/sec.
Shear Rate = ---------------------- = ------------------ = sec. – 1
shade from surrounding areas, and create the clearance cm
impression that the components have separated. shear strength—(a) The ability of a material to
seizing—Act of holding or grasping suddenly or withstand shear stress. (b) The stress at which a
forcibly. material fails in shear.
self-extinguishing—A somewhat loosely-used term shear stress—The stress developing in a polymer
describing the ability of a material to cease melt when the layers in a cross section are gliding
burning once the source of the flame has been along each other or along the wall of the channel
removed. (in laminar flow).
semi-automatic molding machine—A molding force
machine in which only part of the operation is shear stress = ------------------------------- = psi
Area sheared
controlled by the direct action of a human. The
automatic part of the operation is controlled by the shear thinning—The reduction of the viscosity as the
machine according to a predetermined program. shear rate increases, which is exhibited by
polymeric liquids. Shear thinning is due to
semipositive mold—A mold which allows a small
molecular chain alignments in the direction of
amount of excess material to escape when it is
flow and disentanglements.
closed. See flash mold, positive mold.
semirigid plastic—For purposes of general shear viscosity—The ordinary viscosity that is the
classification, a plastic that has a modulus of ratio of shear stress to the shear rate (see also
elasticity either in flexure or in tension of between VISCOSITY).
10,000 and 100,000 psi at 23° C and 50% relative sheet (thermoplastic)—A flat section of a
humidity when tested in accordance with ASTM thermoplastic resin with the length considerably
Method D747 or D790 Test for Stiffness of greater than the width and 10 mils or greater in
Plastics. thickness.

39
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

sheeter lines—Parallel scratches or projecting ridges decorating)—The printing method, in its basic form,
distributed over a considerable area of a plastic involves laying a pattern of an insoluble material,
sheet. in outline, on a finely woven fabric, so that when
sheet train—The entire assembly necessary to ink is drawn across it, it is able to pass through the
produce sheet which includes extruder, die, polish screen only in the desired areas.
rolls, conveyor, draw rolls, cutter and stacker. single cavity mold (injection)—An injection mold
shelf life—See storage life. having only one cavity in the body of the mold, as
Shore hardness—A method of determining the opposed to a multiple cavity mold or family mold
hardness of a plastic material using a scelroscope. which have numerous cavities.
This device consists of a small conical hammer silicone—One of the family of polymeric materials in
fitted with a diamond point and acting in a glass which the recurring chemical group contains
tube. The hammer is made to strike the material silicon and oxygen atoms as links in the main
under test and the degree of rebound is noted on a chain. At present these compounds are derived
graduated scale. Generally, the harder the material from silica (sand) and methyl chloride. The various
the greater will be the rebound. forms obtainable are characterized by their
short or short shot—In injection molding, failure to resistance to heat. Silicones are used in the
fill the mold completely. following applications: (a) Greases for lubrication.
(b) Rubber-like sheeting for gaskets, etc. (c) Heat-
shot—The yield from one complete molding cycle,
stable fluids and compounds for waterproofing,
including scrap.
insulating, etc. (d) Thermosetting insulating
shot capacity—The maximum weight of material varnishes and resins for both coating and
which an accumulator can push out with one laminating.
forward stroke of ram.
sink mark—A shallow depression or dimple on the
shrinkage—Contraction of a container upon cooling. surface of an injection molded part due to
shrink fixture—See cooling fixture. collapsing of the surface following local internal
shrink mark—An imperfection, a depression in the shrinkage after the gate seals. May also be an
surface of a molded material where it has retracted incipient short shot.
from the mold. sinking a mold—See hobbing.
shrink wrapping—A technique of packaging in sintering—The partial welding together of powder
which the strains in a plastics film are released by particles at temperature near the melting point.
raising the temperature of the film thus causing it SI units—“Systeme International” units, established in
to shrink over the package. These shrink 1960, based partly on the metric system, which
characteristics are built into the film during its was used in Europe for a long time. In SI the six
manufacture by stretching it under controlled base units are: metre (length), kilogram (mass),
temperatures to produce orientation, e.g., of the second (time), ampere (electric current), degree
molecules. Upon cooling, the film retains its Kelvin (temperature) and candela (luminous
stretched condition, but reverts toward its original intensity).
dimensions when it is heated. Shrink film gives sizing—(n.) The process of applying a material to a
good protection to the products packaged and has surface to fill pores and thus reduce the absorption
excellent clarity. of the subsequently applied adhesive or coating or
siamese blow—A colloquial term applied to the to the otherwise modify the surface. Also, the
technique of blowing two or more parts of a surface treatment applied to glass fibers used to
product in a single blow and then cutting them reinforce plastics. The material used is sometimes
apart. called Size.
side bars—Loose pieces used to carry one or more skin—A relatively dense layer at the surface of a
molding pins, and operated from outside the mold. cellular material.
side draw pins—Projections used to core the hole in slip additive—A modifier that acts as an internal
a direction other than the line of closing a mold, lubricant which extrudes to the surface of the
and which must be withdrawn before the part is plastic during and immediately after processing. In
ejected from the mold. other words, a non-visible coating blooms to the
silk screening printing (screen process surface to provide the necessary lubricity to reduce

40
®
 Glossary

coefficient of friction and thereby improve slip • The metering zone (pumping zone), where the
characteristics. polymer is transported forward by drag flow
slip, slippage—When fluids flow it is assumed that caused by the rotating action of the screw.
the velocity at a surface is zero (or equal to the solid lubricant—See lubricant, solid.
surface velocity if the surface moves). Virtually all solution—Homogeneous mixture of two or more
polymer melts exhibit some slippage on the surface, components, such as gas dissolved in a gas or
especially when the shear stress levels are high, liquid, or a solid in a liquid.
e.g., over 0.1 MPa (14.5 psi). Stick-slip phenomena
solvent—Any substance, usually a liquid which
are responsible for the onset of sharkskin whenever
dissolves other substances.
polymers are extruded at shear stresses higher than
0.14 MPa (20.3 psi). Some additives and processing solvent molding—Process of forming thermoplastic
aids promote slippage. Slippage is beneficial for articles by dipping a male mold in a solution or
delaying the appearance of sharkskin at higher dispersion of the resin and drawing off the solvent
throughput rates. to leave a layer of plastic film adhering to the mold.
slip forming—Sheet forming technique in which spacer cable—A system of 2-15kv primary power
some of the plastic sheet material is allowed to slip distribution in which three partially insulated or
through the mechanically operated clamping rings covered phase wires and a high-strength
during a stretch-forming operation. messenger-ground wire are mounted in plastic or
ceramic insulating spacers.
slip-plane—Plane within transparent material visible
in reflected light, due to poor welding and spanishing—A method of depositing ink in the
shrinkage on cooling. values of embossed plastic film.
slot extrusion—A method of extruding film sheet in SPE—Abbreviation for Society of Plastics Engineers.
which a molten thermoplastic compound is forced specific gravity—The density (mass per unit
through a straight slot. volume) of any material divided by that of water at
slurry extrusion—Method of preparing reinforced a standard temperature, usually 4°C. Since water’s
plastic performs by wet processing techniques density is nearly 1.00 g/cc, density in g/cc and
similar to those used in the pulp molding e.g., specific gravity are numerically nearly equal.
industry. specific heat—The amount of heat required to raise a
slush molding—Method of casting thermoplastics, specified mass by one unit of specified
in which the resin in liquid form is poured into a temperature.
hot mold where a viscous skin forms. The excess specific viscosity—The specific viscosity of a
slush is drained off, the mold is cooled, and the polymer is the relative viscosity of a solution of
molding stripped out. known concentration of the polymer minus one. It
smear tip—Tip used primarily with shear sensitive is usually determined for a low concentration of the
materials such as PVC, has a conical shape instead polymer (0.5 g. per 100 ml. of solution or less).
of the more typical non-return valve designs used Where nSP = specific viscosity, nr = relative
in injection molding. viscosity.
η–η
o
snap-back forming—Sheet forming technique in
η η –1
SP r
= ----------------- =
which an extended heated plastic sheet is allowed
η
o
to contract over a male form shaped to the desired specimen—A piece or portion of a sample used to
contours. make a test.
solids-conveying zone—The single-screw specular transmittance—The transmittance value
extrusion process consists of three functional obtained when the measured transmitted flux
zones: They are: includes only that transmitted in essentially the
• The solids-conveying zone, where the polymer same direction as the incident flux.
pellets or powder are compacted and SPI—Abbreviation for Society of the Plastics Industry.
transported forward;
spider—(1) In a molding press, that part of an ejector
• The melting zone, where the polymer melts mechanism which operates the ejector pins. (2) In
mainly under the action of shear on the barrel wall; extrusion, a term used to denote the membranes

41
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

supporting a mandrel within the head/die ejected into a resin stream which is directed at the
assembly. mold by either of two spray systems. In foamed
spider lines—Vertical marks on the parison plastics, very fast-reacting urethane foams or
(container) caused by improper welding of several epoxy foams are fed in liquid streams to the gun
melt flow fronts formed by the legs with which the and sprayed on the surface. On contact, the liquid
torpedo is fixed in the extruder head. starts to foam.
spinneret—A type of extrusion die, i.e., a metal plate spreader—A streamlined metal block placed in the
with many tiny holes, through which a plastic melt path of flow of the plastics material in the heating
is forced to make fine fibers and filaments. cylinder of extruders and injection molding
Filaments may be hardened by cooling in air, machines to spread it into thin layers, thus forcing
water, etc., or by chemical action. it into intimate contact with the heating areas.
spinning—Process of making fibers by forcing plastic sprue—Feed opening provided in the injection or
melt through spinneret. transfer mold; also the slug formed at this hole.
spin welding—A process of fusing two objects
Spur is a shop term for the sprue slug.
together by forcing them together while one of the sprue brushing—A hardened steel insert in an
pair is spinning, until frictional heat melts the injection mold which contains the tapered sprue
interface. Spinning is then stopped and pressure hole and has a suitable seat for the nozzle of the
held until they are frozen together. injection cylinder. Sometimes called an adaptor. A
spiral flow test—A method of determining the flow “hot sprue bushing” includes capability to keep the
properties of a thermoplastic resin in which the molding material hot enough so it doesn’t solidify
resin flows along the path of a spiral cavity. The in processing.
length of the material which flows into the cavity sprue gate—A passageway through which molten
and its weight gives a relative indication of the resin flows from the nozzle to the mold cavity,
flow properties of the resin. producing a part with a sprue attached (but no
spiral mold cooling—A method of cooling injection runner).
molds or similar molds wherein the cooling sprue lock—In injection molding, a portion of the
medium flows through a spiral cavity in the body plastic composition which is held in the cold slug
of the mold. In injection molds, the cooling well by an undercut; used to pull the sprue out of
medium is introduced at the center of the spiral, the bushing as the mold is opened. The sprue lock
near the sprue section, as more heat is localized in itself is pushed out of the mold by an ejector pin.
this section. When the undercut occurs on the cavity block
split-ring mold—A mold in which a split cavity block retainer plate, this pin is called the Sprue Ejector
is assembled in a chase to permit the forming of Pin.
undercuts in a molded piece. These parts are stabilizer—An ingredient used in the formulation of
ejected from the mold and then separated from the some plastics, especially elastomers, to assist in
piece. maintaining the physical and chemical properties
spray coating—Usually accomplished on continuous of the compound materials at their initial values
webs by a set of reciprocating spray nozzles throughout the processing and service life of the
traveling laterally across the web as it moves. material.
sprayed metal molds—Mold made by spraying staple—Refers to textile fibers of a short length,
molten metal onto a master until the shell of usually 1/2" to 3", for natural fibers and sometimes
predetermined thickness is achieved. Shell is then larger for synthetics.
removed and backed up with plaster, cement, starve feeding—Feeding of an extruder at a rate
casting resin, or other suitable material. Used below the full capacity of the machine. This results
primarily as a mold in sheet-forming processes. in output determined by the feeder and not by the
spray-up—Covers a number of techniques in which a extruder or the process parameters.
spray gun is used as the processing tool. In stationary platen—The large front plate of an
reinforced plastics, for example, fibrous glass and injection molding machine to which the front plate
resin can be simultaneously deposited in a mold. In of the mold is secured during operation. This
essence, roving is fed through a chopper and platen does not move during normal operation.

42
®
 Glossary

steam molding (expandable polystyrene)—Used stretch forming—A plastic sheet forming technique
to mold parts from pre-expanded beads of in which the heated thermoplastic sheet is
polystyrene using steam as a source of heat to stretched over a mold and subsequently cooled.
expand the blowing agent in the material. The striation—Ripping of thick parisons, caused by a
steam in most cases is contacted intimately with local orientation effect in the melt by the spider
the beads directly or may be used indirectly to legs.
heat mold surfaces which are in contact with the
stripper-plate—A plate that strips a molded piece
beads.
from core pins or force plugs. The stripper-plate is
steam plate—Mounting plate for molds, cored for set into operation by the opening of the mold.
circulation of steam. submarine (or tunnel) gate—A type of edge gate
sterepspecific plastics—Implies a specific or where the opening from the runner into the mold
definite order of arrangement of molecules in is located below the parting line or mold surface as
space. This ordered regularity of the molecules in opposed to conventional edge gating where the
contrast to the branched or random arrangement opening is machined into the surface of the mold.
found in other plastics permits close packing of With submarine gates, the item is broken from the
the molecules and leads to high crystallinity (i.e., runner system on ejection from the mold.
as in polypropylene). surface resistivity—The electrical resistance
stitching—The progressive welding of thermoplastic between opposite edges of a unit square of
materials by successive applications of two small insulating material. It is commonly expressed in
mechanically operated electrodes, connected to ohms (Also covered in ASTM D257-54T.)
the output terminals of the radio frequency surface treating—Any method of treating a
generator, using a mechanism similar to that of a polyolefin so as to alter the surface and render it
normal sewing machine. receptive to inks, paints, lacquers, and adhesives
stock temperature—See melt temperature. such as chemical, flame, and electronic treating.
storage life—A period of time during which a liquid surfacant—A compound that affects interfacial
resin or packaged adhesive can be stored under tensions between two liquids. It usually reduces
specified temperature conditions and remain surface tension.
suitable for use. Storage life is sometimes called surging—Unstable pressure build-up in an extruder
shelf life. leading to variable throughput and waviness of the
storage modulus (denoted as G’)—The ratio of
parison.
shear stress to strain (deformation) when dynamic suspension—A mixture of fine particles of any solid
(sinusoidal) deformation is applied in a cone-and- with a liquid or gas. The particles are called the
plate rheometer. It relates to the elasticity of the disperse phase, the suspending medium is called
polymer melt. G′′, the loss modulus is also continuous phase.
determined in dynamic (sinusoidal) measurements sweating—Exudation of small drops of liquid,
and relates to the viscous behavior. So, G′ and G′′ usually a plasticizer or softener, on the surface of a
together give an idea of the dual nature of the plastic part.
polymer melt (partly elastic solid and partly syndiotactic—A chain of molecules in which the
viscous fluid). Measurements of G′ and G′′ methyl groups alternate regularly on opposite
provide information on polymer structure and sides of the chain.
might be related to molecular weight distribution,
syneresis—The contraction of a gel accompanied by
crosslinking, etc.
the separation of a liquid.
straight-sided round—A round bottle with straight
synergism—A term used to describe the use of two
side walls from shoulder to base.
or more stabilizers in an organic material where
strain—A technical term synonymous with the combination of such stabilizers improves the
deformation. stability to a greater extent than could be expected
stress crack—An external or internal crack in a from the additive effect of each stabilizer.
plastic caused by tensile stresses less than its syntatic foam—A material consisting of hollow
short-time mechanical strength. sphere fillers in a resin matrix.

43
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

T of time when difference in temperature of two

faces is 1°.
tab gated—A small removable tab of approximately
the same thickness as the mold item, usually thermal degradation—Deterioration by heat.
located perpendicular to the item. The tab is used thermal expansion—(coefficient of) The fractional
as a site for edge gate location, usually on items change in length (sometimes volume, specified) of
with large flat areas. a material for a unit change in temperature. Values
tack—Stickiness of an adhesive, measurable as the for plastics range from 0.01 to 0.2 mils/in., °C.
force required to separate an adherend from it by thermal mechanical analysis (TMA)—In this
viscous or plastic flow of the adhesive. technique, a sample is deformed under a static load
tack range—The period of time in which an adhesive as its temperature is being changed. Glass
will remain in the tacky-dry condition after transition and softening points can be measured.
application to an adherend, under specified The amount of orientation can also be measured by
conditions of temperature and humidity. TMA.
tapered cylinder—Refers to a particular shape of a thermal stress cracking (TSC)—Crazing and
container in which the circular cross section at the cracking of some thermoplastic resins which
top is smaller in diameter than that at the bottom, results from over-exposure to elevated
or visa versa. temperatures.
tapping—Cutting threads in the wall of a circular hole. thermocouple—A device used for measuring
temperature. It creates an electric current that
t-die—A term used to denote a centerfed, slot varies as temperature varies. A gauge or display
extrusion die for film which in combination with then shows that electric current as a temperature.
the die adapter resembles an inverted T.
thermoforming—Any process of forming
telomer—A polymer composed of molecules having thermoplastic sheet which consists of heating the
terminal groups incapable of reacting with sheet and pulling it down onto a mold surface.
additional monomers, under the conditions of the
synthesis, to form larger polymer molecules of the thermoforms—The product which results from a
same chemical type. thermoforming operation.
thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)—This
tenacity (gpd)—The term generally used in yarn
technique is used to measure a variety of polymeric
manufacture and textile engineering to denote the
phenomena involving weight changes, such as
strength of a yarn or of a filament for its given size.
sorption of gases, desorption of contaminants
Numerically it is the grams of breaking force per
(monomers, solvents, and additives) and
denier unit of yarn or filament size; grams per
degradation. In TGA, a sample is placed on a
denier, gpd. The yarn is usually pulled at the rate of
balance beam in an oven. From the weight versus
12 in./min. Tenacity equals breaking strength
temperature curves, kinetic and other studies are
(gms) divided by denier. (Tenacity, gpd) (Spec.
carried out.
Gravity) 12, 800 = (Tensile Strength, psi).
thermoplastic—(adj.) Capable of being repeatedly
tensile bar (specimen)—A compression or injection
softened by heat and hardened by cooling (n.) - A
molded specimen of specified dimensions which is
material that will repeatedly soften when heated
used to determine the tensile properties of a
and hardened when cooled. Typical of the
material.
thermoplastics family are the styrene polymers and
tensile strength—The pulling stress, in psi, required copolymers, acrylics, cellulosics, polyethylenes,
to break a given specimen. Area used in computing vinyls, nylons, and the various fluorocarbon
strength is usually the original, rather than the materials.
necked-down area.
thermoset—A material that will undergo or has
therimage—A trademark for a decorating process for undergone a chemical reaction by the action of
plastic which transfers the image of a label or heat, catalysts, ultra-violet light, etc., leading to a
decoration to the object under the influence of heat. relatively infusible state. Typical of the plastics in
thermal conductivity—Ability of a material to the thermosetting family are the aminos (melamine
conduct heat; physical constant for quantity of heat and urea), most polyesters alkyds, epoxies and
that passes through unit cube of a substance in unit phenolics.

44
®
 Glossary

thixotropic—Said of materials that are gel-like at rest glass. Some polypropylene films and acrylic
by fluid when agitated. Liquids containing moldings are outstanding in this respect.
suspended solids are apt to be thixotropic. tree wire—A special type of power line wire designed
Thixotropy is desirable in paints. for installation in wooded areas.
thread contour—The shape or type of thread design trim—That portion of the sheet that is not part of the
as observed in a cross section along the major final product.
axis, i.e., flat heated, square, round, etc.
Trouton ratio—The ratio of elongational
thread plug—A part of a mold that shapes an internal (extensional) viscosity to (shear) viscosity for
thread and must be unscrewed from the finished Newtonian fluids is 3. Polymers do not obey this
product. relation. Ratios can range up to 100 for melts and
tie bars—Bars which provide structural rigidity to the up to perhaps 10,000 for solutions.
clamping mechanism often used to guide platen tumbling—Finishing operation for small plastic
movement. articles by which gates, flash, and fins are removed
toggle action—A mechanism which exerts pressure and/or surfaces are polished by rotating them in a
developed by the application of force on a knee barrel together with wooden pegs, sawdust, and
joint. It is used as a method of closing presses and polishing compounds.
also serves to apply pressure at the same time.
turning table—A rotating table or wheel carrying
tolerance—A specified allowance for deviations in various molds in a multi-mold single parison blow
weighing, measuring, etc., or for deviations from molding operation.
the standard dimensions or weight.
top blow—A specific type of blow molding machine U
which forms hollow articles by injection the ultimate strength—Term used to describe the
blowing into the parison at the top of the mold. maximum unit stress a material will withstand
torpedo (or spreader)—A streamlined metal block when subjected to an applied load in a
placed in the path of flow of the plastics materials compression, tension, or shear test.
in the heating cylinder of extruders and injection ultrasonic sealing—A film sealing method in which
molding machines to spread it into thin layers, sealing is accomplished through the application of
thus forcing it into intimate contact with heating vibratory mechanical pressure at ultrasonic
areas. frequencies (20 to 40 kc.). Electrical energy is
torsion—Stress caused by twisting a material. converted to ultrasonic vibrations through the use
tracking—A phenomenon wherein a high voltage of either a magnetostrictive or piezoelectric
source current creates a leakage or fault path transducer. The vibratory pressure at the film
across the surface of an insulating material by interface in the sealing area develop localized heat
slowly but steadily forming a carbonized path. losses which melt the plastic surfaces effecting the
transducer—A device that converts power generated seal.
by one system into another (e.g. pressure ultraviolet—Zone of invisible radiations beyond the
transducers which convert hydraulic pressure into violet end of the spectrum of visible radiations.
electrical signals). Since UV wavelengths are shorter than the visible,
transfer molidng—A method of forming articles by their photons have more energy, enough to initiate
fusing a plastic material in a chamber and then some chemical reactions and to degrade most
forcing essentially the whole mass into a hot mold plastics.
where it solidifies. undercut—(a.) Having a protuberance or indention
transition section (of a screw)—Same as that impedes withdrawal from a two-piece rigid
Compression Section (i.e. the section between mold. Flexible materials can be ejected intact even
feed and metering sections). with slight undercuts. (n.) Any such protuberance
translucent—Descriptive of a material or substance or indentation; depends also on design of mold.
capable of transmitting some light, but not clear uniaxial deformation—Sheet stretching on one
enough to be seen through. direction.
transparent—Descriptive of a material or substance unicellular—With foamed plastics, each cell an
capable of a high degree of light transmission e.g., isolated unit. Equals “closed-cell”.

45
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

unit mold—A simple mold which comprises only a other monomers, the vinyl acetate being the
single cavity without further mold devices to be greatest amount by mass.
used for the production of sample containers vinyl chloride plastics—Plastics based on polymers
having a shape which is difficult to blow. of vinyl chloride or copolymers of vinyl chloride
unsaturated compounds—Any compound having with other monomers, the vinyl chloride being in
more than one bond between two adjacent atoms, greatest amount by mass.
usually carbon atoms, and capable of adding other vinylidene chloride plastics—Plastics based on
atoms at that point to reduce it to a single bond. polymer resins made by the polymerization of
urea plastics—Plastics based on resins made by the vinylidene chloride or copolymerization of
condensation of urea and aldehydes. vinylidene chloride with other unsaturated
compounds, the vinylidene chloride being the
urethane—See description under isocyanate resins.
greatest amount by weight.
UV stabilizer (ultraviolet)—Any chemical compound
virgin material—A plastic material in the form of
which, when admixed with a thermoplastic resin,
pellets, granules, powder, flock, or liquid that has
selectively absorbs UV rays.
not been subjected to use or processing other than
that required for its initial maunufacture.
V
viscoelasticity—The dual nature of polymers is that
vacuum forming—Method of sheet forming in which they are partly viscous fluids and partly elastic
the plastic sheet is clamped in a stationary frame, solids, i.e., viscoelastic. In flowing polymers,
heated, and drawn down by a vacuum into a mold. viscoelasticity is responsible for time-dependent
In a loose sense, it is sometimes used to refer to all properties, such as stress relaxation, normal
sheet forming techniques, including Drape stresses, very large elongational viscosities, and
Forming e.g., involving the use of vacuum and numerous unusual phenomena such as extrudate
stationary molds. swell, entry flow vortices and some flow
vacuum metalizing—Process in which surfaces are instabilities.
thinly coated with metal by exposing them to the viscosity—The resistance to fluid flow (strictly
vapor of metal that has been evaporated under speaking the resistance to shearing). It is defined as
vacuum(one millionth of normal atmospheric the ratio of shear stress (Tangential Force/Area) to
pressure. shear rate (velocity/gap). The viscosity of a
valley printing—Ink is applied to the high points of polymer decreases as the shear rate increases. This
an embossing roll and subsequently deposited in property is referred to as pseudoplastic behavior or
what becomes the valleys of the embossed plastic shear thinning. The viscosity of a polymer at (near)
material. zero shear for a polymer like PE might be 5000 to
vehicle—The liquid medium in which pigments, etc., 10,000 Pa s, while during flow in an extrusion
are dispersed in coatings such as paint, e.g., and channel it could be much lower (i.e. 500 Pa s or
which enable the coating to be applied. less). Melt flow index corresponds to just one point
on a viscosity curve (actually inverse). High
vent—In a mold, a shallow channel or minute hole cut
viscosity implies low melt index and high
in the cavity to allow air to escape as the material
molecular weight. Viscosity is measured in units of
enters.
Pa s or poise. 1 Pa s = 10 poise. The viscosity of
Venturi dispersion plug—A plate having an orifice water is 10-3 Pa s (1 centipoise) and for a typical
with a conical relief drilled therein which is fitted polymer melt at least one million times larger (i.e.,
in the nozzle of an injection molding machine to over 1000 Pa s or 10,000 poise).
aid in the dispersion of colorants in a resin. viscosity, inherent—The logarithmic viscosity
vertical flash ring—The clearance between the force number determined by dividing the natural
plug and the vertical wall of the cavity in a positive logarithm of the relative viscosity (sometimes
or semi-positive mold; also the ring of excess called viscosity ratio) by the concentration in
material which escapes from the cavity into this grams per 100 mls. of solution.
clearance space. viscosity, relative (viscosity ratio)—Determined
vinyl acetate plastics—Plastics based on polymers by dividing the average efflux time of the solution
of vinyl acetate or copolymers of vinyl acetate with by the average efflux time of the pure solvent.

46
®
 Glossary

voids—In a solid plastic, an unfilled space of such the same meaning as the Deborah Number under
size that it scatters radiant energy such as light. A certain conditions (see deborah number).
cavity unintentionally formed in a cellular Weissenberg rheogoniometer—See cone and plate
material and subsequently larger than the instrument
characteristics individual cells. weldlines (also known as parting lines)—
viscous—“Thick.” Water is not viscous. Honey and Weldlines are formed because of flow
grease are viscous. Melted plastic is very viscous. interruptions by obstructions in a melt flow field.
In addition, its viscosity changes with the rate that Because of the high viscosity, the diffusion of
it is made to flow though the die head. Plastics are polymer molecules, after they have been
viscous because the long chains tend to tangle and separated, is very slow and the weldline remains a
cling to each other, even when melted. line of mechanical weakness and may be visible to
viscous dissipation (or viscous heating)—See the naked eye. Such defects are common in
frictional heating. injection molded products and are often
volatiles—That portion of a substance that is readily encountered in extruded pipes, bottles, and film.
vaporized. weld mark (also flow line)—A mark on a molded
volume resistivity (specific insulation plastics piece made by the meeting of two flow
resistance)—The electrical resistance between fronts during the molding operation.
opposite faces of a 1-cm. Cube of insulating welding—Joining thermoplastic pieces by one of
material. It is measured under prescribed several heat-softening processes. In hot-gas
conditions using a direct current potential after a welding, the material is heated by a jet of hot air or
specified time of electrification. It is commonly inert gas directed from a welding “torch” onto the
expressed in ohm centimeters. The recommended area of contact of the surfaces which are being
test is ASTM D257-54T. welded. Welding operations to which this method
vulcanization—The chemical reaction which induces is applied normally require the use of a filler rod.
extensive changes in the physical properties of a In spin-welding e.g., the heat is generated by
rubber and which is brought about by reacting the friction. Welding also includes heat sealing and
rubber and sulphur and/or other suitable agents. the terms are synonymous in some foreign
The changes in physical properties include countries including Britain.
decreased plastic flow, reduced surface tackiness, wet strength—The strength of paper when saturated
increased elasticity, much greater tensile strength, with water, especially used in discussions of
and considerably less solubility. More recently, processes whereby the strength of paper is
certain thermoplastics, e.g., polyethylene, have increased by the addition, in manufacture, of
been formulated to the vulcanizable. Cross-linking plastics resins. Also, the strength of an adhesive
is encouraged, thereby giving resistance to joint determined immediately after removal from a
deformation of flow above the melting point. liquid in which it has been immersed under
specified conditions of time, temperature, and
W pressure.
waist—The central portion of a container which has a wide-spec material—Plastic materials are expected
smaller cross section than the adjacent areas. to show a certain range of processing behavior,
warpage—Dimensional distortion in a plastic object especially as relates to flow in the die head and
after molding. during molding. Wide-spec material will usually
show a wider range of processing behavior and it
watt density—Heater output rating.
can be more difficult to use. However, it is usually
weatherometer—An instrument which is utilized to much less expensive and products made from it
subject articles to accelerated weathering will typically meet all of the customer’s
conditions, e.g., rich UV source and water spray. requirements if processed properly.
web—A thin sheet in process in a machine. The window—A defect in a thermoplastics film, sheet or
molten web is that which issues from the die. The molding, caused by the incomplete
substrate web is the substrate being coated. “plasticization” of a piece of material during
Weissenberg number—The product of a processing. It appears as a globule in an otherwise
characteristic material time and shear rate. It has blended mass. See also Fish Eye.

47
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

wire train—The entire assembly which is utilized to yield value (yield strength)—The lowest stress at
produce a resin-coated wire which normally which a material undergoes plastic deformation.
consists of an extruder, a crosshead and a die, Below this stress, the material is elastic; above it,
cooling means, and feed and take-up spools for the viscous.
wire.
wood model—A model of a container made from Z
wood to assist in the design of a container. zero shear viscosity—The asymptotic viscosity
working life—The period of time during which a value at zero shear rate (i.e., the maximum value).
liquid resin or adhesive, after mixing with catalyst, As the shear rate increases, the viscosity decreases
solvent, or other compounding ingredients, because of alignments of molecular chains in the
remains usable. direction of flow and molecular chain
disentanglements. The zero shear viscosity is
wrinkle—An imperfection in reinforced plastics that
proportional to the weight average molecular
has the appearance of a wave molded into one or
weight raised to the 3.4 power (i.e. η0 = constant *
more plies of fabric or other reinforcing material.
Mw3.4 for most common polymers). This means
that if we increase the molecular weight of a
Y polymer from 100,000 to 200,000, the viscosity
Young’s modulus of elasticity—The modulus of will increase by 23.4 = 10.55 times. Obviously, it is
elasticity in tension. The ratio of stress in a extremely difficult to extrude polymers having
material subjected to deformation. very high molecular weight.

Note: SPE wishes to recognize Chevron Phillips Chemical Company for permission to use their Glossary of
Plastics Terms, Fourth Edition.

Although the information in this Glossary has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable, no warranty,
expressed or implied, can be made as to its completeness or accuracy. While the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of going to press, neither the authors nor the editors nor the
publisher nor Chevron Phillips Chemical Company LP can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or
omissions or any obligation to update information as it may change. The publisher makes no warranty, express or
implied, with respect to the material contained herein.

REFERENCES
1. Chevron Phillips Chemical Company, the Glossary of Plastics Terms, Fourth Edition
2. ASTM D883 Standard Definitions of Terms Relating to Plastics
3. Throne, James L., Technology of Thermoforming, Hanser Gardner Publications, (1996)
4. L.R. Whittington, Whittington’s Dictionary of Plastics, 2nd Ed., Technomic, Lancaster, Pa. (1978).
5. W. Glenz, ed., A Glossary of Plastics Terminology in 5 Languages, Hanser Gardner, Cincinnati, Ohio
(1995).
6. L.A. Utracki, Dictionary of Terms Used in Polymer Science and Technology, NRCC/IMI, Montreal (1998).
7. R.C. Progelhof and J.L. Throne, Polymer Engineering Principles, Hanser Gardner, Cincinnati, Ohio (1993).
8. T.I. Butler and E.W. Veazy, Film Extrusion Manual, TAPPI Press, Atlanta (1992).
9. J.I. Kroschwitz, Concise Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Engineering, Wiley, New York (1990).
10. P.J. Corish, Concise Encyclopedia of Polymer Processing and Applications, Pergamon Press, Oxford,
England (1992).

48
®
CLAMP END
PETER LIPP, MICHAEL DE SA, AND ROBERT B. PETERSON, II

This chapter will describe the function and projected area of the part and the required
differences of the various types of clamp units injection plastic pressure together will determine
used in injection molding machines. The basic the clamp tonnage requirement.
clamp unit of an injection molding machine can
be described as a framework consisting of four tie MECHANICAL CLAMPING UNIT
bars, a moveable platen, and the stationary platen. The basic design is a mechanical clamp
In the case of a tiebarless machine, the four tie system, which consists of three platens, four tie
bars will be replaced by the “C-clamp” design. In bars, and a toggle mechanism operated by a
addition to this framework, there will be a device, hydraulic cylinder. Mechanical clamping units
or clamp mechanism, to move the moveable can be divided into two types of mechanical
platen. The clamp mechanism can be linkage configurations: the single-toggle lever
differentiated by mechanical, fully hydraulic, and system and the double-toggle lever system. The
hydraulic-mechanical clamping systems. These single-toggle lever system (Figure 1) is
clamp unit designs can also be differentiated by commonly used in small machines where a
three-platen, two-platen, and tiebarless clamp clamping force of up to 50 tons is required,
systems. Some designs combine more than one of whereas the double-toggle lever system (Figures 2
the principles of each type. The type of clamping and 3) is widely used for larger machines. In the
system and clamp configuration combination used single-toggle lever system, a hydraulic cylinder
depends on the injection molding machine motions the toggle lever to open and close the
manufacturer and on the clamp tonnage range. mold. This system allows for only short opening
Before the differences about the clamp unit strokes. On the other hand, the double-toggle
designs can be explained, there is a need to lever system uses a center hydraulic driving
understand the criteria required in calculating system, and depending on the length of the
clamp tonnage, which in turn will define the driving cylinder, large opening strokes can be
clamp unit size. obtained. With this type of clamping system there
are four-point, as just described, and five-point
The clamping unit has three basic functions— toggle lever-systems. Both systems operate with a
close the mold, keep the mold closed against central driving cylinder. Figure 2 depicts a four-
injection pressure, and then open the mold for part point double-toggle lever system and a five-point
ejection. The mold will have a cavity or cavities double-toggle lever system can be seen in Figure
of the negative image of the molded part. The 3. The clamping unit takes up less space with the

1
Society of Plastics Engineers

five-point toggle lever system, thereby resulting in Whereas the moving platen is moved by the fast
a larger opening stroke. travel cylinders, the large clamp cylinder is filled
The operation of the toggle injection molding with oil that is either gravity fed, if the prefill tank
machine is rather simple. A single hydraulic is mounted overhead, or suction fed, if the prefill
cylinder is stretching or collapsing the toggle tank is mounted below the clamp cylinder.
mechanism, which moves the moveable platen. The With a two-platen clamp system, the framework
toggle mechanism and moveable platen make up of the cylinder and moveable platen in combination
the clamping mechanism. A mold that is installed with the four tie bars disappears. Instead, there is just
between the moveable and the stationary platen can a moveable and stationary platen and four clamp
be held closed by the force applied by the stretching cylinders. Small internal or external traverse
of the toggle system. Once the toggle has closed the cylinders move the platen and the four main clamp
mold fully, and the linkages are stretched, the cylinders will build the required tonnage.
toggle system is considered “locked.” The toggle
system should never be overstretched. The toggle HYDROMECHANICAL
system is overstretched when the toggle linkages CLAMPING UNIT
are locked perfectly straight. If this is done, the The hydromechanical clamp consists of the
clamp will not be able to open without the aid of a basic components in addition to having two small,
jack or sledgehammer. To prevent overstretching, fast travel cylinders and one large clamp cylinder.
the machines are typically equipped with a limit This design requires a locking plate (Figure 5).
switch that will switch off the hydraulic valve The locking plate is a mechanism installed to
operating the linkages. reduce the size of the clamp cylinder; otherwise, it
would be too long and require a large amount of
ALL ELECTRIC CLAMPING oil, making the machine extremely heavy. The
UNIT usage of a pressure column also keeps the clamp
The electric clamping unit is similar to the shortened. For example, on an average full
mechanical unit. The difference between the two hydraulic, 1000-ton machine, the clamp piston
is that an electrically driven motor moves the would be 65 in. long; however, with a
toggle lever by the use of a ball screw to open and hydromechanical clamping unit the clamp piston
close the mold rather than having a hydraulic is only 20 in. long, with the remaining 45 in. to be
cylinder operating the toggle mechanism. made up by the pressure column.
The sequential function (Figure 6) of the
HYDRAULIC CLAMPING UNIT hydromechanical clamping system is as follows:
Hydraulic clamping units all use the same The mold will close with the fast travel
design in generating clamp force (i.e., a large cylinder until the pressure column is totally
hydraulic cylinder centrally located in the back of extended. At this point, a switch will monitor the
the machine). Again, the clamp consists of the correct position of the pressure column and enable
three platens: cylinder, stationary and moveable, the locking plate to move in. While the locking
and four tie bars. The closing and opening of the plate is moving in, the pressure column has to
mold is motioned by the central cylinder or by two have sufficient clearance for the locking plate to
high-speed traverse cylinders without the use of pass by. After the locking plate is moved in, the
mechanical linkages (Figure 4). The fast travel clamp piston will come forward and the mold will
cylinders have a relatively small hydraulic area; clamp up. During mold opening, the clamp
therefore, the limited pump volume is able to cylinder is decompressed and the mold crack open
achieve high clamp speeds. is initiated by pressurizing the piston side of the
The clamp is also equipped with a large clamp main clamp piston. The travel cylinders are
cylinder used to build the required clamp tonnage. activated to move forward, which allows the

2
®
 Clamp End

locking plate to clear, and, again, the clearance of is adjusted and achieved by monitoring the
the locking plate is signaled by a limit switch. At hydraulic clamp pressure in the clamp cylinder.
this point, the locking plate is moved out and the The hydromechanical clamp system is in-
fast travel cylinders are activated to open the mold between the aforementioned two. The die height
parallel to the clamp cylinder. is adjusted by positioning the main clamp
cylinder to allow the mechanical locking devise to
DIE HEIGHT AND CLAMP engage after the travel cylinder has been fully
FORCE extended and the pressure column has cleared the
The die height adjustment is different on locking mechanism. This is considered the mold
various clamp systems. The toggle system close position (0-point), which is to be confirmed
requires that the tie bar lengths be adjusted to by the operator and is electronically stored. The
accommodate the die height and the required clamp pressure build up will occur by
tonnage as follows: pressurizing the main clamp cylinder, which will
Each machine must be capable of only travel a fraction of an inch.
accommodating different mold stack heights;
therefore, the toggle machine is equipped with a PROJECTED AREA AND
mold height adjustment gear. This adjustment will TONNAGE REQUIRED
increase or decrease the tie bar lengths, thereby The projected area of a part is the area that
changing the distance between the clamp and will be seen if looked on to the open mold surface
stationary platen. This same mechanism is used to by viewing it from the injection direction. The
change the required clamp tonnage. calculation is: part length multiplied by part
In order for the required clamp tonnage to be width, resulting in the area (in.2 or cm2). In the
built between the stationary and moveable platen, case of a round part, the diameter is multiplied by
the tie bars must be stretched. To achieve this itself, then multiplied by pi (π = 3.14) and divided
stretch, the distance between the stationary and by four (4): projected area = (πd2 ) ÷ 4 = πr2. If
the clamp platen must be decreased to a point the mold is a multicavity tool, then the result must
where the added dimensions of the mold stack be multiplied by the number of cavities, and the
height and the stretched toggle mechanism is result will be the total projected area of the
slightly larger than the distance between the two specific tool. In case of a stack tool, where two
platens. The smaller the distance between the layers of parts are stacked behind each other, the
stationary and clamp platen, the larger the projected area for one level needs to be calculated
tonnage will be. If the distance is made too small and multiplied by 1.15.
to prevent the toggle from locking, then the To determine the required clamp tonnage, the
proper clamping force cannot be generated. Most projected mold/part area as calculated earlier and the
toggle machines will have a diagram illustrating injection pressure are required. The clamp force has
the tonnage in relation to the hydraulic pressure at to be strong enough to withstand the plastic pressure
the point of clamp-up, or locking position. To projected in the mold over the square (in.2) area. The
regulate the tonnage on a toggle machine projected area calculated previously, therefore,
automatically, a tie bar stretch measuring device needs to be multiplied by the plastic injection
and an electric motor to adjust the mold height, pressure. The plastic injection pressure is dependent
including an intelligent logic system on the following criteria: nominal wall thickness of
(microprocessor and program), is needed. the part, divided into the flow length, which will
The full hydraulic clamp system die height and provide the flow ratio. Combining this with the melt
tonnage adjustment is less elaborate than the index number (i.e., the higher the number, the easier
mechanical system. Here, the mold close (0-point) the flow) will determine the needed injection
position is set electronically and the clamp tonnage pressure (note that your material supplier will have

3
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

charts providing pressure requirements based on wall Toggle Clamp (Mechanical Clamp)
thickness and flow ratio). The theoretically The toggle clamp has only one hydraulic
calculated injection pressure in psi (pounds per cylinder, which is used to close and clamp up the
square inch) needs to be multiplied with the mold. A hydraulic pressure and flow control
projected area in the mold. Dividing the result by installed close to the pump controls the oil flow
2000 (one U.S. ton equals 2000 pounds) will and pressure, and, therefore, the motion of the
determine the minimum clamp tonnage required. An clamp. To start the molding cycle the ejector plate
easy calculation for parts with a low flow length-to- has to be retracted and mold closing has to be
wall thickness ratio ( 40/1 : 80/1 ) is 2.5-3 U.S. tons per activated. Mold closing can be activated in several
square inch for high flow materials like polyethylene machine modes: manual, semi-automatic, or
and polypropylene, and 3-4 U.S. tons per square inch automatic. During mold closing a hydraulic valve
for low flow materials like polycarbonates and is activated, which will direct the oil flow to the
engineering grade materials. hydraulic clamp cylinder. During mold closing
there are several switch points, which need to be
programmed into the machine controller by the
KNOCKOUT PATTERN operator and will be monitored by the machines
The Society of Plastics Industry (SPI) and program via a linear clamp position transducer or,
EUROMAP (EUROMAP is the European on older machines, by using limit switches. The
committee of the national associations of switch points are mold open position, clamp slow
machinery manufacturers for the plastics and down position, begin mold safety position, and
rubber industries in Austria, France, Germany, end of mold safety position. The oil supplied by
Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Spain, the hydraulic pump is controlled by the
Switzerland, and United Kingdom) have made aforementioned pressure and flow control valve,
standardized maps for the knockout pattern. The and routed via the directional valve to the
map and the thread size that is used for the hydraulic clamp cylinder. The operator has to set
knockout pattern depend on the tonnage of the the fast and slow clamp speeds and, for mold
machine. The knockout pattern is placed in the safety, the speed and the pressure. The set points
moving platen and consists of horizontal and are related to the mold and the product being
molded (i.e., size of cores, length of leader pins,
vertically placed through holes. If positive return
part size, etc.) The sequence of events is:
is required, the ejector platen into which the mold
knockout plate is tied, should have the identical • Activate start mold closing
pattern as the moving platen; however, the holes • Make sure the ejector plate is back
would be threaded with the same thread size as the
mold mounting holes. All this information can be
• The mold will start to close fast
retrieved from the SPI (www.socplas.org) or • At the slowdown position the mold closing
EUROMAP (www.europmap.org) web sites. speed is reduced
• At the point of mold safety the closing
CLAMP FUNCTION DURING pressure and the closing speed is reduced to
MACHINE CYCLE the set point.
The injection molding machine cycle is started • When the set point for end of mold safety is
by closing the mold, followed by injection, and so reached the clamp will clamp up the
on. The function and sequence of events of the hydraulic system, which will supply
aforementioned different clamp units during the maximum pressure
mold closing/opening cycle varies based on the • If the toggle is stretched, a limit switch will
clamp design. signal that the mold/clamp is closed and the

4
®
 Clamp End

next step in the machine cycle can be be activated to charge the clamp cylinder. The
started (injection unit forward). On some level of clamp tonnage is measured with a pressure
hydraulic machines, a pressure switch is transducer, which is hydraulically connected
used to make sure the clamp is closed prior directly to the clamp cylinder. The operator will be
to injection. able to program/set the tonnage level. During
Mold opening can be activated manually or mold opening both clamp and traverse cylinder are
automatically. During the cycle the mold is activated to crack the mold open.
opened at the end of cooling time. If core pulls are Full Hydromechanical Clamp
used and programmed to be retracted before the This clamp is similar to the full hydraulic
mold opens, then the cores will be activated prior clamp; however, it employs a locking plate
to mold opening. The operator again has several mechanism, which needs to be engaged after the
switch points and speeds to program/set for this traverse cylinder has fully extended and closed the
function: slow opening speed, start position and mold (end mold safety). After this, the locking
speed for fast motion, and slowdown position and plate will be engaged, followed by the clamping
speed at the end of the opening stroke. The oil cylinder, which will build the desired clamp
supplied by the hydraulic pump is controlled by tonnage. The difference with this clamp design is
the aforementioned pressure and flow control that the clamp cylinder will travel only a small
valve and routed via the directional valve to the distance, whereas the clamp cylinder will travel
hydraulic clamp cylinder. This directional valve is the whole opening stroke on a full hydraulic
the same as used for clamp closing; however, for system. This clamp design requires an additional
clamp opening the second of the solenoids will be hydraulic directional valve for the locking plate.
energized, which will reverse the direction of oil There is nothing the operator needs to program for
flow. The sequence without the use of core pull is: this function; however, a crack-open stroke needs
• With the end of cooling time the clamp to be programmed/set for the clamp cylinder.
opening slow is activated 0-Point Setting
• With reaching of the clamp open fast set Mechanical System
point the clamp will open fast
• Increase the minimum mold height to
• With reaching of the clamp slow set point maximum using the installed electrical
the clamp will slow down motor or crank, depending on the machine.
• With reaching of the opening stroke the • Close the clamp with mold installed.
clamp will stop and the next step in the
• Reduce mold height until the two mold
cycle will be activated—ejector forward
halves touch.
(Note: some machines allow the ejector to
come forward during clamp motion) • Open mold.
Full Hydraulic Clamp • Reduce mold height a little more than
The full hydraulic clamp consists of two or mold-closed position.
three hydraulic cylinders (i.e., one or two traverse • Watch the hydraulic gauge during lock-up
cylinder/s and one clamp cylinder), whereas the and compare with chart supplied with the
toggle or mechanical clamp system uses only one machine to determine clamp tonnage setting.
hydraulic cylinder. The set up and the sequence of
events during mold closing are identical to the
• If the clamp does not lock-up, increase the
mold height adjustment.
function described earlier; however, the time of
end mold safety is the time when clamp pressure is • If the pressure is not high enough, decrease
built through a second directional valve that will the mold height adjustment.

5
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

(Note: Most machines have the capability of true that if mold protection stops the machine for
adjusting the positioning as the process changes; any reason, something has changed, and it is good
however, with some machine designs, thermal practice to determine what the causes are.)
expansion of the mold may keep the clamp from Although mold protection on different
closing. If this happens, the “mold height” must be machines—toggle, hydraulic, hydromechanical,
readjusted.) and electrical—are all provided, there are
Full-Hydraulic System differences between the effectiveness of the mold
• Close mold in set-up mode protection. The mold protection is more accurate
with hydraulic and hydromechanical machines
• Set 0-point in control system due to the level of control that you can achieve
Hydromechanical System with the system. Mold protection is set with
consideration to the following variables: time,
• Increase the minimum mold height to
linear distance, pressure, and velocity.
maximum. This will retract the main ram.
When using these variables, it is important to
• Close the clamp with mold installed. The remember that they are user-defined variables that
traverse hydraulic cylinder will fully extend
change from mold to mold as well as machine to
and the locking plate will engage.
machine. When setting the machine closing cycle,
• Reduce mold height until the two mold the linear distance or time the mold protection
halves touch, which will bring the main ram should start must first be determined. This is
forward. dependent on the number of moving parts within
• Set the 0-point in the controller. mold and part thickness. At the starting point, the
speed must be determined for the clamp, which is
• Set the crack open distance (ram travel again dependent on the mold, the time that is
stroke); allow enough distance to clear necessary for the required cycle time, and the
locking plate. process engineer.
MOLD PROTECTION Some general rules apply when setting mold
protection concerning the four variables. When
Mold protection is a user-defined control that
setting the linear distance, for a basic mold, the
will end the process cycle prematurely if there is
thickest part of the part should be used. For a more
something interfering with the mold being able to
complex mold, however, this distance may be
close or build clamp tonnage. If the process
greater due to moving cores, slides, or other
engineer has a new mold or a very elaborate mold,
considerations.
(e.g., a mold with numerous moving cores), there
will be a greater need for safety during the closing For example, suppose the mold has 3-in.-long
of the platen to ensure that there is no damage horn pins, which are use to activate mechanical
done to the mold. If the mold is a familiar or a slides. This is the point were mold safety should
relatively basic mold, then the process engineer start. To insure that mold safety is active at the
may choose to have less mold protection. point of the horn pin engagement, the mold safety
(Note: Why would anyone want less mold start position should be set at 3.5 in.
protection? One example would be where there is The next setting would be the speed setting.
a tendency for small pieces of plastic to remain on Some of the machines do allow for this; others
the mold surface. Although one could argue that have only pressure setting features and the speed
the mold should not close on any of these, is automatically reduced to 10 or 20% of the max
frequent cycle interruptions may cause a need to speed. Set the speed between 10 and 20% of the
relook at how sensitive the process is to small max speed for machines that have this feature.
particles—even if only temporarily. It is generally Reduce the pressure setting to the point at which

6
®
 Clamp End

the mold stops when reaching the mold safety close to all four tie bars. An acceptable tolerance
start point. Increase the pressure setting until the from the largest to the smallest measurement is
mold starts moving and use this point as the mold 0.004 in. of variance. If the distance is not within
safety pressure setting for this mold. The end the tolerance, the tie bar, which is close to where
mold safety should be set to the minimum value, the distance is the largest, needs to be shortened by
for which the best would be 0. The clamp travel tightening the tie bar nut.
time from the beginning of mold safety to the end To measure the tie bar stretch, which should
of mold safety should be measured and the result never be done before the platen parallelism has
should be doubled; this is the mold safety time. If been checked, the machine has to have a mold
an obstruction keeps the clamp from closing the installed that is 100% parallel. It is better to get a
mold safety alarm will be generated after the parallel piece (steel block) from your machine
mold safety time timed out. supplier on loan. The tie bar stretch is measured
by installing gauges on all four tie bars, and it
PLATEN CARE AND
should be noted that there are different makes
PARALLELISM available. Some of them use magnet bases or
An injection molding machines platen mechanical clamps. Others are electronic strain
parallelism as well as the tie bar stretch should be gauges, which require gluing onto the tie bar.
checked annually. Using full clamp tonnage all four gauges should
To check the parallelism of the stationary and show the same stretch. Please note that before
moving platen the two mold halves should be building tonnage all gauges need to be preloaded
moved as close as possible if a mold is installed the and zeroed. The tie bar stretches when tonnage is
mold should not be clamped. The distance between built, which means the gauges reduce their values.
the platens should be checked with an inside All gauges should show the same result. The
micrometer. If an inside micrometer is not tolerance is different from machine to machine
available a steel rod could be cut close to the size of and depends on the diameter of the tiebar and
the space and a feeler gauge can be used to tonnage applied. For more info on your specific
measure the distance. To determine platen machines contact your machine supplier. The tie
parallelism the platen distance should be measured bar which stretches the least must be shortened.

7
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Mechanical Moveable Centerline

Linkage Platen of tie bars

Cylinder Stationary
Platen Platen

Figure 1. Single lever.

Mechanical
Linkages
Moveable
Platen Centerline
of tie bars

Cylinder
Platen Stationary
Platen
Hydraulic
Figure 2. Four-point toggle.
Cylinder
Mechanical
Linkages
Moveable
Platen Centerline
of tie bars

Cylinder
Platen Stationary
Platen
Hydraulic Figure 3. Five-point toggle.
Cylinder

Moveable Centerline
Platen of tie bars

Cylinder
Platen
Stationary
Platen
Hydraulic Figure 4. Fully hydraulic.
Cylinder

8
®
 Clamp End

Small Hydr. Area

Moving Platen
Tie Bar Center Line
Clamp
Cylinder

Large Stationary Platen

Hydr.
Area
Pressure column
Locking Plate
Cylinder Locking Plate

Figure 5. Hydromechanical

Hydro-Mechanical Clamp Closing

1st Step Mold 3rd Step Clamp
Closing Activated Pressure Build-up

Mold Closed Mold Closed

Unlocked Locked
2nd Step Locking Locking Plate
Plate Activated Remains Activated

Hydro-Mechanical Clamp Opening

3rd Step Traverse Cylinder Maintain Pressure
2nd Step Clamp
Activated to Clear
Crack Open 5th Step Mold
Looking Plate Opening Activated

4th Step Move Locking

Mold TonnageRelieved and Locking Plate Mold Opening Plate out
clearance established
Locking Plate
1st Step Clamp Remains Activated
Pressure Relieve

Figure 6. Sequence of hydromechanical.

9
®
THE INJECTION UNIT
TIMOTHY W. WOMER

This chapter will describe the mechanics of used to verify the identification of components or
the injection unit. It is essential that the how they are used by that manufacturer.
fundamentals of the injection unit be understood The key factors that need to be considered in
because the technician affects the behavior of the the injection unit (Figure 1) are the screw, barrel,
plastic by adjusting many parameters to make the nonreturn valve, and nozzle. This chapter will
process stable and efficient. Throughout the explain the basics of each component and its
industry there may be unique injection unit effect on the plasticating process.
concepts that do not precisely follow the
descriptions provided, but we cannot attempt to T H E S C R E W — “T H E H E A R T
include all of them here. OF THE MACHINE”
As history has it, Archimedes (287? – 212
For example, not all injection screws rotate in B.C.) was the first person to use a large helical
the same direction; for some barrels, the rear zone device or screw in a cylinder that was rotated by
will be labeled zone 1; for others, it may be zone hand for raising water. Centuries later this simple
3 or 4. For specific information on a particular concept has evolved into a very sophisticated
machine, the owner/operator manual should be mechanical component that is the “heart” of

Figure 1. Injection unit.

11
Society of Plastics Engineers

Drive Shank
Screw Flight Diameter

Feed Trans. Metering

Figure 2. Screw.
today’s plasticating process. First used in the late The metering zone of the standard flight screw
1800s, for the first rubber extruders, and then serves to pump specific quantities of material
developed for the plastic extrusion industry, this forward accurately and complete the melting
all then evolved into the plasticating screw used in process. It is in front of the screw that the force is
today’s injection units. generated to return the screw to its original shot-
size position. As the screw rotates and pumps the
The screw is perhaps the most complicated
polymer through the nonreturn valve, the polymer
component in the injection unit, comprising three
that is accumulating in front of the valve is
basic sections: the feed zone, the compression or
pushing the screw back or reciprocating. A relief
transition zone, and the metering zone (Figure 2).
valve controls the resistance that the screw must
The basic principle of screw movement is work against. Opening or closing the valve
similar to the “sausage-maker,” where the handle determines the rate at which the hydraulic fluid
is turned and the meat moves forward out of the can return to the tank and exerts the “back-
nozzle. A key factor in optimal operation is that pressure” on the screw. If a poorly designed screw
the material must stick to the barrel: If it sticks to is being used and adequate mixing is not being
the screw, it would just continue to rotate without obtained, operators will typically increase the
any forward movement. “back-pressure” so that the screw has to work
harder to reciprocate, in turn putting more work
As the screw turns, a melt pool develops on the into the polymer.
forward edge of the screw flight as it attempts to
move the pellets. As the material moves forward in The relative lengths of each section are
the injection unit, the melt pool becomes larger and variable as determined by the material being run
the amount of unmelted pellets becomes smaller. and whether it is crystalline or amorphous in
nature. For example, crystalline materials may
Once the pellets reach the compression zone, have a very short compression zone, whereas
the volume around any one turn of the flight amorphous materials may have a long
decreases continually until the metering zone is compression zone. These types of screws that have
reached. The plasticating action works the material, no mixer or barriers are referred to as metering
and the power exerted can be seen by checking the screws. These are your most basic and general
torque required to turn the screw during the purpose (GP) screws.
appropriate phase of the molding cycle. As more
electrical heat is put into the material, less torque is There are screw designs for ABS that are
required and less power is put into the material completely compression zone from the feed area
from the mechanical standpoint. Experience has to the metering area. These types of screws are
shown that torque values exerted in operations that referred to as zero metering screws (Figure 3).
have been set up better are somewhere near the This type of design results in a gentler plastication
center of the total operating range. and induces less shear on the polymer.

12
®
 The Injection Unit

Transition
Feed

Figure 3. Zero metering screw.

Transition Metering

Figure 4. Zero feed screw.

Another variation of the GP screw design is early 1960s. This technology was originally used
the zero feed screw (Figure 4). This type of screw for the extrusion of rubber, and quickly transferred
is commonly used when processing RPVC over to the plastic extrusion industry. It was not
powder in the manufacturing of pipefittings. This until the mid-to late 1970s that this technology was
type of design allows the resin to work very used in the area of injection molding. Today, many
gently, therefore reducing the possibility of original equipment manufacturers are offering
degrading the compound. barrier screw technology for high-performance
applications. There have been studies done that
Still another type of screw that has been
have shown that a well-designed barrier screw can
gaining popularity in the injection molding
be more general purpose than the old “standard”
industry is the barrier-type screw. There are many
GP screws.
variations of this type of screw, but the basic
principle in all cases is the same. The main The typical barrier section is located directly
concept of these screws is that the solids bed is after the feed section, where the transition of the
kept separated from the melt pool by means of a standard metering screw is (Figure 6).
secondary or barrier flight (Figure 5). Note: As mentioned earlier, the barrier screw
The barrier technology was developed has a different melting mechanism than the
simultaneously in Europe and United States in the standard metering screw. It is important to
mention here, therefore, that the typical
Wm W temperature profile is not the most efficient profile
to use with the barrier screw design. With a
barrier screw design, all of the plastic has to be
Hs melted by the time it reaches the end of the barrier
section. In addition, because barrier screws have
H higher recovery rates than do the standard
metering screw, and because this melting takes
place over a shorter length, it is important to use a
new style of temperature profile. The
Barrier Flight recommended temperature profile to be used with
Figure 5. Cross-section at end of barrier. barrier screws is either the “reverse” style or the
Wm = melt channel width; “hump” style. The “reverse” temperature profile
Ws = sold channel width;
Hm = melt channel depth; has higher barrel zone settings in the rear and
Hs = solid channel depth. lower settings on the front. The rear zone may be

13
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Feed Barrier Metering

Figure 6. Typical barrier section.

set as high as 500 - 600ºF; the front zone should be LENGTH TO D I A M E T E R (L/D )
set at the melt temperature recommended by the RATIO
resin manufacturer; and the middle zone should be Length to diameter (L/D) ratio is a term that is
set at a temperature that is halfway between the used to help define the sizing of an injection unit,
front and rear zone settings. screw, or barrel. The L/D ratio is determined by
dividing the overall flighted length of the screw by
INJECTION UNIT SIZING the nominal diameter of the screw. An example of
this, therefore, would be as follows (Figure 7).
Injection molding machines are sized based on
two major parameters: clamp tonnage and Even though this is the normal method used to
determine the length of the machine, some OEMs
injection unit shot size. In this section we will only
use different methods to size or classify their
discuss the second. The injection unit shot size is
equipment. Some use the length from the center of
the amount of plastic that the injection unit can the feedthroat opening to the end of the barrel,
deliver to the mold. This amount of plastic or shot while others may use the length from the
size is typically measured in ounces of GP downstream end of the feedthroat opening to the
polystyrene because that has a specific gravity of end of the barrel. These variations can make a
approximately 1.0 gm/cc; therefore, a common difference of 0.5 to 1 diameter difference in the
machine definition, for example, is 150 ton/8 oz. L/D; but they are typically rounded to the nearest
common L/D ratio. The common L/D ratios for
The shot size of 8 ounces is the volume of GP
most injection units are 16:1, 18:1, 20:1, 22:1,
polystyrene that can be injected into a mold when
24:1, and 26:1. There are other variations to this
the injection screw is fully retracted in the barrel. but these are the most common.
This amount is typically an approximate value and
has to be rounded to the nearest whole number by COMPRESSION RATIO
the original equipment manufacturer (OEM). A Most people recognize the term compression
machine that is sold as an 8-ounce machine, ratio as being a term used to define the amount of
therefore, could be in the range of 7.6 - 8.4 oz. work the screw will apply to the polymer. There

45 in. Flighted Length

2.5 in. Screw Diameter

Feed Trans.. Metering

L/D = Flight Length/Screw Diameter
or
L/D = 45 in./2.5 in. = 18:1 L/D
Figure 7. Length to distance ratio.

14
®
 The Injection Unit

45 in. Flighted Length

.500 in. .200 in.

Feed Trans. Metering

Figure 8. Depth to depth compression ratio.

are two methods to determine compression ratio: A few common depth to depth ratios that are
depth to depth and volumetric ratio. typically used for some resins are listed in the
Depth to depth is the most common method. following table:
This method of measuring compression ratio is Resin C/R
done simply by dividing the feed depth by the
metering depth, as shown in the following Polycarbonate 2.2:1
example (Figure 8). Nylon 3.5 – 4.0:1
C h
---- = -----r- (1) PE 3.0:1
R hm
ABS 2.3 – 2.5:1
C .500
---- = ---------- = 2.5:1 PS 2.5 – 3.0:1
R .200
C In addition to the preceding reference
---- = compression ratio
R compression ratios, sometimes it is necessary to
adjust compression ratios for special applications.
hf = feed depth A common example for this compromise is when
hm = metering depth glass is added to a polymer such as Nylon. As
A more accurate but lesser used method to listed earlier, the typical compression ratio for
define the compression ratio of a screw is known Nylon is 3.5 - 4:1; but as the percentage of
as the volumetric compression ratio (VCR). VCR fiberglass is added to the base resin, the
is determined by the following formula: compression ratio will typically be reduced. For
example, if Nylon with 30% glass is being
2 2
D – [ D – ( 2 × hf ) ] processed, then a screw with 3.25 - 3.75:1 should
VCR = --------------------------------------------------- (2) be used. If the glass content of the Nylon increases
2 2
D – [ D – ( 2 × hm ) ] to 70%, then the compression ratio may be reduced
VCR = volumetric compression ratio to as low as 2.5:1. This is due to the fact that the
D = nominal screw diameter filler (i.e., the glass) is not as compressible as the
resin, which is Nylon in this example, as well as
hf = feed depth because the resin has become the minor component
hm = metering depth of the material being processed. This example
Using the same screw mentioned earlier and holds true with all resins and such other fillers as
calculating the VCR using the preceding formula talc, clay, and carbon fibers.
would have resulted in a VCR of 2.17:1. In most In the case of long-fiber glass and carbon-
cases the VCR is typically higher than the depth filled resins, it is commonly recommended that
to depth compression ratio. the screw design be as “gentle” as possible, so to

15
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 9. Melt model of standard screw.

reduce the breakage of the long fibers. It is also INJECTION RATE
recommended that screws with barrier and mixing
The injection rate of the plasticating unit is the
sections not be used. Tight clearances on the
“rate at which the resin is injected into the mold
barrier flights and mixing lands can cause
by means of the forward movement of the screw
plugging and breakage of the long strand fibers. inside of the barrel, with the resin passing through
Studies have shown that screws with long the nozzle adapter and nozzle.” The injection rate
transition sections and “gentle” distributive mixers is a very critical portion of the plasticating of the
work the best for these applications. resin. Just as the shear rate is critical to the screw
design, it is also critical when determining the
In the case of processing resins that have flame
optimum injection rate. Shear-sensitive resins
retardants, it is necessary to use a screw design
must be injected at slower injection rates, whereas
that has a low compression ratio, long transition, non-shear-sensitive resins can be injected at much
and low shear. The elements used as flame higher injection speeds.
retardants are typically very shear sensitive. If a
high shear screw is used in the processing of these THE BARREL
resins, they can break down and cause
degradation. The most common evidence of this The barrel is typically steel with a
centrifugally cast bimetallic liner (Figure 10). It is
degradation shows up in the part as splay.
possible to observe this from the end of the barrel,
where one can see where the liner ends and the
PLASTICATING RATE base metal begins. The typical backing material
The Plasticating Rate of an injection unit is that is used is 4140-alloy steel. There are cases
basically the instantaneous throughput rate capacity where special microalloy steel is used in order to
of the screw that is in the injection unit at that given increase the “hoop” strength of the barrel so that a
time (Figure 9). This rate is also based on the high-pressure sleeve is not required.
throughput of General Purpose Polystyrene, just as Most injection barrels are designed for
the unit size is determined. This instantaneous minimum burst strength of 20,000 psi, but there
throughput rate is typically measured in grams per are special applications where the barrels need to
second (g/sec). withstand bursting pressures as high as 50,000 psi.

Figure 10. Centrifugal cast injection barrel.

16
®
 The Injection Unit

Liner Type\Manufacturer NCII-Binex Xaloy Wexco

Abrasion resistance AR 1000 102 666

Corrosion resistance CR 3000 306 555

Super-abrasion resistance
Super-Carb 800 777
(tungsten carbide)

The barrels for these special applications are One of the symptoms of barrel wear is noticed
special designs. during the injection portion of the cycle. The
position that once was the right location to
The function of the barrel is to provide a
accumulate the correct size shot to fill the mold,
friction surface for the plastic to aid in
in this case is now not enough. The bore of the
plastication and result in the forward movement
barrel in this case in the area where the nonreturn
of the material. As stated earlier, if the material
valve is located typically becomes worn or
would happen to stick to the screw and not the
oversized, and some of the accumulated shot
barrel, it would never advance forward down the
backflows over the nonreturn valve’s outside
flighted screw path and exit the injection unit.
diameter and backward into the flighted portion of
Most barrel manufacturers offer three basic the screw (Figure 11). In this case, the barrel can
types of barrel liners: abrasion resistance, corrosion be short-sleeved on the discharged end of the
resistance, and “super” abrasion resistance. The barrel for approximately four diameters and
typical liner grades supplied by three major returned to the original specification and function
suppliers are listed in the table above. like new again.

Typical barrel liners are centrifugally spun Another symptom of barrel wear may be
with bimetallic liners, as shown earlier; however, recognized when the screw starts to move during
some barrel manufacturers do use crucible the extruder run portion of the cycle, only to
powder metallurgy (CPM) alloys for small barrel pause momentarily, and then to resume its
applications. This type of material is commonly motion. What is happening is that the plastic is
used whenever an existing barrel is being repaired flowing over the check ring and, therefore, not
or re-sleeved. These types of liners have excellent developing the force to move the screw backward.
toughness and wear resistance for glass-filled The barrel should be replaced in this case because
applications. the barrel’s inside diameter is worn in the middle

Figure 11. Injection barrel.

17
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Unified Sizes Metric Sizes

Nominal Nominal
Screw O.D. Barrel I.D. Screw O.D. Barrel I.D.
Size (in.) Size (mm)

1.0 0.998 / 0.997 1.000 / 1.001 30 1.178 / 1.177 1.181 / 1.182

1.25 1.248 / 1.247 1.250 / 1.2501 35 1.375 / 1.374 1.378 / 1.379

1.5 1.497 / 1.496 1.500 / 1.501 40 1.572 / 1.571 1.575 / 1.576

1.75 1.747 / 1.746 1.750 / 1.751 45 1.965 / 1.964 1.772 / 1.773

2.0 1.996 / 1.995 2.000 / 2.001 50 1.965 / 1.964 1.969 / 1.970

2.5 2.495 / 2.494 2.500 / 2.501 60 2.357 / 2.356 2.362 / 2.363

3.0 2.994 / 2.993 3.000 / 3.001 65 2.554 / 2.553 2.559 / 2.560

3.5 3.493 / 3.492 3.500 / 3.501 70 2.751 / 2.750 2.756 / 2.757

4.0 3.992 / 3.991 4.000 / 4.001 80 3.144 / 3.143 3.150 / 3.151

4.5 4.491 / 4.490 4.500 / 4.501 90 3.536 / 3.535 3.543 / 3.544

100 3.927 / 3.926 3.937 / 3.938

Figure 12. Typical screw and barrel sizes.

of the barrel and it is typically more economical to rule. The chart in Figure 12 shows the typical
replace the barrel than to re-sleeve it. screw and barrel dimensions for a variety of sizes.

It is important to mention here the importance It should be mentioned that a 40 mm screw and
of the clearance between the screw flight outside barrel that has 0.035 in. more clearance than when
diameter and the inside diameter of the barrel it was originally built, as compared with a 90 mm
bore. Most OEMs use a very similar screw to screw and barrel with the same increased clearance,
barrel clearance, which is approximately 0.001 - will have much more processing problems. This is
0.0015 in. per diametrical inch of screw diameter. due to the fact that 0.035 in. on 35 mm is a greater
Most OEMs make the barrel “on size” and the percentage than 0.035 in. to 90 mm. The viscosity
screw undersize to the nominal size of the barrel of the resin also plays a major role on the effects of
bore. There are a few OEMs who do make the the barrel and screw clearance. For example, a stiff
screws to the nominal size and their barrels HDPE resin will be less affected than a press that is
oversize, but this is more of the exception then the processing Nylon 6/6.

Figure 13. Valve nomenclature.

18
®
 The Injection Unit

Figure 14. Ball-check. Figure 15. Three-piece O.E.M. Style.

It is important that the screw and barrel with the three-piece O.E.M. style function is that
clearances be evaluated at least once per year, and there is a tendency for the valve to leak as it
preferably twice per year. It is common practice injects if the ring does not seat properly. Some
in many injection molding facilities to do shops have overcome this problem by injecting
preventive maintenance inspections during the faster at the beginning of the stroke; but what can
Fourth of July holiday week and again during happen under these circumstances is that the
Christmas week shutdown. volume of air in front of the screw is rapidly
compressed causing localized burning or splay.
NONRETURN VALVE The Auto-shut® valve (Figure 16) designed
ASSEMBLY by Spirex Corporation (Patent #5,164,207)
There are many different styles of nonreturn minimizes the seal problem by providing a spring
valves (Figure 13 for nomenclature), which loaded poppet that helps the valve seal at the end
include the three-piece O.E.M. (check ring), ball of the screw rotation. Testing and experimentation
check, ball-check, Auto-shut®, and Dray designs, on these valves have shown that repeatability
to name a few. In general, the more potential there improves dramatically with the Auto-shut valve;
is for material hang up, the less desirable it is. however, their expected functional life has so far
Several studies have shown that the ball- proven to be less than a typical three-piece
check valve (Figure 14) is much more repeatable O.E.M. style valve, depending on the polymers
than the three-piece O.E.M. style (Figure 15). and filler being used. The Dray “Repeater®” valve
Most operations, however, have standardized on also shows this kind of improvement, but it has
the three-piece O.E.M. style. One of the problems shown itself to be less durable as well. As these

Figure 16. Auto-shut® valve (open position).

19
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 17. Multi-piece unit.

newer designs evolve, however, their performance As the length of the nozzle is increased, there
and durability improvements should lead to is an increased need for heat, which is controlled
expanded use in the industry. by the nozzle controller. In a best-case scenario
the heat will be evenly spread among all of the
One other valve that is being used is a multi- components. In a worst-case scenario it will be
piece unit (Figure 17). Although this design is concentrated in one area. This will increase the
basically a three-piece O.E.M. style valve, each likelihood of degradation. Moving the
wear part is separate. This valve has a carbide thermocouple will not help.
surface on the backside of the retainer body and is
expected to have a two-year life. In any case, short nozzles will give greater
control, less heat history, and less pressure drop,
For shear sensitive materials such as high so they should be used.
viscosity PVCs, smearheads may sometimes be
used to minimize the chance of the material
stagnating. The specially designed land region
reduces the amount of backflow that may occur
(Figure 18).

Figure 19. Nozzle tip.

Figure 18. Removable smear tip compression type.
The nozzle tip should match with the exit
orifice from the nozzle body (Figure 19). If not,
THE NOZZLE there is an additional chance that material hang ups
The nozzle keeps the material at a specified will occur. The intent is to have as smooth a
temperature after it is plasticated by the screw and transition as possible from the barrel to the tool. It is
barrel and before it is injected into the mold. generally recommended that the nozzle tip orifice
be smaller than the “O” dimension (Figure 20) of
One rule of thumb is always to use the shortest the sprue bushing by at least 1/16 in. or .06 in.
nozzle. The key word reminds us that some molds
with recessed sprue bushings require a deep There may be other experimental nozzles
“reach” into the mold volume to seal onto the being used in your shop; but if they are
sprue bushing surface. In these cases a longer encountered, there should be some way to identify
nozzle is required and the seal between the nozzle them at the operation. A technician can spend a lot
and sprue bushing should be checked. of time trying to troubleshoot a processing

20
®
 The Injection Unit

Figure 20. Standard nozzle.

problem only to find that someone had installed a information. With an improperly designed
“nylon nozzle” (Figure 21) on the machine. nozzle—or heater band configuration—a machine
that tells you the nozzle temperature is 700ºF can
OTHER SIGNIFICANT FACTORS actually have a temperature more than 100ºF
Degradation of plastic is a function dependent different.
on time and temperature. Basically, the only ways
that material degrades is if it is elevated to a Think about a typical day where the
reasonable temperature for an extremely long temperature settings are per the data sheet and the
period of time, or heating the material to a parts are showing no sign of discoloration. The
temperature that is too high so that it degrades following day there is discoloration in the part. Is
over a shorter period of time. it logical to adjust the temperature to try to correct
Temperature settings should be based on this problem? If your answer is yes, then you may
experience over the years. In some cases, an want to think about this some more. It is quite
extremely high temperature is required to reduce possible that some machine malfunction has
the material viscosity to the point where it can be caused this problem. Wouldn't the correct
injected quickly enough to fill thin wall sections. response be to then correct the malfunction?
It is good practice to take a pyrometer out on the Under most circumstances if the original settings
floor periodically and find out if the temperature are robust, significant deviations can be
controllers are getting and giving the correct experienced without causing the discoloration.

Figure 21. Nylon nozzle.

21
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

When you start to look at solving these SUMMARY

problems you should try to identify where in the
flow path the material came from (i.e., the barrel, As with plastics processing, some of the
runner less system, seal between the barrel and principles are basic, but actual on-the-floor
end cap, check ring, screw, etc.). One possible tip- experience reveals many ways that an injection
off would be to notice if the discoloration always unit can create problems. There are many factors
occurs in the same spot or the same cavity. If the to be considered, and using some of the design
problem were in the check ring assembly, it would principles and processing recommendations made
be likely to move around because the screw does here should help technicians get the most out of
not always return to its same relative position their equipment.
when the shot position is reached. This problem
would come from in front of the screw assembly.

REFERENCES
1. Bernhardt. Processing of Thermoplastic Materials. Robert E. Krieger Publishing Company,
Malabar, FL

2. Spirex Corporation. Plasticating Components Technology. ©1992, Youngstown, OH

and Plasticating Components 2000. ©2000, Youngstown, OH (Figure 9)

3. Womer T. W. and Durina M. F. “An Empirical Study of Various Non-Return Valves Available to the Injec-
tion Molding Industry Today.”

4. Rosato D.V. Injection Molding Handbook, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., NY, 1976, pp. 58, 78, 549.

5. Rubin I.I. Injection Molding Handbook – Theory and Practice, John Wiley & Sons, NY, 1972, pp. 5, 23, 25,
46-48.

6. Lai F. and Sanghvi J.N. SPE ANTEC, New Orleans, LA, May 1993.

7. PM&E, February 1993, pp. 32-35.

8. Plastic Technology, 38 (4), pp. 25-27 (1992).

9. Plastic Technology, 38 (1), pp. 17-19 (1992).

10. Plastic Technology, 38 (5), pp. 69-75 (1992).

11. Plastic Technology, 39 (9), pp. 51-53 (1993).

12. Rahim W. “Barrier Screws-Step in the Right Direction,” SPE ANTEC 1980, Vol. 26, 77.

13. Rauwendaal C. “Analysis of Barrier Type Extruder Screws,” SPE ANTEC 1985, Vol. 31, 59.

14. Amellal K. “Performance Study of Barrier Screws in the Transition Zone,” SPE ANTEC 1987, Vol. 33, 55.

15. Hyun K.S., Spalding M.A. and Powers J.R. “Elimination of Restriction at the Entrance of Barrier Flighted
Extruder Screw Sections,” SPE ANTEC 1995, Vol 41, 293.

16. Dray R. F. and Lawrence D.L. U.S. Patent 3,650,652.

22
®
CONTROLS
BART POLIZOTTO

This chapter describes the typical sequence of UNDERSTANDING THE

an injection molding machine, types of control MACHINE SEQUENCE
devices used on injection molding machines, and
Injection molding machines have both
information about injection molding machine continuous and cyclic processes. The control
process control. The chapter is intended to (timing and precision) of these processes
provide the technician with information about determines the quality, consistency, and rate of the
common types of injection molding machines, part being produced. Because the timing and
even though many variations exist. For example, precision of the machine is dependent on both
automobiles have been created with electric mechanical and electrical components, the
motors, rotary engines and reciprocating engines. technician needs to begin with the fundamental
Just like the differences in automobiles, injection operation of the machine cycle. Injection molding
molding machines have been built with plungers, machines with all-electric motions and injection
molding machines with hydraulic motions have
reciprocating screws, all electric motions, and
the same machine sequence. The following
hydraulic motions. Even with these significant
description is for a reciprocating screw machine
differences, the basic injection molding principles with hydraulic motions (Figure 1).
remain the same.
Automatic Mode
The thermoplastic injection molding process
Prior to the first stage, the machine is placed
involves melting or plasticating of plastic resin in
in “automatic mode.” In automatic mode the
a pellet or granular form, and injecting this melted safety gates are closed, the temperatures are
resin into a mold that is mechanically clamped brought up to be within the alarm limits, the
together. Precise control of many different hydraulic pumps are turned on, plastic pellets are
processes are required to produce a good part. in the hopper and the machine is in the “home”
These processes include temperature, pressure, position, ready to start.
velocity and position. The technician must Set-up mode is usually a low-pressure, slow-
understand these individual processes, as well as speed mode used to set the die height of the clamp
how they can act as one integrated process. movement. Set-up mode can also be used to check
Advanced microprocessor-based control systems position settings of the clamp as the operator
have made this task easier. opens and closes it. It is also used to set up the

23
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 1. Injection molding machine stages.

mold open position for precise location when stop if a safety gate is opened. In this example,
using a robotic arm to remove a part automatically. home will be defined as mold empty/closed and
Manual mode is where the operator can “jog” screw at the shotsize position. When the machine
or move the clamp or other assemblies by pressing is running in automatic mode there are several
a button. During set up or testing of the machine, sequential stages to complete one cycle.
this capability allows the testing of the Injection Stage
independent motions. After testing the motions or
starting from an aborted automatic cycle, these jog The molten plastic is injected into the mold at
buttons are used to bring the machine to a home a controlled, operator-programmed velocity
position. From this home position, the machine setting(s). High injection pressures are required
can begin its automatic or semi-automatic cycle. during this stage. The speed and temperature of
The technician should refer to each individual the molten plastic is very critical. Too slow a
machine manual to determine how to get to the speed would allow the molten plastic to harden
home position properly. Newer control systems before filling the mold. Too fast a speed may cause
typically have an operator station that will indicate the molten plastic to burn and ruin the part.
whether the machine is at home or what is causing The molten plastic is forced into the mold
the machine not to be at the home position. using a screw. The screw acts like a ram in its
Semi-automatic mode is where the injection barrel. (Hence, it is commonly called the ram.)
molding machine will complete one cycle and stop. By changing the velocity of the screw, the molten
Some type of operator interaction is then required plastic enters the mold at different speeds. Once
to continue to the next cycle of the machine. This the mold is filled, the controller changes how the
could be as simple as opening the safety gate, screw is being controlled from velocity to
which is in front of the mold, and closing it. This all pressure control.
again depends on the machine design. This transition from velocity to pressure control
Automatic mode is where the injection is the most difficult phase of the injection molding
molding machine will run without operator process. During this transition, a pressure “spike”
interaction. As soon as the first cycle is completed, can occur. These can easily be seen on an
the next cycle automatically begins. In all three of oscilloscope. To offset this tendency, control
these states, the programmable controller should systems can be set up to be “undertuned.” In other
be programmed to check for unsafe conditions. control systems, “expert” adjustment routines have
For example, motions should be programmed to been designed to minimize the pressure spike.

24
®
 Controls

Control systems are generally set up to heater bands on the outside of the barrel.
transfer from velocity to pressure on four Improper control of the mold temperature can
different settings. The best setting may depend on cause parts of unacceptable quality.
the mold type. The first setting is hydraulic oil The screw stops in the barrel at a location
pressure. The screw is being moved forward by a called the cushion position. Without cushion, the
large hydraulic cylinder. As the mold cavity fills, screw would hit the end of its stroke, causing short
the hydraulic pressure must increase to keep the or inconsistent shots. This cushion is needed to
screw moving forward. The transition occurs once allow the molten plastic to be packed into the mold.
the hydraulic pressure for the oil reaches a The volume of the molten plastic in the barrel
setpoint entered by the technician. The second between the cushion position and the shotsize
setting is by the pressure of the resin in the mold position (shotsize discussed in the next stage)
cavity. A pressure transducer is installed in the should equal the volume of the cavity in the mold.
mold and the transition occurs when the pressure
Recovery Stage
in the mold reaches the setpoint entered by the
technician. The third setting is by time. A timer Now that the plastic has cured, the recovery
starts when the screw begins to move forward. stage begins. On some injection molding
Transition occurs when the timer value reaches machines the barrel and screw (injection unit) are
the setting entered by the technician. The fourth now moved away from the mold (“sprue break”).
setting is by screw position. Transition occurs The injection unit sits on a carriage (sometimes
when the position sensor on the screw reaches the referred to as the sled). Moving this away from
position setting entered by the technician. the mold breaks the solidified plastic between the
nozzle in the barrel and the sprue in the mold. A
Pack and Hold Stage nozzle valve and a pre-pullback screw motion,
After the mold is filled, the screw moves called decompression, can prevent the molten
forward very slowly in this pressure control stage. plastic remaining in the barrel from drooling out
During this stage, the plastic pressure and fill of the barrel and onto the machine.
rates are reduced. This ensures that the molten The mold now opens, and the part is ejected
plastic is packed into all the cavities of the mold from the mold. Ejector pins are used to push the
and that the plastic is properly cured and cooled. part from the mold. These pins are integral to the
The first phase of this stage is pack. The mold and are pushed during or after the mold
controller holds the screw pressure at a certain opens. Some molds require cores. Cores are just
pressure setpoint for the length of the pack timer. sections of the mold that are moved away to allow
The next phase of the stage is hold. The parts (like a pipe elbow) to be molded as one
controller again holds the screw pressure at a assembly. In some cases, cores are moved before
certain setpoint for the length of the hold timer. the ejector pins are pushed.
The hold pressure is typically less than pack The part, runners and sprue are usually
pressure. A pressure “ramp” can be entered so removed by falling onto a conveyer belt. Parts can
that the screw pressure is gradually reduced also be removed by robotic arms. Some molds
between pack and hold and hold and recovery—if contain hot runners eliminating handling or
the machine is equipped with these options. The scrapping of the runners and sprue produced every
ramp rate and time can be entered as setpoints. cycle. Many producers grind runners and sprues
During pack and hold, the cooling process can and feed them back into the hopper as regrind.
be accelerated by cool water running through The screw during this stage begins to rotate
passages in the mold. The water takes away some and feed plastic pellets from the hopper. The
of the heat that is transferred into the plastic by pellets gravity-feed into the rear feed zone as the
the plasticating action of the screw, and from the screw rotates. The flights on the screw convey the

25
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

plastic forward as the screw rotates. As the plastic

is conveyed forward, the flights on the screw Sensor
become shallower, thus compressing the pellets,
and dragging them along the barrel wall. This
compression and friction causes the plastic to
melt. The heater bands on the outside of the barrel
help maintain the heat in the barrel. As the screw Control Closed Loop Process
conveys the material forward, it accumulates in Control
front of the screw tip. Because there is a part still
in the mold cooling from the last shot, the material
cannot exit the nozzle; therefore, it begins
applying pressure on the screw tip, thus pushing
the screw backward until it achieves the shotsize Output
and the screw stops rotating. As the screw is being
pushed backward, the hydraulic fluid that is still in Figure 2. The feedback control loop.
the hydraulic cylinder must be permitted to exit Sensors on Injection Molding Machines
the cylinder and return back to the hydraulic tank
on the molding machine. If the flow of the Temperature Sensors
hydraulic fluid going back to the tank is restricted,
Thermocouples are the most common
the screw is not permitted to come back as easily,
temperature sensors on an injection molding
yet the screw is still rotating. Because the screw is
machine. Two wires of dissimilar alloys are joined
not returned as easily, the material is compressed
at the tip. When the ends are exposed to a
more, thus putting more heat into the plastic melt.
temperature gradient, an eletromotive force (EMF)
This is called backpressure and controls the
is generated. The EMF is very small, amounting to
viscosity of the melt. Compression and friction
millivolts per degree. Different alloys are used for
created by the screw typically causes 60-90% of
different temperature ranges. Injection molding
the melting.
machines usually use J or K type thermocouples.
The screw continues to move back as the
plastic builds in front of the screw. The rotation Although not a portion of the thermocouple
and movement backwards stops when the screw assembly itself, the extension wire is a critical part
hits the shotsize position. The shotsize position of the total circuit. The extension wire must be
determines the amount of melt contained in the manufactured from alloys compatible with the
barrel. Smaller cavities require a smaller shotsizes element.
and larger cavities require larger shotsizes. The
Injection molding machines may have six or
shotsize is the shotsize position minus the cushion
more thermocouples. Thermocouples are usually
position. To minimize drool, the screw can be
inserted into the barrel steel, near the heater bands
pulled back after the screw stops rotating at
on the barrel, in the hydraulic oil (if a hydraulic
shotsize. This is commonly called pullback,
machine), and in the cooling water.
suckback or decompression.
Hazardous extraneous voltage capable of
TYPE OF CONTROL DEVICES causing severe injury or death may exist between
Three groups of control devices exist on thermocouple leads and ground. Controllers may
injection molding machines (Figure 2). The first have isolation circuits that do not connect the
group is sensors. All injection molding machines thermocouples to ground. Measure for the
have sensors. The second group is controllers. The presence of voltage between each sensor lead and
third group is output devices. ground before servicing.

26
®
 Controls

Position Sensors provides the location of an assembly, limit switches

Two types of sensors are usually used on provide a high or low signal. Proximity switches
injection molding machines. Linear share the same function as the mechanical limit
potentiometers or magnetostrictive sensors have a switches, but they are noncontact.
rod or arm that connects to the clamp, ejector, Controllers on Injection Molding Machines
screw, and part-take-out device that is moving on The next group is the controller. A “closed
the machine. As the rod moves, the sensor loop” controller takes the input from the sensors
generates a signal (typically, 0-10 V) that group, performs a calculation, and sends a change
represents the position of the motion. These to the output group. Before the digital age of
sensors are ordered based on the length of the microprocessors, the controller was very basic. The
motion being measured. Linear potentiometers operator constantly needed to make changes to the
(LPs) are usually less expensive, but are more injection molding machine to compensate for
prone to failure. Magnetostrictive devices use changes in ambient temperature, oil temperature,
noncontact technology that is less sensitive to oil, resin changes, mechanical wear, and so on. Today’s
dust, and moisture (Figure 3). microprocessor-based systems can automatically
change the output without operator interaction.
The key difference is open versus closed loop
control. Operating a machine in open-loop mode
means setting the controller to provide a fixed
output regardless of external factors. For example,
if you put a brick on a car’s gas pedal so that it is
always holding the pedal in one position, the car
will travel about the same speed on a level road
with the same number of passengers. If the car
Figure 3. Position transducer. goes up and down hills or the load is changed, the
[Photo courtesy of Balluff, Inc.] car will travel at different speeds.
The other type of position sensor is an encoder. In a closed loop system, the driver would
An encoder is a shaft in an enclosed housing. As select the desired speed. The controller would
the shaft rotates, the encoder generates an on/off then adjust the gas pedal to maintain the desired
signal that represents a position. Absolute encoders speed. If the driver sets the speed at 100 km/hour
put out a code that indicates the exact shaft angle. and the car can only go 65 km/hour on a level
Incremental encoders provide a given number of road, then the car will obviously react as if it is in
pulses per rotation. open loop control. Driving up and down hills or
Most hydraulic injection molding machines changing the load will change the speed.
use linear sensors, and most electric machines use In a closed loop microprocessor-based
encoders because the linear motion on electric system, the controller must decide when to turn
machines results from rotating motion. on and off the output to maintain the desired
Pressure Sensors target value. Unlike a car, injection molding
machines have processes that react much quicker
Pressure transducers are used in injection
and slower than cars. The lag on a temperature
molding to convert hydraulic pressure or melt
zone may be several minutes. Back to the car
pressure into a signal, like voltage.
analogy. If you release the gas pedal at a certain
Position Switches speed it will stay close to the speed at which you
Limit switches are used to indicate whether a released the pedal. If the car speed was a
position has been met. Unlike a position sensor that temperature loop on an injection molding

27
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 4. Tuning response curves.

machine, releasing the pedal at the desired speed than setpoint, reset will continue to change the
may cause the car to travel faster than the desired output until there is no error from setpoint. Reset
speed by 20%. This overshoot is due to the delay adds to gain action to compensate for load changes
or lag between turning on and off the heater bands and to eliminate offset from setpoint. If reset is too
and the actual temperature change. low, hunting about the setpoint will occur while
To prevent overshoot and undershoot, closed trying to reach setpoint. If reset is too high, high
loop microprocessor-based controllers have tuning speed oscillations will take place.
constants to adjust how the output reacts. These The rate term provides an output that is
tuning constants are called the Proportional (Gain), dependent on the rate-of-change of the error
Integral (Reset), and Derivative (Rate) constants. signal. Rate is called an anticipatory type of
The gain can be defined as the amount of control since it only functions when the error
influence that the input error signal (i.e., the signal is changing, and causes the controller
difference between setpoint and measured output to respond faster. Rate senses the rate of
variable) will have on the control output signal. change of the input signal and acts upon the gain
With a high gain setting, a small change in the to cause that action to occur sooner.
input signal will cause a large change in the output Control tuning can be greatly simplified if
signal. On the other hand with a low setting, the nominal values are entered and then fine tuned by
same input signal will cause a small change in the observing the process response to these settings.
output signal. One of the characteristics of this These nominal values are normally provided by
control mode is that control stabilizes at some the machinery builder.
point other than setpoint (usually lower) and is Tune the response of each function separately
called droop. Too high a gain setting usually to avoid confusion (i.e., tune the injection velocity
produces oscillations. without adjusting pack or hold). Tuning must be
The reset term is added to gain whenever there done while the machine is running. Several cycles
is a sustained offset from the control setpoint. should monitored between changes in any of the
Whenever the measured variable is greater or less tuning terms. Begin tuning with gain and reset.

28
®
 Controls

Rate should be set to zero. There are no specific The preprogrammed band can be tailored to the
rules or settings. Start with low settings and specific zone on the injection molding machine.
increase them until some instability (oscillations) The control has programmed safeties to
occurs, then back off on the settings (Figure 4). differentiate between normal process deviations
Gain determines the amplitude of the output and the need to retune.
signal with respect to the difference between the Fuzzy logic has also been implemented in
process signal and the setpoint. Too little gain some injection molding machine controllers.
causes sluggish response and too much causes Most controllers make their calculations on a
overreaction and oscillations. The best tuning gets predetermined set of on/off rules. Fuzzy
to setpoint as fast as possible with minimum controllers have been set up to evaluate rules with
overshoot and without oscillations. Reset comes “partial truths” (i.e., there is not enough
into effect only when there is a difference information to determine the one correct action).
between process and setpoint. Too little reset Then, based on the evaluation of many partial
causes slow response and too much causes truths, the controller can calculate an output.
oscillations. The addition of reset sometimes will
require a slight readjustment of gain. Make The first control systems were relay panels,
adjustments in small increments and allow time analog timers, and hand valves. These systems
for the response to be observed. were used before 1974. The controls engineer
would create basic Boolean logic with relays
Further developments in some controllers hardwired together in circuits that functioned like
provide for autotuning of the tuning constants. AND and OR circuits. The wired relay panels
Autotuning allows the controller to determine the would function similarly to the current relay ladder
optimum gain, and to reset and rate constants. Run diagram programs found in most programmable
the injection molding machine and let the controller logic controllers. This allowed the automation of
learn the characteristics of each control zone. the basic sequencing of the machine.
Several different methods of autotuning have
been developed. One method measures both the Relay panel circuits were based on reducing
lag and slope of load response characteristics, inputs from different on/off inputs to a true or
which is the thinking process taught to the false digital state. Analog (or continuous)
controller so that it is able to calculate the tuning functions were either controlled by the operator or
constants automatically. This tuning can be set to discrete instruments. Analog timers were used
perform autotuning with no technician along with the relay panels to sequence the
involvement each time the controller is powered machine. Other functions were controlled by hand
up, or it can be initiated on demand by pressing valves. The operator needed to monitor and adjust
the autotune key. these valves constantly.

Another autotuning method works without Temperature was controlled by discrete

shutting down the process. Pressing the autotune instruments. Each instrument did an assigned task
key causes the PID tuning constants to be without interaction with the other discrete devices.
calculated near setpoint by turning the outputs on The next systems were the first
and off in order to calculate load characteristics. microprocessor-based controllers. These systems
One of the more advanced methods of were installed from 1974 to 1978. Microprocessors
autotuning is adaptive autotuning. Adaptive allow for a program to be downloaded into
autotuning continuously monitors the setpoint and controller. Technicians would not have to rewire
the process variable and makes automatic panels to change the operation of the machine. The
corrections to the tuning constants whenever the controllers had thumb wheels to enter timer
process deviates from a preprogrammed band. setpoints. Most programming was done in relay

29
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

ladder diagram and transferred into the controller maintained and have similar wear. This is usually
by installed integrated circuit chips. done by loading the recipe onto a floppy disk or
Discrete temperature controllers were still used cartridge, which can be loaded into a different
for temperature control. Discrete logic outputs and machine.
inputs were almost always 120 or 240 VAC. The type of operator station determines how
Microprocessor-based controllers and much information can be stored in the controller.
computer-based controllers with injection process Dedicated operator stations can store a limited
control caused a revolution in increased part amount of information. This can be 20-50 recipes
quality and range of complexity. These systems and several hundred data points for trending and
were used from 1979 to the present. Machines logging. If additional information needs to be stored,
with these controllers could run without constant the controller can be connected to a plantwide
operator interaction. supervisory system. The plantwide supervisory
system gathers data from each dedicated operator
Most injection molding control systems have an station and stores the information on one central
operator station. The operator station is the window computer. Another advance has been the use of
into the process for the operator. Larger machines general purpose computers as an operator station.
(in clamping tons) usually have larger displays. These industrial computers contain hard drives that
Small injection molding machines (<150 tons) have allow the producers to store many megabytes of data
operator stations with 6-10.4 in. displays. Larger on the machine.
machines may have displays up to 21 in.
The use of a dedicated or industrial computer-
The original equipment manufacturer designs
based operator station is a matter of preference.
the screens for the operator station. A
Dedicated operator stations power-up instantly,
programming package is used to place setpoints,
have lower prices, and are very robust in high
values, and pictures on each screen. Screens are
shock and vibration environments. Industrial
usually organized by function. Depending on the
computer-based operator stations are slower to
control system, screens can be created for
start, more expensive, more capable of data
clamping, injection process control, temperature,
storage and data manipulation, and allow greater
ejectors, line graphs, statistical process control
network connectivity.
(SPC), alarm logging, and diagnostics. Once all
the screens are developed, they are downloaded Technicians will find the graphical view of the
into the operator station. injection process very useful. This graph shows
the injection process usually from the right to the
When the molder receives the injection
left (this matches the side of the machine where
molding machine from the builder, a mold must be
the operation status is usually mounted). A
installed between the platens. Each mold or part
technician can immediately determine if the
has a different group of set up parameters. The
machine is following the desired velocity and
producer’s technician must enter 50-100 setpoints
pressure profile. From this, the technician can
to set up the particular mold and resin for that run.
make the appropriate adjustment.
Once the setpoints are entered, the technician
needs to run the machine to determine if any of the Many controllers are now programmed
setpoints need to be adjusted. When the technician according to the IEC-61131-3 standard. This IEC
is satisfied with the part quality, the setpoints are standard determines the look and functionality of
saved to a file or “recipe” in the controller. Some the sequence program editor. Most North
controllers have two sets of recipes. One set is American controllers still program in the relay
machine dependent; the other set is mold or job ladder logic; however, many controllers support
dependent. In this way, the recipes can be shared five programming languages (i.e., function block
between similar machines that have been properly diagram, instruction list, structure text, relay

30
®
 Controls

ladder logic, and sequential function chart). It is need for faster and more precise motions have
also not uncommon for controllers to have a C created sophisticated electrohydraulic flow
programming language. control valves.
The control loops for the control system can The hydraulic system on an injection
be centrally mounted in one chassis or distributed molding machine requires periodic maintenance.
around the machine. Small machines (<150 tons) If left unattended, filters will clog and restrict
typically have central wiring, and larger machines flow, and valves will fail or intermittently stick.
may take advantage of the reduced wiring savings This maintenance and other related issues have
of distributed input and output blocks. Most new contributed to the increase in sales of all-electric
machine will now have 24 VDC discrete inputs machines.
and outputs versus the 120-240 VAC used in the
earlier system. Solenoid valves provide on/off control and are
the least expensive. The motion being controlled
Microprocessor-based control systems can moves at one speed. The control system turns on
use one central processing unit (CPU) or multiple the valve by providing either 24 VDC or 120/240
CPUs. In multiple CPU systems, there can be a VAC and turns it off by providing 0 V. Once the
CPU per control card. For example, the motion is close to the stopping point, the controller
temperature cards, motion cards, and injection sends 0 V to the valve. The cushion in the cylinder
process control cards would have their own provides the deceleration required at the end of the
dedicated processors. Other systems (i.e., motion. This type of motion cannot compensate for
computer-based controllers) have only one external changes. Changing the mass of the molds
processor. Repeatability and fast response times installed between the platens or changes in oil
are the goal in both of these systems. Modern temperature result in speed changes. These valves,
controls can now provide close loop control in therefore, are not usually used on new machines for
less than a few milliseconds. the clamp and screw motions.
Communication between auxiliary devices is
Proportional valves provide partial valve
also becoming more common. “Open bus”
openings. The spool, which is the controlling
standards are allowing this integration. Even on
mechanism in the valve, proportionally changes
the injection molding machine, the sensors,
based on the signal from the controller. For
controllers, and output devices are being
example, a proportional valve with a 0-10 V input
connected via digital networks. It is also not
would be 50% open at 5 V. The ability to have
uncommon for the injection molding machine to
variable valve openings permits profiled motions.
be connected to the internet or a modem. From
A clamp may breakaway, accelerate, cruise,
this connection, remote users can monitor and
decelerate, creep, and then lock up. The valve also
troubleshoot the machine.
allows closed-loop control when connected to a
Output Devices on Injection Molding Machines closed-loop controller. The controller can provide
Output devices receive commands from the varying outputs to the valve to ensure the proper
controller and change the functionality of the speed. The controller could even hold the motion
machine. Output devices on injection molding at a given location without it resting on a
machines include valves, drives, pumps, and relays. mechanical stop.
Hydraulic Valves Proportional valves can be used to control both
Injection molding machines normally use flow and pressure. Most injection molding
three types of hydraulic valves: solenoid, machines use a proportional flow and a
proportional, and servo valves. Hydraulic valves proportional pressure valve in the hydraulic circuit
are then connected to cylinders to provide motion for the screw. Advanced “PQ” proportional valves
on the injection molding machine. The increasing support pressure and flow in one valve. Instead of

31
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

spanning open and closed over a voltage range like extend the life of mechanical relays. A cycle time
0-10 V, PQ valves span different functions over of 20 seconds is common for temperature control.
smaller ranges. One voltage range would then be Mercury contactors reduce the failures due to
used for flow, and one range for pressure. This temperature, dust, and moisture that limits the life
allows the machinery builder to obtain the same of mechanical relays. Although they provide more
performance with fewer valves. The controller must cycles, many machine builders have switched to
be designed to support PQ valves. solid-state relays because failed mercury
Servo valves are similar to proportional contactors require disposal according to local
valves, but they are typically considered faster regulations.
even though proportional valves are becoming Solid-state relays have longer life than do
faster and faster. Servo valves are also known for mechanical relays, and they do not have the
their repeatability. Servo valves can be found in environmental issues of mercury contactors.
hydraulic circuits for the screw. Their use is Solid-state relays can also be the most expensive.
limited due to the increased oil filtration Solid-state relays utilize silicon controlled rectifier
requirements and the additional expense. (SCR) and Triac switches. Due to their solid-state
Drives nonmechanical design, cycle times can set at 1
Drives or inverters are used in all electric second to improve the control.
injection molding machines. Drives are used to Pumps
control the voltage or frequency going to a motor. Pumps are used on hydraulic modeling
The drive is selected based on whether the motor is machines to create the flow of oil that develops the
DC or AC. Servo motors and drives are specifically hydraulic pressure. Constant and multispeed pumps
designed for precise control. The drive accepts can be used. In some applications, multiple pumps
feedback from the motor and automatically adjusts can be staged to change pressures and flows.
torque, velocity, and position. Heater Bands
During the injection phase of the injection Heater bands are placed along the barrel. The
molding process, because linear motion results heater bands provide some of the heat required to
from rotary motion of an electric motor, the melt the plastic pellets. The heater bands typically
controller adjusts the torque on the drive just like require 240-480 VAC and 5-60 A. The thermocouple
it would adjust the pressure on a hydraulic near the band sends the barrel temperature to the
molding machine. controller. The controller calculates the proper
Mechanical Relays, Mercury Contactors, outputs using the gain, reset, and rate-tuning
Solid State Relays constants, and sends the time-proportioned output to
Relays are used to switch a circuit. They are a relay or contactor. The contactor switches the 240-
typically mounted between the controller and 480 VAC to the heater band that adds heat.
valve or high current load. The controller sends an Actuated Water Valves
on/off signal to the relay, and the relay’s internal Water can be used to maintain the temperature
coil causes a contact to close. In some cases the of the hydraulic fluid by flowing water through a
controller can be wired directly to the output heat exchanger, as needed. Actuated water valves
device if the controller is capable of the load. Most are used to control the water flow.
controllers can switch from 0 to 2 A. Each
controller manufacturer lists the maximum load C L O S E D -L O O P I N J E C T I O N
per output. PROCESS CONTROL
Mechanical relays have a limited number of Process control is an integral control function
on/off cycles before needing to be replaced. that provides precise control of key molding
Controllers have settings to limit the cycle time to parameters in order to produce high quality parts

32
®
 Controls

efficiently. This quality and is made possible by control output signal can be applied to a valve
controlling the injection cycle beginning with the driver that then provides the control signal to a
start of injection and extending through the screw valve.
recovery phase.
Closed-Loop Pressure Control
Closed-Loop Velocity Profile Process control provides closed-loop control
In most molding applications, the injection of hydraulic pressure (hydraulic machines) during
rate is a compromise between the desired speed the fill, pack, hold, and recovery stages. The
and part quality. If high-speed injection is used, recovery stage also has the capability of a
the high velocity at the end of the injection stroke recovery or back pressure profile. Pack and hold
may result in an overpacked (or overfilled) part. stages have a ramping capability that allows for a
That wastes material and produces a part with smooth transition from one phase to the other.
poor dimensional stability. If injection speed is Closed-loop pressure control of the pack and
reduced toward the end of fill, the gases in the hold stages produces parts with improved
cavity can have time to exit the mold cavity dimensional stability and tighter weight
through the vents in the mold. Part quality can tolerances. The parts will have a general overall
increase, but so does the cycle time. The consistency and tend to be free from sink marks
programmed injection portion of process control and voids.
allows a velocity profile to be established that
Control during pack and hold is achieved by
uses high speed over most of the injection stroke,
measuring hydraulic pressure and comparing it
but slows at such critical points as breaking
with the desired value. If a difference exists
through gates and just prior to packing. A ramp
between measured pressure and desired pressure,
setpoint can also be used when switching from
the control output signal will change accordingly.
velocity to pack.
The control output signal can be applied to a valve
Programmed injection can significantly driver that provides the control signal to a valve.
reduce cycle times and produce parts with Closed-loop control and profiling of recovery
improved surface finish. The velocity profile is provides melt consistency and minimizing shot-
established with two sets of setpoints: position, to-shot part variations. Melt plasticating time can
which determines where the injection stroke is to also be reduced, resulting in decreased overall
be segmented, and velocity, which determines the cycle times.
speed during each segment. An offset setpoint is
usually available to allow the entire profile to be The screw recovery profile can have as many
raised or lowered without affecting the profile as 10 profile segments. Control is achieved using
itself. An initial velocity setpoint allows the both pressure and position feedback. Position
control output to go to an immediate percentage feedback is used to transfer from one segment to
of maximum output at the beginning of the first another. Pressure feedback is used for comparison
velocity segment. This allows the ram to reach the with the pressure setpoint values. Close control of
first velocity quicker. Control is achieved by operating pressures is accomplished using closed-
measuring ram position with a machine-mounted loop control and full PID tuning.
potentiometer or similar device. The measured
signal containing both position and velocity data ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
is compared with the position and velocity Parts of the section on “Controllers on
command setpoints. If a difference exists between Injection Molding Machines” and the section on
measured velocity and desired velocity, the “Closed-Loop Injection Process Control”
control output signal will change accordingly. The courtesy of Eurotherm/Barber-Colman.

33
®
Society of Plastics Engineers Next Page

REFERENCES
1. Eurotherm/Barber-Colman. MACO System Instruction Manual, 1640-IN-046-A-04 (1997).
2. Scheck T. A. SME Paper, “Injection Molding Process Control,” MF97-124 (1997).

34
®
 Previous Page

AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
JOSEPH DZIEDZIC

TRENDS IN AUXILIARY it for processing, and how to cool and control

EQUIPMENT temperature in the process. They are examining
postproduction removal of finished product, how
Auxiliary equipment is a broad topic that to handle sprues and runners, how to grind, where
touches all types of processes. It plays a more to grind, and how to handle regrind. They are also
important role in the overall production process discovering ways to be creative using auxiliary
than ever before. There has been much equipment. Some of these trends will be
advancement in tooling, screw design, and examined in the following sections.
molding machines over the past 10 years,
resulting in greatly improved productivity. Today, TRENDS IN CONVEYING
those processors with newer machines (post- EQUIPMENT
1990) have fine-tuned their machines and The basic hopper loader and vacuum pumps
matched screw designs to the resin being that are the heart of most in-plant conveying
processed. These processors are now looking at systems remain in large part unchanged.
auxiliary support equipment as a critical part of Improvements in motor technology include
optimizing operations—and, most importantly, of quieter pumps, more energy-efficient motors, and
increasing profit margins. These leading molders a trend toward providing components that are
are finding that matching and integrating the right more interchangeable, easier to clean out, and
auxiliaries to the process provides a good return maintenance free. Some suppliers offer a modular
for each dollar invested. loader that can be upgraded or converted to a
vacuum receiver as part of a central conveying
Today’s leading processors are looking at system. Most suppliers have moved to a standard
networking and Supervisory Control and Data offering that allows reuse of the hopper bodies.
Acquisition (SCADA) software for managing
Another trend is certainly in the direction of
their process—and demonstrating control over the smaller hopper sizes and maintaining less
process to their customers. They are taking a new inventory at the machine. This results in less
look at how to get material into the facility, how to waste between jobs and operating shifts and
monitor inventory, how to store it, how to prepare reduces set-up time. It also puts pressure on

35
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 1. Complete Auxiliary Equipment Plant Layout.

equipment suppliers to build in reliability—and TRENDS IN BLENDING
minimize downtime. The use of blenders has become widespread as
Technology and the trend toward blending color, other ingredients,
experience have led to and regrind back into the process continues.
significant improvements Extruders were the first to adopt the use of
in designing the right blenders on a widespread basis, and have led the
conveying system for the evolution from volumetric blenders to gravimetric
application. Suppliers are blenders. Due to varying bulk density ingredients
now able to take detailed it became very important to control weight per
information about the unit volume and then match that to machine
physical properties of throughput.
resin materials, combined
In the 1990s a combination of more varied
with the vertical/
jobs, shorter runs, greater focus on material cost
horizontal/bend (piping)
(especially colorant), and interest in reduced
travel distances. With this
inventories all contributed to the “blending-in-
information suppliers are
house” trend.
able to design conveying
Figure 2. solutions that minimize Additive feeders are still important as a first
Vacuum Receiver. step, and provide a cost-effective improvement
degradation of your resin.
over manual mixing. Volumetric blending was
Less waste + Fewer Fines Generated
popular for many years. Today, the most popular
= Improved Operation
blenders sold are various types of gravimetric

36
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

mixing chambers, improved slidegates featuring

easier cleanout, and different shapes, as well as
improved process measurements and reporting.
SCADA packages allow “supervisory control” of
recipes to be done via the PC. That means you can
check the recipe, change the recipe, and monitor
other data from the blender.

TRENDS IN DRYING
Fundamental drying technology and methods
have changed little. Suppliers and processors have
focused their efforts on more sophisticated
control and process monitoring and applying the
Figure 3. Batch right drying system to the application.
Gravimetric Blender.
blenders. Gravimetric blenders now offer Load-based, variable-throughput drying is
accuracy, consistency, and materials management becoming popular for processors with large
throughputs. The constantly changing technology
(e.g., inventory records, SPC data, and job cost
price curve will begin to make this viable for
tracking). This greater accuracy produces less
lower throughputs in the future. The control uses
resin and additive waste and therefore more profit.
load cells to manage the volume of material in the
Better accuracy also results in better part quality hopper. Based on throughput and volume, the
and consistency. control varies airflow using variable speed drives
Incremental mechanical and control on the blowers.
developments in blending equipment continue. Gas drying is an older trend that has not
Several suppliers have introduced new received as much focus lately. Gas can be more
supercompact microblenders. Other developments cost-effective in some parts of the United States,
include more accurate load cells, better-designed Canada, and in some other countries. Electric

Figure 4.
SCADA Control Package.

37
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Additional control trends include:

• More powerful controls in smaller packages
• A decreased use of proprietary controls with
an increased use of off-the-shelf controls
• A “distributed” control approach
• More user-friendly control interfaces,
sometimes referred to as a man machine
interface (MMI)
• An “open architecture” approach for
networking
• PLCs being replaced by PCs which are
Figure 5. Central Dryer. already being replaced by Hybrid PLC/PCs
and SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data
utility deregulation, however, is beginning to make Acquisition) capabilities
gas less attractive as an alternative.
Drying really happens CONTROLS
in the drying hopper. A First, there were simple dials to control
drying hopper with good temperature. You would set the temperature of
mass flow properties your dryer or temperature control unit for 200°F
allows resin residence time (93°C)—but you really did not know if it was
to be consistent for all 200°F (93°C) or 210°F (99°C) or 180°F (82°C).
material passing through Today, you have fuzzy logic and PID temperature
the hopper. The steady control modules using elaborate math calculations
distribution of hot, dry air to control the response to a closed loop
within the hopper is just as measurement of actual temperature. In addition,
important as the even flow today’s control costs less than the dials and relay
of resin through the logic control of 15 years ago. Today’s controls are
hopper. Many dryer using technology that cost hundreds of thousands
manufacturers have of dollars when first developed in association with
improved their designs to our space program!
assure even distribution of Figure 6. Mass Flow
the air through the resin in Drying Hopper.
the drying hopper.

TRENDS IN
AUXILIARY CONTROLS
Bridging all the developments in processing
machinery and auxiliary equipment is a revolution
in controls. New control technology allows us to
use our machinery more efficiently and makes it
easier to operate. Machines can now be networked
and basic process information collected when it Figure 7. Fuzzy Logic Controller.
could never be captured before.

38
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

Advancements in control technology play a a new generation of standard off-the-shelf

role across all auxiliary and primary equipment. interfaces, which are variations of touch screens
Leading processors are employing computer- or touch panels. They are controlled by software,
integrated manufacturing technology to link making it easy to adapt to the specialized
auxiliary systems with their primary process, with requirements of the plastics industry—or even to
other auxiliaries, and with their business systems. certain types of processors within the plastics
industry. They also more easily accommodate
Many years ago, industrial machinery
alternate languages and units of measure (e.g.,
exclusively used “proprietary controls.” As recently
metric). These new devices and interfaces are
as the mid-1990s proprietary controls were still
being used most often in SCADA environments.
considered more feature-rich, especially for the
specialized industrial machinery used in the
plastics industry. With developments in hardware
and software, however, that allow for more flexible
features and input/output capacities, it is now
increasingly evident that specialized industrial
machinery is moving toward “off-the-shelf”
controls. The large controls companies have taken Figure 9. Touch-screen Control Panel.
a new approach with controls industry integrators
and made their architecture “open.” This is
resulting in the broad development of flexible,
feature-rich control options with global supply and
support, assured replacement-part supply, long
warranties, and the common look and feel that
“off-the-shelf” controls have always offered.

Figure 8. Off-the-shelf Controller. Figure 10. Distributed I/O Conveying Control.

Programmable logic
Major developments in controls can be
controllers have been used
broken down into the categories of hardware and
to control timing and
software. Within both the hardware and software
sequencing in modern
segments we have aggressive competition of
injection molding machines.
technologies and approaches occurring. Unlike
Some industrial machinery
the PC operating world, where Microsoft is
has moved from being PLC-
winning, there is no single operating system or
controlled to the PC. These
approach. There is instead a larger focus on plug-
are not the type of PCs you
in cross-compatibility.
might be used to seeing in
Interrelated with the trend toward plug-in the office or your home. Figure 11.
cross-compatibility is a trend toward “distributed” These are industrially Teach-programmable
control solutions. A distributed control approach hardened electronics that Pendant Controller.
results in more stand-alone equipment or devices use the hardware and chip
that are network-ready for one or more types of architecture of a PC, and the software of a PC.
networking. These devices or stand-alone pieces They are often “rack” mounted with a touch-screen
of equipment also can be upgraded to incorporate monitor or conventional keyboard.
39
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Sensors Railcar Unloading

Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs) Bulk materials received by truck or railcar are
contain sensor elements made from high-purity stored in silos, usually outside the plant,
wire. Temperature controllers receive a digital eliminating the need for warehouse space for raw
signal from the sensor, compare this signal with material storage. Whereas trucks are self-
the setpoint temperature, and then generate an unloading, bulk railcars require a method of
output to the heater or cooler to return the transferring the materials from the railcar
temperature to the desired level. Digital signals are compartments into the silo storage. A vacuum/
converted to a number and mathematically pressure system facilitates conveying over long
manipulated to produce the output signal. A distances or at high transfer rates. Railcar
pressure sensor machined into the mold can be unloading systems are sized based on the layout of
used to monitor the time it takes to fill the mold the piping system and the material transfer rate
cavity and to use that information to reduce boost that is required. The higher the transfer rate, the
time and total cycle time. larger the equipment and piping will be.
Vacuum unloading pumps that transfer
CONVEYING materials directly from the railcar into a vacuum
Before the processing of resin can begin, receiver on top of the silo are another method of
materials must be conveyed to the processing unloading a railcar. These systems require manual
equipment. This is accomplished by either hand switching of the material and vacuum lines to
filling the machine hopper, or with the use of direct the material flow to several different silos
beside-the-press loaders or central loading (filling one at a time).
systems that use vacuum pumps (or venturis) to An important addition to the equipment
move the resin into the hoppers. Material features now available is a vacuum unloading
characteristics determine the type of equipment system that weighs and records what is unloaded,
needed to convey the material properly. giving the receiver an instant check on what was

Figure 12. Railcar Unloading.

40
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

shipped and a printed, computer-monitored hoppers. The weight of each hopper-loader can
inventory figure. The vacuum hopper is mounted be recorded and reorder levels signaled
on, or suspended from, a weigh beam wired to automatically. This can account for every
computer controls and recorders. pound of material flowing through the plant.
Central Vacuum Conveying Systems
The design of any material handling system
focuses on the customer’s performance
Central vacuum conveying systems create expectations and the amount of money that is
vacuum for conveying pelletized or granular available to invest in the system.
material in a central material handling system. A
typical use is as an in-plant distribution system for A typical central vacuum conveying system
plastic processing plants. One central vacuum contains the following components:
pump can provide the loading power for a number • Vacuum hopper(s)
of loading stations.
• Vacuum pump
These systems are as varied as the
applications that they service. Tubing and • Filter chamber
equipment in a typical system convey the • Sequence or atmospheric valves
material(s) at specified rates and distances. Most
manufacturers can advise customers on system • Sequencing controller
capabilities based on system makeup, distance, • Material take-off compartments
material, and conveying rate requirements.
A weigh loading vacuum system can deliver
• Material pickup tubes/wands
preset amounts of material into processing • Vacuum and material tubing

Figure 13. Central Vacuum Conveying System.

41
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Time-Fill versus Volume-Fill Systems It needs to be noted that the occurrence of

A time-fill system conveys material to an on- vacuum leaks anywhere in a central vacuum
line vacuum hopper for a preset time period. When conveying system reduces conveying capacity.
this interval elapses, the controller conveys Loaders Beside-the-Press
material to the next on-line vacuum hopper. Many processing machines are still loaded by
A volume-fill system conveys material to an beside-the-press vacuum loaders that lift materials
on-line vacuum hopper until the material level from bags, drums, and boxes placed in the
activates the proximity switch in the vacuum processing area. Machine hopper loaders are
hopper, or a preset time elapses. When either of economical and efficient conveyers of free-flowing
these conditions occurs, the controller conveys pelletized or granular materials from supply
material to the next on-line vacuum hopper. This is containers into machine bins or other receivers.
a more efficient and energy-saving method for Some models feature a modular, component
central conveying systems. design that results in significant operational
advantages, whereas other designs may use
Basic Operation of Conveying Systems
stainless steel construction. Engineered
When the operator activates the controller, the construction permits easier cleaning and
system energizes and initiates the conveying cycle. maintenance, and such devices can be quickly and
The following components energize: easily reconfigured to accommodate future
• The vacuum pump motor starter production requirements. Simple electrical and
compressed-air connections are all that are needed
• The vacuum pump vent valve for operation; central vacuum systems are not
• The atmospheric valve above the first on- necessary.
line vacuum hopper that requires material Some hopper loaders use
The vacuum pump draws vacuum to the first an integral-mount motor with
hopper. When that hopper is full or the time a quick-disconnect plug
interval elapses, the controller then signals the power cord. Other types
atmospheric valve above the next on-line hopper feature a high-flow blowback
requiring material to energize, allowing material valve to enhance filter
to convey to that hopper. The conveying sequence cleaning, providing excellent
continues to the last on-line vacuum hopper filtration of conveying air.
requiring material. Some types of machine side
loaders employ compressed
When the time interval for the last hopper
air venturis to transport resin
elapses, or the hopper is full, a new conveying
into the hopper.
cycle begins at the first on-line vacuum hopper
requiring material. The cycle continues until all Sight glass-style hopper
Figure 14.
the material demand is satisfied in the system. loaders have the features of Hopper Loader.
standard hopper loaders, but
Pressure drops in the overall system can
add a sight glass for easy
directly affect system capacity, such as number of
monitoring of material load/discharge cycles. A
material line bends, footage of pipe, Y-tubes, T-
typical sight glass assembly uses an adjustable
tubes, and so on. For maximum efficiency, plant
proximity sensor to ensure full material discharge
operators should be concerned with reducing
on each cycle. Operators can customize system
distance and using minimal lengths of flexible
operation by adjusting operating parameters with
hose and bends on material lines, as well as
the unit controller.
keeping material lines as straight as possible.

42
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

filtering choices, better efficiency, improved

ability to handle regrind, and easier maintenance.
More filtering choices allow you to match
filtering requirements to your resin and process
for greater efficiency. For example, if you are
working with pelletized material, you would most
likely use a stainless steel mesh screen with 10-16
mesh designed to keep pellets in the receiver or
hopper, yet allow fines to pass and be removed by
a central filter collector. For granular or powder
materials, you would select a cartridge or bag
filter to capture material in the process. The
nature of these new filtering materials is such that
they have better “release” properties, resulting in
Figure 15. Remote Proportioning Valve.
decreased pressure drop and less-frequent
The ratio or proportional loading function maintenance and cleaning.
allows two feed lines to be directed to one Technological improvements have also led to
vacuum hopper. Internal or external valving filterless receivers. The key to these models is
arrangements divert vacuum power to one line at efficient design of the hopper body: the higher the
a time, providing a controlled mix of materials. efficiency, the less pass-through of material to the
This is an ideal method for returning regrind to central filter chamber. In some cases the central
the processing hopper in noncritical applications. filter is screening more than ever due to the high
efficiency of the filtering system inside the
Filtering of Conveying Systems vacuum receiver.
An often overlooked aspect of processing is Dry Air Conveying
the filtering technology built into the method of A point that has been debated among
conveying. Technological developments in suppliers is the appropriate use and benefits of
filtering media and methods provide more conveying with dry air. Processors of hygroscopic

Figure 16. Moisture Pick-up Rate.

43
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

resins like ABS, PET, PBT, nylon, and most Desiccant versus Hot-Air Dryers
engineering resins must dry the material before The choice of a
processing. Some will recommend dry-air desiccant, or
conveying whenever a material handling system is dehumidifying, dryer rather
installed. Another view, however, is that the than a hot-air dryer is based
on the resin being
decision to convey with dry air depends on your
processed. Hot-air dryers
process and is only necessary in limited situations.
are mostly used for such
The only real justification is to prevent material nonhygroscopic
from absorbing moisture from the conveying air. (nonmoisture-absorbing)
Just as it takes hours to dry materials, however, it materials as polypropylene,
can typically take at least an hour or more for polyethylene, and
material to reabsorb moisture from the air. polystyrene. For these
Because material moves at approximately 3000 ft/ plastics, only surface
min in the conveying lines, it only takes a few moisture removal is
necessary. Because the resin Figure 17.
seconds to transfer material from the remote Dehumidifying
does not absorb moisture, Dryer.
drying hopper to a machine’s vacuum receiver—
only residual moisture that
not enough time for most materials to regain sits on the surface of the
moisture. resin must be removed. Hot-air dryers blow heated
There are also other strategies to ensure that ambient air over the surface of the pellets or
material stays dry after conveying: granules to evaporate the moisture condensation
and carry it out of the hopper. If the process or end
• Use a portable quick-change dryer—some product can tolerate some moisture,
have an integrated pump—to dry the nonhygroscopic materials may not need to be
material on the processing machine after it dried prior to processing.
has been conveyed Hygroscopic
• Purge material from the conveying line with plastics like ABS, PET,
PBT, nylon, and most
dry or ambient air to reduce the amount of
engineering resins
material sitting in conveying lines between absorb moisture within
loading cycles the pellets or granules.
• Keep the material hot after conveying Heating hygroscopic
resins to processing
• Keep minimal inventory of material on the temperatures with the
processing machine moisture still inside the
resin can destroy the
DRYING SYSTEMS polymer—or lead to
Dryers are designed to generate heated air at bubbles and splay in
carefully controlled temperatures for drying the molded part. The
plastic pellets and regrind in the manufacture of very-low-dewpoint air Figure 18. Air-flow Cycle.
high-quality plastic products. Many variables are generated by the
considered in the selection of a drying system, dehumidifying dryer acts as a sponge to remove
this moisture more quickly and effectively than
including type of materials, residence time,
hot ambient air.
throughput of the injection molding machine,
Even though a desiccant dryer may be used
ambient air moisture and temperature, and the
safely to dry both hygroscopic and nonhygroscopic
altitude at the processing site.

44
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

materials, a hot-air dryer is likely to use less energy 204°C), depending on initial moisture content in
than would a dehumidifying dryer, and it would the regenerating bed and the dryer model used. In
likeley cost much less to purchase for the same air- a closed system the desiccant is dried separately
flow capacity, making it more cost-effective for from the drying process using hot fresh air. No
drying nonhygroscopic materials. outside air is taken into the drying system.
The Desiccant Process/Regeneration Cycle Most drying equipment manufacturers are
now offering a choice of desiccant types. This is
A chemical desiccant is used to dry air to a an issue that primarily affects PET processors. A
low dewpoint level, typically between more expensive, premium desiccant type, called
–20°F (–29°C) and –40°F (–40°C), to maintain a 13x, has proven to be very effective for PET
low moisture level under all climatic conditions. processors. Desiccant type 13x has larger pore
Dry, heated air enters the drying hopper at the openings and increased surface area for drying
bottom, where it is distributed through a applications. Pound for pound, 13x desiccant will
perforated conical device, which is surrounded by adsorb more moisture and more water by weight
the material to be dried. As the material is heated, than 4a, making 13x the almost universal choice
the dry air drives out the moisture and carries it now for PET drying. Type 13x’s ability to adsorb
away. The moisture-laden air is passed through acetaldehyde (AA), which produces the bitter
the desiccant bed where the moisture in the air is “plastic” aftertaste in bottles, is considered
removed. The dry air is then reheated and another benefit of using this desiccant.
reintroduced through the drying hopper, where
the cycle repeats. Dryer Configurations
There are three basic dryer configurations
When a desiccant bed is on-line, it absorbs from which to choose: machine-mounted,
moisture from the process air. In time, the bed portable cart-mounted, and central drying
becomes saturated with moisture and needs to be systems.
regenerated. Most dehumidifying dryers have two
desiccant beds. While one bed is on-line in the Machine Mounted Dryers
process air loop, the other is off-line, being Machine-mounted
regenerated. The dryer automatically redirects the dryers come in two
process airflow to the second bed, and starts the configurations. The dryer
regeneration cycle on the first bed. Carousel-type and dryer hopper are both
dryers that feature more than two desiccant beds mounted directly on the
or a continuous desiccant-treated wheel or disk machine in one
that rotates between being heated and absorbing configuration. In the other,
moisture from process air are also popular. the drying hopper is
mounted on the machine Figure 19.
In a semi-open system about 10% of the air is Machine-mount
and the dryer stands on the
vented and a proportional amount of fresh air is Dryer.
floor next to it. With large
added. During regeneration, the dryer system
process machinery the dryer may be located on a
heats air and forces it through the desiccant bed.
mezzanine above it.
The moisture driven off the bed bleeds to the
atmosphere. If you measure the temperature of Machine mounting has certain limitations.
the air bled to the atmosphere (bleed The possible instability caused by rapid cycling
temperature), you should observe a rise after a and vibration of the molding press may prevent
period of time. This condition, called bed the machine mounting of larger dryers. In
breakthrough, indicates that the bed is dry. At bed addition, servicing machine-mounted dryers can
breakthrough, the bleed air temperature peaks cause additional machine downtime and safety
anywhere between 175°F and 400°F (79°C and concerns for the service workers.

45
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Portable Dryers install and operate. Because they can be installed

Portable dryers, which away from the central production area, they can
put the dryer and drying also conserve limited floor space.
hopper on a wheeled cart,
have become the most There are three different central drying
popular dryer configuration configurations. One consists of a centrally located
because of their flexibility dryer and drying hopper that convey material to
and mobility. They may be several processing machines. This type is ideal for
used to predry material long process runs when all machines are running a
away from the processing single material. A second version is appropriate
machine or be moved from for processing several different types of materials.
location to location to serve Its centrally located, high-capacity dryer provides
multiple process machines. dehumidified air to multiple machines with
They also lend themselves Figure 20. Portable
Dryer. individual machine-mounted drying hoppers. A
to off-line servicing and third configuration consists of a central drying
cleanup. station that delivers dehumidified air to individual
Central Dryers drying hoppers mounted on a common stand in a
When large quantities of similar materials are central location. This allows a variety of materials
processed in multiple machines, central drying to be predried simultaneously and then conveyed
systems may be the most economical alternative to to multiple process machines.

Figure 21. Central Dryer Configurations.

46
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

Sizing a Dryer and Hopper temperature options on their equipment. In

The optimum dryer size is a function of the general, standard temperature ranges are 150°-
machine’s production rate, or how many pounds 300°F (65°C-149°C), whereas high-temperature
of material are used in one hour. The two most models offer 150°-400°F (65°C-204°C).
important parameters to consider in sizing a dryer Hopper size is a function of the machine’s
are dehumidified air flow (cubic feet per minute production rate, material residence time, and
or cfm) and process-air temperature. However,
material bulk density. Recommended residence
cost, anticipated future needs, and the types of
time at a specified drying temperature is found on
materials being processed are also important
the material supplier’s data sheets. Most
considerations.
nonhygroscopic materials have a minimum
The rule of thumb for air flow is to use one residence time of 1.5 hour. Some hygroscopic
cfm of air per pound of material being processed materials take longer than others to release
in 1 hour. Although some sources use a range of moisture; thus, they require more time in the
values from 0.5 to 1 cfm/lb/hr, 1 cfm is a drying hopper. Material bulk density, measured in
conservative number that will allow for future
weight per cubic foot, is the other key parameter
versatility of the equipment with different resins.
when sizing a drying hopper. A critical
Once you have determined the required cfm,
consideration is whether regrind will be dried
specify the next-largest standard size dryer. To
together with virgin material. The bulk density of
avoid undersizing the dryer, check the air flow
specifications: dryer model number designations virgin material is generally higher than is that for
do not always reflect their true cfm rating. regrind of that same material, so you may need a
Required drying temperatures are typically larger hopper if regrind is to be used. Most
specified by the materials supplier. Most dryer equipment suppliers state drying-hopper capacity
manufacturers offer standard and high- specifications in cubic feet.

High Temperature Drying Low Temperature Drying

with Aftercooler with Precooler

Figure 22. Aftercooler and Precooler.

47
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Hopper size can be determined with this formula: Redundant High-Temperature Safety

[Production rate (pounds/hour)/Bulk density A back-up temperature control system shuts

(pounds/cubic foot)] x (residence time required in down delivery of process air to the hopper if the
drying hopper) temperature rises uncontrolled. This minimizes the
= drying-hopper size (cubic feet) required to use chances of having melted resin inside the drying
for the process hopper due to runaway temperature controls.

As with the dryer, specify the next larger Closed-Loop Regeneration

standard size hopper to avoid undersizing. Closed-loop regeneration saves energy by
Dryer Features and Options accelerating the regeneration process while
maximizing the desiccant bed’s moisture-holding
Aftercooler
capacity and extending the time it can stay online.
Mounted in the return line between the drying
For more information on the importance of
hopper and the dryer, an aftercooler reduces return-
drying in injection molding, see the chapter on
air temperature, enhancing the efficiency of the
Drying Plastics or Drying Engineering Materials.
desiccant beds in dehumidifying dryers. Return-air
temperatures entering the dryer beds should be at or
below 150°F (65°C) to allow the air to release its BLENDERS AND ADDITIVE FEEDERS
moisture more efficiently. This option is The first blenders arrived on the scene in the
recommended when drying at temperatures greater 1960s, so blending itself is not a new
than 250°F (121°C) and is required at 300°F development. Their use has become more
(149°C) and above. widespread, however, as the trend toward blending
Precooler color, other ingredients, and regrind back into
process continues. Extruders were the first to
Mounted in the air delivery line between the
adopt the use of blenders on a widespread basis.
drying hopper and the dryer, a precooler requires a
They also evolved from volumetric blenders to
thermocouple at the inlet to the drying hopper to
control the temperature to process. This option is gravimetric blenders earlier. Due to varying bulk
recommended to achieve temperatures below 180°F density of ingredients, it became very important to
and is required for drying at 160°F or below. control weight per unit volume while matching
that to machine throughput.
Insulated Process-Air Hose
In the 1990s a combination of more varied
This option minimizes heat loss between a
jobs, shorter runs, greater focus on material cost,
floor-mounted dryer and a machine-mounted
especially colorant, and interest in reduced
drying hopper.
inventories contributed to the “blending-in-
Dewpoint Monitor house” trend. There are two types of blending
systems: volumetric systems, which meter
This feature will monitor and provide an
indication of air dewpoint prior to entering the ingredients by volume, and gravimetric systems,
drying hopper. This circuit can also be used to which meter ingredients by weight. For many
control regeneration cycles on a dryer, conserving years volumetric blending was popular. Today,
energy and ensuring optimum regeneration cycle the most popular blenders sold are various types
to maintain a process dewpoint setpoint. of gravimetric blenders.

48
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

Gravimetric Blending batch interval equipment allows for higher

Gravimetric blending output rates when needed.
feeders and blenders
are used in
compounding and
primary processing
operations. They
accurately proportion Figure 24.
resin and additives by Continuous
weight, according to a Gravimetric Blender.
recipe. Volumetric
blenders fail to take
into account the bulk
density variations in
materials. Gravimetric Figure 23.
Batch Gravimetric
blending offers Blender. Additive Feeders
improved blend
Additive feeders are still important as a low-
accuracy and homogeneity, reduced scrap/regrind,
cost method of introducing additives into the
and quicker start-ups. This greater accuracy
injection molding process. They provide a cost-
produces less resin and additive waste and results
effective improvement over manual mixing.
in better part quality and consistency. Gravimetric
equipment also makes available weight-based
material-use data for accurate inventory control
and job cost tracking.
Sizing and Selection Guidelines
Blender components include a weigh hopper,
slide gate, auger, and mixing sections. A slide
gate offers adjustable metering for dispensing
free- flowing materials at varying rates of speed.
An auger provides precision metering of small- Figure 25. Additive Feeder.
percentage ingredients and is used for nonfree-
Incremental mechanical and control
flowing materials.
developments continue in blending equipment.
Batch versus Continuous Weigh Although several suppliers have introduced new
Batch weigh blenders are commonly being supercompact microblenders, more accurate load
used for injection molding applications. cells, better-designed mixing chambers, improved
Continuous weigh blenders (sometimes called slidegates featuring easier cleanout, and different
loss-in-weight) are used in high-throughput metering devices are now available. Improved
extrusion processes. Batch weigh blenders meter process measurements, reporting, and controls
ingredients one at a time into a single common (e.g., SCADA packages) are also available.
weigh hopper, whereas continuous blenders “Supervisory control” of recipes via the PC
meter ingredients simultaneously. Batch weigh means you can check the recipe, change the
blending will complement most injection recipe, and monitor other data from the blender
molding process applications and provide real remotely. This ability makes it possible to
process data that can be evaluated and used to eliminate paperwork on the floor and allow
maximize job profits. In most cases, weighed processors to introduce more consistency in the

49
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

process through programmed recipe input. It will Processing rate: 225 lb/hour
also allow faster, more reliable set-up (by using Specific Heat of Polystyrene: 0.60 Btu/lb/°F
stored recipes) for different parts processed.
Safety Factor to account for line losses and
fouling factors in the process piping and mold:
25%
(450°F – 125°F) × 1 lb/hr × 0.60 Btu/lb/°F × 1.25
Heat content = 243.75 Btu/hr/lb = Heat
Figure 26. transfer rate per pound of material processed
Co-extrusion
Control System. Rule of thumb = lb/hr/cooling ton
= 12,000 Btuh/ ton/heat content in Btu/lb
12,000/243.75 = 49.23 lb/hr/ton for Polystyrene
Chiller standard design temperature:
50°F to process
Approximately 1 ton of cooling is required for
every 50 lb of Polystyrene processed
PROCESS HEATING
If you are processing 225 lb/hour of Polystyrene
AND COOLING
225/50 = 4.5 tons of cooling would be required
Heat transfer is a basic element of plastics
for the heat removal in this process
processing. Materials must be heated during
processing. Molded parts must be cooled to be Temperature Control Units (TCU)
converted from a liquid to a solid state. Additional
Liquid-circulating temperature control systems
heat generated by hydraulic machinery and other
provide accurate and consistent processing
process operations must also be dissipated.
temperatures in the preheat, operating, and cool-
Temperature control units can be used for both
down stages of injection molding. The most
heating and cooling. A temperature control unit
common application for a liquid-circulating
accomplishes “controlled” cooling to an elevated
temperature control system is to control the
setpoint. Chillers and cooling towers are used
temperature of a mold in an injection molding
exclusively for cooling.
machine. Accurate temperature control maintains
Cooling Equipment Sizing and Selection product uniformity, dimensional integrity, and
Four factors determine cooling equipment surface finish while providing faster cycle times and
sizing and selection: the starting temperature of reduced scrap. A properly operating unit configured
the material, its finish temperature, the rate at correctly also allows for faster start-up.
which the plastic is processed, and the physical These temperature control systems use
characteristic of the material (specific heat). This liquids—either water, a water-glycol solution, or
can be expressed by the following equation: heat transfer fluid—because they are easy to
(Starting temperature – Final temperature) × circulate in tight areas, easy to pump, and transfer
(Processing rate) × (Specific heat) heat efficiently. Whereas water systems operate at
× (Safety factor) a maximum capacity of 250°-300°F, oil systems,
= Heat transfer rate which circulate heat transfer fluid, have maximum
operating capacities of 600°F and higher.
Example:
The system operates by circulating fluid
Material: Polystyrene
through cored passages of a mold, drilled holes in
Starting temperature in mold: 450°F a platen, walls of a vessel, or built-in flow patterns
Final temperature in mold: 125°F of rolls. Turbulent flow, which is determined by

50
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

Figure 27. Process heating and cooling system.

the speed at which the fluid travels through the restrictions of the process, which are directly
passages, creates the highest rate of heat transfer. related to the mold’s coring sizes, its number of
The appropriate flow rate is based on the coring corings, and their length and layout.
layout of the mold and the pumping pressure of Water systems can be
the system. either open or closed loop.
Open systems are exposed
Temperature control systems are typically to the atmosphere at some
installed beside the injection molding machine point in the circulation loop
and hooked up to a manifold or directly to the and are common to most
mold. Most systems can be stacked, with each injection molding
zone functioning independently, for flexible and applications. Closed loop
multiple-zone temperature control. systems utilize a heat
exchanger or sealed and
Figure 28.
Water Systems pressurized expansion Water TCU.
chamber, which does not
Water or water-glycol systems are the most expose the circulating process cooling fluid to the
common. They consist of a pump, motor, heaters, atmosphere.
temperature controllers, and a cooling medium. A typical process cooling system utilizes
Most systems use centrifugal pumps to circulate a positive pressure to circulate through the process.
small amount of fluid through the mold at a preset There are limited applications that utilize negative
temperature. When selecting a new system it is pressure to “pull” the water through the process.
important to take into account the pressure The negative pressure system is used when

51
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

processing is performed using damaged molds to leakage, but mechanical seals and fluid-cooled
minimize process fluid leaks from the mold. seals are also available.
Controllers connected to temperature sensors Oil systems utilize one
are used to adjust the circulating liquid’s of two cooling methods.
temperature. Solid-state analog dials were One design employs the
previously the standard controls. Microprocessor- inline orientation of a water-
based controllers now provide dual-display digital cooled, shell-and-tube heat
readouts of setpoint and operating temperatures. exchanger. The other
These new controllers can be linked to computers utilizes a cool oil reservoir
and networked systems or directly to the molding in conjunction with a heat
machines. exchanger or immersed
Temperature sensors are located in the fluid cooling coils with cool oil
flow path, or sometimes in the mold itself, to introduced into the
provide constant temperature readings to the processing loop upon
Figure 29.
controller. When the fluid temperature is lower demand. Even though either High-temp Oil TCU.
than the setpoint, the controller activates the method is effective,
electrical heaters within the flow path to increase eliminating the inline heat exchanger reduces the
fluid temperature. When the fluid temperature is potential for thermal shock.
higher than the setpoint, the controller activates a Mechanical Chillers: Overview
solenoid valve that introduces a cold supply water Mechanical chillers are effective when water
into the system while draining overheated water temperatures of 65°F (18°C) and lower are
through a second valve. An alternative cooling required for the process. Due to the mechanical
method uses either a water-cooled or air-cooled and physical limitations of the refrigeration
heat exchanger, thereby leaving the processing circuit, process cooling greater than 65°F (18°C)
loop water intact. is typically accomplished in a more practical and
Water systems are made of both carbon steel cost-effective way with a cooling tower system.
and nonferrous materials. Nonferrous systems are Basic components in a mechanical chiller
becoming popular due to their noncorrosive nature refrigeration circuit are an evaporator, compressor,
when in contact with water. condenser, pump/tank, and controls. These chillers
Oil Systems are typically configured as portable chillers,
central chillers, and outdoor central chillers, and
Oil systems are designed for higher operating
are available as water-cooled, air-cooled, or
temperatures than water-type units. They usually
remote air-cooled units. You must fundamentally
operate between 200°F (93°C) and 600°F (315°C)
choose a cooling strategy to fit your business and
(or more) and differ in size, components used, and
facility. Identifying all the heat loads in your
construction from water units. The “oil,” or heat
facility and reviewing them with experienced
transfer fluids, that they circulate can be mineral-
equipment suppliers and installers is highly
based, petroleum-based, or synthetic. Not all
recommended. Refrigerants used in the
systems offer cooling as a standard feature.
refrigeration circuit include R-22. This refrigerant
Because heat transfer fluids are noncorrosive is preferred for its outstanding heat transfer
by nature, carbon steel construction is standard. To properties, but it is HCFC-based and may be
ensure fluid flow to the process with changing phased out after 2010. R-134A is an alternative
viscosities, it is common to use positive refrigerant that is environmentally safer, but it is
displacement-type pumps. Packed seals are also less energy-efficient.
usually used to ensure shaft protection and prevent

52
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

Mechanical Chillers Compressor Types capacity (for the first 10 degrees). At more than
Chillers use one of three types of 60°F (15°C) consult the factory for proper
compressors: scroll, reciprocating, or screw. application requirements.
Scroll compressors are used on 2-50 ton machines Portable Chillers
and contain half the moving parts of the other Portable chillers use either air or liquid to
types due to their rotary design. The largest cool refrigerant, and they usually utilize water or
commercial scroll compressor available today is other heat transfer fluids to remove heat from the
25 hp. To achieve the desired chiller circuit process.
tonnage, scroll compressors are commonly used
At the chiller, heat is extracted from the water
in tandem. They can handle liquid refrigerants
that has circulated through the process and
without failure and consume 15% less energy
transferred to the chiller’s internal refrigerant
than the standard reciprocating type.
circuit. Chillers use air-cooled or water-cooled
Reciprocating, serviceable hermetic compressors
condensers to transfer heat from their internal
are still being used in refrigeration circuits when
refrigerant circuit to the environment. Water-
the application makes them the value engineered
cooled condensers typically use a cooling tower
choice. Screw compressors are used on large
to dissipate the unwanted heat. Chillers have
(100-350 ton) machines. Screw compressors have
either an integral or remote pump/tank assembly
the advantage of handling large-capacity ranges
that circulates fluid through the chiller to lower
and have very few moving parts to achieve
the temperature before going into the process.
refrigerant compression. Screw compressors also
Once cooled, the water flows to process for heat
have variable staging capability by design and can
removal and then back to the pump/tank
adjust the loading of the cooling tonnage through
assembly, where the circulation cycle starts again.
the circuit. This staging allows the compressor to
be energy-efficient. The type of compressor used Cooling Towers: Induced Draft
in a refrigeration circuit is driven by its ability to versus Forced Draft
provide the proper cooling capacity, commercial Evaporative cooling
availability of the compressor, and cost per ton of towers are the most energy-
cooling provided. efficient method to cool
The general industry design standard for processes that require a
chillers is to provide water at 50°F (10°C) to water temperature of about
process. Water is the typical and most efficient 85°F (29°C). Water is
heat transfer fluid for this application. At distributed or sprayed over
temperatures below 42°F (5°C), a water-glycol the large surface area of a
mixture is required (ethylene or propylene). divided, usually corrugated,
Ethylene glycol is more efficient to use, but tower fill. Air-flow is either
propylene glycol is more environmentally forced using squirrel cage
blowers, or induced using Figure 30.
friendly. Chiller capacity is reduced when Cooling Tower.
operating temperatures fall below 50°F (10°C) axial fans, across the fill.
due to the additional work required by the Induced draft is the most
compressors and the loss in efficiency of the energy-efficient alternative.
water-glycol mixture. The sizing rule is a 2% During the cooling process in a cooling tower,
reduction in chiller capacity per degree below a combination of air-flow, large surface area, and
50°F (10°C). There is an additional loss of 2-5% environmental conditions allows for a small
in efficiency due to the water-glycol mixture’s percentage of water to evaporate as the heated air
heat transfer capacity. At temperatures greater is exhausted outside. The water is collected either
than 50°F (10°C), there is a 2% gain in chiller in the basin of the cooling tower or in a remote

53
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

reservoir and is recirculated to process and then Traverse Robots

back to the cooling tower. Traverse robots move on three main axes, the
X or strip stroke, the Y or vertical stroke, and the Z
Treatment of cooling tower water is critical to
or traverse stroke. There are three basic drive types
control the growth of algae and bacteria that used in traverse robots: pneumatic, electric and
occurs in recirculating water systems, especially electric linear drive.
those operating at warm temperatures. The levels
Pneumatic Drive Traverse Robots
of suspended and dissolved solids created by
evaporation can also lead to scale and corrosion Pneumatic robots are the least expensive,
problems if untreated. simplest in design, and easiest to use. They
provide a low-cost solution to simple part
Central Pumping Systems insertion applications. A typical application would
be to traverse to the mold area, and, after the press
A critical part of a central chilling solution and
opens and ejects the finished part, to place the
any system that incorporates cooling towers is a insert in the mold, exit the mold area and traverse
back to the insert pickup area to pick up another
insert and repeat the cycle. Pneumatic cylinders
are employed for drive on the strip, vertical, and
traverse axes, with limit or proximity switches
used for position verification. Some pneumatic
traverse robots use a simple electric drive for the
traverse motion, allowing for multiple stops on the
traverse axis.
Figure 31. Central Chilling System. Pneumatic robots normally have a
central pumping system and its network of piping. programmable logic controller (PLC) to initiate
and monitor the programmed sequence. This type
Pump reservoirs themselves can be single- versus
of control is very common and the language is
dual-well with multiple pumps and standby
easily understood. The control sequence can be
pumps. Large systems can have additional
reprogrammed by using selector switches to
reservoirs, pumps with variable speed drives and
select options in the program or by
even thermal storage capability.
reprogramming the PLC.

AUTOMATED PART REMOVAL,

SEPARATION, AND SECONDARY
PROCESS AUTOMATION
There are four levels of automation generally
used in injection molding: sprue removal, part
removal, part removal with limited secondary
operations, and a fully automated molding system.
There are five major types of automation used in
injection molding applications: three-axis traverse
Figure 32. Pneumatic Drive Traverse Robot.
robots, two- and three-axis sprue pickers, six-axis
articulated robots, side-entry robots, and other Electric Drive Traverse Robots
secondary process equipment including shuttles, As the name suggests, the other basic type of
conveyors, sprue separators, insert equipment, robot uses an electric motor for drive power. The
coating equipment, and more. three main axes most often are motor-driven,

54
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

although some units are available with motorized resolver, acts as a programmable positioning
wrist motions. The simplest of the electric drive device, allowing the user to change the
units uses an AC induction motor with a acceleration, deceleration, and stopping points
frequency inverter for speed control. The easily. This control method is more precise and
frequency inverter allows control over the user-friendly than the limit switch method.
acceleration and deceleration of the axes, The ultimate robot drive design, however, is
providing smooth operation. A friction brake is the servo-based system. Servo control systems
used to stop the unit and hold it in position. use specially designed high-performance AC or
The easiest control system for a frequency DC motors with a control system that monitors
inverter relies on limit or proximity switches to feedback from the positioning devices, which are
signal where to stop, accelerate, and decelerate. usually encoders or resolvers. Servo systems
Position accuracy of this control depends on how allow position, velocity, and torque to be
the switch is actuated; how long it takes the monitored constantly. As the robot travels through
its intended path, the control is checking to see if
processor to scan the program, realize the switch
the robot is where it is supposed to be at any point
is made, and actuate the brake; and finally, the
in time and automatically corrects by increasing
brake reaction time. Because there is no true
or decreasing the torque.
position feedback, the control system cannot react
to changes in load, leaving open the possibility The construction of servo motors is also
significantly different from that of standard AC
motors. The use of such premium components as
permanent rare-earth magnets enables the system to
maintain full torque at zero rpm, allowing it to
achieve and sustain close positioning at slow speeds.
Servo drive units typically are offered with
sophisticated control systems that allow the user
to teach a program simply by taking the robot step
by step through the intended motion path. This
makes it very easy to change sequence for
multiple molds, adding to the unit’s flexibility.
Figure 33. Electric Drive Traverse Robot.
Linear Drive Traverse Robots
that this type of system can overshoot or Linear drive robots incorporate many of the
undershoot the intended stopping position. features described in electric drive robots, but
Another, more precise method of control they incorporate a flat “linear” motor that
involves the use of an encoder, or resolver, along eliminates many mechanical parts (e.g., the gears,
with the frequency inverter. The encoder, or racks, and pulleys). The linear motor is said to be

Figure 34. Programming for Robot Sequences.

55
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

preferred in clean room environments, as there is from subgated parts, it has limited reach and
an encapsulated drive train and a reduced flexibility.
likelihood of airborne contamination from
Benefits of Automating
conventional drive lubrication systems.
Parts removal robots provide injection molders
with uniform cycle times, increased safety, cavity
separation, and consistent part orientation,
resulting in greater productivity. Removing the
operator from the potentially hazardous molding
area reduces injury and eliminates cycle delays
from human error.
Robots can be top-entry or side-entry. Side-
entry robots are appropriate for faster cycles as
Figure 35. Linear Drive Traverse Robot. they have a shorter travel distance and are useful
for shallow products needing little or no force to
Six-Axis Traverse Robots
remove.
Six-axis traverse
robots are utilized for more Level Three Limited Secondary Operations
complex and specialized These robots offer degating, parts stacking, and
molding applications. palletizing, as well as parts removal capacity. Many
They may be used in of today’s injection molded parts are attached to a
conjunction with a traverse gate/runner system that makes a second operation
robot or on a stand-alone necessary to separate the two. In general, there are
Figure 36. Six-axis
basis for such applications Traverse Robot. two categories of degators that can be used with
as assembly, degating, robotic systems: robot-mounted or floor-mounted.
deflashing, and others. There are also two configurations of parts
Sprue Pickers collectors: linear and rotary.
These light-duty machines are mounted to the At the final level of parts removal automation,
top of the stationary platen and used primarily to a completely automated work cell allows the
molding machine to operate at an optimum rate
with little or no labor involved. Automated work
cells for injection molders have been successfully

Figure 37. Sprue Pickers.

extract sprues on two- or three-plate molds.

Runner sensors verify sprue removal, thereby
protecting the mold. The sprue is released directly
into a bin or grinder ready for reprocessing.
Although the sprue picker is ideal for small to
Figure 38. End-of-arm Tooling and Components.
medium-sized presses needing to separate sprues

56
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

used in such applications as compact disk jewel granulate take-away system for the best
boxes, computer disk drive housings, magnetic granulator configuration.
tape drive hubs, and computer printers.
A granulator ideally should be specified to
End-of-Arm-Tooling (EOAT) process a specific feedstock under specific
End-of-arm-tooling allows the robot to function conditions. It is unrealistic to expect efficient size
with one specific part or a range of parts. The tool is reduction from a general-purpose machine, which
sometimes made custom to the application, whereas has not been designed to process all feedstocks
in other cases a modular end-of-arm tooling solution under all operating conditions. Some degree of
is chosen. The modular solution approach allows versatility should be obtained and built into the
various pieces of extruded aluminum to be specifications provided, but this may result in
integrated with standard grippers, suction cups, compromises in performance efficiency.
pneumatic cylinders and more.
Importance of Uniform Granulate
GRANULATION EQUIPMENT The first goal in granulation is to produce a
Size reduction is usually the last thing thought uniform granulate close to the virgin resin in size
about when starting up a new operation or and with a minimum of fines. Granule size affects
operating an existing one. No one plans to make bulk density. The closer the bulk density of
scrap, and processors try to design-in a minimum regrind is to that of the virgin resin, the less
amount of sprue or runner waste; however, almost trouble will result when feeding the two in a
every molder generates scrap. Depending on the consistent ratio. Another benefit is that cleaner
resin, if you use regrind in your process, selection
recyclate with fewer fines will keep hopper-loader
of an efficient granulator designed for the material
screens cleaner and prevent the regrind from
and product being produced can improve finished
part product quality up to 40%. This can be bridging in vacuum receivers.
accomplished by understanding: Batch feeding can improve granulate quality
• The material to be ground because material is ground under a “head” of
pressure. Having a head of material in the cutting
• The material composition (hard, soft, heat chamber also dampens noise by keeping scrap
sensitive, or stable) from bouncing around and reducing initial impact
• The physical form of the part (parts, to the knives.
runners, flash, rolls, or “haystacks” of film) Granulator Types
• Size, wall thickness, and temperature of the There are three basic types of granulators:
part to be ground central, below-the-press, and beside-the-press.
• How the part will be fed into the granulator A central granulator is typically an offline
• How the regrind will be removed from the device located away from the process. As a do-
granulator and reintroduced into the everything size reducer it can handle large, bulky
process parts as well as large quantities of smaller ones
for a number of machines. It also allows noise to
All of these factors help determine the most
appropriate machine size, feed-throat and cutting be isolated to a specific area. Its disadvantages
chamber design, rotor and knife configuration, include the need for transportation and storage
rotor speed, drive horsepower, screen size, and space for the incoming scrap and the regrind

57
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

greater versatility. The disadvantage is that this

machine can bring more noise to the plant floor if
not properly sound-dampened.
Sizing
Choosing a granulator depends upon the
material to be cut as well as its size, shape, and
thickness. The amount of material that needs to be
granulated and how the regrind will be processed
are also key considerations. The feed hopper must
be evaluated for operator safety. It should be sized
to receive the largest part being granulated without
requiring labor-intensive and potentially
dangerous precutting. Most safety devices in
Figure 39. Central Granulator. today’s granulators involve electrical interlocks
that prevent access to the cutting chamber until the
produced. It also requires frequent and thorough rotor has stopped turning. Older granulators may
cleaning to prevent material contamination. not have these built-in safeguards.
Because they can be dedicated to a specific Cutting Chamber Design
machine/material, below-the-press and beside-the-
There are three basic cutting-chamber designs:
press granulators have the advantages of tangential, conventional, and straight-drop, plus a
minimizing scrap handling, eliminating the need hybrid model.
for extra storage, and reducing material
The popular tangential design positions the
contamination. They are generally smaller and rotor at an offset from the feed opening so that the
easier to clean as well. They also allow the feedstock is directed into the downward cut of the
grinding of brittle materials while they are still rotating knives at a tangent to the cutting circle.
warm, making the scrap easier to cut and less This cutting chamber provides a large “bite”
likely to shatter into fines. radius, which is the most efficient way to achieve
Typical below-the-press high throughput and clean regrind with bulky,
granulators feature a scissor- thin-walled parts.
cut cutting chamber design, A straight-drop design feeds material
reverse flight auger screw, perpendicular to the cutting circle and is
heavy-duty roller chain drive recommended for thick-walled parts. Its
and easy access for cleanout. “nibbling” bites are less likely to take too much
Because scrap is gravity-fed material and perhaps stall the rotor.
directly from the processing The hybrid model presents material to the
machine, it requires no knives at an angle somewhere between the first
conveying or manual two and allows custom molders with a wide range
handling. of part sizes and shapes to process both thick- and
Figure 40.
Beside-the-press thin-walled materials in the same machine
Beside-the-press Granulator.
Rotors
granulators for robotic,
conveyor, or hand feeding are by far the preferred The four main types of rotors are open, closed
configuration. Because they are portable, they can or solid, staggered, and staggered/segmented.
be moved from machine to machine, allowing Open rotors provide unrestricted air-flow
through the cutting chamber, so they are more

58
®
 Auxiliary Equipment

often used for granulating heat-sensitive resins or

feedstocks that are still warm from processing.

Figure 43. Staggered Rotor.

Figure 41. Open Rotor. Knives

The number of knife blades, as well as their
Closed or solid rotors have no open spaces arrangement, tip angle, speed, and sharpness, all
between the rotating knives and the center of the have an important impact on granulate quality and
shaft, providing a much stronger knife mounting granulator efficiency. Knives may be mounted on
a stationary bed or on the rotor. The clearance
between rotating and bed knives is crucial to size
reduction performance. Smaller clearances
produce cleaner, more efficient cuts, and are
important when grinding softer, more ductile
polymers. Many granulator designs offer only two
stationary or bed knives. Check with the
granulator manufacturer for proper knife
clearance recommendations based on materials
Figure 42. Solid Rotor. being granulated. Increasing the number of knife
blades on the bed, or the rotor, can significantly
arrangement and adding inertia to cut through the increase throughput by increasing the number of
thickest feedstocks (e.g., large cold purgings). cuts per revolution.
Staggered rotors are offered in closed or A “slant-knife” arrangement that produces a
semi-closed configurations and are excellent for scissors cutting action provides higher
cutting most heavy, thick-walled parts. In heavy- throughputs with less horsepower, less noise, and
duty applications, flywheel-type pulleys increase reduced fines and dust than the traditional
straight-cut knife.
rotor inertia and are often a more practical, cost-
effective means to achieve greater cutting force Low knife angles have blunter tips and are
without adding horsepower. suited for more brittle materials. High knife
angles with sharp knife edges are used to cut
Staggered/segmented rotors are usually softer, energy-absorbing materials.
offered in a helical pattern, which provides more Lower knife tip speeds can increase output of
cuts per revolution than traditional rotor designs. uniform granulate, reduce noise, and lessen knife
The cutting circle stays constant after sharpening, and cutting chamber wear. With a high-speed
minimizing screen plugging, heat build up, and rotor, the particles are more susceptible to being
fines. This configuration is excellent for cutting carried around the machine or frayed into fines by
most heavy, thick-walled parts. repeated cuts. A slower rotor speed prevents this

59
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

by giving each granule a greater chance to pass SUMMARY

through the screen. The goal in a process environment is to
Frequency of knife sharpening will depend on produce the highest quality part 100% of the time
the abrasiveness of the material (glass-filled and with a 0% scrap rate and 0% waste in the process.
reinforced compounds are the worst on knives), This goal should be accomplished using the fastest
and on the steel alloy composition of the blades. possible machine cycle time and a minimum
Knife steels are generally designed for either amount of human contact. To maximize
toughness or wear resistance. For soft, profitability, this should all be performed at the
nonabrasive materials, knives made of least cost to the processor; unfortunately, not all
chromevanadium steel (CVS) are tough and processors are able to achieve this goal.
resistant to chipping, but they wear faster than Technology and experience has led to
other tool steels. D2 steel, which is the most significant improvements in the design and proper
common choice for granulator knives, is harder implementation of the correct auxiliary equipment
and provides more wear resistance, but it may be to match the process. Selection of the proper
more susceptible to chipping, which can be a auxiliary process equipment is critical to
problem if tramp metal is present. A regular successful processing. By taking the time to select
periodic maintenance program should be the right equipment to match the process properly,
established to check knife wear and sharpness. you will be able to maximize the efficiency of the
Sharpened blades are important to produce process and help to obtain the goal and
quality regrind with minimal fines. expectations of your business.
Do not always look at the initial cost of the
Screen
equipment. In addition, fit, form, function, and
Screen hole size is heavily dependent on compatibility with your other equipment, look at
material composition and machine size. When the “value” that the equipment can add to your
running at slower rotor speeds, smaller screen process. Evaluate the productivity gains that can
holes and a thinner screen will produce more be achieved (short and long term) through proper
uniform particle sizes and highest throughput. On implementation of this equipment in your process.
the other hand, at higher speeds, larger screen Utilizing the latest in today’s technology allows
holes are needed to achieve throughput and reduce you the opportunity to match and integrate the
fines, although they may increase the range of right auxiliaries into your process. This match will
particle sizes, particularly with brittle materials. optimize your operations and, most importantly,
Reversible screens have a longer useful life. increase your bottom line.

All photos and illustrations contained in this article courtesy of AEC and Sterling, Inc.
©2002 AEC, Inc.
©2002 Sterling, Inc.

60
®
TIEBARLESS MACHINES
RALPH HETKE

CHAPTER OBJECTIVE Engel introduced the modern tiebarless

machine in 1989 at the K89 Plastic Exhibition in
This chapter will help technicians to become Duesseldorf. It employed a method for
familiar with the new technology of the tiebarless compensating the C-frame deflection experienced
machine. Clamp basics plus the function of the by traditional C-frame machines. At the show, the
tiebarless machine are presented and tiebarless machine concept was greeted with much interest
clamps are compared with other clamp types. and a healthy dose of skepticism.
The frame deflection compensated tiebarless
INTRODUCTION machine was developed as a response to a specific
A good injection molding machine produces requirement where a fairly complicated and bulky
consistent parts from shot to shot and is repeatable mold was used for a small lot of high-precision
from job to job. Choosing an injection molding parts. The conventional set up required the pulling
machine on the basis of clamp force alone may of two or three tiebars with every mold change;
result in missed opportunities for economy. This whereas a precise, deflection compensated
chapter will provide the reader with an overview of tiebarless clamp made the process (and the mold
the tiebarless machine, its history, components and design) much simpler and more economical.
its function. Characteristics of different clamp Design targets included:
types are compared and tiebarless applications are
• a rigid clamping system
presented.
• parallel platen alignment under maximum
HISTORY clamping force
• compensation for clamp deflection
Tiebarless machines have been built since the
early days of injection molding. The concept was • the ability to carry a heavy mold with an
used almost exclusively for insert molding (in overhung load
order to avoid the tiebars) or to accommodate • a large mold mounting surface
oversized rotary tables. The traditional C-frame • good mold protection
machines were often considered a last resort
• good accessibility to the mold
because of problems with mold life, mold
flashing, and part accuracy associated with C- • hydraulic ejector
frame deflection. • reasonable machine cost

61
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 1. Tiebarless machine.

The modern tiebarless machine was first • additional functions (e.g., ejection,
introduced in North America around 1993. At the corepull, etc.)
time of this writing, one manufacturer currently
Components of the Clamp Unit
builds tiebarless machines in the range from 28 to
660 U.S. tons. They have more than 15,000 The clamp unit consists of:
machines in the field to date, with approximately • the stationary mold half side (injection side)
one third of these in North America. stationary platen
CLAMP BASICS • the moving mold half side moving platen
Functions of the Clamp Unit • moving platen guides/supports (e.g., tiebars
The generic clamp unit must provide the or linear rails)
following functions:
• the base or frame
• parallel and coaxial mounting and guiding
of both mold halves • a clamping and holding system
• gentle closing of the mold (in order to avoid Types of Clamp Units
mold damage at mold close) There are many clamp designs currently in
• build up of clamp force use. One usually differentiates between fully
hydraulic and toggle-based clamping systems.
• holding of clamp force during injection (one Hydraulic systems can be further broken down to
can expect a mold internal pressure of tiebar hydraulic and tiebarless hydraulic. At least
approximately 6000 to 12,000 psi due to one manufacturer offers a toggle-based tiebarless
both melt pressure and mold geometry) machine.
• pressure release at the end of closing time
HOW THE TIEBARLESS CLAMP
• slow opening motion while the mold halves
separate
FUNCTIONS
For this discussion we will consider a
• fast clamp opening motion after mold half tiebarless fully hydraulic clamping system and
separation show various methods of solving the traditional C-
• precise stopping in the mold open location frame machine shortcomings. There are three
(important for part removal with fundamental ways the impact of frame deflection
automation) is prevented from affecting the mold: rotating or

62
®
 Tiebarless Machines

bending link, flexible frame elements, and but measurable, C-frame deformation under load,
compensating cylinder. and this has to be compensated. The majority of
tiebarless machines in the field today use the first
Rotating or Bending Link
method of frame deflection compensation.
The first frame deflection compensation
The Bending Link Method of Compensation
method employs a rotating or bending link in the
area between the clamp cylinder and the moving The C-frame is forced open slightly when
platen that allows the moving mold half to move clamp force is built up. This causes the stationary
freely with the stationary mold half whose motion platen to rotate away from the moving platen and
is driven by the deflecting C-frame. to rise with respect to the machine’s unloaded
state. The moving platen, however, is equipped
with a flexible link, which allows the necessary
degree of freedom for the moving platen to rotate
with, and rise with, the stationary platen.

The flexible link is a flexible bar mounted

between the moving platen and the clamping
piston, which compensates the minor deformation
on the C-frame under clamp force.

It ensures that the movable platen follows the

inclination of the fixed platen with the same
bending curve, consequently providing improved
platen parallelism.
Figure 2. Flexible link.
The platen support linear bearing is designed
Flexible Frame Element with an additional degree of freedom, allowing
In the second compensation method, the the moving platen to lift from the linear bearing as
flexible elements are designed into or mounted on force builds up. The moving platen is returned to
the frame; thus, the deflection of the frame is its original position when clamp force is released.
compensated for within the frame and is not seen Under a no-load (mold open) condition, the
by the mold or the clamp cylinder. stationary platen and moving platen are perfectly
square to each other. As long as the mold weight
Compensating Cylinder
is within the design specification, the platen
In the third method, a hydraulic cylinder in parallelism is factory adjusted by means of a
the frame is applied quasi-symmetrically to the preloading spring and a platen rotation stop. Both
mold clamping cylinder to compensate for and mold halves are perfectly aligned in the vertical
counterbalance the force of the hydraulic cylinder plane. The horizontal alignment is controlled
on the frame. through manufacturing tolerances with some
adjustment available.
The deflection-compensated C-frame
resembles the traditional C-frame machine frame. It has been determined experimentally that the
The load-carrying members are sized to achieve force trying to shear one mold half across the
minimal clamp deformation under maximum other mold half is approximately 100 times less
mold clamping force; however, there is still small, than the force holding the mold halves together.

63
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

mold. The holding force that can be obtained

within the clamp cylinder alone is limited due to
the small but measurable compressibility of the oil
in the hydraulic cylinder. If the oil in the clamp
cylinder is locked in by means of a valve, the
holding force can be greater than the closing force
obtained within the clamp cylinder alone. On a
hydraulic machine the maximum holding force is
around 110% of clamp force.
Toggle Clamp Characteristics
Figure 3. Platen alignment. The toggle principle provides varying clamp
cylinder force amplification over the clamp stroke.
COMPARISON OF The toggle clamp has the following
CLAMP TYPES characteristics:
Hydraulic Clamp Characteristics • the holding force of a toggle machine can be
In the hydraulic clamp system, the entire higher than a fully hydraulic machine
clamping force is applied directly by a hydraulic • gentle mold-closing motion during stopping
cylinder. Because of this, large hydraulic clamp has the characteristic of a ramp with smooth
cylinder diameters are required (for a machine switchover to clamp force build up
with 500 tons of clamping force using 2500 psi of
hydraulic pressure, a clamp cylinder diameter of • clamp-closing motion is approximately
approximately 22.5 in. is required). sinusoidal in form
Because of the large cylinder diameters, it is not • high clamp force using only a small input
practical for energy reasons to work the closing force due to a high force amplification ratio
motion of the moving mounting platen directly with • good clamp stiffness for mold-opening
this cylinder; therefore, with the exception of resistance due to a steep clamp force rise to
smaller machines, the fully hydraulic clamps mold stroke relationship
employ a system with two-step mold closing. This
• dry cycle times of a toggle machines are
is achieved with the addition of a quick close
good because there is no time lost by
cylinder with a reduced piston area and a main
switching from quick closing motion to
cylinder that uses a bypass valve. During the quick
clamp build up
close motion of the moving platen, the main clamp
cylinder is without pressure. • the maximum holding strength, as a
percentage of clamp force on a toggle
With a fully hydraulic clamp, clamping force
machine, is around 120%
can be applied in every position of the moving
platen. To adapt to a new mold height it is not • clamp height adjustment is achieved using
necessary to adjust the stretchable portion of the adjustment of the length of the stretch
tiebar length. Clamping force is only dependent on section of the tiebar
hydraulic pressure and is, therefore, easy to adjust Tiebar Machine Characteristics
and repeatable. Clamp force consistency is easily In a tiebar machine, the clamp distortion is
obtained on a fully hydraulic clamp. symmetric about the mold center; therefore, there
The disadvantage of fully hydraulic machines is no requirement for frame deflection
is the energy usage associated with the requirement compensation. In machines with tiebars, there is a
to pump huge quantities of oil in and out of the direct relationship between the tiebar distance and
main clamp cylinder during quick motion of the the clamping force; the need for larger clamping

64
®
 Tiebarless Machines

area results in the need for a larger and more Clamp Precision
expensive machine. Clamping force is applied by The deflection of the platens on the tiebarless
the tiebars at the four corners of the platens, machine can be significantly less than that on a
resulting in higher platen deflection for platens of toggle machine. The stationary platen of a tiebarless
similar thickness. machine sees a large support area at the webs of the
Tiebarless Clamp Characteristics C-frame. Bending of the fixed platen is
Mold Access considerably reduced when compared with the
four-point support of tiebars on a conventional
The most significant characteristic of the machine.
tiebarless clamp is the ease of mold change. The
downtime lost to tiebar pulling is a thing of the Despite heavy mold weights, there is
past. Even if the molds are small, there are practically no bending of the frames. The strong
advantages for mold change because no tiebars C-frame that results from tiebarless principle
are in the way of the installation. Side loading of automatically provides an ideal support for the
large and heavy loads is made easier by the lack moving platen and the mold.
of tiebars. Accurate adjustment of platen parallelism is
possible at the factory or during maintenance, and
Without tiebars in the way, auxiliaries and
maximum tolerance values for platen parallelism
corepull cylinders can be positioned on the mold
are easily met.
exactly where they are needed. Mold service
connections and quick-connect manifolds can be The flexible link is maintenance free and
installed virtually anywhere on the mold. Mold nonwearing, yet accessibility to the ejector is
adapter plates can be increased in size to unobstructed and the ejector movement can be
accommodate automatic quick coupling concepts. visually checked with ease.
The frame design allows for a large drop out Mold Protection
area below the platens for good part removal In contrast with the tiebar machines, the
capability. moving platen is not guided by sliding friction on
Mold Size the tiebars; rather, it is guided by ball bearings on
guide rails, which are mounted on the frames.
With small to medium-sized molding
machines, it is not unusual for the molder to As a result, low traversing forces are required,
choose a higher tonnage machine simply because, and the sensitivity of the mold protection is
at the ideal clamp tonnage, a mold cannot considerably enhanced.
physically fit between the tiebars. In many cases, Tiebarless Clamp Applications
the molder has to settle for more clamp force than In addition to traditional molding applications
necessary just to accommodate the mold size. On where mold access, mold size or precision is
a tiebarless, the mold clamping area averages important, the following applications are well
30% more than on a tiebar machine. suited to the modern tiebarless machine.
The larger clamping systems do not get the Molding Cells with Parts Handling /
same percentage increase in usable platen area as Automation
do the smaller machines, but the elimination of The lack of restriction in the molding area
the tiebars enables side loading of molds and the allows robots and peripheral equipment to be
ability to mount mold services. applied with less complexity. Parts removal with
The optimum utilization of the clamping area side or top entry robots is made simpler and faster
reduces mold costs and offers more freedom in because there is no need to travel over the tiebar.
designing molds. Platen sizes can be adapted to The robot is able to move in and out of the side of
accommodate mold requirements. the machine, freely shortening the traversing path.

65
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Multicomponent Molding
Free space of the tiebarless machines is
excellently suited for two or more component
molding.
Vertical Clamp Machines
Vertical versions of the tiebarless machines for
insert molding have been available for a long time.
The traditional tiebarless design has always
offered more space for rotary tables. With the
modern tiebarless machine’s clamp deflection
compensation schemes, a new degree of precision
is now available for these machines.
Versions are offered with vertical clamp and
Figure 4. Automation access.
horizontal injection and vertical clamp vertical
injection. Units where the clamp and injection are
vertical offer the advantage of direct injection into
There is also a possible reduction of vertical stroke, the mold with short flow distances. This is
causing less interference with low ceiling heights. especially useful for plastic material sensitive to
LSR temperature.
All Electric Machine
Liquid silicone rubber and rubber molding
One manufacturer has introduced a toggle
machinery usually require frequent intervention version of the tiebarless clamp on an all electric
by the operator. The easy access is an obvious machines.
benefit in this type of molding.
CONCLUSION
The increased rigidity and stiffness of the The modern tiebarless machine with its
tiebarless frame contributes to flash-free molding deflection-compensated clamping scheme offers
of liquid silicone rubber parts. The installation of the molder opportunities for improved economy
brush units and outboard ejectors is also made and opens doors to many conventional and new
easier by the elimination of tiebars. applications.

Illustrations provided courtesy of Engel Canada, Inc.

66
®
ELECTRIC MACHINES
ROBERT KADYKOWSKI

HISTORY machine was used as the basis for the clamp unit
Electric machines have experienced a wide along with an AC servo motor drive and a ball
acceptance since 1997 and now are positioned to screw. Ejector motion was also replicated by
be the new standard of the molding industry. For using an individual AC servo motor drive/ball
the year 2000, these machines represented 20% of screw combination. Injection functions were
the new machines less than 500 tons being replicated by using individual AC servo motor
ordered in North America. drives for the plasticizing function and linear
injection function. Pressure control was first
The electrification of the molding machine
investigated using torque control of the injection
follows other similar evolutions in industry to
motor, but this was dropped for the advantage of a
increase accuracy and provide more predictable
strain gauge control and direct plastic pressure
processing capabilities. The machine tool and
readings.
robot areas have seen this same evolution from
hydraulic actuation to AC servo drives since 1965. Substituting direct mechanical motion that
eliminated the hydraulic oil completely
MAJOR DESIGN eliminated hydraulic system variation. The
CONSIDERATIONS elimination of the hydraulic system decreased
The major design considerations in the reaction time of the various control/motion
development of the electric machines were to: functions, providing quicker response to control
signals. The lack of the hydraulic system also
1. provide to the user a machine with better
eliminated the need for a cooling system for the
capability of process control
oil a major source of variation in the process.
2. eliminate the variances of a hydraulic
system Energy utilized in the overall injection
process is in large part attributable to the
3. provide a reduction of energy used in the hydraulic pump and the need to have oil under
conversion of plastic materials pressure ready for the various functions of the
Using basic motion control from the machine machine. If one considers that the pump runs
tool industry for the linear and rotary motions 100% of the operational time, but that actual oil
required in an injection molding machine movement is only approximately 40% of the time,
provided the basis for the machine actuation. the hydraulic system wastes up to 60% of the
Toggle-clamp technology of an injection molding energy it consumes. An electric machine utilizes

67
Society of Plastics Engineers

Energy Efficient
Servo motors are extremely efficient and run only when needed.
En Clamp C lamp
Injection Packing Metering C ooling
er close open
gy 24
Co Energy Consumption
ns of Hydraulic machine
u 18
m Energy
pti C onsumption of
on Electric machine
ROBOSHOT
12
k
W

0
0 5 10 15 20
Time sec

Figure 1. Energy savings versus newer hydraulically operated

toggle machine.

only the energy necessary at the time movement is equipment since the early 1950s providing a zero
required, therefore eliminating the majority of the backlash device to translate rotary motion into
conversion cost. Heat generated by the hydraulic linear motion with minimal energy loss. These
system is also eliminated along with the need for a drive devices are also used in multiaxis robotics,
heat exchanger to remove the heat. providing repeatability of positions with each
movement.
SERVO DRIVE DEVELOPMENT
AC servo-driven electric injection molding ENERGY SAVINGS
machines were introduced as a commercial The advantages of electric actuation start to
product at the 1985 NPE. Electric motors have show with this combination because the
been used on various axes (e.g., extruder drive) of mechanical transfer of energy through this method
machines since the late 1950s. The first electric is better than 95% efficient. This represents a large
drive was used for screw rotation through a energy savings because the motors only operate
selectable gear-driven speed control with the when required rather than maintaining full
option of various gear ratios. This electric drive of loading, as in the case of a hydraulic pump. Total
the extruder function introduced in the early 1960s energy savings versus a newer hydraulically
on NATCO machines is still a popular energy operated toggle machine is in the 65-75% range,
saving method in machines today. depending on cycle times (Figure 1) .
AC servo drives were first developed in 1974
Cycle times of 30 seconds or more can easily
by FANUC through the vision of Dr. Seiuemon
represent savings as high as 80-90%. In addition, no
Inaba (1), resulting from the oil shortage and
power spikes as seen in standard motors exist with
increased power costs. He had previously
AC servo motors. No power factor correction is
developed a hydraulic servomotor but knew its
required because of the operational characteristics
limitation. His perfection of the AC servo motor
of an AC servo motor.
revolutionized the machine tool industry and later
dominated the robot industry. AC servo motors are When rapid cycle times are required (5 seconds
the standard in these industries today. Linear and lower) and independent and simultaneous
motion is achieved by coupling the rotary motion motions are required of a machine, the electric
of the AC servomotors to ball or roller screws to machines save even higher percentages of electric
provide the same action as a hydraulic cylinder. energy. They also represent a much lower
Ball screws have been utilized in machine tool investment cost because this type of operation

68
®
 Electric Machines

requires only software changes, rather than

expensive second independent hydraulic systems.

H Y D R A U L I C /E L E C T R I C
DIFFERENCES
The application of AC servo technology and
ball screws, along with time proven toggle clamp
mechanisms, have provided machines up to 1500
tons of clamp capacity. These machines have been Figure 3. Electric machine with two additional
limited in some cases because of the servo motor motor drives.
size in the area of injection capacity. Designs of change rather than the addition of separate or
two-stage injection units have eliminated this larger hydraulic pumps.
issue, and the large machine is now poised to take One of the unique thought patterns that
its place in the industry (Figure 2). change when using an electric machine is that the
technician changes from doing anticipatory
settings to setting actual requirements. The
control of the machines precludes the press from
doing anything other than what is programmed
into the control. It performs at the set speeds and
stops at the exact positions. Unlike a hydraulic
machine, the speed and pressure functions are no
Figure 2. Two-stage injection unit machines. longer coupled—rather, they are independent of
each other. This allows for a much wider
The difference between a hydraulically processing window and set up capability.
actuated machine and an electrically actuated Electric machines provide a whole new
machine is that a single motor/pump drives all capability to the technician and operation people
motion of the hydraulic machine. Electric AC in today’s modern molding plant because they
servo-driven machines utilize an independent provide both speed and position control beyond
drive motor for each linear or rotational that of hydraulic-driven machines. It is not
movement of the machine. The typical electric uncommon to have position control of ± 0.004 in.
machine today includes individual AC servo from set point. These close tolerances are
motor drives for the clamp axis; eject axis, achievable regardless of the velocity. Rotary
extruder rotation axis, and linear travel of the optical encoders sense position and speed of each
injection screw. In addition, there are usually two individual servo motor to closer tolerances than
additional motor drives, one for die height the typical LVDT used to monitor hydraulic
adjustment and a second for injection sled cylinder strokes.
movement (Figure 3).
This accuracy becomes very useful when
Each of the drives is independently actuated, applying automation to insert loading or part
as required, providing a machine capable of removal because the clamp or ejectors are always
running all axes movement at the same time. This in the exact position. It is also useful when
is not commonly done; however, simultaneous operating molds with sliding cores because
movement of the clamp and ejectors is slowdown does not need to occur until just before
commonplace. In addition simultaneous rotation engagement of the slide actuator. Because of the
of the screw and linear movement of the screw accuracy of the machines it is necessary to double
during clamp movement is only a software check that all ejector bars are within 0.004 in. in

69
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Artificial Intelligent Mold Protect

Original form M onitor Level : 1% M onitor Level : 3%

AI mold protection : OFF

M onitor Level : 4%

Figure 4. Artificial intelligent mold protect.

length; otherwise, side loading occurs and can highest-pressure drop point in the injection process.
damage molds and machines. Elimination of the elastic properties of the
hydraulic oil and the multiplication factor of the
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE injection ram provides increased accuracy of
ADVANCES pressure control. Resolution of the load cell is read
Low-pressure mold protection utilizes an out in 1 psi increments. The load cell is capable of
artificial intelligence, monitoring the setting alarm controlling plastic pressure within 14 psi (Figure 5).
band that follows the closing torque characteristics
of the clamp servo motor. This provides a more Using the advanced capability of the machine
reactive system of protection allowing the sensing and control, a unique style of molding by actually
of even the smallest change in torque, enhancing repeating a pressure fill profile curve is possible.
the ability to minimize mold damage (Figure 4). This method replicates the same curve each time,
Other clamp functions (e.g., in mold degating and presenting the same pressure wave front
injection compression) become feasible because characteristics in the cavity by adjusting the
of the accuracy and repeatability of the linear velocities of the injection speed in real time. The
motions associated with the clamp assembly. use of an artificial intelligence program allows this
The accuracy available also allows a wider
processing window and easier setup. Transfer
position between injection high and pack can be
controlled repetitively within 0.001 of an inch.
Velocity is independent of pressure, assuring that
velocity set points will be achieved as long as
high-pressure limits are not exceeded.
This capability provides the ability to
eliminate pressure limited set ups commonly seen
in the industry.
Pressure is controlled through a load cell
mounted in back of the injection screw allowing the
operator to monitor actual plastic pressure at the Figure 5. Guards removed for clarity.

70
®
 Electric Machines

Artificial Intelligence Metering

AI metering Conventional
8.5 9 9 8 .59 9

8.5 9 7 8 .59 7

Weight (g)

Weight (g)
8.5 9 5 8 .59 5

Weight?g?

Weight
8 .59 3
8.5 9 3

8.5 9 1 8 .59 1

8.5 8 9 8 .58 9

8.5 8 7 8 .58 7

8 .58 5
8.5 8 5
1 11 21 31 41 1 11 21 31 41
Sample ample

Wei ght variance AI metering Conventional

Average X 8.5931 8. 5919
Maximum Rmax 8.5952 8. 5948
Minimum Rmin 8.5910 8. 5883 2/3 of variance from
Range max-mi n 0.0042 0. 0065 conventional
Unit : g
Material :PBT

Figure 6. Artificial intelligence metering.

function to produce better parts over time because achieved through the flexibility of the machine
the system of machine and control now are design. Slow speed injection down to 0.25 mm/sec
working together and making decisions to can be programmed and accomplished without
produce a better part. cogging or surging as experienced with standard
hydraulic systems. Higher speed injection is also
Another artificial intelligence program that
available on a standard machine because of the
allows automatic adjustment of the recovery
capability of the AC servo motor drive high-speed
conditions to minimize variation is also available
acceleration. A typical AC servo motor can
to the processor for improved part quality. The
accelerate to 66.6% of its maximum speed and
use of this function has shown an improvement of
return to zero in 35 msec. Pressure is also
part weight consistency of 35% (Figure 6).
independent of the velocity control because the AC
Also improved were custom repeatability 41% servomotor has capability of providing the
greater than the already tight tolerance of ± 0.1 mm necessary velocity and pressure independent of
and recovery time variation improved by 94%. This each other. This uniqueness capability of electric
function adjusts the screw speed and position in machines places them far ahead of standard
real time during recovery to assure that the same hydraulic machines and nearly at the level of
screw position is reached during the process at the accumulator-assisted hydraulic machines.
same time increment while maintaining
The quick response of the AC servo motor
backpressure settings as programmed.
also provides for venting, coining, or compression
Machine fluctuation, as experienced in molding using a toggle clamp. This allows a
hydraulic-operated machines, is eliminated molder to eliminate sink marks in thick parts,
because the hydraulic fluid is nonexistent. This provide longer flow length for thin wall parts, and
provides that same forces and torque to the avoid burn marks due to poor venting. This
machine functions, without variation normally feature is standard on many of the electric
caused by outside influences such as changing machines available today.
wet bulb and ambient weather conditions. These
changing weather conditions directly affect the CONTROL SYSTEMS
cooling of hydraulic oil, which in turn affects the
The controls utilized on electric machines are
oil viscosity and machine performance.
either CNC control or PC-based controls. CNC
Injection unit control and capability for a wide offers advantages for electric machines because
range of injection velocities and pressures are servo technology and drives have been developed

71
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

in conjunction with this type of control for years. designs and process control capability. The trend
The servo drives utilize onboard digital processor for electric machines to replace all hydraulic in the
chips to provide a multitask-type system with 400 ton and less range has started and will continue.
minimized response to signal time. Control scan Larger than 400-ton presses show even greater
times for certain functions can be as little as 1 msec. potential for replacement because of their operating
This scan time allows advancing of the controls to costs per pound of material processed. The
use artificial intelligence to control certain determining factor in the larger tonnage presses will
functions in real time rather than with after-the-fact, be the ability of AC servo motor manufacturers to
closed-loop adjustments. The CNC controls offer provide larger capacity motors and the designers to
monitoring capability and compatibility with many eliminate the torque requirements in the functions
of the machine tools found in today’s mold building of the machines. Dramatic advances in the melt
and maintenance areas. These controls also are system of the process will need to be made and/or
moving toward the Windows CE base, providing a new methods will need to be accepted by the
wide variety of additional functional software from processors for these larger machines to become
commercial sources. popular. Already seen in the area of high-speed
PC-based controls offer the same capability as packaging applications and large automotive lens
CNC, but they have a slightly less signal-to- requirements, these higher tonnage machines are
response time while still providing the same making inroads.
features as CNC. Screens are usually full color
and provide many graphics for process analysis The injection molding section of the plastics
and viewing. They similarly offer advanced industry started its second innovative phase with
monitoring and such communication capability as the introduction of the first commercial electric
Internet communications directly to various injection molding machine in 1985. Previous to
machine manufacturers and material suppliers this was the reciprocating screw and its
web sites. application in the early 1950s. This new phase will
follow many industries that have advanced from
INDUSTRY TRENDS hydraulic operation of machinery to a more
Trends in today’s injection molding industry predictive and controllable method, until the
point strongly to breakthroughs in new machine transition is complete.

REFERENCE
1. Inaba E.S. “Walking The Narrow Path,” FANUC, 1994.
Illustrations and graphics courtesy of Ferromatik Milacron North America.

72
®
PART DESIGN
W. DAVID OUTLAW

INTRODUCTION you can understand the design and manufacturing

Welcome to my world. If you are reading the process they go through in designing and building
toolbox in order, you have learned a few things the molds.
about mold processing, quality, and plastic I have found that the more we understand
materials. If not, you may have to refer back to it about each other's occupational field the more of a
to understand some of the concepts to which I will winning team we can become. Just a little
relate in mold design and construction. communication with the right people can make all
If I had learned the plastic materials and the difference in the world on making a molded
processing information before I became a mold part profitable. We are not all things to all people,
designer, I could have made the lives of the so remember the molding process is the most all-
molding technicians easier. I had to go through inclusive field of engineering there is. We use
the experience of designing molds by the seat of computer, electrical, electronic, mechanical,
my pants early in my career—without the chemical, thermodynamics, rheology, and
information you have available to you in this hydraulic engineering principles every day. If we
toolbox. I could never understand why if you put chose to communicate we would give others the
a molder and mold maker or mold designer in the opportunity to help make the molded part
same room they would fight like a cat and a dog. I successfully.
eventually found out the hard way because I was Some of the goals in writing this section are to
later given the position of molding technical make it as easy to learn as possible, and as easy to
manager of a plant that was running some of the share with others that you may need to work with.
molds I had designed. I was constantly reminded I hope that you can relate to these situations and
of my lack of knowledge by having to manage the that they will add to your enjoyment while
molds I had designed. I soon came to know the reading this chapter.
trials and troubles of a technician. Molding technicians are usually the first to
My attitude about designing was changed see the result of part design problems. Shortly
rather quickly when I realized the cost of the after uncovering the problems they are asked to
choices I thought were arbitrary as a mold process around these problems due to time
designer. By being on the other side of the fence, limitations and cost. With little understanding of
however, I can share with you the point of view of how and why the problem is there, it is only
the mold designer and the mold maker. That way natural that the technicians place the blame on the

1
Society of Plastics Engineers

part and/or mold designer for creating this Part Function Requirements
problem. (This is why these poor relationships When designing the part shape the designer
begin.) We then logically assume that the problem will also need to analyze the functional part
is a mistake that is designed into the part and, requirements. The major kinds of functional
consequently, into the mold. The next reaction is requirements that should be considered will be
to immediately correct the part design in the mold discussed.
and get on with life. Well…not so fast, my friends.
Remember, not all things in life are made up of Functional Design Review List
good or bad—they are simply choices we make as Structural
trade offs. The trade off made unfortunately may The structural load-bearing requirements are
not have been to make your job easier, but it influenced by material selection, wall section, and
makes the end product work. the molecular orientation of the material. The
The intent of the information given in this designer must consider time and temperature
chapter is to provide general plastic part design effects to the structural properties of plastic parts.
principles. Unless we understand all the problems, Due to all the variation in the process structural
our suggestions for a correction just might put every strength sometimes cannot be predicted accurately
one in a deeper hole, especially if the part design using the mathematical models. This is why it is
problem you are trying to change was functionally recommended that most parts are prototyped even
necessary or there was a trade off necessary for the after the part designs are completed. This allows
end use. Reviewing these principles will give a the manufacturer to put the part through other
better understanding of the part-design process and functional tests to make sure that all the variables
of the designer’s point of view. that could cause part failure have been reviewed.
Even though ribs can add rigidity to the part, the
DETERMINING PART SHAPE designer should not overlook the possibility of
using a corrugated principle, or lip profiles around
The Three Most Influential Choices
open-ended parts, to do the same thing. This
Round or Square technique provides a better choice than does
adding ribs, which add to the potential for sink and
In designing a part from a mold maker’s
additional cost.
perspective the geometric shape of the part will
fall into one of two basic categories: round or Consumer Interface
square. This choice is a key choice that may Parts that must be handled by the consumer
inadvertently increase or decrease the cost because usually require ergonomics as a part of the
the shape chosen dictates the mold type and all the functional requirements. This requirement dictates
mold construction methods, which in turn dictates
the cost of the mold. Round parts tend to be less
expensive in mold construction than square parts.
You may see why after reading other sections of
this chapter.
Material Selection
It is equally important that the material
selection should be considered before beginning
the actual design process. The part properties vary
considerably between crystalline and amorphous
materials, which will affect mold design
considerations. Figure 1. Corrugation

2
®
 Part Design

Aesthetics (Pleasing to the Eye)—

Creating the Outside of a Part
Parts that are on the outside of the product need
to look good. Any consumers that consider buying
a product are enticed even further if the product has
some sleek looks and curves that show a little
creativity in design. In major programs for product
development, corporations will hire an industrial
artist to bring a unique design to help sell the
product. Working with these individuals is quite
Figure 2. Curved side walls.
interesting. We were involved in quoting a project
once that had a designer that was dictating the
outside shapes. When a change to the outside was
needed to the product due to some functionality
requirements, the designer refused to budge. The
reason that the designer would not change is that he
felt the integrity of his creative design was in
jeopardy, and he did not want his name associated
with the final look of the part. The project had to be
canceled, a new designer had to be brought in, and
the project had to start over. In short, “pleasing to
the eye” may mean “more difficult to mold.”
External Space Limitations
Figure 3. Stiffening profiles for edges.
If it is a part that does not have an aesthetic
requirement and it will remain out of view, the
the size and shape of the part so that it can be outside shape will follow the function of the part.
handled easily. Limits that should be reviewed include
applications where the shelf and box sizes play a
Internal Space role in defining the space the product takes up in
storage. Stacking lugs to prevent nesting of parts
Parts that are buried internally in a machine
stacked together are features that invariably get
must consider the ease of assembly as part of the
overlooked in the initial stages of the design. One
function, as well as making the part shape so that of the external functional requirements that a
it does not interfere with any of the other designer looks for might be an environmental
mechanisms in the part. The basic shape of the feature (e.g., lips or vent slots that protect the
part that is used internally will be shaped by its internal features of the product from the heat or
neighboring components. Most attachments are cold). We once designed a battery charging
made with screws, latches, or some bonding station without vent slots. We nicknamed it the
method. The part design requirements for some of Easy Bake oven because the heat generated from
these features will be covered later in this chapter. the transformer had nowhere to go.
It should also be noted that recent material Ease of Assembly
advances have allowed the combination of many If the part must interface with an assembly
parts that was not possible in the past, machine then the assembly machine, must be
substantially reducing the cost for manufacturing considered as a function of the part. This is
operations. typically an area that does not receive enough

3
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

attention in the early design stages. Our most selected. A gate location should be established to
successful product development projects had early optimize wall sections. The part designer will
involvement from the assembly machine designer. often not define where the gate should be and
By doing this we were able to design part shapes leave it up to a mold designer, mold maker, or
and features that clearly helped the cost and molder. By leaving the choice of gate location to
functionality of the assembly equipment. those that are not familiar with the function, the
Assembly machine designers too often have no opportunity for failure increases.
idea what to expect from a plastic part, other than Design for Constant Wall Sections
they want parts that are all the same;
unfortunately, this rarely happens. Instead they get
parts that work. If you ever inspect a part that
works to its original part print you will find many
discrepancies. There are case histories where
assembly engineers obtain a small sample of
virtually identical parts from a brand new mold
and approve the operation of an assembly machine
based on their performance. It should be obvious
that problems may be encountered once the mold
is introduced into production and the parts start to
show some variation due to normal variability in
the process. In a best-case scenario the molder has
had an opportunity to identify possible trouble Figure 4. Section thickness.
areas. The assembly operation takes these factors It is recommended that the wall section be as
into account beforehand. even as possible to prevent voids, sink or warpage
Note: The preceding order is not necessarily that can cause dimensional and consistency
in the order of importance. The designer often problems. Consistent wall sections will also help
functions just like a molding technician in keep the shrinkage rate to a more predictable level.
designing the part, and each area is interrelated Many times, in an attempt to decease the amount
like processing parameters. Each area must be of material in the part, design changes create a part
reviewed again as changes are made to make sure that sticks in the mold—sometimes on the wrong
that one choice does not present a problem with side! Coring that is added must always have draft
another area. on the core side.
Wall Sections Design for Minimal Wall Sections
To design a part correctly the material Maintaining a minimum wall section thickness
selection has to be made first. All plastic materials keeps the part weight down (i.e., the less weight
have a minimum wall section and distance they the less cost) and provides the fastest cycle time
will flow from the gate. The material suppliers can for the molded part. The minimal wall sections
provide you with this information on any material will vary, depending on the material selection.
that they manufacture. They determine this from a Amorphous materials (e.g., polycarbonate and
spiral flow test mold, which is done with standard ABS) tend to require larger wall sections to flow
process parameters. This information is based on than crystalline materials such as polypropylene or
these standard test conditions and will not always polyethylene. Thin wall parts usually require
perform in the production mold with the same special high-performance molding press options
results as the spiral mold test. The correct way to (e.g., an accumulator on the injection unit) to
use the information is by comparing the results of achieve the required filling speeds and injection
other materials we are familiar with to the one pressures. This requirement limits the selection of

4
®
 Part Design

vendors to those that have the correct high-speed an exact duplication is critical from cavity to
equipment. Molders that have this additional cavity in a mold the price will go up because a
expense typically have higher press rates. more accurate machining method is required.
The minimum wall section is not always Wall Sections for Flow Paths
recommended for some parts. Double insulation is
required in some electrical applications. This and The changes in wall section thickness are
other requirements for drop test for high impact sometimes deliberate and are used as flow
may require thicker than normal wall sections. It restrictors or leader lines to direct flow of the
should also be noted that in some plastics adding material to prevent “race tracking” (e.g., flow
thickness to wall sections by 25% will double the around the perimeter of a part before the center is
stiffness in the mathematical models. filled) or flow marks on a visible area. Using
thicker or thinner wall sections in strategic
locations to direct flow paths of the plastic in the
mold should be used in conjunction with the gate
location. By using this strategy the molder and
mold maker should be able to influence where the
weld lines and blemish locations will be. We were
involved with an application for the outside shell
of a camera. The gate located in the shutter button
hole dictated the flow lines. The flow lines ended
up in the center of the camera. We put a flow
restrictor in the wall section and diverted the flow
path to form the flow line to the corner of the part.

Figure 5. Poor, thick inefficient rib.

Wall Section Tolerance

Tolerance for the wall section is an important

factor when considering small wall sections
versus large ones. Not many part designers think
about the required accuracy of mold construction
when they are specifying the wall sections. When
it comes to thin wall molding the tolerance of a
small wall section becomes a little more critical.
A common tolerance of 0.005 difference on a wall
Figure 6. Reduced wall section to change flow.
section of 0.25 is only 2% variation of the wall,
whereas a tolerance of 0.005 on a 0.025 wall Transitions from Thick to Thin Wall Sections
section is 20% of the wall. The tolerance and
accuracy between cores and cavities of the mold, A wall section that changes in thickness needs
therefore, is more critical on the thin wall section to be transitioned gradually. The gradual change
because of the potential of uneven wall sections of wall thickness eliminates stress concentrators
causing excessive warpage or other problems. that can significantly reduce impact strength of
Designers have to make sure that the part. This smooth transition can also reduce the
manufacturing tolerances used in the construction occurrence of sinks, voids, and warpage in the
of the mold are reasonable and can be achieved. If molded part.

5
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

draft in injection molding are very difficult to

explain due to all the variables. Such variables as
materials, additives, wall sections, depth of part,
and surface treatment and polish of the mold steel
changes the ejection requirements. (Having all
these variables is not necessarily bad because
some of these variables can also be used to reduce
the requirements for draft.)
Design Tip
See Figure 6 to grasp how much the draft
angle reduces the part size. If you study the chart
below you can impress your friends with your
amazing trigonometry knowledge. The trick is to
remember is that 1-in. for 1 degree moves 0.0175.
This tells you how much the wall section will
Figure 7. Transition of wall section. move without running to get your calculator with
the trig functions. If the part is only 0.5 in. then
Draft multiply the 0.0175 number by 0.5 and/or if you
only want a 0.5-degree draft over a 1-in. length.
General Draft Notes
The answer in both scenarios will be the same—
It is a good design practice to have draft on all 0.0087.
surfaces that are perpendicular to the parting lines Frequently Asked Questions About Draft
of the mold. (This is obvious in the case with a
core that is in a cam action slide. The draft in this How Does the Plastic Material Affect
case would be applied parallel to the direction of the Draft?
the slide draw.) The purpose of drafted wall Most molders would think that because
sections is to allow the molded piece to be ejected crystalline materials shrink more than amorphous
from the mold easily. Most designers use a rule of materials it would increase the ejection force
thumb of a minimum of 1-degree (0.0175 in./in.) required, but some of these materials also have a
on the sidewall draft. This specification can great deal of elasticity (especially with thin walls)
usually be found in the title block of the part that actually lessens the force required to eject the
drawing as a general note. Specific guidelines for part. It should be noted that because of the

Figure 8. Taper for draft angles.

6
®
 Part Design

additional shrinkage in the crystalline material it in the cavity. When more taper is specified than
does tend to make the part stick more to the core necessary on products, then the mold designer
steel. Roughing the core with a draw polish in the will have to design a dual-ejector system in the
direction of ejection will allow crystalline parts to mold that will operate with an ejector system on
eject easier than if they have a high mirror finish the stationary side of the mold.
polish. Using a draw polish allows crystalline
parts to have draft as little as 0.125 degrees. RIBS
It should also be noted that some plastics or Ribs are used for strengthening, as functional
colorants have lubricants in them that help eject locators, or for joining wall sections. They can
the part and reduce requirement for draft. These also be used as flow leaders to direct the plastic
are some reasons why the part designer will leave flow to hard-to-fill areas in the part. From a
the draft note as a general note so the mold maker toolmaker’s and molder perspective, ribs that are
or molder can use their discretion on where to too deep spell trouble.
apply it; unfortunately, if this freedom is not used Part, Molding, and Mold Design Trade Offs
correctly, the result can be very costly. for Ribs
What Happens if There Is No Draft? The treatment of deep ribs in part design has
If there is no draft the shrinking plastic both trade offs that must be considered. These trade
grips on to the mold core and creates a vacuum if offs may be good for the molder and bad for the
there are no holes in the part. This lack of draft mold maker, or visa versa. Ribs are usually
will increase the ejection force requirement of the burned with an EDM process that leaves pits in
press. In some cases the available press ejector the steel. These pits are very difficult to polish out
system force will not be adequate to eject the part. for the mold maker. If the pits remain, the plastic
part can have deformation due to uneven ejection.
In some extreme cases there are some product
designs that cannot have any draft in certain
features on the part. In these cases a special mold
plate sequencing that will remove some of the
coring prior to ejection will be required to prevent
part deformation. This special mold sequencing
will add cost to the mold, but it may be the only
alternative to ejecting the part without
deformation
Does Draft for Textured Surfaces Need To Be
Different?
Textured molds will require draft in order to
prevent scuffing on the part. The depth of the
texture will determine the minimal amount of Figure 9. Good, thin, efficient ribs.
draft required. To find out the exact amount of
draft necessary you will need to contact the mold As a general rule ribs should be thinner than
texture vendor. They will supply you with the the intersecting wall. There are several ways to
minimal requirements based on your selection of help the toolmaker in the access of the sidewalls
texture depth. of deep ribs. A large draft angle may allow for
access for the mold maker to polish the rib to
Is There Such a Thing as Too Much Draft? remove EDM pitting that will allow for even
Too much draft can sometimes be a problem release; however, the trade off for the large
when it allows the part to slip off the core and stay amount of draft increases the rib thickness and

7
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 10. Avoiding sink marks.

can cause sink. In looking at this option the correct after it has been constructed because water lines
rib width should always follow the “general rule and support pillars are designed into the mold in
of thumb recommendation” width of 70% of the left over spaces. Vents added to a bottom of a rib
intersecting wall section to prevent sink. If there is should be “moving” (e.g., ejector pins or blades)
no way around the problem, the one solution that to self-clean. Stationary vent pins are good only
would minimize the effect of potential sink is to for a limited number of shots before they become
locate the gate closer to the rib. The closer the gate plugged and ineffective.
is to the rib, the better chance it has of filling the
Deep ribs that have draft are usually too thin
rib. Another option to providing space for the
for ejector pins, but the designer can use blades, or
mold maker to polish the deep rib is to insert on
a boss can be added to the center of the rib to
one side of the rib in the mold. This does add cost
allow for an ejector pin.
and can reduce the cooling opportunities for the
mold designer. Always fillet the intersections of the nominal
wall when possible. This helps in two ways:
Draft in Ribs
The draft in rib areas is important, but too 1. To make sure that the ribs do not stick in
much draft will increase the wall section and the core and have to be picked out by the
potentially cause sink. Draft in deep ribs will
increase the wall section thickness quickly
because you have draft on both sides of the wall in
opposite directions. Too little draft will make the
part stick and deform on ejection.
Venting and Ejection of Ribs
When designing the mold, make sure that the
“last place to fill” is not at the bottom of a rib,
unless provisions have been made for venting.
Ejector pins at the bottom of the rib can provide
for venting to prevent gas traps and eventual steel
erosion. This is a very difficult change in the mold Figure 11. Ejector pins as vents.

8
®
 Part Design

molding technician during the molding should be noted to reduce sinks and blemishes.
process. Bosses need supporting ribs as well as radii at the
2. To increase the strength of the rib on base to provide the maximum support. Most will
the part. not exceed a screw size of 0.5 in. or 12 mm. The
designer can access the machinery’s handbook to
CORNERS AND FILLETS design bosses that will allow for the screw-head
This very important feature is too often diameter and depth at the right dimension.
neglected by both the toolmaker and the part Ejecting parts with bosses is one of the unique
designer. I have experienced more litigations in applications of ejector sleeves. It is therefore
my career that have been caused by lack of radii important to keep in mind at the design stage that
on a part than any other defect in part design. the sizes chosen will match standard sleeve sizes
Plastic strength at rib or wall intersections can be to reduce mold construction cost and make wear
increased four to five times by adding radii inside items in the mold less expensive to replace
corners at rib intersections. General notes on part (because they are not custom sizes).
prints that allow for radii are not specific enough
for the designer. They give mold makers options
HOLES
to avoid putting radii on edges unless they are The parts design occasionally must require
specifically called out on the part print. A good holes, usually for assembly. In some case the
part designer will make sure that the necessary holes can also be used as venting, especially in
radii are shown and not called out in a general some electronics application that generate heat.
note. Identifying where the radii make a Holes are typically round, but they may be long
difference requires some thought about the slotted holes in the venting application. There are
product, but this little bit of thinking keeps us all few things about holes that a mold designer must
out of trouble. consider when contemplating how to design for
the hole.
Typical Radii Functions
An inside corner on a part is the most Mold Design Hole Considerations
important location for a radius. If the corners are • Direction of draw. Any holes that are in the
sharp in these areas, it reduces the mechanical part that are perpendicular to the direction
properties of the plastic. This can lead to of draw will usually require a cam action in
premature part failure. Most material suppliers the mold. In some cases a hole is used to
guide will identify the degree of plastic notch avoid the use of cam actions in the part.
sensitivity for the specific material being used. This is particularly true when using
Some plastics are more susceptible than others. latching or hook designs for assembly.
Radii are not always used to strengthen the part.
• Draft. If the end product requires a hole
In some instances the radii are necessary to keep
size that is critical, the designer must be
consumers from cutting themselves if the product
aware of whether the draft should increase
is used where it comes in contact with a
or decrease the size of the opening. In some
consumer. Radii can also be used for lead into
functional cases the hole may allow draft
holes for ease of assembly.
only partially into the depth of the hole.
BOSSES • Shut off choices. How the cores are
Bosses are usually around holes used for a designed in the mold will dictate the
fastening device or a self-tapping screw. The main direction that the potential flashes will
problem molders face with blind bosses is the eventually take. The mold designer must
sink that it can cause on the opposite face of the consider the use of the hole and try to
part. Special core steel and size considerations design the construction so that it will not

9
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

with the depth of thread and length. Consult

the section on collapsible cores for more
details.

• Unscrewing mold. Amorphous resins are not

as easy to strip and are more prone to
require the unscrewing-type mold design.
Figure 12. Shut-off hole designs. An additional feature, called serrations,
must be used to keep the part from turning
produce flash. Holes that are butt shut off on while the mold core rotates. It is very easy
the cavity will tend to flash across the hole to tell if an existing part with thread profile
and reduce the opening. As another option, was an unscrewing mold by looking for
the mold designer can telescope the core pin serrations on the part.
through the mold and make the potential
flash vertical to the hole opening. (Note: • Strip jump thread. There are many factors
The alignment of pin and hole is critical!) that go into when to use a stripped thread
• Knit Lines. Holes will also cause weld lines. design versus an unscrewing thread. The
The relationship between where the gate main factor is the material choice;
and the holes are will determine where the polypropylene or polyethylene is popular
knit line will be. Care must therefore be choice that will allow threads to be stripped.
taken to make sure the weld line will not The strip thread molds are by far the least
result in the production of defects. expensive, and molding cycles are typically
less. The closure and bottle industry has a
THREADS host of design thread profiles that can be
Internal Threads stripped.
A unique feature about injection molding is • Cam action tool. If external threads do not
that thread profiles can be molded into the parts. lie on the parting line as illustrated later,
From a mold designer’s perspective, there are five they will require a cam action in the mold.
mold design choices in making molded threads: This will leave a parting line on the threads,
• Collapsible cores. If a collapsible core is and care must be taken to minimize the
used design consideration must be made mismatch.

Figure 13. Serrations 1. Figure 14. Serrations 2.

10
®
 Part Design

Figure 15. ACME thread profile. Figure 16. American National thread profiles.

• Molded in insert. This can more easily be External Threads

done with amorphous resins because External threads can also be unscrewed or laid
crystalline resins usually flash more readily. flat as shown previously. The plastic threads
Mold Design Tip: If a two-plate design is should always have roots with radii to prevent
chosen, flats on the thread should be considered premature stress failures and no feather edges that
on the parting line. This helps to minimize the might result in cross-threading.
parting line mismatch and flash.
UNDERCUTS
A part feature that prevents straight ejection
of the part at the parting line is defined as an
undercut. There are many mold design choices
that must be considered in dealing with undercuts.
The most critical choice is the selected material
for the part. If the designer is dealing with a
material that has a high degree of flexibility, there
is a good probability that the feature can be
stripped out of the mold without using a
mechanical design feature to remove the steel
causing the undercut. An important design
Figure 17. Molded thread on parting line. principle in stripping flexible undercuts is to
remember that the plastic must be allowed some
room to flex. If the part is trapped in the steel and
cannot flex, it requires some special plate
sequencing to make sure the steel is removed. If
this is not done, the undercut will shear itself off
of the part or become distorted. If the material
does not have the elastic properties, a stripping
action will not work and a cam action or special
plate sequence in the mold will be required.
In dealing with pulled or shearing defects in
molding, improper mold sequencing is a common
Figure 18. External threads.
cause of undercuts pulling or shearing. The plate

11
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

sequencing mechanism has usually worn and no

longer functions in the same way the original mold
design was intended to function. In this case the
undercut will shear off regardless of how much
flex the material has.
The stripping of undercuts will always leave
some deformation in the profile of the undercut.
They have developed standard thread profiles in
the closure industry that minimize the deformation
and can be stripped and used very effectively.

Figure 20. Opening without cam action.

direction of draw and the parting lines can be
defined correctly.
Armed with this knowledge of part design, a
technician should have a much better grasp of the
how the performance of the plastic part can impact
Figure 19. Undercut bypass. the productivity of an entire factory. Knowledge of
the reasoning behind molded part features can
If the part material does not have the elasticity help make judgment of “suspect” product much
to flex, then the mold design will have to remove easier. Technicians should seize every opportunity
the steel from the molds that is causing the to find out where parts will be used and by what
undercut. In some cases the part designer can features the quality of the plastic parts will be
create holes for the steel to pass through, which judged. Working with all of the personnel and
will allow for removal of the steel without a cam- equipment involved in downstream handling can
action slide. In this case the part designer and give clear direction and help make the overall
mold designer must work together so that the operation most productive.

12
®
STANDARD MOLD
DEFINITIONS,
CATEGORIES,
AND
CLASSIFICATIONS
CHAPTERS INCLUDE:

®
MOLD CATEGORIZATION BY VOLUME
COMMON MOLD CLASSIFICATIONS
MOLD BASE STANDARD COMPONENTS

13
®
MOLD CATEGORIZATION
BY VOLUME
W. DAVID OUTLAW
®

Some molds are designed and constructed for prototype mold may vary from a very few parts to
different production purposes. The following thousands depending upon the mold design and
categories will define the purpose of the molds, as materials of construction.
well as describe the design differences you may
Prototypes sometimes get a bad reputation
find in the construction. By understanding these
because the molding process is not monitored or
categories of molds you will easily be able to
allowed to stabilize. The prototype mold
develop processes with reasonable expectations.
construction is used as an excuse for poor
consistency. Mold makers have heard rumors,
PROTOTYPE MOLD though, that there is some magical steel that
When a new plastic product concept is changes sizes shot to shot with no explanation. Of
introduced, low-cost prototype molds are course, we are assuming at this point that the
recommended to reduce risk of unnecessary molding process is stable and that it never
expense. The main purpose of a prototype mold is changes while this is happening.
to establish the dimensions and features needed
for the function of a part. Normally the aesthetic UNIT MOLD
qualities of the part are ignored at this point.
The unit mold is used to develop market test
A typical prototype mold is a single cavity and data for molds with large numbers of cavities, or
is constructed with soft steel or aluminum. This when volume requirements are low. Most plastic
allows for quick turnaround in manufacturing and product development services recommend that a
lower manufacturing cost. Other design differences unit tool be constructed prior to the construction
you may find in the construction will be that the of the production mold. This both establishes
water cooling is very limited or nonexistent. The process parameters and steel dimensions to
mold will not be able to achieve an optimum cycle achieve the optimal cycle, and it will help identify
and will use a unit mold base that can be reused for any other surprises. These surprises can occur
another project to keep cost to a minimum. This with such product aesthetics as sink or functional
type of mold will not provide a lot of insight as to objections due to gate locations or water-cooling.
shrinkage values or identify any potential molding By identifying these problems early, it prevents an
problems for the multicavity production mold. expensive mold change in the end, which can also
Gating is very basic, and it is usually cold runner add to the debug time. In some cases these
with no automatic degating. The useful life of a problems can delay product launches and reduce

15
Society of Plastics Engineers

the ability of the manufacturer to gain market mold change and to keep the costs of mold
share. Even though the expense of a unit tool construction down.
cannot be justified before the mistakes are found, I
am sure there are many unit molds that could have H I G H -V O L U M E M O L D S
been justified after the facts had they been built Plastic parts that are disposable require molds
before the production mold was completed. with large numbers of cavities to satisfy the
volume requirements. Most disposable molded
In order for this concept to be effective the
parts in this application are small by nature, but
cores and cavities stacks are constructed to be
we must be aware that the size of the product can
identical to the production mold using the same
also dictate the cavitation quantity. It is essential
water patterns and ejection methods. A unit mold
in this application that the material be very
design ideally should be extracted from the
inexpensive, and that the cycle times optimized.
multiple production mold design, which can be
For this reason polypropylene and polyethylene
created prior to the unit mold design. This means
resins are usually chosen because they are low-
that the components will be hardened, all parting
cost resins and can achieve fast cycles. High-
lines, gating, and water-cooling will be identical.
cavitation molds are typically used in the
In some instances the stack components could be
packaging industry for medical, soaps or food
used as a spare for the production mold. Such
purposes. In the case where high volumes are not
limitations as the mold height or anticipated
required, but a long life cycle of the product is
revisions may prevent the ideal condition from
anticipated, all the features described below would
being completely achieved.
apply, except for the high cavitation.
FAMILY MOLD Because fast cycles are required to keep the
cost down, the molds must be constructed using
A family mold is used for low volume methods that will achieve close tolerances. Any
requirements with a final product that requires variation from cavity to cavity can cause quality
multiple plastic parts. By using this type of mold problems around which technicians will have to
you save on mold base cost and set-up times. One process. This variation will usually end up causing
of the drawbacks of using this type of construction longer cycle times and excessive scrap. In addition
is that the runners are difficult to balance high cavitation tools tend to be larger and are not
geometrically. This can be a major concern if close as easy to control when it comes to thermal
dimensional control is required for the product expansion. Many processors do not want to run
because you will have a narrow process window. short runs on these molds because of the scrap that
Another drawback in using this type of mold is the is produced before the process is stabilized. In the
extended cycle time. The part that requires the perfect world, you will have better control the
most cycle time will dictate the cycle for the rest longer the production run, as well as less scrap
of the parts; however, if low production with a stabilized mold.
requirements are expected, cycle times are of less
High-volume molds require fully hardened
concern. The main concern with molders that
tool steel so they will last for millions of shots.
specialize in family molds is not with the cycle
The mold steels are usually noncorrosive stainless
time but with the amount of setup time used. This
steel or plating will be applied to steels that are
set-up time can be the largest amount of time in
not. If plating is used care must be taken to ensure
the process so any improvements in set up time
that the dimensions are correct before applying. If
will help the plant be more efficient and profitable.
any steel dimensions are changed, the plating will
Molders that use the family mold concept will have to be stripped and reapplied. Because these
usually have their own quick mold change system. molds require heat-treated components, they tend
They both utilize the unit mold base for quick to be very expensive and require a long delivery

16
®
 Mold Categorization by Volume

time. There are special alignment features in runner system with this mold because the
high-production molds that have shut-offs volumes will justify the expense.
between the core and cavity. They will have If a similar mold has been constructed
straight or tapered locks between the parting lines previously and minor changes are made to the
that will prevent premature wear in the core or second-generation mold, then another strategy to
cavity. If the mold has an ejector housing, the establishing the correct steel size is to let the
ejector plates will have a guided ejector pin and critical to function dimensions be metal safe.
bushing feature that will have lubrication After the mold trial, the dimensional areas are
requirements. inspected on the part, and the cores and cavity are
It is not uncommon to pay in excess of recut to the correct dimensions. If you are
$250,000 for these molds when the cavitation concerned solely with dimensional variation, this
exceeds 32 cavities. There will typically be a hot method is less expensive than a unit tool.

17
®
COMMON MOLD
CLASSIFICATIONS
W. DAVID OUTLAW
®

Most molds are just plates stacked up on each T W O -P L A T E

other with steel components that are called cores
and cavities. The subtle difference in the names of The two-plate mold is the most common type
molds can be confusing at times because we tend of injection mold. Why then, do we call it a two-
to combine some of the functional features and plate mold when it is obviously more than two
rename the mold type. The following are some plates? The reason it is called a two-plate Mold is
drawings and descriptions that explain the general because when it is opened there are two halves.
terms that describe the mold. The plates on the cavity side are bolted together
and the plates on the core side are bolted together.
This is the simplest construction and functioning

Figure 1. Two-plate mold—closed.

19
Society of Plastics Engineers

confused between the three plates and the stripper

plate molds. This is because both of them use a
stripping action. The three-plate stripping action is
only used to remove the runner, whereas the
stripper plate is used to eject the part. A drawing
of the stripper plate is shown in the next section. A
three-plate mold can be used for stripper plate or
pin injection.
The mold components of the three plate mold
include:
• Sucker pin, used to degate the runner from
the part.

Figure 2. Two-plate mold—opened. • Runner stripper plate, used to strip the

runner off the sucker pins.
type of mold. In Figure 1 you will see that it has an
ejector housing. Although the ejector plates move • Stripper and bolts, used to sequence
inside the housing, they are considered part of the openings of the three plates.
two-plate construction. Design Tip—Here is a design tip for a three-
plate mold. The mold openings between the runner
T H R E E -P L A T E and stripper plate should be wide enough for a
technician to put a hand between the plates to clear
A three-plate mold usually refers to molds that runners should they hang up. This is one of the
have a top gate. Thus, a simple two-plate mold design lessons I learned after the fact. I had used
with a top gate becomes referred to as a three-plate stripper bolts that were too short and did not permit
mold. The name three-plate is derived from the a space to clear the runner during start up. The
plate openings. There are two openings between opening for the runner must be at least 1 in. greater
three plates: one to remove the runner and the than the combined height of the sprue, runner, and
other to remove the parts. Some novices get drop, and not less than 4 in. to allow manual access

Figure 3. Three-plate mold—opened.

20
®
 Classifications

Figure 4. Stripper plate mold—closed.

Figure 5. Stripper plate mold—opened.

to the runner. It is also important that the runner STACK MOLD
stay on the stripper plate side when the mold first
A stack mold is a special mold construction
opens so that it can be stripped.
that allows the mold to take advantage of opposing
forces of projected area. If you are unfamiliar with
STRIPPER PLATE WITH how projected area is calculated, let us take the
NO PIN EJECTION time here to explain because it is this principle that
A stripper plate mold has no ejector housing gives stack molds their reason to exist.
and uses a plate to retain stripper rings to strip the The projected area of a part consists of the
parts out of the mold. Some individuals call the area of the part that faces you when you look
three-plate mold a stripper plate mold because inside a mold. One simple way to describe it is
you have a stripper plate in the runner plate to that if you were to shine light on the part the
strip the runner off of the sucker pins. projected area would be the shadow. Once you

21
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 6. Stack Mold. Figure 7. Shadow.

calculate the projected area you can use a general Design Tip—When you need to calculate the
rule of 3-ton/in.2 calculation for most crystalline projected area of a part that has an irregular shape,
materials to calculate the amount of force the part you can lay the part on a grid paper, trace the part,
has generated during the molding process. and then count the squares that are filled up. Next,
count the ones that are half filled, and you should
For example, if a projected area of a part is 25 have a close idea of the projected area.
in. and you use 3 tons/in.2 you will need to generate
2

75 ton/part. If you have a four-cavity mold this CAM ACTION MOLDS

would require a press that has 300 tons of clamping Cam action molds are usually referred to as
force. By stacking another mold on top, the molds that have a side action that requires a core
opposing forces would cancel out the force in one to be pulled 90 degrees form the direction of draw.
A cam is a simple mechanical action in the tool
direction; this allows you to add four more cavities
where the mold upon opening activates the
in the press that would normally require a 600 ton movement of the slide by an angled surface. Do
press. By reducing the press size, the press rates for the “locks” actually provide the force to keep the
a 600-ton would be less than a 300 ton press, thus slides, or side actions, in position? It is not the
reducing the overall cost to produce the product. angle pins.

Figure 8. Cam action mold.

22
®
 Classifications

Figure 9. Unscrewing mold.

UNSCREWING MOLDS the stripper plate, creating inertia that pushes the
closure off of the serrations.
Parts that are made from these types of tools
are easily recognizable by the serrated edges of
the round part. The main idea behind HOT RUNNER MOLD
understanding how an unscrewing mold works is Hot runner molds are molds that have a melt
study the actual movements involved in the conveying system that keeps the runner molten at
process of removing a closure from a bottle. all times in the mold. The method for doing this
When studying the motions used you will be consists of a manifold (i.e., a larger piece of steel
surprised to learn that while you are turning the with holes that are in the center that allow the melt
cap your hand will automatically rise up to the
to be contained). This large piece of steel is
pitch of the threads.
referred to as a manifold and is usually heated with
A cam action on the stripper bar must do the cartridge heaters or tubular heating elements. You
same thing in order for the part to be removed use the same rods in your oven at home. These
from the core. Unscrewing molds consist of a heaters are controlled by the use of thermocouples
rack, motor or hydraulic cylinder, and a gear rack. hooked to controllers that turn the electricity to the
The stripper plate will need an outside mechanism heaters on or off depending on what the
to cam the stripper plate in at the same rate as the thermocouple tells each separate controller.
thread pitch. This keeps the pressure on the
underside of the part so the teeth on the serrations Hot runner molds are only used if there is a
stay engaged to keep the cap from rotating with cost justification. Single cavity low production
the unscrewing core. The cam mechanism also molds normally do not show enough return to
has a bump on the end of the cam that accelerates justify the expense of a hot runner.

23
®
Society of Plastics Engineers Next Page

Figure 10. Hot runner mold.

There are two distinct advantages of hot some truth to it, but not to the extent that it
runner molds: will affect performance of most products. In
• There are no scrap runners that have to be some packaging applications, the use of
disposed of, reground, or reuse. (Because regrind helps the product because it flows
thermoplastics can be reused, the cost of easier and there is less stress in the parts.)
material can be recovered. A designer must
be aware of the fact that some agency • The molding pressure in a part can be
approvals have set maximum amounts of reduced if a hot runner drop valve gate is
regrind that can be reused. This is because it used on parts that require high-pressure due
is widely believed that reground material has to the material selection. This will reduce
lost some of its properties. This does have the press tonnage required to run the part.

24
®
 Previous Page

MOLD BASE STANDARD

COMPONENTS
W. DAVID OUTLAW
®

MOLD BASE TERMINOLOGY second from the mold makers, and the last from
It is surprising that the terminology used in the hot runner manufacturers. The standard mold
describing the same two halves of a mold would base construction companies use the “A” side and
have so many variations. To the beginning “B” side terminology. When molders first
technician, listening to all the names of just two required mold building, the tool and die industry
halves of the mold can be very puzzling. We have were the natural business to assume the role of
the “A” side, “B” side, moving side, stationary mold base manufacturing. They adapted the
side, injection side, ejection side, core side, and terminology die bases for metal stampings. The
cavity side, not to mention the hot side or cold “A” side was the top of the die, and the “B” side
side. was the bottom.
The reason for this is easy to explain if you During the molding process the mold has the
think about it. To start with, we have three part stuck on the core due to shrinkage when the
separate industries involved in using or making mold is opened pulling the part out of the cavity.
the mold. Each industry uses different The mold makers therefore use the terms core
terminology to describe the two halves of the side and cavity side. The hot runner manufactures
mold. All of the terms come from the principle refer to the cavity side as the hot side because
that plastic will shrink and be retained on the core most hot runners are gated into the cavity because
when the mold is opened. This requires that the they must convey the material from the injection
part be removed from the core with an ejector nozzle. The other side of the mold is where the
system. cooling takes place and is referred to as the cold
The injection molding press has two side.
functions: One is to inject the material; the second In opening the mold the press only has to
is to remove or eject it. The standard press is move one side of the mold. The side that the press
designed to have the ejection on the opposite side manufacturers chose is the same side that has the
of the injection unit. This is why the press ejection system. This is because the injection unit
manufacturers use the terms injection side or needed to remain in the stationary position while
ejection side to describe the two halves of the building the next shot for the next cycle. Because
mold. the molders are very familiar with the molding
The mold makers have three terms they use. process, and because the toolbox is intended for
The first is from the mold base manufacturers, the molding technicians, I will refer to the two mold

25
Society of Plastics Engineers

halves as the molder does: the stationary side or stationary side of the press. It also has the topside
moving side. runner milled in if the mold is a cold runner. It will
As a final note I must add that in my career I have waterlines drilled in it, contain the male taper
have seen exceptions to all the preceding lock pockets, and the leader pins holes. Vents and
terminology. I have seen cores and ejectors on the vent reliefs are usually located on the face of this
stationary side. Stack molds have mirrored the plate for easy access for cleaning when required.
injection side and ejection side, and “A” plates Hot Runner Retainer Plate
have become “B” plates with the hot side in the This plate typically houses the hot runner
middle. Just be aware, therefore, there will always system if the mold has been designed for one. The
be an exception to the terms used. plate is machined with a clearance of
approximately 0.100 in. all around the manifold. It
will have islands of steel left standing inside the
milled clearance pocket for the hot runner system
to prevent the bowing of the cavity plate.

Figure 12. Stationary side.

Figure 11. Stationary and moving side. MOVING MOLD PLATE

TERMINOLOGY
STATIONARY MOLD PLATE Core Plate
TERMINOLOGY This plate retains the cores and generally has
Top Clamp Plate pockets built into them for the cores. It also has
the bottom side of the runner milled in if the mold
This is the top plate of the mold when it is in
is a cold runner. It will have leader bushing holes
the storage position out of the press. When it is in
and return pin holes.
the press this plate will rest against the stationary
platen. It has clamp slots milled into it or Support Plate
mounting boltholes to retain the mold in the press This plate is used to keep the core plate from
during opening. The top clamp plate also retains deflecting during injection. This plate is usually
the cavity blocks, locating ring, sprue bushing, and the thickest plate in the mold base because it has to
leader pins. It will typically also have water lines keep the mold from flexing during injection. The
dilled into it and have the electrical box mounted unsupported side of the plate has the ejector plates
to it if the mold has a hot runner system. space underneath it and can easily deflect if there
Cavity Plate is not enough thickness. It also provides a base for
the cores to sit on and provides space to feed the
This is the plate that has a pocket milled to water lines to the cores.
contain the cavities, or, in the case of a round part,
the bored holes. It is located directly under the top Rails
clamp plate when the mold is in the storage The rails are sometimes part of the ejector
position. When the mold is in the open position it housing. They are used to support the mold on
is the plate that will be visible when looking at the each side of the ejector plates. The mold

26
®
 Mold Base Standard Components

Figure 13. Moving side.

identification plate is usually mounted on the side bushing guided to prevent premature wear on the
of the rail. stripper and cores.
Bottom Clamp Plate
MOUNTING AND HANDLING
This is the bottom plate on the mold. This FEATURES OF THE MOLD
plate has knockout holes that interface with the
BASE
press platens. It can also have clamp slots milled
into the sides if the rails are not recessed above. Clamp Slots

Ejector Retainer Plate

The function of clamp slots is to provide a
ledge for the clamp to hold the mold base in the
This plate has counter bores in it and through
press. The main problem we face with the clamp
holes for the ejector pins. It can also have guided
slots in the design of the mold is to make sure that
bushing holes and return pins. It will have tapped
mounting holes are in close proximity to allow for
holes that attach the bottom ejector plate to it that
the clamps to reach the edge of the slot. Platen
pulls all of the ejector pins back.
holes used to be different in each press
Ejector Bottom Plate manufactures specification. The industry has now
This plate is the back-up plate to all the of all standardized these hole locations so molders can
ejector pinheads. It has stop pins mounted in it on use presses made at different manufactures.
the opposite side to keep the plate flat in the mold Another problem we have had with clamp slots is
base. It has the knock out taps for the ejector rods, how high they are in relation to the bottom and
which requires it to be thicker than the retainer top of the mold. The designer must also take care
plate. It can also have water in it to keep the plate to design the water patterns so the water lines do
temperature stabilized with the rest of the mold not fall in line with the boltholes. If mold
base. If the mold base runs hotter than the ejector designers do not do their jobs properly it leaves
plate in a big mold the thermal expansion will the mold setter with the awkward choice of
cause the clearance to be too tight and the ejector mounting the mold in the press with the clamp in
pins will have premature wear, galling, and a less-than-optimum place. This is an area that
breakage. some mold designers do not think about. The cure
for avoiding this problem is to make sure the
Stripper Plate
technicians before review the mold design before
In the case of a typical stripper plate mold the construction, or that the mold designers checklist
ejector system would not be necessary. This is used to remind the designer to think about how
would eliminate the need for a rails, ejector important this consideration is.
retainer plate, and ejector bottom plate. The
stripper plate is used to mount the stripper ring in Mounting Holes
the mold base. This plate is usually on top of the Now that the holes in the molding platens
core plate and will have the leader pin and have been standardized, a lot of molders are

27
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 14. Clamp slot construction.

requesting that the molds be mounted in the press Lift Holes

with bolt holes in the mold base that line up with
These are not just for lifting the mold into the
the platen-tapped holes. The designer must make
press. The toolmaker needs to have lift holes in
sure that there is proper clearance between the
every plate so the mold plates can be handled
mold base and the screwhead to turn the Allen
safely when disassembled. Holes need to be
wrench. The hole must also have the proper
clearance to allow the bolt to be inserted while the
mold is closed. Many molds have been designed
that do not allow for the Allen wrench to turn to
tighten the bolt.

Figure 15. Mounting holes platen. Figure 16. Mold lifting holes and straps.

28
®
 Mold Base Standard Components

located in such a manner that the mold will be as Sprue Bushing

level as possible when it is being lifted into the
This is a bushing that interfaces with the
press. It is wise to use the safety hoist style
eyehooks rather than the eyebolt. When using the injection press nozzle and connects to the runner
safety hoist it will tend to center the load. in the plate. It has a nozzle radius intended to
Eyebolts do not have this advantage and will tend match the molding press injection unit. Failure to
to bend when the mold is lifted off center. match these two surfaces can result in a nozzle
Pry Slots leak at the press and phenomena called a
These are used to help the toolmaker “beehive” or “hog’s head” which is nothing more
disassemble the plate. The size of the pry slots than a mass of leaking plastic that will form
will allow for most standard pry bars to be placed around the nozzle, costing hundreds of dollars in
between the plates and force the plates apart. ruined heater bands. A small radius gauge is a
Without the pry slots tool disassembly can be good investment in the technician’s toolbox that
very difficult; especially when plates are doweled
properly identifies the radii. The two most
together.
common nozzle radii are 0.5 or 0.75 in. The
beginning orifice size is determined by the
amount of cavities and the gate size used in the
mold. The orifice size should always be at least
0.015 more than nozzle orifice to ensure there
would be no undercut so the sprue can easily be
pulled out during the molding process. If the
Figure 17. Pry slots for disassembly. orifice size is too small it can cause problems with
short shots or excessive pressures. The sprue
bushing also contains the first leg of the runner if
STANDARD INJECTION a full round runner is used. In this case the sprue
COMPONENTS
should be keyed to prevent a mismatch and
Locating Ring
possible hang point upon ejection.
This is used to locate the front half of the
mold into the press platen. This ring protrudes
from out of the top clamp plate and actually
guides the mold base into the press platen during
set up.

Figure 18. Locating ring. Figure 19. Sprue bushing.

29
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

STANDARD EJECTION assumed that molds will need a little preload to

COMPONENTS take out any plate warpage or uneven loading by
worn plattens. I have never seen it hurt to have it.
Return Pins If it is not needed the support pillar will hob into
Return pins are used to return the ejector the plate. By adding preload you just make sure
plates to the home position to prevent damage to you get the support where you need it.
the cavity in case the ejector plates are
inadvertently left forward when the mold closes.
The pins on the outside corner’s ejector are used to
return ejector system so the mold closing action
does not have the ejector pins striking the inside of
the cavity. With today’s presses and the new
standard press functions for low pressure close
this mold feature is practically obsolete.

Figure 21. Mold support pillars.

Guided Ejector

Figure 20. Return pins.

Support Pillars
Support pillars are round ground posts used to
support the plate above the ejector housing. The
functions of support pillars are to help prevent the
plate deflection caused by injection molding
pressure. Without this support along with
thickness of the support plate the mold can bow
under injection pressure and cause flash. When a Figure 22. Guided ejector system.
mold has had some use the support pillars will hob
into the plates and lose their effectiveness. As a This is a guidance system used to protect the
result this usually shows up as flash in the center ejector pinholes from premature wear. It
of the mold. They normally have a 0.002-in. comprises a special bushing that aligns the two
preload to them to ensure that the support plate ejector plates together with a leader pin that is
will not flex during use. They are most effective mounted in the bottom clamp plate and into the
when placed in the center of the mold. The subject support plate. The design of how this leader pin is
of preload is very controversial. It is generally mounted can be made very simple so the mold

30
®
 Mold Base Standard Components

Figure 23. Ejector pins.

maker or the molder can disassemble the mold If the pin is too large, it will cause the undercut to
easily and put it back together with out being a be larger than necessary and can increase the
Houdini. By guiding the ejector plate it prevents molding cycle because it must solidify before
uneven pressure and cocking of the plate, which ejection.
ends up galling all the ejector pins. Many mold
makers have this feature as an option on their
quotation. In my experience it is well worth the
money in a high production mold.
Ejector pins
These are pins mounted in the ejector plate to
eject the part. It is important to note that the
standard size ejector pin tolerances are too loose
to provide the proper clearance in crystalline
material and must be selected so the ejector pin Figure 24. Sprue puller pins.
clearance is small enough to prevent flash
between the ejector pin and the ejector pin hole.
Rest buttons
Sprue Puller Pins
This is the pin in the center the mold used to These are buttons used to support the ejector
pull the sprue away from the nozzle. It has an plate and keep it flat. They are usually 5/16 in.
undercut just below the parting line that is used to diameter and strategically placed under the return
ensure that the orifice of the sprue is pulled away. pins and between the support pillars.

31
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 25. Rest button.

STANDARD COOLING Pipe Nipples

COMPONENTS Pipe nipples are extensions to the waterline
from the component that allows hoses or
Pipe Plugs
connectors to be added between the component
Pipe plugs are used to plug water lines that are and the plate. The mold set up department should
drilled into plate components, cores, and cavities. make sure that the fittings do not restrict the water
The plug sizes are 1/16 to 1/2 N.P.T. standard. flow. The flow will sometimes inadvertently be
impeded and will become laminar, reducing the
effectiveness of the cooling.
O-Rings
O-Rings are used to keep intersecting water
lines from leaking between plates or components.
O-rings will become brittle after time and should
Figure 26. Pipe plug.
be replaced periodically. The O-rings come in
standard sizes and are very low in cost. When
Pipe Fittings
installed, a combination of O-ring grease and the
Pipe fittings are standard pipes that allow for O-ring groove construction prevents the O-rings
quick disconnects. They are used to connect the from leaking. The process of installing O-rings in
hoses from the water manifold to the press. In round cavity or cores in a mold base requires extra
some case quick disconnects are added to so that special care in to prevent shearing which leads to
the mold setting time is reduced. Care must be water leaks. This usually occurs in straight-line
taken when using the quick disconnects so that bores where the intersection of the connecting
they do not impede the flow of the water. If the waterline in the base comes through the cavities. A
quick disconnect is smaller in diameter than the mold designer has several options in the design of
waterline, the water flow is restricted and may the mold to prevent this potential problem. The
result in a laminar flow that will reduce the stepped bore is the most popular way. This does
effectiveness of the water cooling. add to the mold cost, but it will help in mold
maintenance in the long run.

STANDARD FASTENERS
Screws
Screws are the most common way to hold
plates and components in the mold base together.
Figure 27. Pipe fitting. The placement and size of the screws can be very
subjective. The designers have rules of thumb they

32
®
 Mold Base Standard Components

Figure 28. Socket headcap

screw chart.

use in design, so they do not spend a lot of time in keep from cross-threading the screw
making arbitrary decisions. The design rules most threads.
designers use are: • A torque wrench should be used to tighten
• The placement of the center of the screw screws to the proper tightness to maximize
should be no closer to the edge of the steel the life of the screw and to prevent broken
than the diameter of the body of the screw screws.
itself. For example the placement of the Stripper Bolts
centerline of a 0.5 in. screw should be 0.5 Stripper bolts are used to limit plate travel.
in. The length of the bolts is given from the bottom
• Screws should have a minimum of one time of the head to the end of the body. The tapped
their diameter for engagement. hole is always smaller than the body. The
placement of the stripper bolt follows the same
• The depth of the tap for the screw should be rules as the screws. The most common problem
1.5 times the body diameter. This will
with stripper bolts that are used in plate
ensure that the screw will have the
sequencing is that they will frequently come loose
minimum 1 time the diameter engagement.
and need to be tightened. The designer should be
• The tap depth should always extend beyond aware of this and try to place them as close as
the bottom of the screw by at least 0.12 to possible to the outside edge for easy accessibility

33
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 29. Dowels.

to the technician. The majority of mold crashes effectiveness when it comes to controlling thermal
that have plate sequencing using stripper bolts expansion.
come from neglect of the mold technician, not Retainer Rings
from checking the stripper bolts.
Retainer rings are used on such round
Tip: We use a simple technique of painting a components as stripper rings to keep the strippers
line on the head of the stripper bolt and one on the in the plates from falling out. Care must be taken
plate. Once they are tightened you can visually to make enough room in the counterbore to allow
check each bolt during the preventive maintenance for the retaining ring to open up adequately during
on each shift. installation. The designer must also allow for
access for the retaining ring wrench to remove the
Dowels ring when it is required to disassemble the mold.
Dowels are used to maintain the position of
the component on a given plate. Only two dowels
STANDARD ALIGNMENT
are used in a mold base plate to maintain the COMPONENTS
relative position. Using any more than two is Taper Locks
usually a waste and creates alignment problems. Taper locks are used to guide the mold halves
Even though dowels are used to provide back together. They should be on the centerlines of
alignment, they are very limited in their the mold. Some locks do not have an angle and are

34
®
 Mold Base Standard Components

Figure 30. Stripper bolt chart.

Figure 31. Leader bushing.

35
®
Society of Plastics Engineers Next Page

straight. The designer should always take care to life of a leader bushing can be extended with the
make sure that if the locks are on an angle they proper amount of lubricant applied during the
should be at least 1 degree less than any shut off production run. The amount of grease on leader
between the core and cavity. Round taper locks are pins can be overdone. In many cases the mold
not as effective, but they can be used if the plate makers tend to lose sight of the fact that this
temperatures between the two plates that are being grease can contaminate parts.
aligned are the same. The only effective way to
align plates that have different temperatures is Shipping (or Safety) Straps
with the straight locks.
Shipping straps are required to keep the mold
Leader Pins halves together when putting a mold in the press.
These are pins that go through the top clamp This is a very important safety feature. Molds that
plate into every plate with one pin offset to keep are loaded into presses without these straps can
the plate from being assembled incorrectly. The cause some serious damage and possible injury. If
pins are also used to guide the mold back together the straps are painted orange they will not be
after the mold opening during the cycle. The pins easily misplaced. The mold should also have
serve two purposes; one of which is to guide the
mounting holes in the mold base to store the straps
mold back together without misalignment.
while the mold is in use in the press. Having a
Without them there could be a possibility that the
mounting position on the side of the mold for the
core and cavity would hit upon closing and cause
straps can save the molder time looking for the
damage to the steel. Leader pins also prevent the
mold halves form being assembled 180 degrees shipping straps when it comes to taking the mold
off; this is why the offset pin is used on what mold back out of the press. It can also prevent any
makers call the zero corner. unsafe acts.

Figure 32. Taper locks for alignment.

Leader Bushing
A leader bushing is what the leader pins enter Figure 33. Safety straps.
into that aligns the mold base halves. Leader
bushings are easily replaced when they wear. The

36
®
 Previous Page

MOLD DESIGN
ROBERT W. DEALEY

INTRODUCTION runner system. For our purposes, therefore, that is

the type we will be discussing in this chapter.
Over the years, technicians have likely found
themselves more involved in making decisions It should be understood that there are
that affect shop floor operations. Technicians’ advanced design concepts for molds that have
feedback on the operation of a particular mold multiple plates, movements other than the
design should be used to continually improve direction of draw, unscrewing devices, and/or
productivity for the life of the mold, but it does complete runnerless molding systems are
not stop there. The technician’s knowledge should encountered. Mold sizes vary from very small,
be used, perhaps as part of a cross-functional (i.e., the size of a match box) to very large and can
team, when looking into buying replacement be 20 feet long. In addition, some injection molds
molds or even new designs that may have similar are used for two (or more) color, two materials,
performance characteristics on the shop floor. gas assisted, overmolding, and insert molding.
These design alternatives will also not be
This chapter will look into many decisions
discussed in this chapter.
that have to be made to design and build the best
mold. Most of the intelligence is required up
front, and once certain points are reached, there is
PLASTIC PART DATA
no turning back. Changing mold designs is more The mold design starts with the design of a
difficult than changing an electronic document, plastic part. This information can be supplied in
but actually changing the mold itself can be the form of a two-dimensional (2-D) drawing
extremely difficult to do, consume a lot of time, (blueprint), a 2-D electronic database, or an
and require significant sums of money. What the electronic three-dimensional (3-D) solid model.
technician can bring to the table is the experience The technology of today allows this data to be
of day-to-day operation of a mold, its personality transmitted via the Internet in the form of an
quirks, and possible solutions to any continuous electronic database. Compatibility of the sending
problems. The subject of mold design and the and receiving systems is necessary. The
wide variety of options created by plastic part transmission works best when both have the same
shapes and requirements makes it impossible to system; however, it is not always practical due to
cover all details and situations that one may the wide range of systems in use. A universal
encounter. The most common mold is the system (e.g., IGES) is then required to translate
standard open and close with a conventional style and send information.

37
Society of Plastics Engineers

The first step is to view the part. You may be

able to determine what challenges the part will
offer in molding and suggest design feature
solutions that should be considered for molding.
Although many items must be considered in the
total design, take the steps one by one to avoid
being overwhelmed.
A solid model looks like a picture of the part.
It is a great way to visualize the part and look at it
from all sides. One problem is that you only see
the surface because no detail below the surface is Figure 2. A solid model of the “A” plan
(“A” side is the mold cavity).
shown. With a conventional drawing view, it is
possible to see both the closest surfaces (i.e., the Individual components views are then
solid lines and the surface below represented by generated to describe the mold cavity, core, and
dashed, or “hidden,” lines). It is easier for most of components. There are usually at least three views
us to understand the solid model illustrations. (i.e., the “front, top, and side”) that are provided,
or any combination that fully shows the features.
Figure 1 is a solid model of the inside of a The rule is to describe the mold design fully in the
part. When brought up on a screen, a solid model fewest amount of views and drawings. This saves
can be turned and rotated to view all sides and both time and money, and avoids confusion when
angles just like a real part. building or repairing the mold.
For purposes of showing a mold design
concept, a conventional mold (no side actions), in
a standard self-contained mold base, with a
conventional runner system in a two-cavity format
was selected. The same principals apply to other
molds designs.
The mold designer has the ability to change a
solid model mold design into a format that will
generate a mold design drawing to assist in the
building of a mold. Two cross-sections will
Figure 1. Solid model of the inside of a part.
typically describe the design concept and
dimensional requirements of the mold. Section
MOLD DESIGN VIEWS
As the mold design evolves the mold designer
will provide a series of drawings (CAD
illustrations) that are the minimum necessary to
engineer and transmit the design criteria to the
mold builder. A mold design typically consists of
assembly views of the “A” and “B” side plan
views (i.e., looking down on the open mold from
the parting line), elevation views (i.e., looking at
the mold from the side), a “long cross-section”
(i.e., cutting into the mold to view individual Figure 3. A solid model of the “B” plan
items), and a “short cross-section.” (“B” side is the mold core).

38
®
 Mold Design

lines contained on a part of a different view will lines. Drawing techniques have a system of
guide the person in understanding where the conventions. Although the list is long, the most
section view is cut. important thing to remember is the order of
precedence of lines. The first line that takes
VIEW PROJECTION precedence is the solid line; it is shown over a
In the United States, we use a system called hidden, dimension or cutting plane line. The
“third angle projection.” This basically means that second is the hidden line. Next come center lines
the direction of the “arrows” on the cutting lines (at least two longer lines, broken with a short dash
show the direction that the view is describing in line in between). Then the cutting plane line and
the section view. When you see a view that has finally the dimension line. If you see a solid line,
section lines, “lines running close together at a a hidden line may also exist behind it. If you see a
45-degree angle,” the section is cut right through hidden line, you know that you are looking into
that part of the design. When section lines are not the detail, not at the edge of the part. A center line
shown, the cutting plane does not cut through the indicates that the item is symmetrical around its
part feature. axis.
Some parts of the world (e.g., The Netherlands
and Germany) use a system called “first angle” L O N G C R O S S -S E C T I O N
projection. This system looks in the opposite
direction of the “third angle” projection; therefore,
especially when dealing with international
projects, the person must first understand the
drawing convention. The title block area should be
reviewed at the start of the program because it
should contain important information related to the
part, such as:
• Material specified
• Part tolerances
Figure 4. The long cross-section of the
• Units (metric or SI) two-cavity mold.
• Part and mold finish Note the solid lines in the drawing, that
• Other specifications describe the edges of the part. We are looking into
the mold that is viewed from the long side (length
DRAWING CONVENTIONS of mold). The cutting plane selected does not run
In a manually drawn or computer-generated straight across the mold; rather, it zigzags, which
drawing, different lines are used for different is why the left and right side of a section will look
purposes. Solid and dashed lines have already different when they are perfectly symmetrical.
been mentioned. In addition, thin extension lines The cross-section lines (all running at about a 45-
are used to describe what the dimensions pertain degree angle, but alternate directions and spacing
to on the part. The lines are thinner than those on to show different mold parts) indicate that we are
the part feature and are separated from the view inside that item. The components that are
by a short interruption. A dimension or other described with solid lines exist beyond the cutting
piece of information is contained in the break of a plane. If the components were in front of the
line with arrows at each end. cutting plane, they could not be seen in the view.
Where there is a large amount of detail, This section is frequently called “Section A-A,”
drawings can become cluttered with a bunch of but is referred to by other letters by some mold

39
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

designers. To determine exactly where it is taken, in. (to remove scale and achieve flatness) from each
view the “plan” views, look for section lines, and side of a standard whole or half-inch size plate,
compare that with the section views. The drawing reducing the thickness by 1/8 in.
convention used is called “right angle projection”;
Any component that is supplied for
therefore, everything is established at 90 degrees,
installation into these plate sizes is based on that
unless otherwise specified by a different angle.
thickness. A leader pin is a prime example of a
S H O R T C R O S S -S E C T I O N standard component. First, the shoulder on the
leader pin has a bearing length corresponding with
that thickness. Using a thinner plate requires that
the shoulder length is decreased or it will interfere
with the leader pin bushings. The overall length of
the leader pin is based on adding the thickness of
the plate it is mounted in, any plates it may go
through, and thickness of the plate it will pilot
into. Other components follow this method. This
is not to say that you cannot make up your own
plate thickness, and if you have good reason to,
fine. The implications are, however, that you have
Figure 5. The “short cross-section.” to build your own components or modify the
This view is taken from the short end (width) standard items. This then becomes a problem if
of the mold. Note that it contains vital information and when a replacement has to be made.
regarding the construction of the mold. Detail Most components for an injection mold can be
shown here may not be shown in the “long cross- purchased as a stocked pre-engineered component
section,” like the width of the cavity and core and available in one or two days literally any place
blocks. The “circles” with the lines leading to part in the United States. Any of the major suppliers
detail are called balloons, and will be used to follow the convention that their component is
identify the component by an item number. It will manufactured to fit into that nominal dimension in
also be referenced in the “bill of material,” which which the component is described. What they do is
will be discussed later. This section is typically manufacture the component to a dimension that
“B-B,” but in “mold base” terms it is sometimes will provide the desired fit in the mold. For
referred to as “Section W-W.” example, a 0.375 diameter ejector pin is designed
and manufactured undersize (e.g., 0.0004-0.0007
MOLD DESIGN AND or 0.3743-0.3746) so it will fit, move, and not flash
COMPONENT CONVENTIONS in a hole designed to have 0.375 in. diameter. An
The industry has standards and practices that ejector pin has to move, so some clearance must
are not widely understood by people new to the be provided.
designing and building of injection molds. First, the
On the other hand, a core pin is not intended to
United States is still on the inch standard in mold
move, and a tighter fit is desired to hold it into
building. Components are available if you want to
position and transfer heat. The core pin, then, is
design a metric mold, but some standards are
manufactured larger than the hole. A 0.375
different. The standard mold plate and component
diameter core pin, to fit right into a 0.375 designed
sizes, established in the 1940s, have evolved and are
hole, is made 0.375-0.3755 in diameter. Optimal
deeply imbedded in our industry. For example,
construction, therefore, requires precise machining.
there is the practice that all mold plates are the
various whole inch size and then 3/8 or 7/8 in. This This system is understood in the mold design
resulted from the early mold makers machining 1/16 and building field, and allows for mold builders to

40
®
 Mold Design

concentrate their tooling (e.g., drills and reams)

on the nominal sizes. The countries building
metric molds follow similar practices.
The correct way to determine if a mold is a
metric mold or a SI (inch) is by the threads on the
cap screws. A metric dimension mold is not a
metric mold unless the mold uses metric
fasteners.
Because the U.S. convention for mold
building is the inch system, it will be used Figure 6. A flat parting line on the part.
through out this chapter.

PARTING LINES
One of the first things a part designer, mold
design team, or mold designer must do at an early
stage in the design is to determine where the
parting line will be located. A parting line is
necessary to separate the mold halves and to
allow the mold to open and the part to be
extracted after each molding cycle. The parting
line must be positioned at the largest portion of
the part, or plastic will be trapped where the mold Figure 7. The corresponding mold for
a flat parting line.
cannot open or extract the part; mold slides or
actions may then be necessary to free the part. The second style of parting line is a “stepped”
These actions complicate the mold and add to the version. It follows the parts contour and when the
expense, but they are used on many molds. part has a feature that changes levels, the parting
For purposes of this discussion we will line changes with it.
concentrate on straight pull molds, no side action.
It is important to note that a parting line will be
noticed on a part. Parting lines normally follow
the opening of the part, and even though the
parting line cannot be seen, the sharp edge created
by the two halves of the mold coming together
will be noticeable. Some products will not
tolerate the sharp edge (e.g., toys). A radius is
added to get around this below the parting line to
smooth out or break this sharp corner. This solves
the problem of the sharp edge, but a line will Figure 8. A stepped parting line.
show on the part.
A straight parting line that is the most cost The third parting line type is called the
effective, commonest, and easiest to machine and “contoured” parting line. This style follows the
maintain. Note that this type of parting line is flat contour of the part (typically on a radius) or any
and straight, but the parting line could run at an irregular surface. Due to the difficulties in
angle. It does not have to be perpendicular to the machining and matching these contours, this is
mold axis. the most expensive style to use. (Note: Because

41
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 9. An example of a contoured parting line. Figure 10. The core side of the mold for the part.

the costs to produce this type are substantial, if the MOLD CORE SIDE
parting line is damaged, it will likely be very
Mold surface finish and draft will also
expensive to repair. Technicians should be even
determine where and to what side of the mold the
more careful in these cases.)
plastic will try to stay. If symmetrical parts are
It must be understood that all production molds encountered (visualize an hourglass-type part), it
(i.e., those that will make more than one shot) need may be necessary to have an ejector system on
at least one parting line located where the part can both sides of the mold. In mold designs of this
be extracted from the mold. The parting line can be type, the system on the stationary side of the mold
flat, stepped, contoured, or a combination of the (“A” side) usually assists in insuring that the part
three, and it should be located along the largest remains on the ejector side (“B” side) of the mold.
point on the part for mold function. (Note: On some occasions “pullers” or undercuts
have been machined into a mold component to
ESTABLISHING THE pull the part in a certain direction. Consideration
MOLD CAVITY AND CORE must be made for the increased force now required
to overcome the force exerted by the pullers. A
Once the parting line location has been better solution is to decrease the force that holds
established, the split between the mold cavity and the part on the wrong side.)
core is established and the decision has to be made
as to what side will be the ejector side (“B” side of DRAFT
the mold). Many plastic parts have shapes that The greater the draft angles on the core side, the
make it easy to determine on what side the ejector easier the part will be to eject. To state the obvious,
system should be located. For example, the part the draft has to be running in the right direction to
that is being illustrated in this chapter will remain allow part ejection. This means that the vertical
on the side that forms the inside; therefore, the surface of the mold component gets smaller as the
outside will become the cavity. part moves in the direction of ejection. One degree
The part remains on the core when the mold of draft equals about 0.0175 in. of each inch of
opens because of the shrinkage of the plastic. All distance. The title block on the part drawing
plastics shrink—the rates of shrinkage will be typically shows the amount of draft allowed. On
covered in more detail later—and the part will difficult-to-eject parts the maximum draft allowed
want to get smaller as the plastic cools in the should be specified on the mold design.
mold. As the part is shrinking it moves away from Applying draft can be confusing. Some
exterior walls and grips tighter on interior walls, product designers use the terms plus or minus
causing a part to stay on the side of the mold draft. These terms normally mean that on the
where the force holding the part is greatest. plastic part, the point that the dimension lines

42
®
 Mold Design

describe the feature; the part can get larger if the required for the part might be dictated and be
callout is “plus” and smaller is the callout is larger than the amount required for part ejection.
“minus.” Always check with the designer if there It is generally important to maintain an even wall
is any confusion on the parts specifications. More thickness on the part and draft angles should run
avoidable errors are made on the application of in the same direction.
draft than in any other area of a mold design. Note
that when 3-D databases are used for transmission
of data from the designer to the mold builder,
draft may not be included.

MOLD SURFACE FINISHES

As a general rule, the smoother the surface
finish (along with the direction of any machining
or benching marks) the easier a part will eject.
The SPI mold finish standards are used to specify
the finish on the mold. The SPI A series finishes
Figure 11. The cavity side of the mold.
has a diamond polish as the last operation. It is the
smoothest and provides the highest shine. The SPI
B series finishes use paper (similar to sand paper)
MOLD CAVITY SIDE
as the final step. The C series use finishing stones Any part detail that is specific to the mold half
to apply the specified surface. Finally, the D series will obviously be installed in that side of the
finishes use a media that is blasted on the mold. Detail that is formed by openings in the
surfaces. The number following the letter plastic part can usually be formed by installing
designates the degree of smoothness in that that detail on the desired mold half. For example,
category, with 1 being the best and 3 being the when a throughhole is required, the coring detail
lowest degree. might reside in the cavity side if a radius is
required to avoid a sharp corner from the mold
It is important to note that the direction that shut off (Figure 11) inside detail; otherwise, the
the final benching operation, in the case of the B core insert is most often installed on the core side
or C finishes, must be in the direction of draw to prevent the part from wanting to remain in the
(i.e., the direction that the part will eject). In the cavity.
case of the D finish, the final machining
operations should be in the direction of draw. On The types of shut offs are:
rare occasions, highly polished molds have 1. Flat shut offs, where the core extends
created conditions where a vacuum is formed and through the part and either makes contact
parts will stick to the surfaces. In these situations, with a slight amount of press (interference
usually when molding a polyolefin, the molding because the core pin is theoretically longer
surfaces have been downgraded to a rougher than the space between the core and cavity).
finish to break the vacuum.
2. Contoured, because the surface that the
Once the ejector side of the mold has been core makes contact with or shuts off
established, the side opposite will then become contains an uneven surface.
the cavity. The cavity will normally form the
3. Angled, due to shut-off surface
exterior of the part and typically becomes the
requirements.
appearance side of the part. The surface finish or
even a textured surface is therefore often specified 4. The core can also telescope (pilot) into the
to provide the aesthetics to the plastic product. opposite side of the mold; this design helps
Should a texture be specified, the amount of draft support the core and reduces flexing.

43
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

5. Split, because part of each core half must

form part detail from the respective side of
the mold.

DEVELOPING CAVITY SIZE

The next step in the mold design is to surround
the cavity with the material selected for the cavity
and core, normally tool steel. The attributes for
which the various types of mold materials are
selected are typically, hardness (for wear Figure 12. The mold cavity surrounded with steel.
resistance and parting line integrity), tensile
strength (for long thin sections or cores), thermal MOLD TEMPERATURE
conductivity (rate of cooling affecting cycle time), CONTROL
machinability (for manufacturing costs), The injection mold can be viewed as a thermal
polishability (for SPI “A” finishes), corrosion transfer device. Hot molten plastic is injected into
resistance (resist rusting or attach by aggressive the mold cavity(ies) under high pressure and needs
plastics like PVC), and/or toughness. to be cooled to a point where the part is rigid
enough to hold its shape and can be ejected from
The amount of material that surrounds the the mold. As all plastics differ in their processing
cavity is dependent upon the molding pressures temperatures, mainly ranging from 300 to 850°F,
encountered in molding, the clamp tonnage of the the mold temperature varies also. In general mold
molding machine, the amount of detail that will be temperatures range from 35 to 350°F. Even if we
in that cavity block (e.g., coolant passages and have to heat a mold to obtain its operating
bolt holes), the type of construction (i.e., open or temperature, the plastic (thermoplastic) is still
closed ends of the blocks), and the mounting cooling; therefore, it is common to use the term’s
methods (i.e., sections backed up by the mold “mold cooling” and “coolant channels.” The
base). In addition, the fatigue properties of the correct terminology is “mold temperature
control.” If the mold design provides poor heat
mold material will have an influence on the
transfer, or if the technician sets up the process
thickness of the sections. Molding pressures are
improperly, productivity will suffer. More will be
high and the cavity walls must not flex. On the said on this later with regard to details on
other hand, the cavity with excessive material optimizing mold cooling.
increases the cost and mold size and reduces the
number of cavities that can be contained in that What tools does the designer therefore
size mold. These are decisions that normally implement to provide an efficient heat transfer
require high levels of expertise, but they are device? The mold designer has several tools to use
to create an efficient process.
critical to the longevity and mold life.
The operative term is mold temperature
The size of the molding area for the core is
control; the mold temperature must be controlled
predefined by the size of the part. It is obvious that precisely to replicate the shot-to-shot plastic
it is impossible to have mold material that is larger cooling. Most copper alloys have excellent
than the inside of the part. The base of the core thermal conductivity, followed by aluminum
typically matches the footprint of the cavity so that alloys, and then steel (as typical mold materials).
the two components are sealing off against each The steels are used for durability, and in most
other. cases provide satisfactory performance.

44
®
 Mold Design

The mold designer then determines the One restriction in the passage will restrict the flow
placement and sizes of the cooling passages. First, and the entire system will have flow rates consistent
if a very large-diameter passage were placed right with that restrictive area. Great care must therefore
next to the cavity, two things would happen. The be exercised in the design of these systems.
remaining steel, or mold material, may be too thin The cavity side of the mold is typically the
to retain its shape and the plastic pressure could easiest half to design the coolant passages because
easily bend, break or displace the cavity wall. In we are working with the exterior of the part. This
addition, the effect of cooling too fast in the allows additional room, if needed, to add material
proximity of that passage compared with the for the passages. Due to plastic shrinking away
cooling taking place away from this passage may from the outside surfaces, the cavity may only
create high stress in the plastic due to the remove 30-40% of the heat. The core size is
differential of cooling rates. dictated by the part size; we cannot make it any
Some designers rely on a few rules of thumb larger. The core size also usually contains the mold
for placement of cooling passages. The first is that ejection system. This complicates the installation
the edge of the passage should be from 1.5 to 2.5 of the passages and is usually the most difficult to
times the diameter of the passage away from the design efficient cooling.
cavity surface. This allows smaller-diameter Like the cavity, if room allows, drilled
passages to be placed closer than large-diameter passages can be installed in the core. To connect
passages, and provides the strength necessary to the various passages and change directions, a series
prevent cracking. The ratio is the amount of of holes are drilled. Plugs are frequently made
material left between the cavity and passage. For from the same core material and welded to prevent
example, if the passage diameter was 0.4375, and leakage and provide the plastic forming surface.
the placement was to be two times the diameter,
At other times coolant can be directed to
then the wall between the two would be 0.875 in.
specific areas in the core (or cavity) with the use
Pitch is the distance between the passages and of a “bubbler” or “fountain.” This allows the
the rule is that the pitch distance should be three coolant flow to be directed from the bottom of the
to five times the diameter between each other. core up into the desired location and then returned
This placement evens out the transfer of heat from to an exit.
the plastic to the mold, and provides for the most
Figure 13 describes the action of a bubbler. It
uniform cavity surface conditions possible.
is important to size the bubbler to avoid restricting
The diameter of the passage should be the flow. The same effect can be achieved by
determined by the amount of heat that has to be machining the detail directly into the mold and
removed. Larger-diameter passages will allow for using a brass tube. Note that it is imperative that
greater flow rates than smaller diameters. Because the water flow direction be inside the tube,
of the threads used for the connectors or pipes, cascading over and exiting on the outside of the
NPT threads are used in mold designs. The hole. The design for this feature is relatively
coolant passages are described as nominal inch simple. A hole must be created in the core along
size, like 1/8 NPT, 1/4 NPT, and 3/8 NPT, on the with a means to thread the tube into. The coolant
mold design. In reality, the drill size is larger than passages must then be in proximity to connect
the nominal size. For example, the 1/4 NPT uses a both the inlet and outlet.
drill size of 0.4375, so the passage diameter is
A similar concept is used with a separating
0.4375 in. not 0.250.
device installed in the drilled passage. This
The mold designer then tries to avoid method uses a blade or “baffle” to direct the flow
restrictions in the coolant passages that will result in of water. It is simpler to install, but due to the flow
pressure losses and make the system inefficient. of the coolant in series, coolant circulated

45
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

coolant is not restricted here (i.e., an area 1.5

times greater than the passage area).
Coolant passages are sealed with taper seal
plugs in molds. The taper on the taper seal pipe
plug is different from the taper of the pipe tap to
create interference and a positive seal. Brass plugs
are typically used, so the plugs do not corrode and
are easier to remove. If passages cross over each
other due to drilling of the holes, the flow is
directed by installing brass plugs into the hole,
creating a positive means of directing coolant flow.
The technician’s role, then, is to “know the
Figure 13. The action of a bubbler. cooling system.”
downstream will be at an elevated entrance • Examine the mold design.
temperature. By separating the exiting coolant, the
bubbler provides for the most consistent • Hook up the fittings properly.
temperature exposure. • Hook up the mold water circulation unit
properly.
The size of the drilled hole for the baffle must
be carefully calculated to insure against pressure • Make sure the system does not leak.
loss. The area of the hole, minus the space • Keep loops to a minimum.
occupied by the baffle, must be twice the area of
the coolant passage in the mold to prevent high- • Make preventive maintenance (e.g.,
pressure losses. cleaning cooling passages) a routine task.

Figure 14 shows a baffle. The mold design • Know the mold materials (i.e., steel, copper
must take the area between the top of the baffle alloy, aluminum).
and the drilled passage into account to insure that
MOLD STEELS AND
MATERIALS
The common types of mold steels or materials,
listed by the approximate number of pounds used
in molds, are: P-20 (a prehardened mold steel used
primarily on large molds that have sizes too large
to heat treat, or are not expected to run large
numbers of parts), H-13 (for longer running
molds, molds where large blocks of steel must be
heat treated, and/or when a material with good all
around properties are desired), S-7 (used when a
material is desired that is similar to H-13, but
which can be heat treated to a higher hardness
level, provide a higher surface finish or gloss, and
provide better parting line protection).
C-17200 (a high-hardness beryllium-copper
alloy material), C-17510 (a high-conductivity
beryllium-copper alloy material), and C-18000 (a
Figure 14. A baffle. Ni SiCr alloyed, high-conductivity copper alloy)

46
®
 Mold Design

are used, typically on the core only, for increased $2,100.00 and a two cavity mold base for the
thermal conductivity where the most efficient same part $2,750.00. Mold materials and
cooling is required. Aluminum is being used in components may have minimum orders or
lower- or short-run tooling, where strength is not discounts for higher quantities. The cost to heat
a major concern, with 7075 T6 being the most treat some of the steel components may not
widely used material. Several manufacturers of increase when minimum charges apply, and the
aluminum, however, have their own grades of cost of the mold design does not increase
materials that are not classified in the general significantly (certainly does not double) when
standard system. Other materials that are used in more cavities are used.
molds include the D series, with D-2 the most Finally, the cost for machining the mold parts
common, the A series, with A-2 and A-6 most is related to both the machine’s set-up time and
commonly specified, and the oil-quenched tool the time for machining the part times the cost per
steels (e.g., O-1 and O-3). High-speed steels are hour of machine time. If it therefore takes 1 hour
also found in molds, with M-4 the most common. to set up a machine and 1 hour to machine that
There are many other steels and materials that part and the machine time is worth $50.00/hour,
are used for special functions in mold. It is best to the total cost is $100.00. If we then compare that
determine what properties are required for a cost with building two cavities, it still takes 1 hour
particular application and then to discuss these to set up the machine and each part takes 1 hour to
with a variety of mold material suppliers or machine. This scenario results in two parts that
tooling experts to insure that the proper selection cost $150.00, not $200.00.
is made. Some of the materials that have special The cost to mold the parts can also be
properties that should be considered for more calculated by analyzing those costs that are
extreme conditions include the nickel alloys and related to the number of cavities contained in the
products derived from powered metal technology. mold. Plastic material cost typically does not
enter into the equation because the same amount
NUMBER OF CAVITIES of plastic is contained in a part if it is molded in
Anticipated production requirements and either a single or multiple cavity mold. If there is
economics play the most important role in an influence of different amounts of material
selecting the proper number of cavities for a contained in a runner system and the material
mold. In a decision regarding pure economics, an cannot be recovered, however, then material cost
evaluation must be made considering the cost for may have to be considered.
building a mold that contains a different number Other costs, (e.g., packing materials),
of cavities. The cost to run a machine to make secondary operations, and the like are related to
those parts over a given period of time must be the individual part and would not change due to
added to that. The costs should be amortized over the number of cavities. The influences on the cost
the life of the part (e.g., that for an automobile of the part are the cost of the machine and the
model year). On the other hand, the time frame number of hours the machine has to run to
may be related to the depreciation cycle produce the quantity of parts required. Each
consistent with expected mold life. company has its own method of costing machine
Mold costs increase as the number of mold time. For purposes of this example we will use a
cavities increases; however, a one-cavity mold straight hourly rate on a machine.
does not double in cost when a second cavity is
added. The reason is that some of the costs NUMBER OF CAVITIES
involved with mold manufacturing do not double ANALYSIS
when a second cavity is added. For instance, the If a single cavity mold would run in a 75-ton
mold base for a single-cavity mold may cost machine with a value of $40.00/hour on a 20-

47
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

second cycle (180 shots/hour), the machine cost per between the tie bars and the platens must be large
part would be $0.22 each. If a two-cavity mold enough for the entire mold to be backed by the
requires a 125 ton machine and the machine rate is platens.
$50.00/hour, assuming the same cycle time (180 The part dimensions and specifications might
shots times two cavities equals 360 parts/hour), the limit the number of parts that can be molded at
machine cost would be $0.139 each. A four cavity, one time because the mean for different attributes
same cycle time (180 times four equals 720 parts/ from each cavity may differ and the standard
hour), running in a machine valued at $75.00/hour, deviation for the total mold typically increases
has a cost associated with it of $0.104. with the addition of cavities. The shot capacity of
If 500,000 parts were to be molded in the the molding machine may limit the number of
selected time frame to form an evaluation, a single parts that can be molded in a cycle. In addition,
cavity would result in a total machine cost of production capacity has to be considered. A mold
$110,000, the two-cavity $69,500, and the four- should have twice the capacity over the average
cavity $48,500. To continue our example let us maximum monthly requirements to insure
assume that a single-cavity mold costs $17,500, a supplying parts and recovering from a mold out of
two-cavity mold costs $29,000, and a four-cavity service condition. Of course, additional cavities
mold costs $53,500. Enough information has been should mean that less machine time is required to
gathered to make an economic decision as the produce the same number of parts, so additional
most ideal number of cavities. machine capacity would result.
Cavs/ Mold Machine Total DETERMINING NUMBER OF
Cost Cost Cost Cost
C A V I T I E S /C O R E S P E R I N S E R T
One Some molds have the cavity and/or core cut
17,500 110,000 127,500
cavity
directly into blocks of materials that also act as the
Two mold base. An example could be a mold for the
29,000 69,500 98,500
cavities front fascia of an automobile, where one cavity is
Four typically used and the part is so large that it would
53,500 52,000 105,500 not make sense to insert a cavity into a holder
cavities
block. This type of mold construction is referred
From the preceding chart, the evaluation to as “mono block.”
indicates that the two-cavity mold results in the
Other molds that are frequently dependent
lowest overall cost based for manufacturing
upon the size of the insert, have one, two, or more
500,000 parts as a total cost of $98,500. This saves
cavities/cores machined into a singular block of
$29,000 versus a single-cavity mold and is $7,000
material. This arrangement is especially
less than a four-cavity mold. This is obviously a
convenient on smaller parts where higher cavity
simplified accounting method. Your accounting
density is desired and/or proper cooling is
department may be better equipped to make a
compromised due to space limitations. A common
more detailed economic study.
mold construction method may be to have two or
Other considerations come into play regarding four cavity/cores per block in very high number of
the number of cavities contained in a mold. First, cavities (i.e., 16 or more).
the clamp tonnage required to hold the mold
closed is a limiting factor in how many cavities Figure 15 depicts the mold with two cores
can run in a given machine. If you only have a machined into a single block of material.
100-ton molding machine available and the part Molds that contain delicate and easily
requires 65 ton, the machine will limit the mold to damaged areas or could be considered high
a single cavity. In addition, the mold must fit maintenance are usually inserted in that area and

48
®
 Mold Design

for round parts. The major reason is for the ease

and application of machining methods. As most
round parts are symmetrical around their
centerline, such machining methods as lathe work
and internal and external grinding provides an
extremely accurate and cost-effective
construction method.

In addition, these round inserts lend

themselves to the boring of insert holes in
mounting plates and the ease of installing coolant
Figure 15. A mold with two cores machined into passages on the outside of the inserts. Parts that
a single block of material.
are not round are generally more difficult to
typically contain only one cavity/core per block. position and locate in round inserts, and the
A balance has to be made between the advantages machining methods are a little more cumbersome.
of designing and building a mold with multiple Care must therefore be taken to make sure that
cavities/cores per block and the possibility of installation is “foolproof.”
having to replace one of those items at some point
The square-shaped insert is used on nonround
in the mold life.
parts where the length and the width are about the
“Ganging” cavities or cores on common blocks same. Note that the corners of both square and
has initial mold building advantages; however, rectangular inserts normally contain corner radii
what is advantageous for one application may not that match the corresponding pocket radii (e.g.,
be an advantage in another. In addition, should one one half the diameter of the end mill for the cavity
side of the mold benefit from this construction and core pockets if machined and a minimum of
style, the other half does not have to follow this 0.005 in. for wire EDM pockets).
method. The best construction method for the
particular mold, and, more specifically, the mold The rectangular-shaped insert is the most
component, should be followed. common shape when parts are not symmetrical in
shape. This shape is almost identical with the
square insert in application. It does offer one more
degree of installation orientation, due to its shape,
because it can only be installed in one of two
directions, as opposed to four directions with a
square insert.

Any mold cavity/core insert, or insert within

the inserts, must be securely held in position.
There are three basic mounting methods for the
inserts that are commonly used. It is necessary to
Figure 16. Part core with one core on a block. point out that in very special circumstances
inserts have been installed by some creative
INSERT SHAPES AND methods and I will acknowledge those techniques.
MOUNTING METHODS For 99% of the applications, however, inserts are
The shape of the part dictates the shape of the mounted with the use of heels (shoulders)
mold insert. Inserts are generally round, square, mounted in pockets and/or held with cap screws,
or rectangular. Any other shape is extremely or by a special modification of the pocketed insert
uncommon. Round inserts are typically reserved called a “self-sealing” insert.

49
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

The heel-type insert is the most commonly the insert from the parting line side and then
used method. First, it is strong and easy to install. retaining with bolts. The advantage of this
It does not take up a lot of room in the mold and insertion method is that the plate the insert is
no fasteners are required. It is required that two
placed into is formed in a pocket that is
plates must separate at the level of the heels. In
surrounded in five directions with steel. The heel-
this method a throughpocket is machined into a
plate and a counter bore is machined to accept the style insert uses a throughpocket: Steel is
heel of the insert. The insert is installed from the surrounding the four sides, but the sides are not
back of the plate and another plate usually secures connected at the bottom.
the insert. The backing plate, top clamp plate, in
the case of the cavity, insures that the insert will
not back up. The heel insures that the insert will
not move forward and the sides provide perfect
alignment.

Figure 19. The top clamp plate separated and illus-

trates the retention detail.

Figure 17. An insert with the heel for mounting, Figure 20 shows a section of a mold design
counterbore, and backing plate. where the core of the mold is mounted with a
heeled insert. Notice the lack of cap screws
The size of the heel is relative to the size of the
required for retaining the core in the mold. In this
mold insert and the amount of force that the mold
will exert on mold opening. On smaller cavities, the drawing the cavity is secured with cap screws.
heel is typically extended 0.125 ( 1/8 in.), with the
depth being one or two times the length. On
medium size molds, a heel of 0.250 ( 1/4 in.) is
common. As breakaway forces differ from mold to
mold the heel size will vary, especially when large
parts with significant surface areas are encountered.
The second method of retaining cavity/core
inserts is by machining a blind pocket, installing

Figure 18. An insert where the heel is contained on Figure 20. Mold design where the core is mounted
only two sides. with a heeled insert.

50
®
 Mold Design

Figure 21. A blind-pocketed insert. Figure 24.

Figures 22 and 23 represent the retention of
the insert with cap screws for the cavity and core
mold sides.

Figure 25.

The other method for inserting

is with the use of a “self-sealing”
insert. The inserting method is
Figure 22. Retention of the insert with cap screws for similar to the blind pocket method,
the cavity. but the insert has a protrusion,
which fits into another matching
pocket. This inserting method is
used when the insert must be
located and secured to resist shifting
in any direction. An additional
advantage of this inserting method
is that due to its sealing direction,
the possibility of vertical flash is
eliminated. Figures 24, 25 and 26
depict a self-sealing insert used on
Figure 26.
the core portion of this mold.
Other methods of insert retention should be
used only when it is not possible to retain them by
Figure 23. Retention of the insert with cap screws for any of the before mentioned methods.
the core mold sides.
FORMING PART DETAIL
In the simplest terms, plastic part detail exists
in the form of a plastic shape or the absence of

51
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

plastic. Even though the shapes can have an

infinite variety of forms and countless number of
combinations, they are derived only from
machining the opposite image into the cavity,
core, or by inserts, or by taking away plastic by
allowing steel to exist there.
A person viewing a plastic part—it is
sometimes difficult to determine the exact shape—
must visualize something possibly more difficult
when viewing the mold. First and foremost, it
must be understood that the mold is exactly Figure 28.
opposite from the part. If the part has a hole, or reacts like a mirror image). The taper on the part
absence of plastic, the mold has a piece of material will dictate the side of the mold on which the core
that takes away the plastic. If the part has a will be located.
feature, like a rib, the mold is absent material in
that same area. Figure 28 has the standing core installed. This
mold detail will form the interior of the part.
The best way to describe the mold is to look at
it as a mirror image of the part. The mold is the These cores can be installed in the mold, in
opposite of the part, just as when you look into a either the cavity or on the core side, by machining
mirror. Remember that a mirrored image is not away the outside metal and leaving a standing
backwards, like reciting the alphabet from “Z” to mold feature or inserting another piece of
“A.” For example, if you wanted the letter “b” to material. The decision is generally made to insert
show up on the plastic part, the letter engraved another piece. This inserting technique is
into the mold surface would look like “d.” generally the least expensive mold construction
method. It also provides the easiest method to
Figure 27 is a cutaway of our part. Notice that make dimensional adjustments, engineering
the center hole has a taper that has the hole getting changes, flash correction, and repairs to the mold.
larger as it tapers toward the inside of the part

Figure 27. Cutaway view of the mold. Figure 29. View of a mold with a core pin installed to
form the hole.
Detail in plastic as depicted in Figure 27, must
have a projecting or piece of metal in the mold to Figure 29 has a core pin installed in the mold
form the mirror image. The term used for this core to form the hole, with the taper running to the
component is a core (i.e., plastic material is being inside as shown in Figure 30.
cored out). In this case the feature is a round hole, To install this core pin, a hole is machined
so the mold plastic forming detail will be through the mold core for a core pin to be inserted
symmetrical (any orientation for this round detail into the hole, typically with a very light press fit.

52
®
 Mold Design

In Figure 29 note that the top of the core is not

flat; a contour or arc exists. To avoid a condition
that would prevent the part detail from blending
in the core has matching surfaces. To insure that
the core pin will always be correctly oriented a
flat is machined on the core pin shoulder. Another
pocket is cut into counter bore on the core and a
key (another piece of material) is installed to
prevent the core from rotating. This will insure
the correct orientation.
Figure 32. View showing the core parts.

The mold inserts, sometimes referred to a “A”

or “B” side cores to identify between the two
mold sides, contain their respective part detail.
Figure 32 shows the core inserts, which will form
the part detail.

Figure 30. View showing the mold cavity and core

with the core pin detail together.

Part detail frequently mandates that the mold

contains complete geometry in both halves of the
mold. In the situation where the taper in a hole
runs both to the core and cavity, inserts are
typically installed in both mold halves. This
basically involves providing detail either by Figure 33. View showing core inserts shutting off
machining in the solid or by inserting both mold against each other.
halves. Figure 34 depicts cores mounted in both the
Figure 31 shows part detail, taper in the center cavity and core inserts. Note “keys” (Figure 35)
hole running in both directions, requiring part are necessary to insure proper orientation and shut
detail on the core and cavity. off for cores on this contoured surface.

Figure 31. View showing part detail, with taper in Figure 34. View of cores mounted in both the cavity
the center hole running in both directions. and core inserts.

53
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Other situations arise where two ejector

systems are required. The ejector system on the
stationary side of the mold is typically spring
loaded. On mold opening that system insures that
the parts remain with the movable side so that the
machine ejector mechanism can be used.
(Remember, any additional force required to close
the mold will require resetting the low pressure
mold protection setting on the injection molding
machine. These settings must be optimized at the
Figure 35. View of “keys.” start of a production run for each mold!)
Molding machines are equipped with an
EJECTION OF THE PART ejector mechanism, which will move forward in
Production molds have a means for concert with the molding cycle and then retract.
automatically ejecting the part from the mold. It is This mechanism is typically hydraulically or
rare to find a mold in which the part has to be electrically operated, depending upon the machine
physically removed by hand; however, prototype operating system.
molds sometimes have to be disassembled to The mold design in concert with the machine
remove the part from the mold. provides a method of removing the part. It is the
Automatic production molds use a number of responsibility of the mold designer to determine
methods to extract the part. Most molds are built the amount of ejector stroke required for stripping
with one ejector system on the movable side of the the part from the mold. This is done by
mold. Due to plastic part constraints, some mold determining the distance the ejector system must
designs (e.g., when a part must be gated and travel to remove the part fully from the core. In
ejected from the same side) allow for ejecting general, 0.250 ( 1/4 ) in. greater than travel is
from the stationary mold side. In these situations, included to insure that the part will leave the core
the mold must be equipped with hydraulic and also prevent the ejector system from
cylinders or some other plate-moving mechanism bottoming out against the support plate.
to eject the part and return the ejector system to its To accomplish the movement, molds are
molding position. equipped with an ejector housing, or opening, so

Figure 36. A stepped Figure 37. A standard Figure 38. An ejector

ejector pin. ejector pin. sleeve.

54
®
 Mold Design

that the ejector plates have a space to travel. The Note that the ejector pins are held against the
ejector housing can be a single piece “U” type ejector plate by the ejector retainer plate. The
frame, or be built from ejector rails and a “bottom ejector rails, which are positioned between the
clamp plate.” “bottom clamp plate” and the support plate, provide
The mold component that comes into contact an opening in which the ejector mechanism can
with the plastic part is usually an ejector pin, operate. The ejector plate, when in the molding
ejector blade, or ejector sleeve. The use of position, is located with the use of stop pins. These
“stripper plates,” “stripper rings,” ejector bars, air pins provide a positive position and make contact
poppets, and other devices, however, are also used only in certain locations, which are typically six or
for part ejection of a part from the mold. The most eight. This method keeps small debris from
important factor in determining the design of the preventing the ejector plate to fully retract.
ejection mechanism for a mold is the customer’s The height of the rails provides enough room
preference. In many cases ejector pins may not be for the system to overtravel, without the ejector
allowed in certain areas so the mold designer may plates bottoming out on the support plate. Guided
require creativity when determining the design of ejector systems are used to insure that the ejector
the ejector system, the number of ejector pins, and plates move precisely. The two leader pins, like the
their sizes and locations. devices shown in Figure 39, provide the guiding.
Figure 36 depicts a stepped ejector pin (used Corresponding bushings mounted between the
in smaller diameter pins), standard ejector pin ejector plates provides the opposing guiding and
(Figure 37), and an ejector sleeve (Figure 38). bearing surfaces. Most high-run molds and/or
Note that these pins are available from your mold molds with small diameter ejector pins utilize the
component supplier in many standard sizes. guided ejector system for ease of operation.
Should the need be justified, the pins can be
custom ordered in virtually any size and length.
Should a special order be necessary, a detailed
drawing similar to Figures 36-38 should be made
to convey the information to the pin supplier.
Note that the ejector pins have to move in the Figure 40. The same
ejector system start-
mold, and clearance is necessary for proper ing to advance and
movement. Many ejector pins are presently ejecting the part.
specified as to the nominal hole size and then
made –0.0005-0.0008 in. less in diameter.

The greatest resistance to movement and the

highest ejector pressures are experienced in this
Figure 39. A typical
arrangement used to beginning phase of the ejection cycle. Once part
eject a part with the movement has started, the draft angle on the part
use of ejector pins. (assuming there is draft) results in less contact
with the vertical surfaces on the mold, and the
resistance is usually decreased.
Figure 41 shows the part clearing the core and
dropping. Note that the clearance between the
ejector retainer plate and support plate would allow

55
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

for the ejector system to continue forward for a

distance, insuring that the part will fall. It is
worthwhile noting that the length of the ejector pins
are critical to the successful running of a mold. If
the ejector pins are not cut short enough (left long)
they will be depressed into the part. This will create
the condition where the part wants to hang on to the
ejector pins. On the other hand, if the ejector pins
are cut short, small pads will be molded on the
bottom of the part. These pads leave unintended
features on the part and waste material. Figure 42. Four ejector pins installed outside the
molding area.
damage could occur, then the conventional ejector
return pins will come into contact with the closing
mold half and positively return the ejector system.
Figure 41. The part Figure 42 shows the customary four ejector
clearing the core
and dropping. return pins installed outside the molding area in a
self-contained mold base.

In the event that mold damage could occur if

the ejector pins or mechanism were not in the home
position when the mold is closing and return pins
The placement, number, and size of ejection will not insure that conditions exist that positively
methods are critical to the overall success of the no mold damage could occur, other return means
economic molding cycle. Inadequate numbers of need to be provided. It is common to install
ejector pins, and a diameter that is too small and/ compression springs around the return pins to assist
or incorrectly placed can easily result in the in ejection return. Although this practice helps in
ejection mechanism penetrating the part or the return, it is not 100% positive. Other early
showing stress marks opposite the pins. ejector return mechanism designs are used to insure
that the ejector system is sequenced properly.
The ejection of any part should be based on the
principle that the ejection method is located so that
the entire plastic part is being pushed from the
mold. This means that the ejection mechanism is
located at the bottom of part features. This puts the
part into a “compression” mode and works best for
moving the part. If the ejection system contacts an
area where the plastic is being pulled from the
mold, the elasticity of the plastic will allow the
plastic to stretch. As the part stretches it tends to
want to get skinnier and the part will actually cling
tighter to the mold, making it more difficult to eject.
The entire ejector system must be returned as
the mold closes to have the ejector pins and/or other
ejection mechanisms in the proper molding position. Figure 43. Compression springs
If the mold does not contain any feature where in an ejector system.

56
®
 Mold Design

Figure 43, item number 3, shows a typical Industry standards apply to these standard
method for installing springs in ejector systems. mold bases. In the United States, and where the SI
Internally mounted early ejector mechanisms (inch) units are used, the mold plates use a
are available from component suppliers that can convention whereby the thinnest plate is 0.875 ( 7/8 )
be used on smaller molds and ejector systems that in. thick and increases at a rate of 0.500 ( 1/2 ) in.
are lightweight. Larger molds containing ejector increments to a thickness of 5.875 (5 7/8 ) in. The
systems that are heavier normally rely on mold width is available in a variety of sizes.
externally mounted early ejector mechanism. Because the mold must fit between the machine tie
These positive early ejector systems are typically bars, mold base sizes are typically supplied so they
less expensive to install and prevent the damage will fit SPI standard platen and tie bar spacing
from occurring, than having to repair damage machines with 0.0625 (1/16) in. clearance, on each
created by the mold coming into accidental side, between the mold and tie bar. The length of
contact with a part of the ejection mechanism. In the mold base varies in increments, compared with
any case, where early return mechanisms are a ratio of the width, and takes into account the
used, the technician should be aware of them— length of the machine platen.
especially the internally mounted design because As an aid to mold designers a mold base
it is not obvious from looking at the mold from numbering system for standard molds was
the outside. developed in the United States and is still
Electrical switches are commonly used to followed today. In the system the first number(s)
sense that the ejector plate has returned to the describe the mold width, the second number(s) set
proper position. This practice has a lot of merit as the length, then a letter designates the particular
a redundant safety measure when used in mold series. Numbers that follow first describe
conjunction with mechanical return methods. If the thickness of the “A” plate; the second set of
switches are used, we recommend that they be put numbers describes the thickness of the “B” plate.
on the mold stock list and included in the design As an example a 812A27-13 mold base
of the mold. number describes a mold that is 7 7/8 (7.875) or
8 in. nominal width, by 11 7/8 (11.875) 12 in.
MOLD BASES nominal in length, and is an “A” series mold base
Plastic forming mold components, the cavity, (one that has a TCP and “A” plate separate, and
core, and actions (if used) need to be held in “B” and support plate). The 27 means that the “A”
position. The most common method of mounting plate is 2 7/8 in. thick and the 13 means the “B”
these items is in a self-contained and dedicated plate is 1 3/8 (1.375) in. thick. It is always
mold base. Most long run, runnerless, unscrewing, understood that the width and length is always
multicavity big part and special feature molds use a shorter than the number represented because it
standard or self-contained base. The advantages of must be assured that the mold will fit a machine
a pre-engineered precision standard mold base with that tie bar spacing. It is also understood that
include off-the-shelf availability and being ready to all plate thickness end in 8 (eighth of an in., either
have the pockets machined and components 3/8 or 7/8 ), so the 8 is never included.
mounted. This saves time and allows the mold Anyone checking a mold design must pay
makers to dedicate their full resources to building attention to the mold length and width to insure
the plastic forming mold members. that the mold will fit into the desired molding
The mold designer can use the information machine. In addition, the person should determine
provided by the mold supplier’s catalog for that the mold height referred to as shut height when
determining the locations and dimensions of the speaking of the mold fits into the machine. The
mold base. These are necessary to complete the mold must be tall enough for the machine to close
detailed mold design. and lock up, often referred to as “minimum mold

57
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 46. The unit dies placed into the unit holder.

Figure 44. A standard self-contained “A” series

mold base.
height,” and not too tall to prevent the machine
from fully clamping, “maximum mold height.” In
addition, the term daylight refers to the distance the
molding machine will open. We recommend three
times the parts height (part height plus height of the
core plus distance to clear mold) to insure that the
part can be properly ejected.

UNIT MOLDS Figure 47. The unit with the cavities machined
in a solid unit.
Another option is to mount the cavities and core
into a unit mold. This is a type of mold that has
individual units that are then mounted into a
common holder. Unit molds can be found in a wide
variety of shapes (i.e., square, rectangular, or round)
and different sizes. This concept works well for
companies that have parts that use a common
material or have a many short runs, where a quick
mold change is advantageous. Another advantage is
that the unit holder only has to be purchased one
time and can be permanently mounted into a
molding machine. Due to limited spacing, one Figure 48. The molds core half machined into a
rectangular type of unit mold will be illustrated and solid “B” unit along with its ejector system.
will convey the concept of unit molds.

CAVITY LAYOUT
Molds are designed and built and perform best
when they are symmetrical. Symmetry is necessary
for the part to be exposed to the same molding
conditions so that parts from multiple cavities are as
similar as possible. To accomplish this the mold
Figure 45. A unit holder (left side), with the unit designer first positions each cavity so that it will be
dies ready to insert. gated in the same position and will be the same

58
®
 Mold Design

distance from the plastic material entry into the mold components or features, which must enter
mold. Note in Figure 47 that the cavities face in opposing mold half features, need to be aligned.
different directions. This cavity placement is To accomplish the rough alignment of the mold, a
necessary to position the part in the mold so that set (normally four) of leader pins and leader pin
both cavities are gated into the same location. bushings provide this alignment as the mold
In addition, it is necessary to provide exactly halves are approaching each other.
the same coolant channels and locations to expose The nominal diameter of the leader pin is
the parts to the same cooling conditions. This in dependent upon the size and weight of that mold.
itself is difficult due to the various thermal affects The less the mold weighs, the smaller the leader
on molds. The inside cavities of the mold will pins can be in diameter. Larger molds weigh more
typically run at a higher temperature than the and require more robust (i.e., larger diameter)
outside cavities. In addition, a phenomenon has leader pins to resist flexing.
been discovered that plastic will flow easier in one The length of a leader pin is determined by
direction as runners branch and turn corners. the thickness of the “A” and “B” plate, plus any
Plastic will flow faster to the inside corner as other plate that they may be guiding or riding on
opposed to an outside corner. A special feature those pins. It is mandatory that the leader pin
called a melt flipper, which must be licensed from length be sufficient to guarantee that it enters the
Beaumont Technologies, directs the flow upward, leader pin bushing prior to any mold detail.
minimizing the effects of the turns in the flow path.
The mold base contains an active area where
plastic forming areas of the cavity and core can be
located. If you visualize a mold layout as a
football field, the end zone and sidelines of the
mold are not used for cavity or core placement.
First, the ends of the mold for about 2.00 in. from
the edge (depending on mold size, less for smaller
and more for larger molds) are used to provide
support for the components, an area for the
ejector return pins, leader pins and leader pin
bushings, and counterbores for coolant
connections. The end zones of the mold, Figure 49. A leader pin mounted in the “A” plate.
therefore, are not used for forming plastic.
Second, the sides of the mold as defined by The tolerances that exist between the leader
the width of the ejector plate restrict placement of pin and leader pin bushing provide only rough
plastic forming components outside of that area. alignment. When mold features have to be aligned
If the mold were a football field, therefore, we precisely, mold interlocks are used.
would have the active playing area to locate the Straight, either side- or top-mounted,
molds cavities and cores. The end zones and interlocks are used when precise mold alignment
sidelines (where the players stand) are out of is required before the mold has closed. The
bounds. These areas are reserved for the other interlocks are used in sets of four, with one set on
mold functions. each side. To avoid the effects of thermal
expansion due to mold half temperature
MOLD GUIDING SYSTEMS differentials, interlocks should be installed on the
Mold alignment is critical to the success of a mold center lines because thermal expansion
molded part whenever related part detail is takes place from the center of the mold. Both the
formed on either side of the mold. In addition, male and female side of the interlock must be

59
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

precisely installed on the same exact center lines

to insure proper alignment.
Figure 50 contains a drawing of side-mounted
straight interlocks. The top view shows the male
portion and the bottom view the female interlock.
The cap screw holes are provided to retain the
interlocks only. The corresponding pockets Figure 51. A round
machined into the mold plates provide the location tapered interlock.
and strength for alignment.

Figure 50. MOLD LOCATORS

Side-
mounted A locating ring is used on horizontal molding
straight machines to locate the mold in the center of the
interlocks.
molding machine stationary platen precisely. (A
few European machines have locating rings on
both platens.) The locating ring, mounted around
the molds sprue bushing, hot sprue bushing, or
nozzle locator on a mold with a runnerless
molding system, insures that the mold mates with
the corresponding tunnel opening on the machines
stationary platen. The nominal diameter of these
A different type of interlock is used when the locating rings are typically 4.00 in. for machines
mold must be held in relative location, after the up to 1000 ton and then a 5.00 diameter locating
mold has closed. This style uses tapers to perform ring is used.
the task. Note, due to the angle of the taper, these
interlocks only work when the mold is closed and Several styles of locating rings with various
held closed. This style of interlock will typically features are available from component suppliers.
last longer than a straight side interlock because Some locating rings just locate, whereas others are
the mold can be slightly out of alignment on designed to hold the sprue bushing from backing
closing and the tapers will help the mold halves out under injection pressure. Another style
find precise alignment. features a tapered lead in section, which helps
guide the mold into the platen when positing the
Tapered interlocks can be round, which are
mold in the machine.
mainly used on smaller molds, or rectangular in
shape where more surface area is in contact. Some The best style for your mold and operation
very large molds have tapered interlocks machined should be selected by your team. The normal
into the mold plates to maintain cavity to core procedure, then, is to make this type of locating
relationships. ring a standard for all molds to promote
consistency.
Figure 51 shows a round tapered interlock.
The female interlock is shown in a style that can Figure 52 depicts a drawing of an extended
be secured with a heel. The male interlock can be locating ring that also provides a clamping
installed into a blind pocket. mechanism for the sprue bushing.

60
®
 Mold Design

Figure 53. A universal

sprue bushing.

in the system. If the flow path is not continuous,

the pressure required will go up.
A hot sprue bushing should be considered
when the sprue diameter is so large that it controls
the molding cycle, or when the amount of
Figure 52. An extended locating ring. material consumed is great enough to pay for the
SPRUE BUSHINGS additional cost of the hot sprue and controller in
less than 1 year.
Most molds are designed with standard sprue
bushings (see the section on cold runner design); To facilitate the removal and ejection of the
however, there are some instances where a sprue, a sprue puller and sprue ejector pin are
technician may have to be wary of using the right located opposite the sprue. A number of different
style sprue pullers have been used to insure that
equipment. If components are changed in the
the sprue remains on the “B” side of the mold
toolroom or if there is a mold that may have come
(ejector side). The earliest, called a “Z” puller,
into a facility from an outside molder, then the
had an undercut installed in the ejector pin. This
radius of the surface of the sprue bushing that
style lost favor because the runner frequently
matches with the machine nozzle should be
stuck to the pin and prevented automatic machine
checked to avoid leakage. Mold designs should be
operation. Another type uses a reverse taper on
approved for general arrangement prior to
the ejector pin. Again, the plastic formed around
procurement of raw materials to build the mold.
the taper and prevented the automation ejection.
Any special considerations (e.g., recessed sprue Later, a radial undercut was cut into the sprue
bushing, hot sprue bushing, etc.) for the sprue puller area. The problem with this style was that
bushing should be taken here. material would shave off from the undercut and it
Figure 53 shows a drawing of a universal would remain on the mold, creating damage to the
sprue bushing. Note that a hole has been added to surrounding area—or fall into a container
the shoulder for purposes of installing a dowel to collecting parts from the process.
locate and retain the sprue in one position. This Today, most molds use a reverse taper precisely
procedure, or one similar, provides a method to machined into the “B” plate or a sprue puller insert.
insure that the sprue is registered in the desired An angle of 3 degrees is used for filled and harder
orientation. This is necessary because runner materials. More flexible plastics typically run about
systems or other features are generally machined a 5 degrees per side reverse taper. This creates a
into the face of the sprue bushing. If this is not condition whereby the sprue will pull from the
done the technician may suddenly be saddled with machine nozzle and yet readily eject, allowing for
the results of a dramatic increase in pressure drop complete automatic machine operation.

61
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

part. (Note: Additional runner sizing information

is in the section on cold runner design process.)
Determine what the thickness of the wall section is
and multiply that dimension by 1.5. This number
than can be used as the diameter of the runner that
is feeding the part.
Because many molds have sections of runners
that branch off to feed the individual cavities, they
have different names. The first part of the runner
system, starting at the sprue outlet, is called the
primary runner; the next branch is the secondary,
then the third, fourth, and so on. It is important to
understand that the final branch of the runner
feeding the part is the runner that is sized when
Figure 54. A cross-section of a reverse taper using this method.
sprue puller.
Then, working back toward the sprue, each
time the runner system is branched the area of that
RUNNER SYSTEMS
runner is made the same as the area of the branch
The sizing of the runner system is one of the runners it is feeding. For example, if the junction
most important, but least understood, steps in the has two runners being fed by the preceding runner,
generation of any mold design. The best way to then the area of that runner is doubled in area. If it
insure that material will flow properly from the were feeding four runners than the area would be
machine nozzle to the part is with the assistance of increased by a factor of four times the area. This
a computerized mold filling analysis. The mold continues on until all of the runner sizes have been
designer most often has to provide the intended established. A reality check has to be made in
design for the analysis to be made, and we need to molds where large numbers of branching takes
have a starting point. place to insure against getting runner sizes too
The shape of the runner system influences the large. This method will generally get the designer
distance that material will flow. The best shape for close enough for the mold fill analysis to be able
a runner system is the full round. It has the highest to fine tune the design.
efficiency ratio possible (i.e., relationship of the
Runner systems need to be ejected along with
cross-sectional area divided by the perimeter), and
the shot. As a result the runner must stay on the
the flow of the plastic through this runner is
ejector side of the mold. It is customary to install
essentially symmetric when referenced from the
ejector pins at the runner branches to assist with the
centerline. Full round runners are the standard
used by the majority of processors. If a runner can
be cut into only one half of the mold, then a
trapezoidal shape, radii on the bottom, is the best
choice. Half round, square, or rectangular runners
are very inefficient and should be avoided. High-
pressure losses in the runner system will make
filling of the part difficult. On the other hand, a
runner that is oversized will waste material and
may require a longer cycle time.
One method of determining a starting point for Figure 55. Typical runner system for
runner sizing is to review the wall thickness of the a two-cavity mold.

62
®
 Mold Design

ejection. Care must be taken to use a large enough Once the gate location is determined, the type
diameter ejector pin to guard against pin breakage. and size of gate must be selected. Detailed
Any areas that try to stick in the mold should be discussion of the thermal operation and design
polished to allow for a smooth release. features of cold runner gates appear in a separate
section of this chapter. The type of gate is usually
GATES determined by the processor and shown on a mold
The location of the gate on the part plays an design specification. For automatic operation, any
extremely important role in how well the mold of the gates that are automatically separated from
will run and the quality and properties of the part. the parts during the molding cycle are the best
A number of considerations have to be made choice. Other possibilities include the processor
regarding gate placement, and they some times separating the parts from the runner via a robotic
conflict with each other. Although each of the trimmer, or cutting operation, or leaving the
criteria is evaluated the final placement of the gate runner attached for part orientation in assembly.
might be a compromise between the customer and For parts requiring “no vestige” or a clean
the mold designer and builder: surface where the gate is located, valve gates are
• One item to consider is that the gate will another choice for direct part gating. With this
leave a vestige or scar on the part, so a style, a pin actuated hydraulically, pneumatically,
location must be selected that will not or mechanically opens the orifice when material is
interfere with the function of the part. injected. A pin then closes the orifice after plastic
injection. The valve gate bushing results in a part
• Second, the appearance of the gate may free of a gate vestige and it controls backflow
detrimental to the marketing of the part. from the part; however, a mark similar to an
The gate must be located so that it will ejector pin will be present on the part. Valve gates
drive gases to the parting line or an area can be installed in a bushing or the gate area cut
that can be vented; the gas cannot be directly into the cavity steel. This bushing will
trapped. leave another concentric mark on the part around
• Material flowing into the part should the gate area, which is sometimes an aesthetic
impinge against a wall, core pin, or part issue. (Note: In addition, valve gates need some
feature to prevent jetting. sort of input to determine the opening and closing
sequence. This means at least one additional
• The gate should be located at the thickest
control feature is required by the process.)
section of the part. (Material should not be
allowed to flow from a thinner area to a VENTS
thicker area.)
Some manufacturing operations pay little
• The gate can create a weak area on the part attention to venting. Others may pay attention to
and should not be allowed to be located in it, but they do not keep track of the efforts that
an area of high stress. have been made to optimize the design. Running a
• Finally, the gate location must be chosen to brand new mold without any vents over a long
avoid flow lines created by flowing around period of time can lead to permanent damage.
openings in the part. Without having a Best practices suggest that venting should be done
previous design to use for reference, a up front on the mold design.
computer flow simulation would provide There are generally two ways to design good
the “best guess” for these parameters. venting. Computer flow simulations can be used
Many computer aided design (CAD) for new mold designs and can reliably predict
packages include flow simulation some of the venting locations. Of course, this
capabilities. depends on the accuracy of the input data. For a

63
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

replacement mold, or a new design for a part Stated simply, the targeted dimension can be
similar to an old one, the vent designs and calculated by multiplying the shrink rate times the
locations from the existing tooling should be dimension, then adding the dimension to the
specified for the new mold. amount of shrinkage. For example, to determine the
3 in. mark on the scale with a material that shrinks
If molds are typically built by an outside
0.006/inch/inch, the equation would be 0.006 ×
vendor, putting the vents in prior to shipment to
3.000 = 0.018. Then, 3.000 + 0.018 = 3.018 in. is
the processing factory can save lots of time. Any
the dimension used on the mold design.
minor improvements can take place later. For
more specific information on venting, please refer In reviewing and/or approving any mold
to the venting section of this chapter. design, someone should check to determine that the
correct shrink rate has been applied. One method of
MATERIAL SHRINKAGE doing this is to take the mold design dimension and
subtract the part dimension, and then dividing the
As a rule, 99.9999% of all the plastics in all of
results by the part dimension. This tells you what
the injection molding applications experience
shrink rate has been used. For example, if the mold
shrinkage. Shrinkage is the result of the fluid
dimension were 3.018 and the part dimension
plastic molecules being further apart when hot,
3.000, then 3.018 – 3.000 = 0.018, and 0.018 ÷ 3.00
compared with when the plastic is cooled. During
= 0.006, the applied shrink rate.
cooling the molecules are closer together and the
mass of plastic forming the part continues to Grasping the preceding concept is typically all
become smaller. Due to this shrinkage, molds have that is required for most molds; however, when a
to be built larger to accommodate for the reduction supercritical dimensional objective is targeted, a
in size. couple of other items need to be considered. First,
the mold materials have thermal expansion
The mold designer has to rely on data supplied factors. Many materials have a growth rate of
by the molder and the material supplier to between 5 and 10 millionths of an inch per inch of
incorporate these shrink figures into the mold. length per degree of Fahrenheit difference from
Using an example of a 6 in. scale (some times the temperature at what it was manufactured. This
referred to as a ruler) the mold designer would means that the temperature difference between
take the supplied shrink rate and apply it to all of molding conditions (assume 150°F) and the
the dimensions called out on the mold design. For temperature of machining (assume 70°F), for a
example, if the shrink rate were 0.006/in./inch material that expands at 5 millionths of an inch per
(sometimes referred to as per cent), this means inch and is 3 in. long, results in a size difference of
that the cavity for the 6 in. scale would have to be 0.0012 in. (150° – 70° = 80°, then 5 × 3 × 80 ÷
built to approximately 6.036 in. in length to result 1,000,000 = 0.0012). Thus, if we used this factor,
in a part that would be 6.000 in. after molding. the actual mark would be 3.0168 (3.018 – 0.0012
(Note: A more accurate technique to calculate = 3.0168; remember, the steel gets longer when it
shrinkage would be to divide by “1 minus the runs at a higher temperature, so the dimension
shrinkage factor.” There is a sample calculation in must be less).
toolbox drawer 1 in the mathematics chapter.)
Another consideration could then be made that
In addition, the shrinkage takes place along shrinkage on the shrink factor should be calculated
the entire length (width and thickness, too), so that and added to the dimension. Recall that for the
the 1 in. mark would have to be built to 1.006, the 3.00 in. dimension, the shrink would be 0.018. In
2 in. mark to 2.012, the 3 in. mark to 3.018, the 4 theory, the 0.018 of shrink has to have the shrink
in. mark to 4.024, and the 5 in. mark to 5.030. We applied to it, or another 0.000108 (0.006 × 0.018 =
already mentioned that the cavity length would be 0.000108) in. added to the length. Thus, to
6.036 for the 6 in. mark. compensate for the added shrinkage, we add it to

64
®
 Mold Design

the thermal expansion correction dimension of MOLD HANDLING

3.0168 and get a new dimension of 3.016908 Every mold, as well as any mold plate and/or
(3.0168 + 0.000108 = 3.016908). mold component, that weigh more than 25 pounds
One has to use care so as not to get carried needs to have handling holes installed to the
away on the calculations because the most mold, or the component can be handled with a
important and unexacting ingredient is getting the crane or other lifting device. The standard is to
shrink rate right in the first place. It is an inexact install threaded holes for the installation of
science, but one that the molding technician can eyebolts to provide a safe and convenient mold
have good insight into by identifying the success lifting system.
of similar existing molds running the same The molding technician should review the
material and the dimensional accuracy achieved mold design to insure that these threaded holes are
by using a certain shrink rate. Most material of the correct size and placed in the right locations.
suppliers will not (or cannot) provide exact shrink The hole and thread size for an eyebolt is
rates for their materials due to the wide influence dependent upon weight of the mold. You should
that molding conditions, part shape, and wall check your supplier of eyebolts to determine the
thickness have on shrink rates, although that is the maximum safe lifting weight for you application.
best place to obtain guidance. In one reference I find that a “Drop Forged
Amorphous plastics typically have a more Weldless Eyebolt of Carbon Steel” has a safe
predictable and uniform shrink rate and a similar lifting rating (only when the lifting direction is
shrink rate in all directions. These materials are straight up at 50% safety factor) of 200 pounds for
less affected by molding conditions, than the semi- a 0.25 in. diameter, 700 pounds for a 0.375 in.
crystalline materials. In addition, many materials diameter, 1300 pounds for a 0.5 in. diameter, 2000
will shrink at a different rate in the direction of pounds for a 0.625 in. diameter, and 4000 pounds
flow than transverse to flow. It is difficult in many for a 1.00 in. diameter shoulder-type eyebolt.
parts to determine the direction of flow. The mold should have the ability to be lifted,
This is also complicated by the addition of without tilting, with the whole mold assembled
fillers and reinforcements. The use of glass fibers, (when setting and removing the mold from the
minerals, and other fillers typically do not shrink; machine). Another set of eyebolts should then be
instead they retard the shrink rate of plastics. For provided to allow the same lifting for just the “A”
example a 30% glass-filled material that normally side of the mold and just the “B” side of the mold,
has a shrink rate of 0.006 in./inch probably may in case only one half of the mold is being installed
shrink only at a rate of 0.0042 in the direction of or removed. In addition, each plate should be
fiber orientation. provided with eyebolt placement so it can be
lifted as a separate item. Extremely large molds
Although it can be expensive, one method that contain large and very heavy plates typically
used in achieving exact mold dimensions have handling holes on all four sides.
allowing for shrinkage is called playing the mold
steel safe. This means that the cavity features are To insure against the possibility of the mold
deliberately machined undersize and core features being positioned with the eyebolt holes down,
are deliberately machined oversize. The mold is molds should have another set of eyebolt holes
then sampled, parts are measured, and dimension placed on a side 90 degrees to the main placement.
corrections are made to the mold. The expense is It is a good practice to include this
encountered by the need to machine typically information in mold standards or a mold
hardened mold features, a practice that is very specification to insure that each mold is built with
expensive but will provide very accurate safe and proper lifting arrangements. In addition,
dimensional results when absolutely required. the use of “safety eyebolts” is highly

65
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

recommended. The use of these safety eyebolt looking to the stationary mold side. This
devices provides an added degree of safety if the establishes and dictates the orientation for
mold is not being lifted perfectly straight. handling holes, cavity layout, and cavity
Attempting to lift a mold with a conventional identification from design through production.
shouldered or shoulderless eyebolt reduces its safe
lifting capacity enormously due to the shear forces Any identification method can be used; it does
encountered. Conventional eyebolts must never be not necessarily have to be “0.” Some companies
used to lift in any direction other than straight up. use their logo or mold number; others use
numbers so each plate is identified. The only
Once the mold has been set in the molding
requirement is to select the right corner and then
machine, the mold clamps properly and safely
identify each and every plate on that same corner.
installed, and the chain removed, the eyebolt should
be removed. This prevents the eyebolt from coming The mold maker uses this as an orientation
loose in the molding and damaging the mold. feature for correct assembly. In addition, the
leader pin, leader pin bushing, and return pin in
MOLD SAFETY STRAP the proximity to that corner is deliberately offset
To prevent the mold from opening at an from the other three, making it virtually
inopportune or unsafe time, each mold should be impossible for the two mold halves to be
equipped with a “Mold Safety Strap.” This metal assembled 180 degrees to each other. Offsets,
strap, along with appropriately sized and although they vary due to the size of the mold, are
positioned threaded holes and bolts, forms a link typically 1/8 to 3/16 of an inch.
between the mold parting line and ensures that the
mold’s “A” and “B” sides cannot separate. Molds In the building of mold components for
containing more than one parting line, opening, or multicavity molds, it has become the practice of
option where a part of the mold could separate and making all of the items completely
come apart should also have the safety strap interchangeable; however, once they are
installed in those positions. assembled for installation into the mold, the
components (referred to as stacks) are dedicated to
ENGRAVING OR STAMPING OF each other. The components are identified to
THE MOLD OR COMPONENTS insure that they remain as a set, usually with
Molds and their components must be clearly numbers by engraving or stamping the cavity
identified to insure proper assembly in the number on each component in a noncritical area.
completed mold. As a practical means of Round or symmetrical components are typically
identifying the orientation of all the mold plates, installed without orientation and allowed to “float”
one corner of the mold contains a mark. The correct or to seek their own position. This method allows
application of this convention makes one edge of any wear to be equally distributed. If a component
the mold a “Zero-Zero” corner. The term Zero-Zero is symmetrical (i.e., a square core that is better to
comes from the practice of the mold maker using face one direction), and could be installed in more
the “0” stamp from the stamp set. As characters are than one orientation, the markings are placed
mirrored on the molded surfaces and some mold adjacent to each other as a reference on assembly
makers only have that set of stamps, the “0” is the to line up the items. If a component can be
only perfectly symmetrical stamp. installed in only one direction, (e.g., a
The corner of the mold selected to have the nonsymmetrical shut off), then it is necessary to
“0” stamped on the two adjoining surfaces is the make the mating components with a feature such
corner of the mold that will end up as the top right as a “D” shaped heel. This restricts assembly to
corner of the mold, when viewed from the one orientation only, and any markings are for
operator side (side of machine with control panel) reference.

66
®
 Mold Design

Each mold component constructed with mold; however, more plastic is used each and
special materials (e.g., the mold cavity and core) every shot. On very high volume parts it may be
should have a noncritical area slightly relieved more economical to mold the nomenclature
and the type of steel and hardness stamped in that recessed in the part, saving plastic and money on
relieved area. each part, even if the initial cost is greater. The
Each cavity in a multiple cavity mold must time to ask the questions, or research the best
carry a distinct identification, usually a cavity method and/or make changes, is during the mold
number. The numbering scheme should follow design review process, not after the mold is built.
your company’s standards, but it is usually
BILL OF MATERIALS
identified by a number starting with “1” in the
Every mold design must contain a “Bill of
“Zero-Zero” corner and proceeding down that
Materials.” This is a record of what components
row of cavities, returning to the top of the mold
and materials are contained in the mold. It
and proceeding down subsequent rows of cavities.
provides a means of transmitting the information
The location of the markings must be in a
from the mold designer to the mold builder, and it
nonappearance, nonfunctional area, and it should
provides a record for future maintenance or
be large enough to read easily in the event that
replacement. The list should be complete enough
sorting by cavity number is required.
to identify the item number, quantify required,
All coolant line connections, entrances, and description of the item, size (if raw material), or
exits must be clearly marked on the surface next component number (if purchased item), hardness
to the connection. The words In or Out are (if appropriate), the sheet (page) where the item is
typically used to denote path or flow. Then, each identified with a balloon, and, as an option, can
“In or Out” has a number associated with it. The contain a column for the supplier.
mold designer and “Mold Cool” program and
mold team determine the desired flow and/or
allowed looping and record this information on
the set up sheet. The markings are placed on the
mold to assist the correct installation of the
coolant lines.
The mold must have the correct identification
number stamped on it. It is important that the
number be stamped so that it can be seen when
the mold is on the bench and in the machine. This
frequently requires the markings to be in two
locations.
For safety, it is a good idea to mark the weight
of each mold half and then the total mold weight
to insure adequate crane or lifting capacity and/or Figure 56. A generic bill of material for a mold.
to insure against overloading mold carts or
storage areas. MOLD DESIGN CHECK LIST
When a logo and/or written information is A good practice to follow is to develop a mold
required on the molded part, the option of design checklist to determine that your company’s
standing or recessed detail exists. Standing standards and mold design requirements are met.
lettering on the part, recessed in the mold, is Each mold will differ in design, each part will have
usually the least expensive option to install. It can different requirements, and perhaps each member
be engraved, EDM’ed, or acid etched into the of the mold procurement team will have different

67
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

thoughts. It is very important that these items be distributed to the entire group to insure completion
identified, discussed, evaluated, and mutually of the tasks and insure resolution does not fall
agreed upon prior to the mold being built. through the cracks.
Add to the list those items that perform well on The list should be used in the mold kick-off
similar molds. You obviously want to continue meeting, preliminary mold design (to determine
doing those things that result in great-performing conformance), final mold design review (to insure
molds. It is more important to include those items action items taken care of), and in any follow-up
that are constant problems in the molding meetings to insure a successful mold start up. If
operation. It makes sense to build on your successes any problems are encountered with the new mold,
and improve on problems; this is called continuous revisit the checklist and determine what items
improvement, part of “the best manufacturing need to be changed or added to insure against a
practices” and a possible major focus for any repeat offender.
company seeking certification by ISO. The following pages show a typical mold design
Any format will work as long is it contains the checklist, which could serve as a starting point.
necessary communication item. The form should
include a reference number, what design item is CONCLUSION
being checked, and the status (e.g., + could stand Mold designs can be very complicated and
for approved, – for not approved, a ^ if not certainly overwhelming when the entire design is
applicable, and a ? if an action item is needed). viewed. Do not panic! Reduce the design to the
(Any code or means of identifying the status is simplest level and just look for and understand the
obviously acceptable). I find it works best to agree feature that you need to understand. Concentrate
on who is responsible for the action item and the on one area at a time; do not try to absorb all of the
date it will be completed. The person responsible detail. Above all, ask questions if it is not clear to
for the action item should be identified in the you; others probably have the same question. At
column, along with a completion date. The list of the end of the day, the only stupid question is the
information should then be generated and one that is not asked.

Illustrations provided courtesy of Robert Dealey.

68
®
 Mold Design

MOLD DESIGN CHECKLIST

Date: ___/___/_____ Part Number: ________ Mold Number: _________

Item Mold Design Feature Status Action

1 Molding Machine Size Determined (Clamp tonnage ____ or model)?

1A Machine tie bar spacing (__ x __)?

1B Mold Width: ___ (fit between tie bars in loading directions)?

1C Mold Length: ___ (mold will fit on platen)?

Mold shut height: ____, (machine minimum, maximum and opening

1D
adequate)?

1E Mold weight: ____ (within safe handling range—capacity of crane?).

2 Mold design type acceptable, (layout, detailed, CAD generated, etc.)?

Number of cavities consistent with mold specifications and production

3
requirements?

4 Shot size requirements suitable for machine (50 – 75% of capacity)?

5 Latest part revision level used for mold design (rev. level, date __/__/__)

6 Type of mold design (layout, full detail, preliminary, final)?

7 Parting Line

Parting line in proper location (is marketing or customer approval

7A
necessary)?

7B Will part pull properly without undercuts?

7C Will cavity and core separation be normal?

7D Will part remain on “B” side for ejection?

8 Part Ejection

8A Proper ejection method selected (pins, blades, sleeves, stripper plate, etc.)?

8B Locations correct for ejection?

8C Ejector stroke sufficient?
8D Knock out rod holes in proper SPI location and correct diameter?

Ejection return system consistent with requirements? (early return

8E
necessary?)

9 Sprue, Runner and Gates

9A Sprue radius?

9B Sprue “O” dimension

9C Sprue locator required?

69
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Item Mold Design Feature Status Action

9D Runner shape (round, trapezoidal, half round)?

9E Runner diameter (or size) correct for material?

9F Runner branching and area or runners correct?

9G Runner bars necessary?

10 Gate Type and Location

10A Gate size (width, depth or diameter) consistent with mold fill analysis?

10B Gate land length proper dimension?

10C Gate location correct?

10D Customer or marketing approval necessary for gate vestige?

10E Material flows from heavier to thinner sections?

10F Gas can escape to vent area and not be trapped?

10G Pressure loss across part will allow for complete fill?

10H Part will eject with short shot?

11 Venting

11A Vents (0.250 wide) are deep enough to allow gas to escape without flash?

Vents are properly placed (last point to fill, ends of runners, around
11B
perimeter)?

11C Vents bleed off to outside of mold?

11D Inserts and ejector system vented properly?

12 Mold Temperature Control System

12A Mold coolant lines provided for and circulating in mold cavity?

12B Mold coolant lines provided for and circulating in mold core?

12C Mold coolant lines provided for and circulating in required mold plates?
12D Coolant lines correctly sized (consistent with mold cool analysis)?

Coolant lines properly position and correct distance from molding

12E
surfaces?

12F Connector styles, type, and size consistent with molding standards?

13 Mold Materials

13A Cavity material correctly specified?

13B Cavity hardness consistent with mold type?

13C Core material correctly specified?

13D Core hardness consistent with mold type?

70
®
 Mold Design

Item Mold Design Feature Status Action

13E Mold base material consistent with mold type?

13F Insert materials properly specified?

Mold components specified from approved suppliers (ejector pins, mold

13G
base)?

13H Materials properly identified, stamped and called out on material list?

13I Spare components identified and ordered with new mold build?

14 Mold finish

14A Cavity finish specified (SPI finish standard)?

14B Core finish specified (SPI finish standard)?

14C Mold plate machining surface finish specified, if required?

14D Plating, coating or special protection for mold finish specified?

15 Mold Guiding System

15A Leader pins and bushings of correct size, locations, and right side of mold?

15B Ejector guiding system installed?

15C Plates are properly guided when movement is required?

15D Slides and movements are properly guided (wear plates, gibs, or bushings)

16 Cavity Identification

16A Cavity numbers properly located?

16B Cavity numbers follow correct procedure?

16C Cavity numbers size appropriate for part?

16D Cavity number depth correct?

16E Mold number identified on cavities if multiple molds exist for same part?

17 Mold Marking
17A “Zero-Zero” corner identified?
17B Mold number stamped?

17C Mold weight stamped (might have to wait until mold is completed)?

17D Coolant line, inlets, and outlets properly identified?

18 Material Shrinkage

18A Shrink rate of ____ in./inch used for calculations?

18B Shrink rate included in plastic forming mold dimensions?

19 Draft

71
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Item Mold Design Feature Status Action

19A Draft angle properly understood and applied?

19B Point that draft starts identified as plus or minus draft?

19C Draft runs consistent between mold cavity and core?

19D Part will release from cavity with draft applied?

19D Part will eject from core with draft applied?

20 Mold Cavity and Core Inserts

20A Cavity insert style and retention appropriate for mold type?

20B Core insert style and retention appropriate for mold type?

Mold inserted for change over to similar style parts (change of

20C
orifice size)?

20D Mold inserted in areas for repair or replacement due to damage?

20E Mold inserted in areas for ease of mold building?

21 Mold Handling

21A Eyebolt holes specified correct for weight of mold?

Eyebolt hole location properly position for balancing mold

21B
(whole or half)?

21C Eyebolt holes provided on sides for large plates?

21D Are pry slots provided at parting line and other plates for separation?

21E Does the design provide for setting the mold flat on the bottom surface?

22 Miscellaneous Mold Feature Requirements

Are the five biggest problems encountered in placing the last (or several)
23
molds being addressed in this design review?

23A Is this mold designed safe, no sharp edges, and no pinch points?
24 Mold Building Notes

24A Are notes (e.g., areas where welding is not allowed) noted?

24B Are all areas of mold building specified, with no notes of “build to suit”?

25 Concerns

Are any concerns regarding the cycling or quality of the molded

26A
part remaining?

26B Are we getting the mold we need for this job?

72
®
MOLD CONSTRUCTION
W. DAVID OUTLAW

The planning and designing of the mold build of how many cycles the mold is expected to last.
process has seven fundamental procedures that The classification also has a mold data sheet that
are used in more mold construction shops. These describes the options that you need in the mold in
steps will be the focus of this chapter. order to meet the specifications. Without using
these guidelines or some similar guidelines that
PLANNING AND DESIGNING you develop, the quoting process will be very
Mold Quotation confusing when it comes to buying a mold. These
guidelines will ensure that your mold makers will
When you think about the beginning of mold
quote the same features and the cost comparisons
construction the first thing that comes to mind is
will be on more equal terms. Although these
when the first piece of steel is cut. Some may
guidelines are very helpful in getting the quote
think it is when the preliminary mold design is
process started, it cannot replace the dialog
completed. In reality the procedure of mold
between the part designer, mold designer, and
construction begins at the quoting stage. This is
molder and mold maker that is necessary to
the time that the mold maker needs as much
provide the mold with all the details to avoid
information as possible about what is expected.
rework at the final stages of construction. This
This information is vital and will help avoid
building a mold that does not meet your dialog is very important so that everyone is aware
qualifications. Remember, your request is to quote of the trade offs being made in the quoting stages.
a good mold at minimal cost that will produce a Construction methods in mold designs come
high-quality part at a minimal cycle time for the with trade offs that are sometimes not beneficial
molder. For this reason it is wise to request quotes to the molder or part design in the long run. When
for a mold built with some basic specifications or purchasing a mold always beware of the low bid.
guidelines to begin this process. If the mold Make sure all the details are covered. Molds are
maker does not understand what you want, very expensive because of the amount of hours
features may be left off that you may want in required to build them and because of the cost of
order to keep the mold price down. the labor as well. A minor detail could take a lot
To help molders in this area the mold makers of time, and that will be a big expense to correct
division of the SPI has a booklet that provides the after the mold is complete. Molding problems that
guideline with the classification of molds. These have historically been prevalent in our industry
guidelines and specifications are written in terms stem from lack of communication at this point.

73
Society of Plastics Engineers

Trade offs for cost and consistency are Review Meetings

unfortunately never really discussed until it is too The next step in mold construction begins
late; yet, a good honest look at the quote up front after the PO is issued and the design preliminaries
can prevent disappointments and unexpected have been started. This it called the planning
additional cost or delays. This inevitably leads to a stage. Most mold shops will hold planning
deterioration of molder and mold maker meetings with key employees to discuss how the
relationships. It would seem that one day we mold will be manufactured and select the best
might as an industry get a clue and train our possible means of manufacturing each component
purchasing agents and mold cost analysts to in the mold. This planning meeting is held in the
involve the people that know and can help them preliminary stage of the design so changes can be
have a successful project. made before the design is completed. The EDM
The estimated hours on a quote are based on work, NC work, and general machining methods
the mold makers’ conception of how to build the will usually be decided on at this point before
mold. The quotes are calculated using estimated construction begins. The next part of the review
hours multiplied by the shop rate. Do not confuse process is to submit the preliminary design to the
mold build time with delivery time; these are two molder or part designer for approval.
entirely different issues. The higher the cost, the Cut List
longer the mold build time usually is, but longer Once the preliminary design has been
delivery does not necessarily mean higher cost. A completed and approved by the shop and molders, a
delivery time includes the time to build a mold plus preliminary bill of material is created that describes
any other mold build that was placed before your the sizes of material needed for manufacturing. This
purchase order. A long delivery time is an is commonly known as a cut list. Steel is ordered
indication that the mold shop has a large customer immediately after the approval so that the lead time
base. This could be a good sign, suggesting that the of the steel delivery will not interfere with the start
shop does excellent work. A good tool shop is like of the mold build. Steel delivery times are usually
a good restaurant that provides quality service for 1-2 weeks. A good mold designer will analyze the
the price; therefore, you do not mind the extra wait. best way to order the raw steel with the mold maker
There are some general guidelines for making so that the steel will have minimal waste when cut
sure your estimates are in line. These are: into smaller pieces. In some cases, where a cosmetic
issue is a major concern, the grain of the steel is
• The average design time is approximately considered in the decision on how to order the steel.
10% of the total build hours quoted.
Prints Issued with a Print Log
• Most tool shops have about one mold After the tool design is completed prints are
designer for every 10 production issued to the manufacturing floor. In large mold
employees. shops a print log is generated for all prints issued
• The cost of materials for a mold will to manufacturing. We learned quickly that
average approximately 20% of the total maintaining this print log is an important issue
cost. The remainder of the cost is labor and that could cause some major problems if
shop overhead. overlooked should a design change be made.
Murphy’s law states that if there are two different
• Overhead rates will vary depending on the revision levels in the shop the mold will be built to
labor rate, the size of the shop, and the the wrong one every time.
machinery that they have invested in. Scheduling
• A complex tool will extend the design time After the prints are issued, the custom-made
and the delivery. mold components are scheduled for manufacturing,

74
®
 Mold Construction

and manufacturing process sheets are created (i.e., cutting tools are harder than HSS cutting tools.
as opposed to off the shelf purchased mold They are capable of cutting harder steels, lasting
components). These process sheets are written for longer, and wearing less. It is more economical to
each custom-made component in the mold and machine steel in a soft state because the
describe the process to manufacture a component. machining process allows for larger and faster
These process sheets include the electrodes cuts. Areas that are critical to fit or functional of
manufacturing process and concept sketches of the part are left unfinished before heat-treated
areas requiring EDM work. parts; these areas are known as green grind areas.
Construction The reason that green grind stock is left on the
soft steel is because the steel can “move” during
The mold base and mold component can be
heat treat. These areas are recut after heat treat
manufactured simultaneously because they do not
using either a carbide cutter or a grinding wheel.
typically use the same equipment in machining.
In most cases the screw holes, clearance holes,
Mold Base water lines, and clearance pockets are finished
The mold base consists of steel plates, stacked before heat treat.
together; they contain the cavity, core, and other Updates
parts required in the mold. Mold base plates may
A recall of all the prints when the work is
contain waterlines, pockets, screw holes, melt
completed is made so that the engineering
systems (as in runnerless molds), cylinders, and
changes made during the process can be
an ejection system. The process for
documented. These changes are compiled to a
manufacturing a mold base has been standardized
master set of prints. The importance of these
to the extent that costs are very easy to estimate.
prints is realized when a new component has to be
The most work done to the plates is in the two-
made or a change needs to be made on the part. If
axis mode of machine and does not require any
this information is kept properly in a computer,
complex machine set ups. The following is a
there should be no opportunities to obtain
typical process used to construct a mold plate:
obsolete information.
• Square up and grind the plates.
TYPICAL MOLD MAKING
• Layout screw holes and water lines.
SHOP MACHINERY
• Gun and/or radial drill water lines. The following is a general description of the
• Rough out pockets. type of machining each piece of equipment can
perform with a tolerance range that is commonly
• Finish grind plates.
used in mold making. The larger the mold making
• Finish mill plates. shop, the more equipment you will find. If you
have the task of assessing a mold making shop
• Deburr.
capability, it would be a good idea to familiarize
Cores and Cavities yourself with this list. In some cases the accuracy
Hardened steel components are a necessity in required in the mold can only be attained by using
high production molds due to the wear factors. specific equipment. The evaluation will help
The main components (i.e., cores and cavities) are identify shops that posses the right equipment. If
usually manufactured using tool steel that is a shop rate is high, it may be because they have
hardened after the majority of the work has been the new more sophisticated machines that are
completed. The work piece is cut using various capable of holding tighter tolerances for
types of cutting tools and machines. Cutting tools repeatability on molds with a large number of
are made from high-speed steel (HSS) that is cavities. If you have some tight tolerance work
harder than those being machined. Carbide that needs to be done, make sure you survey the

75
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

mold shop to see if they are capable of holding NUMERICAL CONTROL

tight tolerances necessary to make the mold’s MACHINES
critical dimensions.
CNC Machine
MANUAL MACHINES CNC stands for computer numerical control.
Machine controller transfers codes from machine
Lathes
program to the machine axis motors (3D). The
The lathe is used for two-axis round work, CNC is capable of repeating the program over and
diameters, grooves, faces, counterbores, and over to an accuracy of 0.0002 in. Machines have
simple molding areas. It is capable of holding tool changers that store cutting tools, which help
±0.0005 in. tolerance. automate repetitive processes.
Manual Mills NC Programs
Manual mills are used on blocks, second Programming works from an electronic
operations to rounds, holes, pockets, channels, database supplied from the cad database.
ribs, slots, bores, counterbores, screws, and simple Programming qualifies the surfaces of the part and
molding areas. It is capable of holding ±0.001 in. makes sure dimensions are correct to the print and
tolerance. that the part is capable of machining. Programs are
Mills (Vertical) then generated with cam software on a computer
workstation. The NC files are referred to as cutter
The vertical mill is used for blocks, second
paths that direct the machine travel while cutting
operations to rounds, holes, pockets, channels,
the part. The cutter path can be controlled for the
ribs, slots, bores, counterbores, screws, and
direction of desired cut (clockwise/
complex molding areas. It is capable of holding
counterclockwise). They can be divided into
±0.001 in. tolerance.
separate different areas of the part and can be used
Boring Mills (Horizontal) to cut the part using multiplex cutting tools. The
The boring mill is used on any shape of work programs are then posted to machine controllers
piece. It is used for holes, pockets, channels, ribs, using machine codes transferred to the machine via
slots, bores, counterbores, screws, and simple the local direct numerical control network (DNC).
molding areas. It is capable of holding 0.0005 in. • CNC Lathes
tolerance.
This equipment is used on round work,
Surface Grinder diameters, grooves, faces, counterbores, and
The grinder is used for finish flat surfaces, complex molding area. It is capable of
forms, sidewalls, slots, shoulders, and heels. This holding ±0.0002 in. tolerance.
machine is capable of holding ±0.0002 in. tolerance. EDM Process
Jig Grinder EDM stands for electrical discharge machine.
This equipment is used on holes, It is a type of machining that erodes the steel away
counterbores, and radial forms, tapered holes, and with electrical current. The electrical striking
some outside diameters. It is capable of holding pattern is totally arbitrary and usually strikes the
±0.0002 in. tolerance. closest point; each strike will erode the steel that it
hits. The electrodes are made from conductive
OD Grinder material, normally carbon or copper. They are the
This equipment is used on round work, reverse of the shape desired in the work piece and
diameters, grooves, angles, tapers, shoulders, and are often machined from the cad database using
heels. It is capable of holding ±0.0002 in. CNC. The electrode is connected to the DC power
tolerance. supply. It is secured to the electrode holder and is

76
®
 Mold Construction

process. It is used on any straight or tapered

walls going through the work piece, and is
capable of holding 0.0001 in. tolerance.

COMMON TOLERANCES
IN THE MOLD BASE
In mold base construction there are screws,
dowels, leader pins, bushing holes, ejector pins
holes, and pockets that are machined into the base
and components. Each item has a function that
requires certain tolerances. The basics of
tolerances are divided into two categories;
Figure 1. EDM diagram. location tolerance and size tolerance. If the
grounded to the machine table and submerged in accuracy of the location is important, the
dielectric oil during the process. The dielectric oil machinery must be capable of achieving it. A
covering the work piece flushes the material close location tolerance is only required when a
eroded away from the arc. With the electrode size must match a mating surface. This means that
positioned over the work piece, a spark is jumped dowels and leader pins that align plates should
from the electrode to the work piece. Multiple have some close tolerances, whereas screw holes
electrodes are used for this process due to the and ejector pins will not require close tolerance
wear during the process. It is important to use locations because the components are in clearance
different electrodes for roughing because the in the mold base. Water lines that go through the
overburn gap will be different from the finishing plates also have open tolerances.
electrode. The arc gap is the amount the current Mold Steel Selection
that will jump from the electrode to the work The stress, strain, and wear on the mold
piece. If the gap has any residual pieces of the components during the molding process have
eroded steel between the electrode and the work always been considerable. Intricate designs and
piece a DC arc will occur in the process and functional requirements have led mold makers to
produce what is commonly called a blowhole. develop their own preference for tool steels used
When this occurs on the final burn it usually with plastics. Even a hardened mold base can last
requires a trip to the welder, and it interrupts the for years in some cases if a product line has a long
production cycle. This is why it is important to life cycle, and it is well worth the investment.
flush out the space between the electrode and the
The areas of consideration of material
work piece. The machine controller controls the
selection are:
amount of current sent to electrode. Typical
overburns: rougher 0.010 per side, semi-finisher • Compressive strength. The capability to
0.005 per side, and finisher 0.002 per side. hold tonnage or compression.
• CNC EDM • Corrosion resistance. The ability to
resist rust.
This equipment can machine any three
dimensional shape of work piece, and any • Hardness. measured in Rockwell C scale;
form or part shape, and is capable of holding range 30-65 R/C.
± 0.0002 in. tolerance. • Heat treatability. The temperature window
• NC Wire EDM for heat treating and tempering.
This equipment can machine only in two- • Hobbability. The ability to hob a mandrel
axis, and cuts with a wire using the EDM into raw material. (A hobbing operation is a

77
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Table 1. Steel selection (10 = best, 1 = worst).

process where a hardened piece of steel in the Commonly Used Mold Base Material
shape of the part is forced into a soft piece of Table 1 is used for hardened mold components
steel leaving the impressions of the hob. The like cores and cavities; however, a typical mold base
main advantage of this type of mold is made from prehard steel. A 420 SS prehard steel is
construction is that it does duplicate the the best choice for a mold base. If expense is not a
polish and is less expensive to manufacture a factor, it has good toughness and corrosion
cavity using a conventional method. The resistance. If expense does matter, a 4130, or 4140
draw back is it can only be done in certain non-SS grade steel is a good general mold base
shapes and must be reviewed by the hobber material. This choice might require plating, but it will
to see if it is feasible.) be about half the cost of the 420 prehard stainless.
• Polishability. The level of finish the steel Heat Treating
can attain. Heat treatment of mold components is done to
• Toughness. The capacity to flex without give the mold a longer life to the mold
breaking. components. Mold bases are generally left soft or
in a prehardened condition. The heat treat process
• Thermal conductivity. The capability to involves taking the soft steel and putting it into an
transfer heat from the plastic to the steel. environmentally controlled oven at a given
temperature in a given time span. The steel is then
• Weldability. The ability to tolerate weld, removed and cooled down by air, water, or oil.
resist cracks. This cooling process is called quenching.

Figure 3. Radius to prevent cracks during heat treat.

78
®
 Mold Construction

Defining hardness is very difficult. The heat- to 1400ºF) depending on the type of material, and
treat industry will generally use the Rockwell allowing it to cool down at a given rate, thus
Method. This method utilizes the Rockwell scale. allowing the stresses to relax.
This process involves using a hardened synthetic Step 2—Hardening
diamond by measuring the depth it penetrates a
piece of steel at a given pressure. The higher Hardening changes the structure of steel. The
Rockwell number will represent harder steel. part is placed in the furnace, heated to a set
temperature (ranges from 1500 to 2050ºF),
Depending on shape and size, some steel will
depending on the type of material, then quickly
not remain the same dimensionally after heat
quenched in oil, air, salt, or water. This process is
treating. Mold makers will leave some areas with
tightly controlled, the heat-treat tempering
finishing stock on them to insure a good part after
window is very small, and temperatures outside of
heat treat. The steel that is left is called green grind.
it greatly change the hardness of the steel.
In addition, the mold designer must take great
care in designing components that do not vary Step 3—Tempering
drastically in thickness. This will cause uneven Tempering lowers the hardness of the steel to
heat treatment, which could lead to severe warping a desired hardness. The part is placed in the
or deformation. The designer must also watch for furnace and heated to a set temperature,
sharp corners in the work piece that can cause depending on the type of material (ranges from
cracking during the cooling stages of heat treat. 350 to 1100ºF). This process needs to be repeated;
Step 1—Stress Relieve this gives the steel a stable environment.
There are stresses that occur during Stress Tempering is used after such operations
machining of large amounts of material. Before as EDM, wire EDM, heavy milling, welding, or
steel is heat treated, a stress-relief procedure plating that add new stress to the components that
should be done to reduce the chances of stress have been heat treated. The part is placed in the
cracking during the heat-treat process. This is furnace, heated to a temperature 30-50ºF below
done by placing the component in the furnace, the tempering temperature, and then allowed to
heating it to a set temperature (ranges from 1000 cool down at a given rate, thus allowing the

Table 2. Surface finishes.

79
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

stresses to relax, yet still achieve a desired The SPE/SPI have developed plastic and steel
hardness. This needs to occur after final polishing. samples, as well as a measurement system for
surface finish to help you identify the surface
Surface Finishes
finish you desire. The mold makers are very
Changing the surface texture of the mold concerned about this because polishing an SPI/
allows the part designer to duplicate just about any SPE #1 can be a significant cost difference from a
surface finish (e.g., shiny, rough, wood grain, SPI/SPE #4 finish. This is extremely important in
leathers, and stone). There are some things that the quotation process. Finishes can be achieved
must be considered to be able to get that desired both by polishing and by sandblasting or leaving
result. The depth of the texture must have draft on the EDM finish.
it in order to release. The texturing vendor will
give the mold maker a recommended draft, Now that we have a good understanding of the
depending on the depth of the texture. To achieve time involved in polishing it would be good to
the finishes described in Table 2 requires starting note that this is the primary reason most good
with rough stoning and progressing to the level mold shops provide their technicians with soft
required. The times required to achieve an A-1 copper alloy pliers and screwdrivers to remove
finish is 45 minutes/in.2; a B-3 finish is 15 stuck parts. Any scratch in a cavity can be
minutes/in.2 extremely costly to remove.

Textured finishes are generally related to a Some Things to Consider When Picking a Texture
number supplied by the texturing company. There • The depth of texture might not release from
are no industry standards for identifying texture, the cavity or core.
and most numbers can be cross-referenced from
one company to another, although there are charts
• The texture could erode critical corners and
fit areas.
available to pick a desired texture.
Today’s plastic parts often require finishes that • The texture might undercut side walls if not
can be bright, dull, glossy, smooth, rough, or applied all over.
grainy. As you may have learned from the EDM finishes are similar to fine textured or
previous part design section, crystalline materials blasted surfaces; these finishes are identified by
tend to release better with a matte finish, whereas VDI numbers, which represent the setting on the
amorphous materials respond better to high gloss. EDM machine. Reproduction can be done in any

Table 3. Some common plating applications.

80
®
 Next Page Mold Construction

EDM machine. The surfaces will have sharper methods can be used to repair or build up a tool.
points or peaks than texturing. Because of the Coating can add life to the mold performance and
different peaks left from the process, any rework longevity. When two pieces rub against each
that is done to a mold cavity that had a previously other, galling or cold welding themselves together
textured area can be very tricky and almost is a possibility. Using dissimilar materials will
impossible to match perfectly with an EDM help to prevent this from occurring. Surface
finish. enhancements can increase the lubricity between
Surface Enhancements these parts and reduce the cold welding. Some
A properly selected surface enhancement or surface enhancements are used for the release of
coating can provide increased hardness, and the plastic part from the core or cavity. Table 3
improve corrosion resistance, lubricity, and lists some common plating applications and a
reduce cycle times, allowing for a smoother, more brief description of the appearance, thickness
cost-effective operation. In some cases, plating applied and the advantages.

81
®
Previous Page

RUNNERS
CHAPTERS INCLUDE:
COLD RUNNER DESIGN PROCESS
COLD RUNNER GATE DESIGN
COLD RUNNER GATE TYPES

83
®
COLD RUNNER DESIGN
PROCESS
W. DAVID OUTLAW
®

In deciding the order for each topic on what the customer wants. For example, going
understanding molds we decided to start with how from one extreme to another, designing a runner
the plastic would flow into the mold as the according to flow simulation will normally give
sequence for presenting each topic. So we will you the smallest runner and theoretically the
begin by describing the design of runners. It must fastest cycle. The flip side of the coin is the large
pointed out, however, that this is not the sequence pressure drops encountered, which can result in
used in designing a mold. When a mold designer very little latitude when choosing machine
is designing a runner there are a couple of other parameters. This points one toward more
decisions that need to be made before the runner generous runner diameters.
design can be started.
There is a little twist to the design process
Remember that the plastic material is making because the mold design is a dynamic process.
a journey. Like any journey it must have a starting This means that the location of the part can be
place, and we must know where it is going to end moved a little in the preliminary design to help
up before we start. We all know that the beginning optimize the runner design. Some of the
is from the nozzle orifice of the sprue bushing. previously made decisions can therefore change
You must then have an ending point, which we after they have been made. In thinking about a
call the gate. This means that the gate location cold runner and all the things that influence the
must be known and the placement of the part in design we should also begin this chapter by
the mold should be established before attempting describing what a cold runner is so that we are all
to design a runner path. sure of what we are describing. A cold runner is
Although we do not always think of it, the formed in molds by channels that have been
decision on gate placement is just as important for milled in the mold base. These channels provide a
deriving the design of the runner channels as it is path for molten plastic to be conveyed to the part.
in making a good part. Runner design, therefore, The plastic that is left over in these channels after
is not much of a design choice, but rather is like each molding cycle is called a cold runner. The
doing something that is simply known as runner is ejected after each cycle and either
connecting the dots; however, not all the decisions discarded or reground and used again. The runner
on runner design are automatically made once the size is influenced by the ability of the material
gate location is chosen. The mold designer is being molded to flow in the length defined.
often tossed between his recommendations and Channel sizes will vary, therefore, depending on

85
Society of Plastics Engineers

the material selection, the size and length of the at the parting line. The exit diameter of the sprue
runner. This is one big reason why once a mold bushing should be the same as the width of the
has been built that a change to a material with runner at the parting line, or the next larger standard
different flow characteristics is not recommended. size sprue bushing if there is not an exact match. The
technician with a gauge should also check these.
THE SPRUE BUSHING To match the exit diameter of the sprue bushing
The first entry into the mold comes through the runner width at the parting line, consider the
the orifice of the sprue bushing. We will explain taper of 0.5 in./foot (both sides) in the sprue
later how the orifice size is determined. There are bushing. This angle increases the diameter 0.0417
a few things about sprue bushings that the in./in. of length. The entry of the sprue bushing
technician should know. To begin with, the nozzle should never be less than 5/32 in. or larger than 0.5
radius on the nozzle must match the sprue in. As a note, the matching molding machine nozzle
bushings; unfortunately, the most common method should be approximately 1/32 in. smaller in diameter
of checking to see if it is the correct size is to than the sprue bushing “O” diameter.
ignore it and shoot the mold and see if it leaks.
Even though this is the most common method, it is
not the correct way. A technician should have
radius gauges and check both the nozzle and the
sprue bushing to see if they match.
The standard spherical radius for the sprue
bushing is 0.5 in. There are some shops that use a
0.75 in. and in some case a metric size is used.

Figure 2. Sprue puller/cold slug well.

There should be a cold slug well that is directly

below the sprue in all cold runner designs. This
cold slug well has two functions. As the name
indicates the first is to provide a place for the cold
material that is entering into the mold to be
deposited into a place that allows the fresh material
to enter the cavity. The second function of the cold
Figure 1. Sprue bushing.
slug well is to pull the sprue away from the nozzle
to allow the sprue to be removed from the sprue
bushing. The sprue size is often not thought of as a
SPRUE SIZE AND COLD SLUG runner, but the dimension of a sprue bushing, if not
Standard stock sizes for sprue bushing entry properly sized, can negate all the good runner
diameters, “O” dimensions, are 5/32 , 7/32 , 9/32 , and decisions made. A rule of thumb for the orifice size
11/32 in. If a larger “O” dimension is required, 13/32 , that helps to make sure the you have not caused a
l5/32 , or 17/32 in. should be specified. The “O” larger than necessary pressure drop is to use the
dimension is determined by the width of the runner total area of all the gates and compare it with the

86
®
 Cold Runner Design Process

Figure 3. Ejection and non-ejection gating.

orifice size. If the area of the orifice size is smaller, ejector pin too close where the tunnel gate cannot
then you should use larger one that will come flex when the tunnel gate is in the cavity. When the
close to the same area as the gates. tunnel gate is in the core, the length of the ejector
well should be below where the gate is to prevent
The undercut size, like all undercut, tends to
the ejector pin from slipping past the runner.
be a mystery. If you use an angle to define the
undercut, then it must also be accompanied with a
depth that will keep the undercut to no deeper
RUNNER LAYOUTS
than 0.015 per side. Balanced Runners

Undercuts on ejector pin bosses do not need to For a molded part in a multicavity mold to have
be excessive to retain the runner on the ejection a remote possibility of being the same, the material
side of the mold. Their function is to make sure the should arrive at the gate in each cavity at the same
runner stays on the correct side of the mold. time. We were trained as designers to use the
Undercuts that are too excessive can lengthen the geometrically balanced runner concept. This was
cycle time. The placement of the ejector pins on achieved by making each path to the cavity the
tunnel gates can be equally as important, especially same distance from the nozzle to each cavity. This
if the undercut is used to break a tunnel gate in the was thought to be the ultimate method for achieving
cavity. The designer must take care not to put the perfect mold filling balance. Because we believed

87
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

that consistent parts were desirable, we forced this went past four, a strange phenomenon happened—
concept into our mold-quoting standard in mold the cavities that were closer to the center of the
making. We also quickly discovered that a balanced mold would fill first. When I was first made aware
geometry could stay balanced if the cavity layout is of this problem more than 15 years ago, I had
mirrored. For example, if a two cavity is balanced, theorized that the mold was hotter in the center
then a four cavity is balanced; and if a four cavity is therefore the runner was more molten and the
balanced, then an eight cavity is balanced, and so on, material would flow easier and take the path of
for 16, 32, and 64. This is also why we quote molds least resistance. In subsequent mold designs I
in these cavitations. In some cases, however, three- went to great lengths to maximize the water-
cavity molds could be semi-balanced, so we began cooling in the center of the mold, but this never
quoting 6, 12, 24, and 48 cavities. solved the problem. More recent developments
have demonstrated that when a typical runner
splits, the resultant flows may have different flow
characteristics, and will result in an imbalance.
One way to improve the balance is through the use
of a MeltFlipper™, which is patented by
Beaumont Runner Technologies, Inc.

Figure 4. Typical geometrically balanced eight-cav-

ity runner. Notice how much more room is needed
between the cavities for the balanced runner.

Figure 6. Flipper runner concept.

[Graphic courtesy of Beaumont Runner Technologies, Inc. and the
MeltFlipper Technology, U.S.Patent Number 6,077,470]

The figures show a runner that was for a four-

cavity coaster mold. We introduced a blue color in
the middle of processing to show the internal flow
Figure 5. Although this six-cavity is a balanced run- pattern and cut it apart down the center of the runner
ner it has a larger sprue area that will dictate cycle of
the mold. to show the flow tendency to be off center after the
first branching. Notice how the blue flow is favoring
Once the mold makers had discovered that the one side of the runner after the first branch.
they could make perfect molds they have gone on
expounding the virtues of how the molds always Runner Intersection Radii
need to have geometrically balanced runners. In In discussing the length of flow in the runner
our job as mold designers we will trip over the system, it is important to distinguish between the
truth every once and a while, but a lot of us just physical length of flow and the “effective” length
pick ourselves up and carry on as if nothing of flow. It is the effective length that brings about
happened. In this instance mold designers were the actual pressure drop. The factors that increase
guilty of ignoring the findings of technicians who, the effective length are sharp bends, sharp edges in
on any given day, could disprove the perfect transition sections, and similar impediments to
geometric theory. The technicians in our company smooth flow. When turns in runners are called for,
had discovered that after the number of cavities a radius equal to the diameter of the runner is

88
®
 Cold Runner Design Process

Figure 7. Off center flow pattern 1 Figure 8. Off center flow pattern 2
Figures 7 & 8. Color change in a cold runner showing the off-center flow pattern
preferred, but even half of that amount will prove mold. Once the insert is turned the designer has to
to be of considerable benefit. Sharp edges in make sure that runner touching the shut-off insert
transition sections cause local problems and also does not cause another hang-up point. The
increase the effective length. designer must place the insert so not to interfere
Two things should be pointed out before with the smooth ejection of the runner. These
moving on to unbalanced runner concepts that are obstacles, coupled with the additional mold cost,
patterns of unbalance in supposedly balanced have historically made runner shut offs a rarity in
runner systems. As mentioned previously, I am mold designs we did.
sure that as a technician you can easily prove that The next way that the technicians have to
geometrically balanced runners are not totally block the cavity is by leaving a portion of a plastic
balanced by making a short shot and visually part glued on the core in the gate area. That area
looking at the shots and the runners. Most around the glued part must have the ejector pin
balanced systems we made on the average very area cleared to prevent the part from being
rarely got past 95% balance on anything higher ejected. This practice typically will eventually
than an eight cavity. The higher the number of cause mold damage. In some cases, immediately.
cavities, the less balance you get. This is worth Even if you prove to a mold maker that the
noting, because in production you may feel you balance does not affect the molding of the part,
sometimes have a need to block a cavity. This, of therefore, it does not justify blocking the cavity.
course, gives rise to the question of unbalancing These types of practices or various other tricks of
the mold fill by doing this. Blocked cavities are the same nature that we have taught ourselves
occurrences that can happen due to mold damage, send the mold makers up the tree because they
a dimensional problem caused by water blockage, know they will be the ones called to fix the mold.
or some ejection problems. Regardless of the
The second thing to point out is that once a
reason technicians are often faced with the task of
runner balance is performed, there should be a fill
blocking a cavity. This can be done with runner
pattern noted, and it should stay consistent. If the
shut offs if they are designed into the tool. Even
fill is random on the mold qualification, then it is
though the runner shut off can work very
showing inconsistency in the steel from cavity to
effectively, there are several tips that the designers
cavity, either in the steel or the water cooling.
have to think about when designing a shut off.
These conditions should be corrected at the mold
Most of the runner shut offs are round inserts qualification.
that can be rotated in the mold by using a
Tip
common-style screwdriver (made of beryllium
copper, of course). The runner shut off is usually If that fill pattern changes after the mold has
used in trapezoidal runners because a full round been run, then it is an indication that the mold
requires that a shut off be put on both sides of the needs some maintenance and should be pulled for

89
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 9. Example of an unbalanced runner 1.

repairs. It is important, therefore, to keep your first income (i.e., weekly allowance), so they had to
short shots in an archive on new molds for keep the cost down.
reference later when a problem is suspected. In other cases there are some parts that are so
small that the dimensional differences are not
Un-Balanced Runners
enough to matter. If the parts do not require close
In some cases the merits of a balanced runner tolerances, the balanced runner system is
do not add up to a cost savings. Figure 9 is a discarded and the straight runner design is used
runner from a mold we made for toy soldiers along instead.
time ago. It is obvious that the runner is not even The two runners illustrated show unbalanced
close to being geometrically balanced. The toy conditions, but each mold served its purpose. The
soldiers were attached at the end of each branch. decision for using a balanced or unbalanced
runner depended on what kind of dimensional
If you were to inspect each soldier carefully stability or consistent part feature that is required
you would see sink and nonfill on these plastic in the end product. Although the parts off these
soldiers in various places. The toy industry used tools were not dimensionally repeatable, the end
this unbalanced runner concept in molding plastic use of each part did not require the close
figures to help achieve a lower cost. The molding tolerances normally necessary on most molded
customer understood the real customer was parts. In creating the design for these molds it also
probably going to be a little boy on a limited depends on the mold maker informing the not-so-
enlightened customers that balancing the runners
when it is not required increases the size of the
mold, shot size, and, ultimately, the cost of the
molded piece.

RUNNER SIZE AND SHAPES

As always, the mold designer’s goal is to size
the runners to minimize cost in tooling and
molding without sacrificing quality. This section
will cover the logic behind establishing the runner
Figure 10. Example of an unbalanced runner 2. size and the factors that determine what shape they
In this example the runner on the right is from a will be. In reviewing most molds you realize that
80-cavity mold. It is obviously not a balanced runner, the runner sizes and shapes do vary. The
but the part was a small round plug produced to plug
holes in a throwaway product. The part variation was differences between shapes are most often not
not large enough to make a difference for the function better, they are just different. In some cases,
of the part to merit a balanced runner. however, they are designed to be functional in the

90
®
 Cold Runner Design Process

mold. The trade off used in establishing the shape

depends largely on the mold function or the mold
maker’s operating philosophy.

R U N N E R C R O S S -S E C T I O N A L
SHAPE
Full Round

This style runner provides a minimum

Figure 11. Modified trapezoid runner cross-section.
pressure loss during the molding stage because it
has the lowest ratio of surface area to volume, RUNNER SIZE
which results in the least heat and pressure loss. It Regardless of whether you chose a round
can only be used, however, in a two-plate pin runner versus trapezoidal runner there are a few
ejection mold design. This shape is usually highly things that do need to be thought about in regards
recommended by the material supplier on to sizes:
amorphous materials. A round runner is cut into • If the runners are too small the parts may
two plates, with the runner cross-section split not fill or you may have an unusual amount
through the center. Because one half of the runner of stress in the part. Runners that are too
is in each plate it requires machining and small will require increased injection
pressure because of greater pressure losses
matching two plates.
through the undersized runner. They may
Trapezoidal also cause sinks (or short shots) because
runner will seal off before the part is
This style is required in three-plate packed out completely.
applications because the runner is stripped and
• Larger than necessary runner will lengthen
not forced out of the plate, so once the sucker pins the cycle time because it will require longer
are withdrawn the runner must fall freely. This cooling time before the runner is solid
design, however, can be used on both the three- enough to eject it. Larger runners will also
plate and two-plate mold designs. This is the add more cost in cases where regrind is not
popular choice in most mold maker’s shops due to allowed and the material is thrown away.
the economics of only cutting the runner in one • It is typically thought that the smaller
plate and having no matching runner. runner will always give a faster cycle, but
this is only true in some cases. This is not
• It has a full radius at the bottom (modified necessarily true in amorphous-type resins
trapezoid). because the material temperature would
have to be raised to allow the material to
• The depth is equal to twice the radius. flow in the smaller runner, making the cycle
time longer to cool the hotter material.
• It has 5° draft tangent to the radius on either
side. In some cases runners that are too large but do
not affect the cycle time will cause other
• Requires a little more material than a round problems due to molten centers. When these
runner. runners are dropped immediately into the grinder
they could stall the grinder motor and burn it up.
• Almost as efficient as a full round runner. Even if runners are ejected at a faster cycle time,

91
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

therefore, the runners may pile up waiting to be over a hot runner design. The following is a list of
cooled, so the molding cycle still has to be items that should be considered before selecting
lengthened because the runners have no place to the cold runner option:
go before grinding. 1. Only a percentage runner regrind can be
reused in some part applications due to
agency regulations. In some electrical
applications the UL requirements may
allow only 25% regrind (e.g., the reason it
cannot be reused is due to the loss of
properties that the plastic will have if it is
reused). No regrind is allowed in some
medical applications.
2. The cost of warehouse storage, time to mix,
Figure 12. Modified runner for improved cycle time. and handling of the runner to regrind it if is
Figure 12 shows runners that were used for the not all used on each run.
same part. The runner on the left was the original 3. The probability that the runner can become
design. While the mold could run faster, we were contaminated with cardboard or metal
unable to decrease the cycle because the runner chips from grinder blades, resulting in
was still molten upon ejection. If we did not cool it quality problems and possible rejects.
adequately, it would clog up the grinder and stall
4. Color variance and possible dimensional
the motor; therefore, the cycle time had to be
variation if it is not thoroughly blended at a
increased to 26 seconds to prevent the runners
constant ratio.
from piling up before being ground.
Step By Step Guide to Sizing Runners
In a redesign for the next generation of tooling (Without Mold Flow Analysis)
the number of cavities was reduced because the As a technician you may not have access to the
smaller runner would allow for a faster cycle. The flow simulation to check out an existing mold.
runner was redesigned using computer simulation. There are fortunately several simple rule-of-thumb
The runners shown in this view are before and methods you can use to see if your mold comes
after the flow analysis. The flow simulation close to be being properly sized without using a
software was able to help reduce the cycle time by flow analysis.
12 seconds with the new runner size.
There are four things we need to know in
Tip establishing the runner size:
One of the best ways to learn how to use a 1. What is the length of the flow channel?
mold flow simulation software package is to start
by analyzing an existing mold. This will keep you 2. What is the material?
from making any assumptions. Because the runner 3. How far the material will flow in a
size lengths and material is already chosen, this given size?
becomes a simple exercise of evaluating the
4. What is the wall section of the part?
decisions that were made. You can then change
one variable at a time and see the result. Table 1 will help you select the proper runner
size to match the flow length with the material.
Cost Considerations of Regrinding a Runner First I am going to assume that the mold has a
There are some very important issues that trapezoidal runner. Most mold shops have
often get overlooked in regrinding a runner that abandoned the full runner concept and use the
are not considered when selecting a cold runner trapezoidal concept even in two plate molds. The

92
®
 Cold Runner Design Process

Total Runner Length 3" 6" 10" 15"

Nylon 6/6 0.062 0.078 0.093 0.125

Nylon 6/6 with 13% glass, Polypropylene 0.062 0.93 0.125 .0156

Acetal, Polyethylene, Ionomer 0.062 0.093 0.125 0.187

Cellulose Acetate Butyrate, Polystyrene 0.093 0.109 0.125 0.188

ABS, Cellulose Acetate, Acrylic 0.093 0.109 0.156 0.25

Polycarbonate, Polyphenolene Oxide 0.125 0.156 0.203 0.25

Polyphenylene Sulfide 0.125 0.156 0.203 N/A

Rigid PVC, Acrylic (Hi Impact) 0.125 0.187 0.25 0.312

Polysulfone 0.156 0.187 0.218 N/A

Table 1. Selecting the proper runner size to match flow length.

following list shows some common materials and of the maximum effective wall thickness
the flow distance for a full round runner: or the runner size determined in Step 2.

1. Using the runner layout, determine the 5. To determine the size of the next runner
total flow length of the runner from the segment toward the sprue or the hot gate,
injection molding machine nozzle to the multiply the diameter of the runner feeding
gate. This distance should be the same for the gate by 1.18
each cavity if the runner system is
6. Each time a runner is branched, the
balanced.
diameter or the branched, runner should be
2. Determine the molded part's maximum smaller than the runner feeding the branch
effective wall thickness. The maximum because less material flows through the
effective wall thickness of a molded part is branches, and it is economically desirable
the maximum part wall thickness that to use minimum material in the runners.
requires consideration due to a need to Repeat the process until the entire runner
control dimensions or aesthetics that can system has been sized.
be adversely affected by greater-than- 7. Once you have the sizes go back and adjust
normal shrinkage (i.e., do not consider each size to the closest standard cutter size
thick wall sections that are hidden and that is available from your mold maker.
perform no function that requires
dimensional control).
V ERIFY AND A DJUST THE S IZES
3. Using the total flow length and the selected OF THE R UNNER AND S PRUE
material, determine the diameter of the The previously calculated sizes are
runner feeding the gate from Table 1. approximations only. Use mold fill analysis
software to refine and minimize the size of the
4. Size the runner by starting with the runner while observing the following rules:
segment at the gate and working backward
toward the injection molding machine • The minimum runner diameter should
nozzle or hot gate. The runner segment never be less than the molded part's
adjacent to the gate should be the greater maximum effective wall thickness.

93
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• An ideal runner system has a uniform cavity. The end of the cold slug well should be
pressure drop per unit of length in all twice the diameter of the larger runner from the
segments of the runner. intersection of the two runners.
• The pressure drop through the entire runner
system and the gate should not be greater
than twice that required to fill the part.
• The volume of the total cold runner system
should not be greater than twice that of the
molded parts, if possible.
End of Runner Cold Slug Wells
It is desirable to have cold slug wells at the
end of runners and their branches to prevent some
Figure 13. End of runner cold slug well.
of the runner-cooled material from getting into the

94
®
COLD RUNNER
GATE DESIGN
W. DAVID OUTLAW
®

In reviewing gate design a common at all. With an understanding of this information on

assumption used to purchase molds in the gate design we hope to help you understand how a
beginning of my career was that the mold maker good design can maximize the strength, visual
was the expert and they knew all the answers. One looks, and dimensional consistency of a part the
thing they did not know is that we were far from first time.
the experts. Years ago we could not make any sense
What confused us continually was that a
of some of the decisions we made when it came to
poorly constructed gate or using improper mold
gating the part. What worked in one mold would
processing techniques could contribute to
not work in another. Thus, we would have a mold
premature failure at the gate. Without truly looking
trial to see if the mold would make a part. We at the causes we would be led to believe that certain
would purposely be metal safe in the gate area, and gate designs should be avoided when they were
then recut the gate or weld up the gate and find perfectly good solutions. To understand fully what
another location until it made the part to correct the a gate design is, we will start with a review of how
dimensional problem, sink, or short shot. This heat affects the function of the gate, follow that
became very expensive when we had to recut the with the fundamentals of gate construction, and
gates in 64 cavity molds. (We had the same finally, show what we can do to increase the life of
problem with hot runner and insulated runner the gate.
molds as well; except, we also had to combat mold
stringing and premature gate freeze off, too.) GATE FUNCTION
The assumption that the mold maker was an First, we have to establish how and what
expert included all the decisions involving the gate makes a gate function. The best way to look at it
design. Little did we know that to optimize a gate is the same way you would when describing the
design requires knowledge about the plastic resin function of a gate in a fence in our own yard.
molecular structure, thermal dynamics, and other When we do this we find that the term gate is
laws of physics. We had observed that the gate really an appropriate name for this part of the
acted like a magnifying glass of all the laws of mold. This is because when it is open you can go
physics going on in the mold, but we could not through it, if it is closed you cannot. If the gate is
explain it. We could make a slight change and it partially closed it restricts some things that
seemed to amplify throughout the processes. We normally can pass through, and if it is left open it
would then make a large change and get no results serves no purpose.

95
Society of Plastics Engineers

How Thermal Dynamics Work in Gate Function require another gate, a larger gate or relocating the
gate to maximize the fill.
When is a gate open or closed? As long as the
plastic is molten in the gate area it is considered How Does the Heat Get There and How Much Is It?
open because the flow of plastic is still possible. A
To seal the gate requires that we remove the
gate that is considered open is not completely
heat from the plastic in the gate to less than the
molten. In actuality the flow of plastic in a part is a
temperature where the molten plastic becomes a
process that makes an instantaneous frozen skin
solid. The amount of heat entering into the mold is
that touches the steel and has a center wall section
measured in units called British thermal units
that is molten, like a Twinkie cake with a crème
(Btu’s). If we put in x amount of Btu’s then it
filled center. The static frozen skin and the molten
means we must get the same amount of Btu’s out
plastic flowing by create the friction that produces
of the mold.
what we call shear heat. We will discuss this a
little latter. To close the gate means all the plastic The heat we experience in the gate area
must solidify to prevent any more from flowing depends on the temperature at which the plastic
through. This is commonly known as gate seal starts out plus the speed the plastic is forced
when this occurs. In the world of quality, where thorough the gate. It is through this velocity that we
statistical process control is used to monitor the introduce what is known as shear heat. The friction
process, the gate seal time must be known. This is of two molecules passing each other produces the
very easy to determine by weighing the part after shear heat. How fast they pass each other is known
the molding process has been stabilized. To as the shear rate. If you have a faster flow, then you
establish when this occurs you will need to can have a high shear rate. A higher shear rate will
increase your hold and pack time until the part produce more shear heat. A gate will produce a
weight no longer increases then you have higher shear rate because the same amount of
established a gate seal. pressure is applied over a smaller opening,
increasing the velocity. (You can duplicate this flow
Once you have achieved gate seal, that is the experience by placing your thumb over a water
injection time you will need to maintain if you hose and watch the result.) Now that you
want to minimize the variation in the part. When understand that the amount of heat in a gate can be
gate seal occurs, no more plastic can leave the a dynamic process you can understand how the
cavity and no more plastic can enter. If the part has mold maker can change the heat in a gate by either
any injection time variation before the gate seal changing the size of the gate and the technician can
this will increase the potential for dimensional do the same thing by increasing the injection
variation because either more plastic can enter the velocity. The combination of both of these actions
part or leave the part depending on the pressures can sometimes cancel out the net effect. Some mold
used to pack the part. By not making the gates any makers judge technicians by their ability to do this.
bigger than two thirds of the wall section we can
be reasonably sure that the gate will freeze off How Do You Remove the Heat?
before the wall section. The rule of thumb also To remove the heat, the area surrounding the
states that we gate into the largest wall section. gate must be cooled. The amount of time it takes
This helps to fill the interior wall section of the depends on how much heat is in the plastic and the
parts that are larger evenly. If the wall section that rate of thermal conductivity of the steel and the
is gated into is smaller than the rest of the part, it plastic. The rate of thermal conductivity is how
will likely be frozen off first and will not allow the fast a material will give up its heat. The different
plastic to fill the rest of the part completely. This is types of plastic and steel cool at different rates of
why any part that has an engineering change of an thermal conductivity. The material will only give
additional rib with a larger wall section may up so much heat in a given time.

96
®
 Cold Runner Gate Design

The rate of cooling must also be known in water plant’s systems gpm (gallons per
order to understand if the maximum amount minute) and the coolant temperature. This
required is available in the plant cooling system. can be converted to Btu’s. This will tell us
Most people think that you need to decrease the how long it will take to remove the heat in
water temperature to remove more heat, but if the the plastic. To control the heat you must
water is not moving it will only stabilize to a have cooling. (If you do not know gpm in
warm temperature and no more heat transfer will your plant, you can easily calculate it by
take place. Although this can help it is not the getting a 5 gallon bucket and time how long
most effective way to remove heat. Just as heat it takes to fill it up at the press.) Cooling
and flow are interactive in the flow of plastic, heat capacity will also change with the “heat
flow is interactive in water cooling. In this case, to transfer fluid.” For example, pure water at
remove heat means take the heat away. Thus, we 55°F will provide better cooling than half
can also remove the heat by a faster flow rate and water-half ethylene glycol mixtures.
not by just making the water colder.
• The plastic being molded: Crystalline and
This concept is further full of twists and turns amorphous have different flow
by the theory of turbulent and laminar flow. When characteristics and rates of thermal
flow reaches a slow speed the water will laminate conductivity.
and the outer layer will become hot and not
transfer the heat. I have experienced this when I • The steel type used around the gate is also
was tubing down a river. While my bottom was important for thermal conductivity.
hanging down inside the inner tube just inches in By using all the preceding information the
the river, it was warm. My toes a few feet further software can calculate the optimum cycle. Be
down were experiencing a colder water careful to make sure you check out your coolant
temperature. This is the same thing that can supply in the plant very carefully because the flow
happen inside a water line that does not have rate of certain cooling systems can fluctuate with
enough flow to mix it up. That was because the more utilization in the plant. Ideal conditions do
water flow was laminar. If the flow is turbulent it not always exist. I remember discovering after
mixes the water up by flowing faster, which will running a mold cooling software program that
increase the ability to transfer heat due to the recommended changing a bubbler system in a
temperature and the faster rate of flow. mold to a baffle system that we did not have the
With the use of any mold cooling software we flow capacity in the cooling system necessary to
can now approximate what the fastest achievable increase the cooling rate of flow. We unfortunately
cycle is. To do this we need to know four things. did not discover this until after we had spent the
If any of these four things are changed in the $23,000 for the tooling change.
process the final mold cool information will be
incorrect. WHAT ARE THE MOST
COMMON TYPES OF GATES?
• We have to know how much heat you have There are three basic types of gates used in
in order to know how much to remove. (As
cold runners. They are called edge gate, tunnel
pointed out previously, in actual molding
gate, and the pinpoint gate. The mold designer
practice the technician knows that the
typically wants the gate somewhere on the outside
temperature of the resin in the molten state
perimeter of the part, and preferably on the cavity
can be altered depending on what
side. If the part were to be gated on the inside,
processing parameters are used.)
then the part would have to be turned 180 degrees
• How much cooling capacity we have in the mold so the plastic runner could feed the
available. This means we must know the part. This would mean that the core would be on

97
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

the stationary side of the mold and the part would • Depth influences how fast a gate will close
not be able to be ejected without special or how long it will stay open. The thickness
accessories. dictates when the gate will close and is set
by the wall section of the part. In the proper
Edge Gate sequence of molding the gate must freeze
An edge gate has such other names as fan gate off before the wall section it is gated into.
and tab gate. The primary thing to remember about Thus, the depth is set at approximately two-
thirds the wall section so it will always
this type of gate is that it remains attached to the
freeze off before the wall section. It is
part upon ejection. In applications where paint or
recommended that the gate location be into
plating is applied after the part is molded the
the thickest wall section to allow for
runner can be used to pick and place the parts so
adequate packing. The packing minimizes
human hands do not contaminate the surface to be
the potential for sink.
painted or plated. In this case a gate that remains
attached is very useful. Many designers think that • Width is generally three times the depth for
this style of gate is only used when you want to an edge gate. The width determines if you
keep the runner attached, but this is not true. This call the gate a fan gate or an edge gate. An
gate can actually be removed during the mold undersized gate that has no impedance to
ejection by delaying the runner ejection (Figure 1). stop the plastic from flowing causes this
irregular flow pattern in the resin melts
called jetting or worming cause it looks like
a worm in your plastic. A fan gate is used to
prevent Jetting in optical parts because it
reduces the flow marks. Usually lenses are
flat and do not have any ribs to gate into so
this is a viable gate option. Imperfections
and blemishes can also occur where a thin
section becomes thicker.

• Length (or land) of the gate needs to be at

most 0.03 in. and no longer. A longer gate
Figure 1. Delayed ejection. land may produce flow lines. The length
will also influence gate freeze time.
The good thing about this style over the tunnel
gate is that the gate does not wear out, because the
shearing action is more of a tearing action. The
gate vestige is a little more ragged but in some
cases a clean gate break is not required. These
requirements must be established by agreement
with the customer.

Edge gate sizes are defined by three

dimensions: depth, width and length. Each
dimensional size influences the performance and
function of the gate. Depth and length are the most
crucial in gate seal. The most crucial in flow marks
and blemishes is width. Figure 2. Edge gate.

98
®
 Cold Runner Gate Design

the cavity or it would break off in the wrong place

and jam the drop so it would not fill on the next
shot. Not understanding the importance of
sequencing will drive any technician to the brink
of insanity so, please make sure you study Figure
4 because if you deal with three plate molds this
will eventually happen to you.

Figure 3. Radius prevents snowing.

Tunnel Gate
The next type is known as tunnel gate. It is
categorized by an angular cone that is self-
degating. It is also called a sub or a submarine
gate, and a variation is called the banana gate.The
reason this style is selected over another is
primarily because there is no need for handling the
part and no labor required to trim the gate. It does Figure 4. Mold Sequence.
have a few drawbacks (e.g., wear and a
phenomenon called snowing). In applications that GATE CONSTRUCTION
rely on the consumer to make a choice based on CONSISTENCY
aesthetics, a hidden gate can make all the
The challenge we face when trying to
difference in whether a product sells or not. The
recommend gate size tolerances is that the plastic
variations to this type gate are mainly due to the
is forgiving. For instance a mold built for a
parting line location in relation to the gate location.
crystalline resin that has a 0.04 wall section can
The placement of the ejector pin must be made in
be filled with a 0.025 or 0.035 gate diameter and
such a manner that it allows the plastic room to
probably make a good part with either size gate. I
flex. This is extremely important in the banana gate
am sure you are wondering at this point why the
example. The other feature in a banana gate is to
reason for accuracy is important when the gate
make sure that the banana section is conical. This
will function. The statement that gate size is not
gives the plastic a place to bend as the runner is
that critical is true, but only for single cavity one-
pulled away. The gate should always a start out
of-a-kind molds. The accuracy is more important
small because it does have a tendency to wear and
when we think about multicavity molds. In
will produce a larger vestige as time goes on. If the
multicavity molds all gate sizes must be uniform
cutting surface gets too dull, it can also tend to
throughout the mold. The reason for the need for
cause ejection problems because the undercut will
accuracy is to reduce variation between the fill of
not hold the runner in the proper place.
each cavity. We must remember that each size
Pinpoint Gate gate diameter will produce a slight variation in the
This style gate is used in the three-plate molds. molding process.
It is very straightforward and can produce a To carry the single-cavity tolerancing concept
minimal vestige. The mold plate sequence for this a step further, it helps to describe the tolerance
style gate must be maintained in order to minimize process as a master-slave concept. The first piece
the gate. The three-plate mold bases typically have completed can have a wide tolerance. Once it is
springs in them to make sure the plate pops the committed it becomes the master and all others
gate first. If it did not, the part would sometimes must follow like slaves if we expect to have
pull the runner drop off the sucker pin and stick in consistency between cavities. This means that the

99
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

first gate you put in has a wide tolerance, but it • The potential for wear is mostly in the
will dictate the size, at which you put the next tunnel gate style. This is the area that is the
ones. Thus, good gate construction has to be most common problem technicians face.
consistent ± 0.0005 for tolerances, not ± 0.005. Knowing that gate size is not critical, but
The gate is like a magnifier of any variation in the that it must be consistent, means the design
construction. Inconsistent gates in multicavity strategy would be to start small in the gate
molds produce inconsistent parts. area. This will leave room for an easy
refurbishment when the gates need to be
• Gate construction methods. The most reworked for wear. When reviewing a tunnel
common method used in gate construction gate there are some functions of the gate
in a machine shop is either by some sort of design that should be reviewed. The angle
grinding or EDM. Most milling methods of the gate provides the cutting edge like a
cannot produce a result that is accurate knife. The cone configuration as well as the
enough for multicavity molds. angle at which the gate is placed affects the
• Gate Steel Finish. The gate finish can also be life of the gate.
a concern. It is true that the skin of the drop • The gate that has the most potential for
and runner will fill in all the cutter or EDM damage is the pinpoint gate. We discovered
marks and do not affect the flow, but these that the smaller the land in the gate area, the
same marks will prevent the gate from ejecting less vestige you will have, but the steel
properly. So, the gates should be polished to integrity is jeopardized and gates may break
prevent the drops from hanging up. out large pieces of steel in and around the
gate, leaving the mold with cavities
• Materials used with Gating. The self- damaged beyond repair. A gate that is
degating style gates do have a potential for
fragile will not perform well over time.
wear. We have inserted these areas in the past
Although this may be beneficial to the gate
to refurbish old tools. Steels selected for
vestige, the early wear would not be
these inserted areas have basically been steels
acceptable due to cost and lost production
that have a high Rockwell hardness and
when breakage occurs.
tungsten or carbide compositions. The gates
can be welded and reworked. If this choice is
made the welder must know the parent steel
selection to make sure he matched the
welding rod and the proper heat profile to
keep from damaging the parent steel.

ROBUST DESIGN
There is a natural tendency for gate wear or for
the potential for gate damage. Figure 5. Pinpoint gate.

100
®
COLD RUNNER
GATE TYPES
W. DAVID OUTLAW
®

This chapter is dedicated to gating for cold gate seal requires that the technician understands
runners. Hot runner gating has some special some simple principles:
characteristics that are not found in cold runners.
• If the heat or fill speed of the material is
They will be discussed in the hot runner section.
changed, the gate seal will change.
Gates are the initial entry into the cavity. The
mold designers’ decision of gating is probably the
• If mold temperatures are changed, the gate
seal will change.
most influential choice that can be made. It
typically still remains one of the most arbitrary • If the gate is a hot runner drop, wear on the
choices. A mold designer very rarely sees a gate tip changes the gate seal time.
location specified on a new product drawing. This • If you do not have gate seal, your parts will
lack of guidance and collaboration between the be inconsistent.
molder, mold maker, and part designer will leave
the technician with the problem of dealing with • Gate sizes must all be identical to achieve a
molding problems that could have easily been balance of fill.
avoided. I have been involved in at least 100 or so Now that we have established that, there are
contests between molders and mold makers over some things to remember about the mold
gate sizes that have to be recut. The debate is designers’ guidelines on gates. These will be
usually over who is going to pay for the recut. I examined.
always wondered if a struggle could have been
avoided if there had been a meeting between all THINGS TO REMEMBER
the parties mentioned and a sign-off sheet with Location
every one agreeing on the choices made.
• A gate should generally be placed where
In my opinion, technicians have just as much the part thickness is greatest.
influence on how a gate performs even after it is
chosen by the mold designer; however, they still • The placement of the gate determines
use the gate size or style on which to blame their where your knit lines, vents and blemishes
problems. are going to be.
Quantity
Gate seal is an important item in establishing
a processing window upon which technicians • The quantity of gates depends on the material
have a lot of control. The process of establishing and its flow length in the wall section of the

101
Society of Plastics Engineers

part a designer may have to have more gates. Type

The flow length can be obtained from the • The type of gate is usually chosen to be
material specifications. If the material choice automatically degated, unless the runner is
is changed make sure you consult the used for handling the part if it is to have
specification on flow length before you waste painting or plating applied.
your time in a mold test. With most parts the
ideal quantity of a gates is 1. This reduces the
cosmetics and structural defects caused by
GATE TYPES EXAMPLES
multiple flow fronts. The upcoming examples are just for
informational purposes. They are not
Size Recommendations recommendations. The reason for use of one type
of gate over another can be just as valid for other
• Gates have three-dimensional aspects that a applications where other styles are used.
designer needs to contend with:
Pinpoint Gate
1. An edge gate or variation of a tab gate Pinpoint gates are used In three plate molds.
the depth should be two thirds that of The most common usage is found in round parts.
the wall section.
Sprue Gate
2. Gate width should be a minimum of The sprue gate is used in prototype and single
two times the depth. cavity molds. The most common use is in
3. The length of the gate typically called amorphous type resins with heavy wall sections.
the land should be a minimum of 0.03 The gate will likely need to be cut.
for tab gates. Note: Fan gates are Tab Gate
tapered up to the land area. They are used in parts that have secondary
• Gates that are too small require a higher operations where runners are used for staging
heat to keep them open, causing shear heat plating or painting. The most common usage is
and the material to burn. with clear parts that require optical clarity. Parts
do not automatically degate with this type of gate.
• Gate into the thickest part to minimize sink Tunnel Gate or Submarine Gate
marks.
This is the most common type gate used. It
• Gate depth for amorphous resins should be automatically degates the runner from the part. It
50% of the wall section. is used on two plate molds. A small radius is
• Gate depth for crystalline material should be
at least 90% of the wall section.
• All gates should be the same size within
0.001 in. in diameter, and all gate lands are
to be the same length within 0.001 in.
• Gate should be certified at the time of
construction.
• Gate size and lands on cold runner molds
should never be varied to balance a
production mold with a large number of
cavities. It is a common practice used on a
Figure 1. Sprue and pinpoint gates.
family mold.

102
®
 Cold Runner Gate Types

This most commonly used for blemish-free

parts. This gate also produces less stress and
warpage. It does not degate automatically.
Disk Gate
This is sometime referred to as a film gate. It
used to allow for an even flow with a minimum knit
line. One example used is in a single cavity mold.

Figure 2. Tab and tunnel gates.

sometimes added at the bottom of the drop to
combat snowing. The main area we should be
concerned with is direction the gate is being
pulled. In the case of a gate staying in the moving
side of the mold, an undercut is unnecessary
under the ejector pin. Note that the ejector pin
should be below the actual gate in each Figure 4. Disk and spoke gates.
application to ensure that the pin does not slip off
and leave the runner in the gate area. Spoke Gate
This is used in single cavity mold with material
Fan Gate that does not have a long flow length. It can be very
This is most commonly used with clear parts effective in keeping the tonnage requirements
that require optical clarity. Parts will not down on the press. It is often assumed that a
automatically degate. rounder part can be achieved with more gates. This
can actually create a worse condition because the
Edge Gate fill patterns create a differential shrinkage
(anisotropy) due to the direction of flow from each
additional gate. The previous part with four gates
has the same flow path when comparing either top
to bottom or left-to-right. If we molded these parts
from glass-filled materials, we would expect the
resultant part to have the largest diameter when
measured from top to bottom or from left to right.
When measured from the lower left to upper right,
the diameter would be smaller. This can become a
major quality issue when manufacturing segments
of circles that will be assembled. Part geometry and
gate location will determine how “round” the
assemblies will be. The spoke gate example would
result in a rounder part if three gates were used
because the flow direction within the part will be
Figure 3. Fan and edge gates. different at the gate versus across from the gate.

103
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Chisel Gate If the ejector pin is too long it may slip off of the
A chisel gate is a variation on the tunnel gate. ejector boss during ejection and leave the runner
This style provides for a more exact cutting edge. drop in the gate. This can also be a problem with
The exact sizing is very difficult to check due to tunnel gates.
the geometry that results from where it enters the
cavity (see section A-A in Figure 5).

Figure 6. Banana gate design criteria 1.

Figure 5. Chisel gate.

Banana Type of Gates
The banana style gates are very good to use
when you are trying to hide a gate vestige under a
part. They are usually gating into a post or rib on
the core side. The most important thing to
remember is that the gate end is tapered and must
be smaller in order to be extracted. Consult your
material supplier before attempting to use this
Figure 7. Banana gate design criteria 2.
design because it relies on certain material
properties to function.
The length of the ejector pin may need to be
shortened to help the runner drop to be pulled out.

104
®
Next Page Cold Runner Gate Types

Figure 8. Sucker pin and well design criteria.

105
®
Previous Page

HOT RUNNER
SYSTEMS
CHAPTERS INCLUDE:
HOT RUNNER TECHNOLOGY SECTION
SELECTING A HOT RUNNER SYSTEM
VALVE GATING VS. THERMAL GATING
IMPLEMENTATION OF A HOT RUNNER SYSTEM IN THE MOLD
HOT RUNNER PLATE DESIGN
WHY TEMPERATURE CONTROL MATTERS
HOT RUNNER STANDARDIZATION
LEAKAGE PREVENTION AND MAINTENANCE
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES
®

107
®
HOT RUNNER
TECHNOLOGY SECTION
®

INTRODUCTION As you learn more about the intricacies of hot

runner systems, try to remember that some basic
Hot Runner, or Runnerless molds have been
disciplines become even more important, such as:
around for a long time. Making them productive
can be a challenge and depends on the • Using the right nozzle and tip
technician’s understanding of the operation and
implementation of proper procedures for startup • Shutting the mold down properly (e.g.
and shutdown. Cleaning any molten plastic from the sprue
bushing)
The following chapter examines some key
factors that should be considered when choosing a • Starting the mold up properly (e.g. looking
runnerless system and running it on the shop for drooling plastic from any of the gates
floor. In addition, it discusses some of the more and not closing intricate mold details on
advanced technologies used in runnerless them, or cleaning already hardened balls of
molding, like stack and multi material. A plastic that appear right in front of the gate)
technician should always be aware that the hot
runner system and molding machine are generally • Being aware that the hot runner will heat up
independent but must be handled to operate and cool down faster than the molding
together. One major factor that contributes to machine
failure of hot runner systems in a molding shop is Please keep in mind that the concepts
not responding to cycle interruptions or machine presented here apply universally; however, a
stoppages. Serious thought must be given to technician should always refer to the literature
coupling the machine electrical operation to that provided by the mold builder or the manufacturer
of the mold. If a process were to shut down the of the hot runner system for his particular
machine heat and fail to shut down the mold heat operation characteristics.
major damage can occur—if not an unsafe
condition. In addition, residue from degraded Note: Graphics for Hot Runner Technology
plastic left in a manifold can lead to long startups chapters provided courtesy of Husky Injection
and a huge waste of time and material. Molding Systems, Milton, Vermont.

109
SELECTING A
HOT RUNNER SYSTEM
MARTIN BAUMANN
®

The first step to the successful installation of a with no restrictions. A well-designed, externally
hot runner is the selection of the right one for the heated system eliminates dead spots in the flow
application. This can be accomplished by path and provides a better shear profile over the
following a simple step-by-step process provided channel diameter.
by the hot runner vendor.
Balanced System
H O T R U N N E R S —S E L E C T I N G Because the hot runner system is nothing more
THE RIGHT SYSTEM FOR
than an extension of the machine nozzle, its sole
THE APPLICATION purpose is to deliver the material to each drop
Hot runners have offered molders many equally. The most efficient way to accomplish this
production advantages for more than 30 years and is to have a balanced manifold (Figure1) with
have evolved substantially since their first equal flow lengths and channel sizes from the
appearance on the market. Many different point of injection to each cavity. This so-called
materials, ranging from such commodity types as mechanically balanced design assures equal filling
polypropylene and polyethylene to such of the parts, minimizing flashes or short shots.
engineering resins as polycarbonate, glass-filled
nylons, and polysulfones, are being processed Machine Nozzle
successfully with full hot runner systems.
Choosing the right system for the application
is still a critical factor for the successful
implementation of a hot runner system. The
following are some areas that should be
considered before a purchasing decision is made.
Internally Heated Versus Externally Heated
One of the dividing lines between hot runner
systems is based on how the melt was heated.
Internally heated systems place the heater directly Drop
in the melt channel and heat the material from the
Figure 1. The melt channels are equal length and
inside. Externally heated systems heat the diameter from the machine nozzle to each drop to
material from the outside and have flow channels ensure balanced flow.

111
Society of Plastics Engineers

Cellular Phone Component Closure

Material: PC Material: PP
Melf Flow Intex: 12 Melf Flow Intex: 10
Part Weight: 8.2 g Part Weight: 8.1 g
Required Inj. Pressure: 2760 bars or 40,000 psi Required Inj. Pressure: 1035 bars or 15,000 psi
Color Change?: No Color Change?: Yes
Example 1.

Proper Channel Sizing A lot of questions need to be asked about

Proper melt channel sizing is critical to hot plastic part and processing conditions to assure
runner performance. Improper channel sizing can optimized system performance. Part weight, melt
cause plastic degradation, unbalanced or flow index, injection time, cycle time, and melt
incomplete part filling, and slow color change. temperature are just some of the factors that are to
Every application should undergo a careful be considered to calculate the right melt channel
application review to determine optimum melt size. It is not enough to include just the plastic part
channel sizing. Factors to be considered include: weight in the review.
• Pressure drop.
• Residence time. MELT CHANNEL SIZING
• Temperature rise. Example 1 compares two parts with similar
• Shear rate. part weights; however, the applications are
• Frequency of color change. different in terms of resin, melt flow indexes,
Cellular Phone Component Closure

Manifold: Ø 11 mm Manifold: Ø 6 mm
Housings: Ø 8 mm Housings: Ø 5 mm
Pressure Drop: 14% Pressure Drop: 23%
Min. Shear Rate: 1085 1/s Min. Shear Rate: 1059 1/s
Example 2.

112
®
 Selecting a Hot Runner System

Figure 2. Typical gate details for a hot tip nozzle (left) and valve gate (right) with proper cooling.

injection pressure, and color change optimum material range ensures that the best
requirements. solution is selected.
Melt channel analysis reveals that different The most commonly used styles of gating are
melt channel sizing would be necessary for hot tip gating and valve gating (Figure 2). Please
optimum hot runner performance. The closure see the next section for a more detailed
application requires smaller channel diameters to comparison.
reduce color change time. The resulting high Material Throughput
pressure drop is no problem because the part is
After the gate and material issues are
easily filled; however, the cellular component
addressed, the next area is the material throughput
does not require such small channels for quick
per gate. Most hot runner systems are available
color change, and pressure drop has to be lower
with different size nozzle housings, and each
because the thin wall part is difficult to fill.
handle a certain range of throughput. A gate that
Gating Method is too small will restrict filling and packing. It
might also generate too much shear, causing
After the type of system has been decided degradation.
upon, the next challenge is to select the proper
gating method. There is a variety of options Service
available. Consideration needs to be given to the In addition to the technical options in
allowable gate vestige, gate location, and the type choosing a hot runner system, consideration
of material that is being processed. Whether it is should also be given to the ability of the hot
amorphous, crystalline, or a thermoplastic runner supplier to support mold maker and
elastomer, all gating methods have limitations to molder with regard to training, information
certain materials. Understanding the nozzle's provided, and field service.

113
®
VALVE GATING VERSUS
THERMAL GATING
MARTIN BAUMANN
®

Valve gate hot runner nozzles were introduced the gate. The small slug from the gate should melt
to the injection molding industry shortly after the from shear heating as it enters the cavity.
first hot runner systems appeared on the market.
Until recently, valve gates had been chosen A part molded with a thermal gate retains a
primarily for applications where thermal gate standing vestige at the gate interface. Thermal
vestige is unacceptable; however, valve gates gate vestige is highly dependent on the gate
offer several additional part quality and diameter. A larger gate will produce a larger
processing benefits to the injection molder, vestige. Thermal gate vestige stands one third to
including: one half the height of the gate diameter. In
addition, thermal gate quality can change
• elimination of drool and gate string. significantly as processing conditions vary.
• improved physical properties with lower Gate cooling optimization is critical in
molded-in stress.
thermal gate design. The solidified polymer in the
• cycle time reduction. gate acts as an insulating barrier between the
• ability to balance family molds and control plastic in the cavity and the viscous melt in the
weld line location with sequential valve hot runner nozzle. Mold-open cannot occur until
gating. the gate is solid enough to break cleanly from the
part as well as “hold back” the melt in the hot
• superior molding processes for thinwall parts. runner. Insufficient gate cooling requires cool
time greater than that required for part
THERMAL GATING solidification, adding unnecessary seconds to
TECHNOLOGY cycle time. Mold-open prior to complete gate
Thermal gates, which are commonly
identified as hot tip, thermal sprue, and edge gate,
rely on thermal cycling of the plastic melt in the
gate area for successful operation (Figure 1).
After cavity fill, the melt in the gate area cools
and solidifies. Gate cooling plays a key role in
how quickly solidification takes place. During the
subsequent cycle, injection pressure forces the
solidified gate material into the cavity, opening Figure 1. Thermal gating.

115
Society of Plastics Engineers

solidification will result in drool or stringing.

Excessive gate cooling can also be problematic; a
frozen gate can prevent or delay gate opening.
This will result in short shots or unfilled cavities.

VALVE GATE TECHNOLOGY

On the other hand, a valve gate nozzle
positively seals the gate with the use of a valve stem
(Figure 2). Through mechanical action, the valve
stem moves forward and seals the gate orifice. The
valve stem remains in the closed position during
mold open and part ejection, preventing drool and
stringing. For example, polyamide (PA) may drool
Figure 2. Simplicity of Operation.
when processed in a thermally gated hot runner. 1. Prior to injection, air is applied to the piston to pull
When PA is processed in a valve-gated hot runner, the valve stem back. (Gate Open)
however, any potential for drooling at the gate is 2. Inject plastic, pack and hold.
minimized, if not eliminated. 3. At the end of hold time, apply air to the piston to
move the valve stem forward. (Gate Closed)
Melt decompression is often required on
4. Gate remains sealed until start of injection on
thermal gated systems to relieve pressure in the
next shot.
manifold. Valve gate nozzles eliminate the need
for melt decompression because the seal is robust
even if the hot runner manifold remains
CYCLE TIME REDUCTION
pressurized. Melt decompression can lead to splay In addition to the cosmetic advantages, valve
and other visual imperfections. gate nozzles can reduce cycle time, especially
when molding large parts. Hold time can be
Valve gate nozzles leave a small witness mark reduced with a valve gate nozzle, and melt
on the part that is the same size as the gate plastication can begin as soon as the valve gate is
diameter. Protrusion of the valve stem through the closed. Thermally gated molds must have a
gate may leave a small indentation in the center of sufficiently frozen gate before hold pressure can
the gate. The molded part separates from the gate be released and screw recovery begins. This
without breaking or shearing plastic; thus, difference can add several seconds to the cycle
discoloration or deformation due to gate break is time for thermally gated parts with large gates. In
unlikely. Unlike thermal systems, gate quality addition, the valve gate’s lower shear rate in the
remains the same over a wide range of process gate area minimizes shear heating of the melt,
conditions. One significant exception is if the reducing the part’s cooling requirements.
valve stem is held open too long, allowing the
resin in the gate to solidify; in this case, the solid SEQUENTIAL VALVE GATING
plastic can prevent the valve stem from seating in
Sequential valve gating is the independent
the gate orifice leaving a post.
control of valve gates in a mold. Sequential valve
Physical properties of the molded part are gating is used to control the filling of parts with
improved with the use of a valve gate. Molded-in dissimilar mass (i.e., family molds). Each valve
stress is a result of molecular orientation, which is gate is independently opened and closed at a
caused by shear. Due to the larger gate diameters, predetermined event (e.g., time, screw position,
valve gates generate less shear compared with cavity pressure, etc.), providing complete control
thermal gates. The result is a part with less of cavity fill. The balanced flow to each cavity
warpage and better physical properties. eliminates overpacking and flash.

116
®
 Valve Gating Versus Thermal Gating

Sequential valve gating can also be used to insert. As the valve stem moves forward, the melt
control the location of weldlines or, with cascade caught between the valve stem and gate steel is
filling, eliminate the flowlines on long parts. compressed and forced to flow out of the gate.
Weldline control is very important in parts that Tapered sealing relies on the force between
contain a “living hinge.” The working life of a matched angled surfaces for a successful seal. The
living hinge is greatly reduced if a weldline forms forward stroke of a tapered valve stem must be
over the thin section of the hinge. Sequential limited with a physical stop to prevent damage to
gating can be use to ensure that the weld is the gate insert.
positioned away from the hinge area, improving Studies at Husky Injection Molding Systems
the product’s performance. have shown that cylindrical seal valve gates have a
smaller witness mark, and, therefore, a better gate
THINWALL MOLDING
than tapered valve gates. A cylindrically ground
Valve gate nozzles can be especially useful for valve stem seals with a tight tolerance slip-fit in a
thinwall molding. Rapid fill rates, high pressures, cylindrical gate. When the stem moves forward, it
and fast cooling characterize thinwall-molding acts as a plunger, forcing the melt from the gate
applications. Rapid fill rates, in the range of 0.5 orifice into the cavity. This gating style relies on the
seconds or less, are necessary to fill the cavity tight tolerance between the valve stem and gate
before the frozen layer thickens and prevents orifice for the superior gate quality. Cylindrical
further cavity filling. Valve gates are ideally suited sealing, however, is more sensitive to wear if the
to meet these requirements. The large gate required tolerances are not kept and the gate
diameters with no flow restrictions allow fast filling quality degrades rapidly as wear increases the gap
while minimizing pressure drop and shear heating. between the valve stem and gate steel.
Rapid part cooling permits the valve stem to close
immediately after cavity fill in many thinwall
molding applications. A thermal gate would
require cool time for proper solidification.

GATE STYLES
There are two primary types of gate seal:
tapered and cylindrical (Figure 3). Each type has
a different mechanism of sealing as well as its
own set of limitations. Figure 4. Positive guidance in valve stem
in nozzle tip.
Most valve gate suppliers offer tapered shut-
off systems. The tip of the valve stem is ground at Cylindrical seal valve gates require precise
an angle (typically near 60 degrees inclusive) that alignment of the valve stem to the gate in order to
seals to a matched angled surface in the gate reduce wear. Figure 4 shows positive guidance of
the valve stem in the nozzle tip preventing
collisions between the valve stem and gate steel.
Positive guidance will also reduce wear caused by
the valve stem sliding through the gate orifice on
every cycle.
Precise stem-to-gate alignment is not critical
for successful operation of a tapered seal valve
gate. The matching angles on the valve stem and
Tapered Cylindrical gate align the valve stem in the closed position
Figure 3. and minimize sliding surfaces. By eliminating

117
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

positive alignment near the gate, there are fewer detail, but it does not directly contact the gate
flow restrictions, resulting in lower pressure drop steel, further reducing possible heat transfer to the
and shear. In addition, some mechanisms used for molding surface. This nozzle tip can also be used
positive alignment of cylindrical valve gates can with semi-crystalline plastics that do not require
create flowlines in the melt that become visible in high processing temperatures (e.g.,
the part. polypropylene).

RESIN COMPATIBILITY A valve gate nozzle designed for semi-

crystalline and high-temperature amorphous resins
Valve gate nozzles are compatible with most
must conduct heat to the gate seal-off area to keep
resins; however, resin properties will dictate the
the resin molten. This is achieved with a nozzle tip
nozzle tip configuration (Figure 5).
that extends to the molding surface with an
integral sealing surface. This nozzle tip
configuration keeps the seal-off area at elevated
temperatures. Cavity cooling lowers the external
temperature of the tip, allowing the resins to
freeze. This nozzle tip configuration usually
results in a second witness mark where the nozzle
tip is flush with the cavity steel.
Valve gates have successfully been used with
abrasive resins that contain such fillers as glass
and carbon fiber. Care must be taken that wear-
Figure 5. resistant materials are used for the valve stem and
nozzle tip. A replaceable nozzle tip with integral
The gate area for amorphous resins should be gate seal is the most appropriate choice for
thermally insulated from the nozzle and nozzle tip. abrasive resins. The nozzle tip can be replaced at a
Heat transfer from the nozzle to the gate area can lower cost than replacing a gate insert. Tapered
delay solidification, leading to deformation in the valve gates are also recommended for abrasive
gate area. In this configuration the nozzle seal is applications. As described earlier, the quality of a
located away from the molding surface, where cylindrical seal valve gate will degrade more
cooling lines can remove the heat transferred to rapidly than will that of a tapered valve gate as
the gate steel. The nozzle tip extends into the gate wear affects the components.

118
®
IMPLEMENTATION OF THE
HOT RUNNER SYSTEM
INTO THE MOLD
MARTIN BAUMANN ®

MATING THE HOT RUNNER

TO THE MOLD
After the hot runner selection process is
complete, the selected system must fit into the
mold design properly to provide consistent gate
Nozzle
and part quality over the life of the product. The
first area to review is the gate area, both to ensure
that it fits, and to ensure it works well.
Cooling
Gate Strength
To maximize the integrity and life of the gate Gate Dimple
area, there are several factors which need to be
Figure 1. This gate detail for a valve gate applica-
considered in the design and manufacturing stages. tion illustrates the dimple area where gate failure
may occur.
Care must be taken when recessing the gate
into a dimple area (Figure 1). If a dimple is used
the designer must avoid making the sections too IMPROVED GATE QUALITY
thin, which weakens the gate area. This is even
When gating with hot tips, the thermal
more critical for valve gate applications with
balance between the cold gate steel and the nozzle
tapered stems because the impact will cause the
thin section to fail prematurely. tip temperature is an important determinant for
gate quality. The nozzle tip keeps the gate area hot
During the manufacture of the gate itself, it is enough to allow unrestricted resin flow at
generally not recommended that the area be injection start. After the injection hold part of the
electro-discharge machined (EDM’ed). This
cycle, cooling around the gate allows partial
causes a brittle layer to be formed initiating
solidification where the melt contacts the cool
premature gate failure.
gate steel. This frozen layer then breaks clean
Efficient Cooling for Hot Runner Molds from the part; this clean break is necessary to
Efficient gate cooling positively affects part attain minimal gate vestige. A hot gate produces
gate quality, reduces cycle time, and minimizes higher vestiges and, in the worst case, stringing,
mold wear. since the material cannot break off cleanly.

119
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 2. Figure 3.

REDUCED CYCLE TIME 2. Place cooling lines as symmetrically as

possible around the gate—gate inserts
Efficient gate cooling reduces cycle time. If provide superior gate cooling because they
there is a high gate vestige due to stringing, a redirect the cooling around the gate,
common remedy is to increase the cooling time, improving thermal uniformity.
thus lengthening total cycle time. This is not
required with efficient gate cooling. 3. Provide sufficient cooling for the hot
runner plates.
Uniform hot runner and mold temperatures are
required, especially in systems with a large 4. Balance hot runner plate cooling to
number of cavities, in order to avoid unbalanced facilitate thermal uniformity.
filling, which results in flash or unequal part
weights in the parts. Properly cooled hot runner 5. Adhere to the guidelines of your hot runner
plates thermally isolate the hot runner from the supplier and ask for design
cavity plate, facilitating quick part cooling for recommendations.
faster cycle time. Machining Tolerances

MINIMIZED MOLD WEAR It is important that the mold maker can

achieve the tolerance required by the hot runner
Cooling layouts for hot runner plates must be supplier to ensure a good fit. The tight tolerance is
as well balanced as cavity cooling channels typically required for seal off; if the finish is not
(Figure 3). If there is inadequate cooling in the hot achieved, then leakage and production problems
runner plates, cooling becomes completely may result.
dependent on the cold half. Insufficient cooling of
one half of the mold causes variations in steel Mold/Hot Runner Interface
expansion; this can result in premature mold wear Attaching the hot runner plates to the cavity
(Figure 2). In the worst case scenario, the hot plate requires interface bolts and guidepins. The
runner can heat up the machine stationary platen, location of these is usually dependent on the
resulting in tie bar wear. cavity layout. The guidepins align the gate
Five Tips for Efficient Cooling geometry with the hot runner nozzles. A common
recommendation is that the guidepins should be 5-
1. Place cooling lines as close as possible to 10 mm longer than the nozzle to ensure they are
the heat source. engaged prior to the nozzles.

120
®
 Implementation of the Hot Runner System into the Mold

Service Connections are remnant of the cold runner era. The small
The operation of a hot runner requires that both orifice meant that the cold sprue diameter was
electrical and water connectors be built into the hot small which allowed it to break away easily.
runner plates. The electrical connectors should The hot runner supplier strives to determine
provide a water tight seal to prevent water damage the best channel sizes in the manifold, only to
and should be located away from the water have that selection compromised by a small
connections. In some cases air may also be required machine nozzle orifice. The change in diameter
for valve gate activation. The recommendations of from the machine nozzle orifice to the main flow
the hot runner supplier with regard to size of air, channel in the manifold can create a dead spot.
lines, connections, and installation should be The optimum sizing is a straight through channel
followed for optimized performance. in the sprue bushing. The injection carriage
Design Preferences forward hold pressure must overcome the forces
generated by the larger flow orifice.
Matching a hot runner successfully to a mold
may be all for naught if the end-user’s preferences Manifold Decompression
are not considered. Preferences range from metric
Another area to review is the machine
to inch bolts, clamp slots to mounting holes,
sequence. The machine should be capable of
quick disconnect fittings to NPT fittings, and end
decompressing after injection, not only after
clamp to side clamp electrical connectors.
screw recovery. Because screw recovery usually
Although some of these may sound quite trivial,
requires some backpressure, the manifold remains
that is where the problems start.
pressurized. Decompressing afterward only tends
Injection Molding Machine Capabilities to affect the mass in front of the screw more than
the material in the manifold. A simple way to
The success of a hot runner mold is often
overcome machine irregularities is with valve
dependent on the injection molding machine.
gates because their mechanical shutoff greatly
The interface between the injection molding widens the operating window.
machine and the hot runner is the sprue bushing
(Figure 4). The two need to match radii and Temperature Control
orifice sizes to mate properly—and they should be The successful operation of the hot runner is
kept clean! The end user too often specifies a also very dependent on the temperature controller.
small machine nozzle orifice. The small orifices When selecting a temperature controller it is
important to consider the type of control
algorithm. A PID2 (see the section on temperature
controllers)-type thinking sequence provides a
Locating Ring Machine Nozzle more consistent response to temperature
fluctuations because it measures the rate of
temperature change and anticipates when the
temperature will reach setpoint. This tends to
reduce temperature over and undershoots. In
addition, consider the controller’s diagnostics.
They should easily provide any information
Sprue Bushing Orifice required to solve a hot runner problem. More
details on temperature control are to be found
Figure 4. The optimum sizing of the machine nozzle
is a straight through channel. later in the chapter, “Why Temperature Control
Matters.”

121
®
HOT RUNNER PLATE
DESIGN
MARTIN BAUMANN
®

Careful design of the hot runner plates is addition, other forces acting on the manifold
critical to molding success. The hot runner plates include the machine nozzle and the plastic
must provide rigid, stable support while being pressure during fill.
exposed to high mechanical loading from both the
hot runner components and the molding machine.
Two plates (i.e., the manifold plate and the
backing plate) form the structural shell of the hot
runner system (Figure 1). The design and
manufacture of these is an integral part of
successful hot runner operation.
Hot runner systems use thermal expansion to
develop a sealing force between components. The
sealing force is created when the bolts that fasten
the manifold and backing plate resist the thermal
expansion of the manifold components. The
sealing force must be sufficient enough to prevent
plastic leakage at a maximum machine force that
can exceed 53 kN (12,000 lbf) for each nozzle. In
addition, hot runners for molds with large
numbers of cavities use cross-manifolds, adding
as much as 355 kN (80,000 lbf) to the forces
working to separate the plates.
Figure 1. Exploded view of hot runner showing
Clamp tonnage and forces from the machine plates.
nozzle also act on the hot runner system and must
be considered in plate design. Clamp tonnage is
transferred through the hot runner plates to the MANIFOLD PLATE DESIGN
parting line. The hot runner plates must both The manifold plate has three main functions:
protect the internal manifold components from support and align the hot runner components,
the cyclical forces of clamp tonnage and resist provide surface area for backing plate bolting, and
deflection that can wear the mold components. In back up the cavity plate and its components.

123
Society of Plastics Engineers

Manifold plate design must consider these three

functions for successful operation.
Plastic melt travels from the machine nozzle to
the gate through precisely aligned melt channels.
Misalignment of the melt channels can cause any
number of problems from poor color change and
burning to leakage of the melt, flooding of the hot
runner. Manifold plate design must provide
suitable support for the components (i.e., locating
insulators, installation bolts, and nozzles)
responsible for this alignment. Moreover, plate
manufacturing must use tools and methods that
can maintain the tight tolerances required for these
components to function properly. Figure 2. Manifold plate with integral pocket.
Robust attachment of the manifold plate to the provide significant resistance to plate deflection by
backing plate is critical for resisting the separation allowing bolting near the areas of greatest stress.
forces discussed earlier. There are two approaches Pillars can be bolted on or made integral to
to manifold plate design relative to how it will be (machined from) the manifold plate. The pillar has
attached to the backing plate. One approach is to sufficient surface area to resist stress cracking
use a single plate to support the manifold and from the bolt threads and to reduce the risk of
nozzle components; the backing plate is then hobbing into the plates. Integral pillars should also
attached with rails mounted around the manifold. have a radius at their base to reduce stress
Even though the rail style’s advantage is simple concentration. Like the rails, pillars that are bolted
plate design and manufacture, it jeopardizes the through the manifold plate can affect locations for
integrity of the nozzle seal by limiting bolting to water lines in the plate.
the outside of the manifold.
The manifold plate also supports the cavity
The second method involves cutting a pocket
plate. In many cases, it is the direct back up to the
into a single plate; this pocket mirrors the
cavity inserts and other mold components. Design
manifold (Figure 2). The benefits of this single
of the manifold plate must consider the location
pocket design outweigh the increased complexity
and requirements of the cavity plate components.
for manufacture. Following the outline of the
Wire channels must be located away from leader
manifold, the pocket makes more surface area
pins and cavity inserts that require a solid back up.
available for attachment to the backing plate.
Backing plate bolts can then be placed close to the CONDENSATION CHANNELS
center of the plates and near the nozzles where
separation forces are greatest. The greater mating Heating and cooling of the manifold can cause
surface area, compared with the rail design, condensation in the manifold pocket. Water
provides improved resistance to deflection under trapped in the manifold plate creates corrosion and
loads from clamp tonnage. In addition, fewer bolts reduces the life of the hot runner components.
breaching the manifold plate permit a better Condensation channels should be provided in the
cooling circuit design with fewer limitations. manifold plate to allow condensate to drain from
the pocket.
USE OF PILLARS
Regardless of the approach, pillars should be BACKING PLATE
designed into the plates wherever sufficient space The backing plate supports the hot half of the
through the manifold is available. Pillars can mold to the stationary platen. The backing plate

124
®
 Hot Runner Plate Design

Both designs assume a sealing force of

53 kN (12,000 lbf) on each nozzle and 89 kN (20,000 lbf) on the
manifold center insulator. Additionally, the pocket design
includes 178 kN (40,000 lbf) to simulate manifold sealing. The
backing plate is assumed to be a rigid structure.
Under these maximum conditions, the rail design has a manifold
plate deflection six times that of the single plate design with
pillars.

Figure 3. Deflection comparison of single pocket and rail plate design.

contains the clamp slots, mounting bolt locations, (Figure 3). Even though the single plate design is
or quick mold change geometry required to mount subject to higher separation forces due to the
the mold to the stationary platen. In addition, the cross-manifold, the tighter bolting pattern and
backing plate may contain air or hydraulic lines pillars greatly reduce the tendency for plate
for a valve-gated hot runner. deflection.
The functionality of the backing plate hinges Both designs assume a sealing force of 53 KN
on how well it is secured to the manifold plate. (12,000 lbf) on each nozzle and 89 KN (20,000
Plate bolts are ideally located near each drop to lbf) on the manifold center insulator. Additionally,
oppose separation forces generated by thermal the pocket design includes 178 KN (40,000 lbf) to
expansion. We recommend that for systems with simulate cross manifold sealing. The backing
two to eight drops, three bolts be positioned at plate is assumed to be a rigid structure. Under
each drop, forming a triangle. Triangulation these maximum conditions, the rail design has a
places uniform forces on the components and manifold plate deflection six times of the single
prevents distortion. On larger systems, a shared plate design with pillars.
bolt pattern is necessary due to space limitations.
It is critical during assembly of a hot runner PLATE COOLING
system that the backing plate bolts be torqued The hot runner plates should include cooling
from the center of the plate. This will prevent the lines to reduce wear and stabilize the plate
plate from bowing and allow it to sit flat on the temperature. Proper cooling in the hot runner
manifold plate. plates prevents the transfer of heat to the mold or
the machine platens. In the absence of cooling,
PLATE DEFLECTION plate heating can reduce the sealing force and,
Injection molding machine manufactures through thermal expansion, cause misalignment
dedicate a large portion of resources to designing of mold components. In addition, heat generated
and developing platens with flat surfaces and by the hot runner can heat the stationary platen;
minimal deflection. Platen and plate deflection nonuniform heating of the machine platens can
can lead to nonuniform pressure distribution lead to premature tie bar wear.
across a mold face, resulting in core shift and The cooling circuit ideally should run in close
ultimately leading to poor part quality. proximity to the locations where the heated
Hot runner plate design directly influences the components contact the plates. This allows the
resistance to plate deflection caused by the heat conducted to the plates to be removed
internal sealing forces. The design features efficiently with minimal thermal expansion. In
discussed earlier (i.e., single plate with manifold addition, the cooling circuit should be balanced
pocket outlining the manifold and pillars) reduce within the plates to maintain a uniform
manifold plate deflection by 86% under temperature distribution throughout the plates.
maximum forces on a 48-cavity hot runner Insulator plates are required only if the mold runs

125
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

hotter than room temperature to avoid heating up CONCLUSION

of the machine platens. A hot runner plate with
well-designed cooling circuits will run at the same Hot runner plates play a major role in the
temperature as the rest of the tool. performance of the mold. Along with supporting
the hot runner components, the hot runner plates
PLATE MATERIAL can impact mold life and the quality of the molded
Hot runner plates are manufactured from product. Poorly designed plates can lead to
either a stainless steel or P-20. The corrosion damaged cores, worn slides, and vents, and higher
resistance of stainless steel adds value to the plates maintenance costs. It is important that the mold
by extending life. Hot runner plates are in close designer and processor understand the function of
contact with both water vapor and potentially the hot runner plates and the design options that
corrosive off-gassing from heated plastics. must be considered

126
®
WHY TEMPERATURE
CONTROL MATTERS
PART QUALITY AND OPERATING WINDOW
®
MARTIN BAUMANN

Accurate, dependable temperature control is

vital for successful injection molding with hot
runners. The controller’s performance determines
part quality and impacts operating window.
Accurate, dependable temperature control is vital
for successful injection molding with hot runners.
The controller’s performance determines part
quality and impacts operating window.

PART QUALITY
The controller’s accuracy directly influences
part quality. The controller keeps the melt
temperature consistent from shot to shot and
cavity to cavity, despite the temperature
fluctuations inherent in injection molding. As the
mold cools after injection, the temperature drops; Figure 1. Hot runner mold.
as resin is injected, temperature rises due to shear.
The controller’s task is to minimize this normal OPERATING WINDOW
temperature swing higher and lower than the Every hot runner has an operating window
setpoint, keeping it within a tight band. Both the determined by the resin processed and the thermal
control algorithm and the sampling rate conditions in the gate area. If the processing
determines how well the controller does this. temperature goes higher than this operating
High-performance controllers employ a control window, burning and stringing can result; if the
algorithm called PID2. The conventional PID temperature drops lower, then gate freeze-off
(proportional, integral, derivative) algorithm might occur. If the controller can maintain a
bases control on deviation from setpoint tighter band of fluctuation, there is more
temperature and change in deviation. Some flexibility to adjust the setpoint and remain within
controllers use an additional parameter— the hot runner's operating window. This tighter
the acceleration of the temperature change— band also permits decreased cycle times. If the
to anticipate the correct power settings. setpoint can be reduced, then resin can enter the

127
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 2. With a tighter band of control (in blue),

the setpoint may be changed without moving outside
of the operating range; however, if the fluctuation is
larger (in pink) even slight changes to setpoint
might mean the temperature spikes above or drops
below the operating window.

cavity at a lower temperature, allowing it to cool

that much faster.

PID 2 V E R S U S PID C O N T R O L
The difference between PID and PID2 can be Figure 3. Hot runner mold start up.
described with the following analogy. If your car’s
cruise control was manned by PID2 control and processing. It also protects the hot runner system
you crested a hill, PID2 would instantly sense the and its components during start up and operation.
rate of change in velocity (acceleration) and ease
off the gas to keep you at the set speed (setpoint). Q U I C K , S A F E S T A R T -U P S AND
If PID were piloting your cruise control as you OPERATION
crested the hill, however, the reaction time would
be slower because the control would not react until An effective temperature controller should
it detected an increase in speed. PID2 watches the bring the system to setpoint quickly and safely.
rate of change of the temperature and adjusts the Three key features work to accomplish this task:
output signal accordingly, making the control loop slaved power up, broadband control, and wet
more responsive to system changes. heater bake-out.
With a tighter band of control (in blue), the • Slaved power up. This feature brings the
setpoint may be changed without moving outside system to setpoint without worry of smaller
of the operating range; however, if the fluctuation nozzles running hotter to compensate for a
is larger (in pink), even slight changes to setpoint cold, larger manifold, resulting in longer
might mean the temperature spikes higher or drops heater life. The slaved power-up feature
lower than the operating window.
monitors each zone, slowing the quick-
heating zones until the slower ones catch
HOT RUNNER PROTECTION up. It is an effective way to bring an entire
A N D E F F I C I E N T S T A R T -U P S system consisting of different thermal
Temperature control is vital for successful masses to setpoint as quickly as possible
injection molding with hot runners. A controller without the prolonged heating of smaller
has an impact on part quality and efficient components.

128
®
 Why Temperature Control Matters

• Broadband control. This simply means

that with one set of parameters, the
controller has enough flexibility to control
the temperatures of different masses
effectively—the larger manifold and the
smaller nozzles—without operator input.
The operator does not have to calibrate a
zone based on the mass, saving time and
reducing the opportunity for error.

• Wet heater bake-out. Because heaters can

take on moisture, they are susceptible to
shorts during start up. The wet heater bake-
out feature adjusts the voltage level (and
power) to drive off the moisture as quickly
as possible without shorting the heater. If
the heater is dry, the controller knows it can
ramp up power more quickly to facilitate
faster start up. If moisture is present, Figure 4. Power proportioning options for hot
however, the controller applies reduced runner systems.
voltage in order to “bake out” the moisture switch—it is either off or on. Voltage
safely and quickly, ramping up to full proportioning, therefore, is a more gentle way to
power at a rate appropriate for the amount apply power to a heater.
of moisture present.
During the course of a 3-second timer period,
both voltage proportioning and time
HEATER PROTECTION
proportioning deliver the same amount of heating
High performance controllers use voltage energy (the area of which is indicated in red).
proportioning—as opposed to time proportioning Time proportioning, however, thermally shocks
—to meter power to the heater element. Although the heater repeatedly with 100% power spikes,
voltage and time proportioning will deliver the
whereas voltage proportioning delivers constant,
same amount of power to the heater, they deliver
less thermally stressful energy.
this power in very different ways—this difference
affects heater life. Time proportioning delivers With the improved performance of newer
power to the heater in bursts, shocking the heater heater controller designs, it is puzzling that there is
with 100% power each time and making the a tendency to rely on older models in many
temperature excursions inside the heater element manufacturing operations. Although they may be
greater. This ages the heater element more
simpler to operate, they will not give you important
quickly. On the other hand, voltage proportioning
tools in optimizing your process, (e.g., the
uses smaller bursts of energy more frequently,
performance characteristics of your heaters and
exposing the heater element to less extreme
temperatures and extending the life of the heater thermocouples working together). We suggest that
by reducing thermal shock and fatigue. In other each technician should spend the time to become
words, voltage proportioning is much like a friends with the newest technology available. The
dimmer light switch; the user can choose any additional time it takes to get used to their
percentage of full power for a spectrum of light characteristics can easily be paid back quickly by
levels. Time proportioning is like a regular light avoiding major damage to a hot runner system.

129
®
HOT RUNNER
STANDARDIZATION
MARTIN BAUMANN
®

Cost and lead times are two critical issues for interface locations are chosen without consultation
hot runner tooling, especially when compared with the hot runner supplier. Once the mold concept
with traditional cold runner technology. is finished the hot runner supplier receives a call
from the mold maker with the basic information
Most of the hot runner development activities
about plate size, plate interface, nozzle spacing, and
have concentrated on nozzle enhancements to run
gating method being transmitted. Tasks and
even the toughest applications. Hot runners are
communication between mold maker and hot runner
available today for almost every resin available on
supplier happen in sequence. Although this process
the market. There is one segment of the market
allows for unlimited flexibility on the mold maker’s
where hot runners had a difficult time competing
side, it makes the design of the hot runner a very
with the traditional cold runner and three plate
individual task with limited options for
molds. Molds that require deliveries in 5 weeks or
less are often not built with hot runner technology automatization, thereby increasing lead time. Hot
because of the lead times. Mold makers are able runner suppliers today are well equipped to build
to buy standard mold bases with quick deliveries custom systems to any specification asked for by
to meet short deliveries. There was no similar mold makers; however, this unlimited customization
option available for fast delivery of complete hot and flexibility comes at a price with regard to
runner systems until recently. Many mold makers delivery times and the cost of the hot runner system.
bought nozzles and manifolds only and built their Figure 1 illustrates this approach.
own plates. Some systems offered short
deliveries, but the nozzle pitch and plate size was A N EW A PPROACH —
fixed, restricting the optimization of the cavity C ONFIGURABLE H OT R UNNERS
layout or the gate location.
Technology advances, in manufacturing,
engineering, and order processing, now allow for
THE TRADITIONAL MOLD the production of hot runner systems that are
BUILDING PROCESS almost fully customizable and come with reduced
Hot runner suppliers are traditionally invited to prices and quick deliveries. In the past the sheer
join the mold building process rather late. Most number of variables made hot runner design
mold makers decide on the design of the cavities, automation software slow, unresponsive, and
cores, and mold bases prior to thinking about the hot difficult to maintain. By putting some constraints
runner system to be used. In most cases gate and on the mold base size and hot runner-to-mold

131
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 1. The “sequenced” approach.

interface features, design automation has become complete hot runner can be designed in hours
a reality. instead of days with the reduced number of
variables. A well-conceived design means a hot
Figure 2 illustrates the new design approach.
runner can offer tremendous flexibility to the
Moldmakers can chose from a wide variety of
moldmaker while using a relatively small set of
plate sizes that match industry standard mold
standard parts, thus limiting the time it takes to get
bases. The hot runner interface information (e.g.,
guide pin locations, interface screws, electrical) is custom components manufactured. Even more
made available up front to the mold maker. The time can be saved by building computer-aided
moldmaker then has all the necessary information manufacturing functionality into the automated
about the hot runner available up front and can design tools and optimizing the design for fast
take the information into consideration when manufacturing. The high-speed machining centers
preparing the mold concepts. Although the plate being put into operation throughout the industry
size and interface positions are fixed the reduce the amount of time required to machine
moldmaker can choose the pitch of the manifold plates and manifolds completely. These factors
within a minimum and maximum dimension, should be kept in mind when choosing a supplier
driven by plate size and nozzle components. A for a hot runner system.

Figure 2. Configurable hot runner design.

132
®
 Hot Runner Standardization

Figure 3. Configurable approach including hot runner interface manufacturing.

133
®
LEAKAGE PREVENTION
AND MAINTENANCE
MARTIN BAUMANN
®

One of the most common concerns expressed condition is the main reason for hot runner
by molders about hot runner molds is the threat of leakage. In order for the system to seal (nozzle to
a leak of molten plastic causing the manifold manifold) the operating temperature must be
pocket to fill (Figure 1). There are several reasons reached in order to create enough force (e.g.,
for leaks, and all can be prevented. We will 20,000 lb.) to resist the injection forces that want
examine only externally heated hot runner to push the two components apart. Inexperienced
systems because they represent the majority of the operators might not wait to reach full operating
hot runner systems in use. temperature or, in the worst case, may even forget
What Causes Hot Runner Leaks?

Most systems do not leak because of poor

design; rather, they leak because they are operated
outside of their designed operating window. The
most common location for leakage is at the seal
off between the nozzle and the manifold. The
design criteria for a typical hot runner system in
which the nozzles have a solid skirt design
requires the height of the component stack to be
less than the actual pocket depth in the hot runner
plates. The difference between the dimensions,
known commonly as the cold clearance, is
necessary to protect the components from
collapsing due to thermal expansion when the
system is at operating temperature (Figure 2). For
example, a 60 mm thick manifold with a
components stack height of 40 mm (total 100
mm) will grow by 0.26 mm from room
temperature to operating temperature (450°F). If
there was no cold clearance the thermal expansion
Figure 1. Hot runner leakage can
would cause the skirt of the nozzle to collapse. cause major damage and downtime
The fact that there is no positive seal in the cold to a mold.

135
Society of Plastics Engineers

replaced due to the permanent damage caused by

overcompression.
Because the correct preload on nozzles and the
manifold is so critical it is understandable that the
dimensions and tolerances provided by the hot
runner supplier must be strictly adhered to in order
to avoid leakage of the system. Mold makers
should carefully inspect all stack heights and
pocket dimensions against the hot runner
manufactures print. Any questions should be
discussed immediately with the hot runner
manufacturer.
Figure 2. Stack height of nozzle components in mani-
fold pocket and thermal expansion. NOZZLE DESIGN OPTIONS TO
to turn on the system heats. A hot runner system PREVENT LEAKAGE
designed with a cold clearance that has not The figures compare the various nozzle design
reached full operating temperature will not have options to seal between the manifold and the nozzle.
enough surface pressure to prevent leakage. Figure 3 shows the solid skirt design with no active
Leakage can also occur after the hot runner is leakage prevention feature. Figure 4 shows a nozzle
accidentally overheated. Again, solid skirt design that is bolted from the back to the manifold. High
nozzles have little flexibility for thermal temperature screws are used to bolt the nozzle to the
expansion. If we use the previous example with manifold and provide a positive seal in cold
the manifold nozzle stack height of 100 mm and condition. The system however still requires a cold
the system is accidentally heated to 800°F the clearance since the solid skirt of the nozzle requires
components will grow an additional 0.24 mm. The room to expand at operating temperature. Although
force then is greater than 40,000 lb., which is this approach provides a positive seal from nozzle to
above the yield strength of the skirt, ultimately manifold it does not protect the components from
causing it to deform permanently. Once an thermal expansion due to overheating. Figure 5 shows
overheated system returns to its operating the most simple and cost effective way to provide a
temperature (450°F) it will not develop the positive seal between nozzle and manifold for molds
necessary seal off pressure to prevent leakage. In with a small number of cavities. The nozzle which is
addition to the damage caused by leakage of the screwed into the manifold moves with the expanding
molten plastic, all the nozzles will need to be manifold. There are restrictions for minimum nozzle

Figure 3. Solid skirt Figure 4. Nozzle bolted Figure 5. Nozzle is Figure 6. Nozzle with
design with no active from the back to the screwed into the spring design.
leakage prevention manifold. manifold and moves with
feature. manifold expansion

136
®
 Leakage Prevention and Maintenance

Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6

Nozzle skirt Solid Solid None Flexible

Positive seal off in cold

No Yes Yes Yes
condition

Nozzle position Fixed to gate Fixed to gate Moves with manifold Fixed to gate

Overheating protection No No No Yes

Operating window ± 50°F ± 50°F NA ± 200°F

Table 1. Comparison of nozzle design options.

length and large pitch spacing with this design. into the manifold pocket, the parts cannot
Figure 6 shows a nozzle with a spring design instead properly be filled. This will show up as a loss of
of a solid skirt. The spring provides preload in the process cushion on the machine controls.
cold condition and also prevents the system from
damage if accidentally overheated, by absorbing any With a massive leak the heaters will draw
thermal expansion. This allows a wide operating more heat because heat loss in the system is
window of up to ± 200°F. increased due to lack of thermal insulation.
Because insulating air gap between plates and hot
HOW TO DETECT A LEAK runner components is filled with plastic, more
Detecting a hot runner leak can often be heat is required, increasing the power
difficult because it is not always readily visible consumption of the system.
from the outside of the mold. In the worst case, If the operator suspects a leak the hot runner
plastic can be seen coming out through the should be shut down and inspected after the
electrical connectors and other openings in the system has cooled. The first step (probably left for
system. By that time the hot runner is most likely a moldmaker) is to remove the cavity plate to
completely filled with plastic. Prior to such inspect the nozzle seal offs. Some systems allow
drastic failure, however, there are signs for which you to do this in the machine, minimizing
an attentive operator can watch. A first indication downtime. In addition to the manifold and nozzle
that there is something wrong with the system is interface, the system may also have leaked at the
when plastic is injected, but no plastic reaches the nozzle-gate interface. Most leaks, however, occur
cavities. During start up of a brand new hot runner between nozzle and manifold if the system is not
the operator should know how many shots of preloaded. After the front end of the nozzles have
material are contained within the hot runner been inspected to ensure no leakage has occurred
system. For example, if the hot runner contains (i.e., no plastic can be seen), the hot runner should
three shots (volume of the melt channels/cavity be taken out of the machine and the backing plate
volume) there should be material appearing in the removed. If there is only a small leak around one
cavities after three shots; otherwise, the resin drop, the components of that drop should be
most likely disappeared into the manifold pocket removed and thoroughly inspected. In addition to
through a leak. Always be sure to verify that the the nozzle inspection, the bore depths need to be
shot volume set on the machine is correct when measured. For systems in which there has been a
starting up a system. significant amount of leakage, it may be
During operation another indication that a advantageous to put the backing plate back on and
leak exists is a sudden loss of random cavities or run the system again with a different color for a
parts that are not packed properly. Because a few shots (20-50); this will determine the source
portion of the shot supplied by the machine leaks of the leak. Fewer shots will be required to

137
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

identify the source for bigger leaks. The location proper training for everyone who might be
of the last color will clearly indicate where involved with the system.
leakage initially occurred in the system.
Depending on how much leakage there has SUMMARY:
been, the system can either be cleaned by hand or HOW TO PREVENT LEAKS
sent to a polymer cleaning process. With the There are three key areas of concern regarding
polymer cleaning process the complete hot runner, leakage prevention: design, manufacturing
after removal of the nozzle heater and tolerances, and training. Even though there are
thermocouple, is put into a fluidized bed and options on the nozzle design, there are no options
heated up to 850°F, vaporizing all the remaining on manufacturing tolerances and proper hot runner
resin in the hot runner. training for the workforce.
Once a system has been cleaned and the cause Design
of the leakage detected, it is recommended that the
dimensions of all the components be checked. Choose a hot runner system that provides
Damage could have occurred due to the overheat some method of leakage prevention. Hot runners
situation or during the cleaning process. The systems having nozzles with a solid skirt and a
components will need to be replaced in either case. significant amount of cold clearance are the ones
most likely to leak.
Hopefully you will never experience a hot
runner leak and have read this only as a preventive Manufacturing
measure. The advantages of the best-quality hot The mold maker must ensure that the critical
runner molds far outweigh any concerns you dimensions and tolerances in the plates are
should have about their operation and any possible maintained to provide enough seal-off force once
leakage problems. The best advice is to take time the system is at operating temperature.
to examine several hot runner designs for
performance before making your purchasing Training
decision. Be sure to follow all critical dimension Train all shifts on proper assembly, start ups,
requirements in manufacturing, and provide and maintenance of hot runner systems.

138
®
ADVANCED
TECHNOLOGIES
MARTIN BAUMANN
®

HOT RUNNERS—THE KEY TO

MULTIMATERIAL APPLICATIONS
Multimaterial molding has been familiar to up cavity space for the material following the
automotive molders for years. Machines with up initial injection. Technologies used for cavity
to four injection units can be found throughout the transfer include robots and mold- or machine-
car lens industry, adding complexity to both mold mounted turntables. A new technology for cavity
and machine. The technology has helped to transfer was introduced at the K-show, where
increase productivity by reducing assembly time cavities rotate on a vertical axis in the mold (i.e.,
of multicolored parts. The standard method for as opposed to the usual horizontal turning axis).
molding multicolored car lenses has pioneered the The cavities can rotate faster due to the lower mass
multimaterial molding process, extending its moved. Core-back technology is typically not as
application uses to a wide range of other markets. complex, but there are limitations to part
Multimaterial molding has emerged as a way to geometries that can utilize such technology.
give consumer and industrial products a distinct
Multimaterial molding would be much more
look, feel, or functionality. For example, a
multimaterial solution to the ink wearing off your difficult without the use of hot runner technology.
computer keys might be to mold the letters right into The use of cold and insulated runners is limited.
the plastic keys, using a different plastic material. In Part transfer is simplified if a robot does not have
the automotive industry, PA and TPE combinations to deal with a cold runner because parts need to be
have become very common because they eliminate moved from one cavity to the next at the same
costly and complicated assembly steps. time. Three plate molds cannot be used to eject
two or more separate cold runners from the
The molds and machines for such applications
stationary half of the mold. In other instances the
are more complex than are those for single-
melt channels coming from the injection units
material molds; however, the cost saving achieved
may overlap on the way to the cavity gate,
by consolidating or eliminating assembly
requiring one manifold to host multiple channel
procedures makes the technology economical.
systems for various colors.
In multimaterial applications, parts must either
be transferred from one cavity to the other or core- Two examples of multimaterial hot runner
back movements (see the following example) open technology will now be explored.

139
Society of Plastics Engineers

a balanced flow, the outer manifold (12 drop)

features four melt channel level changes and five
different melt channel diameters. The inner, less-
complicated manifold (six drop) has one level
change and four different melt channel sizes. Such
effort is necessary to achieve balanced filling.
Cost optimization was achieved by utilizing
core-back technology. A small moveable core in
Figure 1. Shampoo closure. the hinge area of the base cavity retracts after the
base material is injected and cooled. The retract
M ULTICOLOR A PPLICATION — core provides the necessary interface between
C OSMETIC P ART base and lid cavity. The lid material is then
(12 + 12 C AVITY M OLD ) injected directly via a hot tip nozzle. This simple
approach avoided the use of a rotary table or a
A shampoo company sought to differentiate its robot to move the base in order to mold the lid
bottle from the competition by using two different onto it. As a final step, the two-colored closures
colors for the base and the lid of the closure are closed prior to part ejection via a mechanical
(Figure 1). The shape of the closure and the risk of cam and are ready for assembly onto the bottle.
flaking ruled out painting or stickering the parts
after molding. In addition, the part’s production M ULTIMATERIAL A PPLICATION —
needed to be as cost effective as possible, which F ASTENER PA—TPE
meant keeping mold and machine costs to a (4 + 4 C AVITY M OLD )
minimum.
Two hot runners in “On top of the other”
Two hot runner manifolds—a 12 drop and a formation (Figure 3) were required to mold a
six drop (Figure 2)—had to fit into a tight mold small automotive fastener. The part is made up of
frame and provide balanced part filling. A vertical two very different materials. A polyamide (PA)
injection unit provided the material for the lid base provides the necessary structural integrity for
[polypropylene (PP), 3.1 g], and a central the part as well as the fastening function.
horizontal injection unit provided the material for
the base (PP, 8.4 g). A computer simulation
provided the necessary input for the channel
layout, considering optimum diameters for
balanced filling and fast color changes. To achieve

Figure 2. Shampoo closure hot runner. Figure 3. “On top of the other” formation.

140
®
 Advanced Technologies

Thermoplastic elastomer (TPE) material is run at very different temperatures (600°F for the
molded on to it to provide a waterproof seal. The PA base and 420°F for the TPE seal); moving the
4.5-g PA base is directly gated via a hot tip hot runners to separate levels removes the
nozzle. The TPE seal is gated via two valve-gated potential for the temperatures to affect each other,
nozzles and a short cold runner. Because of the eliminating potential temperature imbalances.
close pitch spacing (<50 mm) between the TPE
material nozzles to the PA material nozzles, the A moveable core is used to open the cavity for
manifolds did not fit side by side and had to be the seal material and to provide the necessary
moved to separate levels. The two materials also interface.

STACK MOLDING—
HOT RUNNER TECHNOLOGY
Stack mold are like two single-face molds Likewise, the center section must be properly
mounted back to back. One core half is mounted to supported to ensure exact core-cavity alignment.
the injection-side machine platen, whereas the other
CENTER SUPPORT
half is mounted to the clamp-side machine platen. AND ALIGNMENT
The cavity plates are fastened to the hot runner that Three main centering and support options are
comprises the center section of the mold. The center available for stack systems:
section must be equidistant between both core
1. Stack Carrier.
halves at all times to prevent mold collision.
2. Rack and pinion (vertical or horizontal
support).
3. Harmonic linkage.

RESIN TRANSFER
Resin is transferred from the machine nozzle to
the manifold by means of a sprue bar (extended
sprue bushing). The heated sprue bar passes through
the core half of the mold on the injection side and is
fastened directly to the manifold; the opposite end of
the sprue bar is in direct contact with the machine
injection nozzle during mold close.
Why Use a Stack Mold?
Stack Molds boost productivity—doubling or
quadrupling output (depending on the stack system
type; i.e., 2x or 4x). The stack system achieves this
higher productivity without additional machinery.
This means less utility cost, less maintenance cost,
Figure 4. Rack and Pinion and smaller plant footprint because all molding is
(2 × 32 stack with vertical support). accomplished in a single press.

141
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Injection Capability. The machine must

provide double the shot weight, plasticating
ability, and injection rate than that required
for a comparable, singe-face mold.
• Tie Bar Support for Center Section.
Machine tie bars must provide sufficient
support for the hot runner and cavity plates
Figure 5. Harmonic linkage (4 × 16 stack). as well as accurate, repeatable alignment
during mold open and close to prevent
Is the Machine Stack Ready? damage to cores and cavities.
A stack mold can virtually double the output • Sprue Break Capability. The injection unit
of an injection molding machine. The hot runner is of the machine must retract from the sprue
one of the key technologies for all stack bar enough to clear it in order to prevent
applications. It is responsible for delivering the collision and possible damage between the
melt to the center section of the mold. The injection nozzle and the sprue bar upon
importance of having a stack-ready, optimized mold close.
machine for stack applications is often • Injection Unit Shut-off Nozzle. This allows
overlooked; not every machine is built to accept a recovery and prevents resin drool while the
two- or four-level stack mold. The injection mold is open. Although it is possible to run
molding machine must be able to accept a mold stack molds without it, the shut-off nozzle
that typically has twice the weight and shut height will help improve cycle time (recommended).
of a single-face mold that is molding the same
parts. To minimize mold wear, special attention
has to be given to the robustness of the machine.
There are also a variety of options available for
driving and supporting the center section with the
hot runner of the mold.

Figure 7. Tie bar support assures minimized

deflection, decreasing potential mold wear.

A VARIETY OF CHOICES FOR

Figure 6. Harmonic linkage provides precise STACK MOLDING NEEDS
wear-free center section movement.
Standard Stack Hot Runner
There are Some Items to Consider: The standard stack hot runner features a center
sprue bar for melt delivery to the center section.
• Clamp Opening. Stack mold systems with The parts produced on both the injection and
two mold openings require approximately clamp sides of the mold are the same resin and
double the shut height and opening stroke part weight. These systems come available as two-
relative to single-face applications. level molds (two mold faces) or four-level molds

142
®
 Advanced Technologies

simplified because the offset sprue bar can be

placed where it will not interfere.
Some application examples are: washing
machine components and large houseware
containers.

Figure 10.
Flow pattern for
family stack
hot runner.

Figure 8. Standard stack hot runner

showing center sprue bar.

(four mold faces). A rugged center section Family Stack Hot Runner
support is key to minimizing wear on cavity and These specialty stack systems are used to
core shut-offs. The guided sprue bar features an make related parts in the same mold (e.g., to
antidrool bushing to reduce drool. On systems produce a lid and base). The challenge with a
like this, parts typically freefall from the mold. family mold is the balancing of the two different
Some application examples are: closures, parts for equal filling, which is critical to
packaging, and housewares. producing quality parts. Cavity filling studies are
applied to determine proper filling.
Offset Stack Hot Runner
Some application examples are: part
On an offset stack hot runner, the sprue bar is
assemblies like the one shown in Figure 3.
offset to the side of the system. Offsetting the
sprue bar allows plastic to be fed into the hot Stack Platen
runner at a location other than the center. This is The stack platen is designed to run two
ideal for large, flat parts. Robot access is identical, independent, single-face molds in a
single press, thereby doubling the production of the
machine. The attraction for molders is that it allows

Figure 9. Stack hot

runner with offset
sprue bar.

Figure 11. Stack platen.

143
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 12. Stack mold carrier.

the existing single-face molds to operate in a stack Stack Carrier

configuration. This approach permits flexibility The stack mold carrier rides on the machine
because the molds could also be run independently. bed and has the ability to support very heavy
Another benefit of the stack platen is that molds for molds. Because the linkage uses bearings instead
different parts can be used in the same carrier as of gears, wear is minimal. This technology
long as they have similar projected areas. eliminates the need for individual, mold-mounted,
Some application examples are: any in which center-section supports. The stack mold carrier
productivity needs to be increased on existing facilitates quick mold changes and automatic part
injection molding machines. removal because the mold can be lowered in from
the top and bolted on.
Some application examples are: very heavy
stack molds that require a lot of center section
support.

144
®
WATER COOLING
GEORGE MARKUS

Mold cooling, or, more precisely, mold temperatures of injection molds and production
thermal conditioning (MTC) if we include molds volumes vary greatly throughout the industry.
that must run at higher temperatures, has the most The objectives of this chapter are to introduce
profound effect on profitability of the molding the basics of MTC design and to provide
operation through its controlling effect on cycle guidelines for the the evaluation of coolant source
time and part quality. A molding project, which is at the molding machine and proper connection of
quoted at 10 seconds cycle time and 10% profit, the mold to the cooling system.
may become totally unprofitable or present a loss
if the process runs at a 13-second cycle. In COMPUTERIZED OPTIMIZATION
addition, if defects are generated due to improper O F MTC
MTC or other factors, it may take five to twenty
It would be difficult, time consuming, and risky
hours of production to compensate for 1 hour
to solve the complex thermodynamic equations for
worth of substandard parts, depending upon the
mold cooling manually. On the other hand,
price of polymer and whether or not the reuse of
oversimplifications to reduce calculation time
the material in the form of regrind is permitted.
would overlook numerous important factors that
In order to avoid profit losses and damage to lead to significant deviations from the optimal
the reputation of the company due to missed thermodynamic state of the mold. The content of
delivery and quality targets as a consequence of scientific/engineering books dealing with
longer than necessary cycle times, the condition thermodynamics is captured in various software; it
of the mold/molding system should be in an makes possible the rapid completion of powerful
optimal state. It is fair to say that a mold, which is heat transfer computations. The best cooling
equipped with properly designed cooling, designs come from computer analysis programs
attached properly to adequate coolant source, that are capable of designing the cooling system of
represents competitive, world-class molding, the mold for the
assuming that all other components (e.g., hot or 1. target minimal cycle time
cold runner system, gating, cavity dimensions,
and ejection) are optimal. We will address most 2. precise control of the quality of the part
MTC issues within the limited extent of the Significant experience is needed at the user
chapter, recognizing that the number of mold level in terms of hands-on molding technology,
cavities, mold and press sizes, type, and operating thermodynamics, and tool design to operate the

145
Society of Plastics Engineers

programs efficiently and reliably, and to provide must be properly air conditioned to prevent
meaningful guidelines for the mold designer. moisture condensation on the mold
The output of the MTC analysis are the Be aware that certain cooling analysis
1. size, shape, and distance of cooling programs are unable to provide meaningful
channels from the molding surface and instructions for efficient cooling design. This is the
from each other reason that we can find numerous
underperforming molds on the shop floor that
2. recommended steels or other metals (e.g., were computer “optimized.”
Be-Cu)
A Few Hints for Mold Designers Regarding
3. required size of metal surface in contact Cooling Design
with the coolant, a.k.a. wetted surface
It is not necessary to balance the cross-
4. coolant temperature and its flow rate for sectional area of a supply line and branching
efficient cooling. For example, if insufficient cooling channels if it impairs the integrity
wetted surface is designed into the core and/ (strength) of steel. For example, two 3/8 in.
or cavity, no amount of cooling water will diameter cooling channels can be fed through a
bring the mold into an efficient operating single 3/8 in. diameter hole; the only penalty is a
state. The lowering of coolant temperature, few extra psi pressure loss—most of the time the
against common belief, provides significant system can afford it. Table1 shows calculated
improvement. Of course, the molding plant pressure losses and Reynolds numbers (Re) as a

Channel Dia. Coolant Flow Rate Pressure Drop per

Reynolds No. (Re)
(inch) (GPM) 10 Inches (psi)
0.13 0.2 0.71 3,740
0.13 0.5 4.46 9,350
0.13 1.0 17.83 18,700
0.25 0.5 0.17 4,860
0.25 1.0 0.68 9,720
0.25 2.0 2.70 19,400
0.38 0.5 0.02 3,200
0.38 1.0 0.10 6,4,00
0.38 2.0 0.33 12,800
0.50 1.0 0.02 4,860
0.50 2.0 0.10 9,720
0.50 6.0 0.76 29,160
0.50 10.0 2.12 48,600
0.75 4.0 0.04 12,960
0.75 10.0 0.28 32,400
0.75 20.0 1.12 64,800
1.50 12.0 0.01
1.50 20.0 0.03
1.50 50.0 0.25
1.50 100.0 0.90
2.00 200.0 0.83
Table 1. Pressure drop and Reynolds number vs. flow rate and channel size.

146
®
 Water Cooling

function of cooling channel diameters and flow better conductor of heat than plastic. Efficient
rate conditions. cooling of the mold material will result in greater
Next, consider between 5,000 and 10,000 Re temperature differential (∆T) at the metal-plastic
number for efficient cooling. Smaller cooling interface. This will in turn, increase the heat transfer
channel diameters in the 0.12-0.25 in. range or from even a poor heat conductor like plastic.
e.g., 0.12 × 0.50 in. rectangular in small molds or Specify electroless Ni plating for all cooling
inserts, and 0.38-0.50 in. diameter in larger tools channels. According to industry sources, for
will result in high Re at lower flow rates; however, example, 20% scale build up can increase the
pressure drop throughout the system should be cycle time by 20%. Studies have shown that
calculated. electroless Ni coating is effective in reducing the
Maintain a small gap (0.06-0.12) between any rate of scale build up.
bubblers and surrounding steel wall to increase the The difference between inlet and outlet
Re value. This gap should be increased below the temperature of coolant, considering multiple
part to 0.15-0.25 in. in order to prevent excessive cores in series, should not exceed 5ºF. If it does
coolant pressure loss, especially in long cores. exceed a difference of 5ºF there is likely a
Calculate both Re number and pressure loss. problem in the cooling circuit that will cause
Twisted baffles do not increase the turbulence processing problems. There are many possible
of coolant; the latter is a result of adequate flow reasons for this (e.g., restrictions in the flow
rate through a properly sized channel in the channel or excessive looping of hoses or fittings).
presence of sufficient pressure. Less demanding applications can certainly
tolerate 6-12ºF.
The distance between the edges of adjacent
cooling channels should be 1 and 1.2 times the Design a cooling diagram for the mold; an
distance between the edges of cooling channels example will be shown later in Figure 3. In
and molding surface. The latter may be selected addition, supply a proper hook-up schematic for
between 0.27 and 0.80 in. in small and medium the technicians by including internal or external
molds, respectively, depending upon the type and manifolds and/or looping diagrams. The decision
strength of steel. In case of Be-Cu, larger whether the cooling of the cores and cavities will
distances (e.g., 0.85-1.5) are acceptable. A be in series or parallel arrangement(s), or their
computer cooling analysis should supply the combination, depends on the quality requirements
information tailored for the quality requirements of the part. Cooling channels in series call for
and target cycle time of particular applications. increased pressure, in parallel array require
Small cooling passages or shallow channels increased flow rate. An increased flow rate leads
should be included in laminated cores and ample to more cooling.
wetted surface should be designed into the core. Design the in-mold, coolant supply lines so
The former helps develop high Re value for that they force the coolant through critical areas
efficient heat convection; the latter ensures (e.g., core, gate insert). Avoid branching out of
unrestricted heat transfer from the metal into the multiple cooling circuits from a single feeding
coolant. These techniques are necessary because, channel. Undesirable flow rate balance may
in most instances, the core removes 60-70% of develop, leading to insufficient cooling of critical
part heat due to the fact that the part shrinks away areas.
from the cavity during cooling. In addition, the Avoid the use of rules-of-thumb. Injection
core cools the part during mold opening and at the molding is a too-complex technology for
beginning of ejection. oversimplified values. Scientific analysis/
There is a reason for the maximization of optimization computations early in the design phase
cooling of mold metal, despite the fact that it is a far can identify key factors that will result in a better

147
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

design. Computer analysis eliminates much of the chart of Figure 2. LTS and STS denote long- and
guesswork when designing a mold cooling system. short-term shrinkage, respectively.

EFFECT OF COOLING
ON BOTTOM LINE
An old adage states that the mold is a heat
exchanger; the heat transfer takes place from the heat
sources (part, hot drop—if any) into the heat sinks
(cooling channels). The efficiency of this process
influences both part quality and productivity.
Thermoplastic injection molds operate in wide
mold temperature ranges, depending upon the
material used and the part quality requirements. In
addition, each material and application has its own Figure 2. Total part shrinkage versus
mold temperature.
unique mold temperature range requirements.
Colder molds produce parts at shorter cycle time;
however, surface finish and part properties may be The mold temperature influences the strength
affected in addition to the increased tendency of of the part by altering the rate of cooling. In case
products to exhibit notable long-term shrinkage, of semi-crystalline materials (e.g., PP, POM,
or, if they are exposed to elevated temperature in HDPE, PA, and PBT) the degree of their
shipping, handling and/or in the field, so called crystallinity depends on the cooling rate. Cold
annealed shrinkage. mold results in increased rate of cooling, thus
reduced crystalline content, which leads to higher
The short-term shrinkage of parts (e.g., 2
impact strength but lower tensile and flexural
hours after molding, without exposure to heat
material parameters and often impaired
(annealing)) shows a dependence on mold
environmental stress cracking/crazing (ESCR)
temperature as displayed in Figure 1.
resistance. Based on these quality and profitability
considerations the question arises, “How can we
ensure that the mold operates consistently at
optimal temperature?” The answer places the
responsibility on the team of the mold analyst,
mold designer, and process technician.

THE COOLANT SOURCE

The water supply for the mold and the heat
exchanger of the machine is either common or
completely separated. Separate water supplies
Figure 1. Short-term shrinkage versus
mold temperature. provide the technician with slightly improved
flexibility in satisfying the generally different
A colder mold results in less shrinkage, thus cooling need of A and B mold halves. The water
larger parts initially; however, after taking into source is characterized by its flow rate capacity,
consideration the long-term shrinkage (a.k.a. usually given in gallons per minute (GPM),
postmolding shrinkage), or the annealed pressure in psi, and temperature in °F. The
shrinkage, the total shrinkage of products are available supply flow rate should exceed mold
nearly identical whether they come from a cold or cooling requirements by 15-20%; in other words,
warm mold. This phenomenon is shown in the bar the supply must match the demand. The

148
®
 Water Cooling

assessment of required total coolant flow must be from the mold with compressed air into the return
completed early in the design phase; it provides line.
time for cooling capacity expansion, if necessary. The effect of temperature of the coolant
The water supply at the press (single source) source equals and often exceeds the influence of
feeds both cavity and cooling lines (multiple coolant flow rate on mold cooling. The efficiency
circuits). This does not represent a major of the flow rate reaches a plateau when the Re
problem, if the cooling layouts of the cavity and number is around 10,000, whereas decreasing
core side are similar; however, it may lead to coolant temperature helps us reduce mold
serious cooling deficiencies in the cores, temperature proportionally. One extreme case is
considering cap and closure molds with a large the cooling of cores with liquid CO2 at –109ºF.
number of cavities. Cap and closure molds are Sufficient pressure of the supplied coolant
usually equipped with hot runner systems, which helps achieve the desired coolant flow rate in the
require intensive plate cooling in the A-half to mold. If the available pressure is low it begins to
prevent the development of differential mold control (reduce) the flow rate through the cooling
temperature, and thus misalignment between the circuits.
core and cavity halves. For the same reason, an
insulator plate should be placed between the mold Coolant sources should be regularly treated
and machine platen. The plate cooling generates against scale and biofouling. Either chemical, or
relatively low pressure drop; therefore, a bimetallic, chemical-free treatment can be
significant amount, if not most of the coolant will considered. The applicable OSHA, GMP, FDA
flow through the A-half from the common source. requirements must be followed for the process
The cooling system will develop a generally and its frequency.
undesirable flow rate balance in accordance with
the pressure drop of various cooling circuits in the GUIDELINES FOR
mold. It can leave the B-half (core side), which TECHNICIANS
usually requires high flow rate through the First, the most important guideline, which is
bubblers, yet represents significant resistance, applicable to any molding environment, is safety.
with insufficient cooling media. In this case, a Its significance cannot be overemphasized,
cooling water booster pump can be installed for considering the inherent hazards of injection
the core cooling and/or restricting the flow molding: electrical, thermal, chemical, impact,
through the cavity side. and high forces of movements. The machine and
Another coolant source is a mold temperature auxiliary equipment must be in good running
controller unit. Its operation can be a closed- or condition with shields in place and their
open-loop type, depending upon whether the grounding and safety features tested regularly in
mold coolant is completely separated from the accordance with OSHA and local regulations. In
chiller water or mixed with it, respectively. These case of high-temperature molding, the hoses
units are characterized by their pumping capacity, should be properly selected; their connections
temperature range, and pressure. For best results, must be in safe condition, and checked regularly
separate units or zones should be used for the A following the manufacturer’s instructions.
and B half of the mold to achieve independent Reaching into the mold should be executed
flow rate and temperature control for the core and only after (1) testing the safety features of the
cavity side. It is important that the water source is machine and auxiliary equipment, (2) ensuring
equipped with audible high/low temperature that the machine nozzle disconnects from the
alarm flow and pressure. In order to facilitate sprue, (3) turning the main motor off, (4)
mold changes cool/purge/vent valves can be depressurizing the accumulator if the machine is
installed on the machines to purge the coolant equipped with it, and (5) locking out the pump

149
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 3. Sample cooling diagram for one mold plate.

motors. In addition, the instructions of the cooling system can be pressurized again, and the
machine manufacturer should also be followed. mold examined. After this, the cooling system can
As an example of connecting a mold to be turned on for evaluation and adjustment of
coolant supply and return, let us consider a required coolant flow rates. If the cooling of the
computer-optimized, multicavity (24-96 cavities), cores are critical (most of the time it is), an in-line
fast cycling (7-12 seconds), two-plate or stack flow meter should be installed at the outlet from
mold. It is likely that this mold is equipped with the cores, or at the core coolant manifold(s). For
coolant manifolds and accompanied by cooling best results, a flow meter should be a part of the
diagrams for each cooling level, as shown in cooling circuit of any hot gate inserts as well. The
Figure 3. cooling of the cavities and plates is slightly more
tolerant. Incomplete filling should not be corrected
After securing the mold onto the machine
by increasing the mold temperature because
platens, the connections to the water supply and
significant cycle time and profit penalty occurs.
return are completed by using larger inner
diameter hoses (e.g., 1.5 in.). This task is greatly The coolant from a single source into multiple
simplified if the in/out connections and cooling circuits (i.e., core, cavity, gate insert, and plate
level/circuit identification numbers are properly cooling channels) develops a self-balance that
stamped on the mold. The supply and return hoses often works against the cooling needs of the mold,
should be color-coded for best results. as explained earlier. The solution for this problem
At first, the mold cooling should be is either (1) the restriction of flow through
pressurized for very short duration to prevent noncritical areas (e.g., plate and cavity cooling),
coolant spills in case of an improperly installed or (2) the connection of a mold cooling booster
sheared o-ring or loose connection. The coolant, pump, most likely into the core cooling circuit(s),
especially if it is treated with biocide, can cause or (3) the combination of the two. For the
significant corrosion on the mold and/or machine. assessment of pressure drops through connecting
If the mold does not show signs of leakage, the hoses, and Re numbers, and pressure losses in the

150
®
 Water Cooling

mold, values displayed earlier in Table 1 can be time. During this experiment, after the ejection of
used. part, the decreasing mold temperature is monitored
with a fast thermocouple; in the meantime, the
After the final preparation and connections are cooling (a.k.a. curing) time is reduced by a few
completed, the mold should be dry-cycled to detect seconds to achieve faster cycle. When the mold
any unusual/undesirable operation. During the cools to the preferred temperature (e.g., 70ºF for
molding trial the temperature distribution of core polypropylene), a semi-automatic cycle should be
and cavity surfaces should be checked at the started and completed. If the produced part is
shortest cycle time that yields acceptable part acceptable, the correction of the cooling source
quality. For this task, a fast-response thermocouple and/or mold cooling can pay high dividends.
can be employed. The reaching into the mold can
be avoided if the thermocouple is attached to a In general, molds producing flat, shell-type
thermally insulating stem (e.g., plastic). parts do not require disproportionate core cooling.
There is concurrently a greater flexibility for
In case the mold does not contain internal or incorporating efficient cooling in the core and
external coolant manifold, a connecting and cavity, and controlling the flow from a single or,
looping diagram should be obtained from the mold in case of two temperature controllers, twin
designer. The schematic should also indicate the coolant source. If the material of the part requires
required coolant flow rates and pressures in all medium or high operating mold temperature,
circuits, or in those that are critical. Molds without heaters can be included in the mold to facilitate
any cooling diagram and/or GPM requirement start up.
indication should be connected to the coolant
supply and return manifolds with minimal or no SUMMARY
looping. Low coolant temperature and maximized
Now that we have recognized the importance
flow rates through these molds help achieve short of mold cooling, we should remember key factors
cycle time. that will give us the most profitable operation:
In general, the surface temperature of a
• separate cooling zones for each side of the
properly optimized and designed, fast cycling
mold
bottle closure mold should fall into a range of 62-
90ºF at 55-58ºF coolant temperature. If higher • guaranteed turbulent flow (high Reynolds
mold surface temperature is found at the number)
preferred, fast cycle time, the cooling system
should be examined. The set-up sheet should • make sure the cooling lines are hooked up
reflect actual mold surface temperatures measured properly
immediately after part ejection, instead of coolant
temperature. The reason is that the latter may or
• check for leaks in the system before turning
over to production
may not show close correlation with the mold
temperature because the surface temperature of • make sure the cooling lines are not “full of
steel depends on the efficiency of the mold scale”
cooling. The inlet and return coolant temperatures
can readily be checked by touching the metal hose The process is a joint venture of the mold
connectors with the fast thermocouple. designer, builder, and process technician. If any
one of these people does not take the steps to
In case of an insufficiently cooled mold, verify that the process cooling is optimized, the
controlled cycle time interruption can be employed net result will be a loss in productivity and
to determine part quality at the desired, short cycle inefficient operation.

151
®
VENTING
“EVERYTHING YOU ALWAYS WANTED
TO KNOW ABOUT VENTING, BUT WERE
AFRAID TO ASK”
W. DAVID OUTLAW ®

THE BEST STRATEGY with all kinds of variation. I find it pointless,

FOR ACHIEVING ADEQUATE therefore, to expect theory to work every time all
MOLD VENTING the time in our working world. So, standards will
not work in this case, either.
It is hoped that this chapter will clear up the
process of venting and provide you with some Now you understand why identifying the size
guidance and a strategy to maximize the process. and location of vents on a first time try has been a
You are obviously reading this chapter to get challenge to both toolmakers and molders alike.
some clues about how to solve an existing We sometimes act like they are in competition
problem, or to gain some insight as to how you with each other on who can be the smartest. We
can prepare for it in the near future. Let us soon realize that the process of vent placing is an
therefore assume that you have a venting problem interactive process. This process requires that the
molder and mold maker work as a team, just like
at this point and need some direction on how the
gate sizing.
mold plays into creating this problem.
The size and placement of vents requires just
To begin with, it is natural that the mold
as much thought before hand as gate location or
makers want to put the vents in once because it is
where the parting lines or water patterns are in a
less costly and more efficient. When the mold is
mold. The best strategy, therefore, involves some
sampled, however, it seems many times as though
planning up front and analyzing the design before
we missed something. We have to go back and
construction begins. Let us start with answering
recut or add mores vents, and we still cannot
some questions about venting. We will then
figure out how deep or exactly where they must
identify the variables in the process to help you
be. In frustration we look for standards because find an answer as to what has actually gone wrong
we do not want to have to deal with the reworking with your venting process.
the vents several times. That is why everyone
wants to standardize everything: They would not
have to think about it. A lot of things work in
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE
OF A VENT?
theory, and, by the way, standards are theory, too.
We must always realize, however, that theory only It is to allow the trapped air and gas in a
exists in a perfect world. I do not know about you, closed mold under clamp pressure to escape, or to
but my world is far from perfect. We have to deal let air into a cavity to relieve a vacuum.

153
Society of Plastics Engineers

WHAT IS A VENT? The purpose of the vents also reduces the

part’s potential for built-in stress because it helps
Vents are small air passages between the
to reduce the pressure necessary to fill a part. This
parting lines of steel components that allow for the
can help reduce potential warpage and
air and gases to pass out of the mold. Most vents
overpacking of the part.
are usually located on the parting line between the
core and cavity. The vent can also be located WHERE IS THE BEST PLACE
between any inserts or ejector pins. The vent gap FOR VENTS TO BE LOCATED?
has to be small enough so that the resin used will
not flash between the gaps. The most logical and best place has to be at
the end of fill pattern because that is where the
WHY DO WE NEED TO LET compressed air will be. The end of fill is almost
always opposite the gate, so we know at least one
THE AIR AND GAS OUT?
location where we will need a vent. Some mold
When air is compressed it generates heat. This designers will start with one opposite the gate,
is the same principle used in heating and air then add two more 45 degrees from the gate if
conditioning. It is also the same principle used in possible. Some designers will use the placement
diesel motors. The air is compressed to the point rule of thumb that say that vents should be on at
that the heat it generates ignites the diesel fuel in least a minimum of 30% of the parting line
the piston chamber. (That is why the defect of surface. Both strategies are good and are better
burns is sometimes referred to as “dieseling.”) than no venting to start with.
In the molding process the mold is under a It should also be noted that as material is
very high tonnage, so the mold will stay closed injected into the mold it also has some
and not flash when the material is injected with a nonaqueous volatiles in the flow front. These
very high pressure. This molten material that is volatiles can also degrade and leave a greasy film
rushing in filling the mold cavity will compress or residue. A vent that cannot be cleaned will
any air that is not allowed to escape. The trapped become clogged and useless. Placement of the
air will generate more and more heat as it is vents must be done so that it can easily be
compressed. When the heated air becomes hotter accessed for cleaning. It should also be placed in
than the recommended melt temperature of the the runner system and normally the last place to
plastic, it degrades the plastic, usually causing a fill. Although some suggest that a perimeter vent is
burn mark on the piece part. ideal, I have found that over time these vents
In some cases molders may ignore these burns collapse and have to be resurfaced frequently.
and accept them as part of the process. This can be There should be space between vents to allow for
a poor decision because if the gas is trapped in a some steel support to prevent the vent from
blind pocket, the high pressure and gases will hobbing shut. All molding production personnel
eventually erode the steel and cause an undercut, eventually realize that vents that are not cleaned
and ejection problems will occur. In other molding on a regular schedule during the production run
situations there may not be enough pressure or the will likely encounter rejects and an angry
trapped air to create enough heat to burn the customer.
material, but the part can exhibit a short shot. In Depending on the material and its additives
cases where there are flow fronts that come back vents must be cleaned on the average of every
together, the trapped gases that were not allowed shift. The more frequently vents have to be
to vent out will cause poor weld lines and cause cleaned makes it even more important that the
premature failure of the part. Locating ejector pins vents be accessible for easy cleaning. This why
under weld lines can allow for some gases and air ejector pins make ideal venting places. They are
to escape, increasing the strength of the weld line. constantly moving and self-cleaning.

154
®
 Venting

HOW DO WE PUT VENTS IN?

Most vents on molds are on the parting line. Ejector
Pin
Due to the close critical dimensional tolerances Vents
required, the process for putting in vents require
that the mold maker use machining methods that
can be measured in 0.0001 in. The most common
machining method is grinding. The milling
process is used for vent reliefs because the relief
depth is not as critical as the vent. The vents are
usually put into the steel just before the mold Figure 1. Ejector pin vents. Example of pins used to
assembly for mold trial. The vent reliefs are put in vent ribs. If pins had not been present burning and
eventual erosion would occur in the metal.
before the steel goes to the heat treater in harden
mold components. Milling the steel in the soft
W HAT S IZE S HOULD T HEY B E ?
state before heat treat makes the process faster
and easier. In the case of ejector pins or moving The depth, the width, the land, and the
core pins they are ground into the pins utilizing a positions they need to be in are based on the fill of
small surface grinder. the part and ease of maintenance. There are four
basic components to vent sizes.
WHEN DO WE PUT THE
1. Vent depth. The depth of the vent depends
VENTS IN? on what type of material. The flash point of
The typical method practiced by most mold
crystalline material is smaller than that of
makers is to test the mold without the vents, and
the amorphous materials. True crystalline
then to evaluate the part to see where the burns
material will flash in spaces of 0.0005 in.
occurred.
whereas some amorphous materials will
This is strategy used because the venting not flash at 0.0015 in. It should also be
process is interactive with the molding process. noted that the vents are not just for the
Changes in the molding process can and will parts but for the runners as well. Vent
affect the venting, and vice versa. All though this depths on runners are not as critical
is the typical strategy I do not recommend it because the flash on the runner does not
because it does have a few pitfalls. have to be processed around in the event
The first pitfall is that sometimes the last they are too deep, nor do we have to worry
place to fill is at the end of a rib. The most with any quality criteria.
common way to vent ribs is with the placement of
The depths shown in Table 1 are the
ejector pins at the bottom of the rib. The
starting points for the vent, with the
technique of adding ejector pin vents for the ribs
realization that the vents may have to be
after the mold construction is complete
opened up. Vents near the gates are more
unfortunately can cause some problems because
likely to flash and should be smaller
Murphy’s law says that ejector pins that need to
because they have more molten material
be added will always have water lines in the way.
near them.
The best way to prevent this from happening is to
review the preliminary mold design and look at 2. Vent width. The wider the vent the better
blind ribs that you may need to add some ejector venting you will have. There is a general
pin vents. This will help the designer check to rule of thumb that a vent should have a 1
make sure the water lines would not interfere. in. space between the next vents around
Thus, the answer to the question of when do we the perimeter of the part. Width of the vent
put vents in is: “During the design stage.” is usually a common mill size so when the

155
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Material Cold Runner Depth Component Depth

Nylon 0.0005/0.0007 0.0003/0.0005
Acetyl 0.0010/0.0013 0.0005/0.0007
Glass-filled nylon 0.0005/0.0015 0.0005/0.0007
Valox PBT 0.0005/0.0015 0.0005/0.0007
Polypropylene 0.0010/0.0020 0.0007/0.0010
Polyethylene 0.0010/0.0020 0.0007/0.0010
Polystyrene 0.0010/0.0020 0.0007/0.0010
ABS 0.0020/0.0030 0.0010/0.0015
SAN 0.0020/0.0030 0.0010/0.0015
Acrylic 0.0020/0.0030 0.0015/0.0020
Polycarbonate 0.0015/0.0030 0.0015/0.0020
Thermoplastic rubber 0.0010/0.0015 0.0005/0.0007
Table 1. Starting points for the vent.
vent relief is milled in the machine path • For parting line vents the bottom of the
will only require one cut. relief cut will have a radius or angle in the
corners to allow for easy cleaning.
3. Vent land. The land length function is to
stop the flow of material in the unlikely • Vent reliefs between mold plates should be
event that the mold flashes from over pack- at least 0.03 in. deep as a minimum, and
ing. The land must be long enough to
they should always vent to atmosphere.
freeze the material off before it comes
shooting out of the mold. Land that is too • Vent relief for ejector pins can be added by
long tends to hob over and block the vent-
chamfering the hole and connecting the
ing process for gases going into the atmo-
sphere. The general rule of thumb is that holes with a milled slot to the atmosphere.
the land should be between 0.045 and 0.06 This chamfer can also provide a lead in for
in. long. the ejector pin as well as a vent relief.

4. Vent relief. Here are some notes that we • Vent all ejector pins if they are in a position
use in mold design that may be helpful. where air can become trapped.
Vent Relief

Vent

Figure 2. Vent Relief 1. Figure 3. Vent Relief 2.

156
®
 Venting

Figure 4. Milled vent relief. Figure 5. Ground vent relief.

Typical Vent Design for a Parting Line

Figure 6. Design criteria for ejector Figure 7. Design criteria for ejector
pin vents 1. pin vents 2.

The purpose of spiral vent relief is to allow • Gate. The gate location establishes the last
the round components to be recut on the dead-true place to fill. Any change in gate location or
grinder if it should have to be altered (Figure 8). size can affect the placement and depth of
the vent. Vents that are closer to the gate
VARIABLES IN THE PROCESS have a tendency to flash more because the
material is hotter because the material flows
OF VENTING easier in the initial filling.
• Material. The flashpoint of amorphous and
• Pressure and flow length. The length of
crystalline material is at different depths. flow for the material influences the
Crystalline material will flash into gaps as pressures required. A short flow length
small as 0.0005, whereas most amorphous material requires more pressure at the end
resins will not flash at 0.001. of fill than does an easy fill material. Less

157
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 8. Spiral vents on round components.

pressure results in an easier fill and is less will be a winner and a loser. This is not the
likely to build up enough heat through the game in which we want to be. To create a
compression process. win-win we cannot be in competition with
each other; we must function as a team and
• Heat. Material temperature changes will
become better together. This means when
affect the amount of pressure required.
we solve the real problem we have to focus
• Even mold face. If the mold is out of square on the process. When the wrong attitude is
it will cause the venting to be ineffective in displayed it is included in our process. We
one area. The easiest way to find out if this is then all have trouble finding the solution
a part of the problem is to flash the mold and because we cannot get the cooperation from
measure the flash around the perimeter of the the other disciplines that we need because of
part. All flash surfaces should have the same our attitudes.
thickness if the mold surface is square!
SOME SPECIAL INFORMATION
• Teamwork. Identify the proper attitude in TO HELP DISPEL SOME OLD
problem solving. Many times, in trying to
solve problems, we identify people or
WIVES TALES ABOUT VENTING
departments as the culprit in causing the • If there are no vents in the mold, there are
problem. It is like we think, if we could some technicians that will tell you that fast
make them disappear then the problem will speed can enhance the burns; therefore, if
go away. That could not be further from the you slow the fill speed down so it will not
truth. The fact of the matter is that when we burn, they attribute the fill speed as a cause
think that way we automatically create a of burns. This is simply not true. If the burns
competitive spirit within our team that go away it may be the result of the slow fill
works against one another. Instead of speed increasing the fill pressure, which
working together we play the game of “pin forced the platens apart, and the mold to
the tail on the dummy.” In this event there vent because the mold halves are forced

158
®
 Next Page Venting

apart. If there are minimal vents in the

mold, then the slower fill speed may give
some more time for the air to escape and
reduce the burning. Profiled injection does
help by slowing up and speeding up the fill
at the right times to allow for more venting
to take place. In this case it is a clear
indication that more vents need to be added
or they need to be deepened.

OTHER VENT REQUIREMENTS

Parts that have no holes in them to let air into
the core or cavity need other means to let in the
air. If the air is not allowed in to relieve the Figure 10. Air poppet valve 2.
vacuum, the part will deform upon ejection, or the
basin had an air poppet on top and on the inside to
force required will stall the press ejector system.
make sure the part ejected because the part did not
Air poppet valves can be used both to relief the
vacuum and to eject the part. have enough draft to retain it on the core.

In the case of the emesis basin that is shown in This design is shaped like a pencil that has a
Figure 11, the air poppet serves two purposes: to spring-loaded shut off that allows the air into the
relieve the vacuum and to eject the part out of the cavity without a large witness line. This is used in
cavity with an air blow-off system. The emesis cosmetic parts that need to have no witness lines.

There are some applications where the

material traps air in the middle of the part and an
ejector pin cannot be there to help vent the burn.
In this situation you will need to vent the area. It
is also a widely known fact that if you extract all
the air in the cavity and form a vacuum before
shooting the cavity that your part will be closer to
stress free and no vents would be required. Some
molds are designed and constructed for different
production purposes. The categories that follow
will define the purpose of the molds as well as
describe the design differences you may find in
the construction. By understanding these
categories of molds you will be able easily to
Figure 9. Air poppet valve 1.
develop processes with reasonable expectations.
Air Poppet Valve

Figure 11. Example of air poppet on part.

159
®
Previous Page

EJECTION
CHAPTERS INCLUDE:
STANDARD TWO-PLATE MOLD PIN EJECTION COMPONENTS
STRIPPER PLATE COMPONENTS

161
®
STANDARD TWO-PLATE
MOLD PIN EJECTION
COMPONENTS ®
W. DAVID OUTLAW

One of the most commonly used ejection components. Knowing where to have a hole in
systems is known as the two-plate pin ejection clearance or having a tight fit can make the system
system. This is the most versatile type of system work or fail prematurely. The illustrations, along
because it is used on all shapes of parts. Although with more detailed descriptions, will be used in
the two-plate system can be used on both round this chapter to explain the recommended size and
and nonround parts, it is used more on nonround tolerances used in the mold base. It is important to
parts. Round parts will lend themselves more to a note that there will always be exceptions to these
less-expensive type of stripper ejection. rules, so do not get too excited if a mold is out of
The goal of any ejector system is to eject the the tolerance or not made to the size shown. These
part automatically without distortion. The sizes are given just as guidelines.
placement of pins becomes important in design to
Let us start with the most essential mold
minimize the potential for distortion. In more
design term that technicians should be aware of:
sophisticated parts this ejector system can be used
ejector stroke length. In ordering standard mold
in conjunction with a stripper plate or plate
bases, this is also known as the C length. The
sequencing to enhance the ejection so no
ejector stroke length is usually derived from the
distortion will take place. (The reason for plate
part depth plus a little extra to make sure the part
sequencing will be covered later in a separate
will eject. If the ejector stroke is longer than
section.) This chapter will cover information
necessary it will cause a cycle time increase and
about the design and manufacture of a two-plate
extra wear on the ejector pins and the holes. In
system and the corrective measures a technician
some cases the ejector housing is longer than
can take to solve problems that you would
necessary to accommodate the minimal molding
normally encounter in production.
press height. In these cases the ejector stroke
To begin, let us identify the basic components length can be limited with an ejector stop post.
of the system, and the details that are necessary to These stroke-limiting posts can be hard to see,
make them work properly. The two-plate system and when a mold is set for the first time the
comprises ejector pins, blades, or sleeves, ejector ejector stroke setting on the press can
housing, a pin retainer plate, a knock-out plate, inadvertently be set too long and cause a hobbing
rest buttons, and knock-out holes. problem. A good mold shop will usually stamp
The tolerances used in the mold base the ejector length on the side of the mold base to
construction are critical to the function of these help the mold set-up technician; however, if the

163
Society of Plastics Engineers

mold does not have the ejector length stamped, it A better solution would be to correct the ejector
is easy enough to check to see if the mold has pin lengths, or any flash that might be holding the
ejector stop posts. Advance the mold ejector part onto the ejector pins. Other temporary
system with a pry bar in the press when the mold solutions include an air blast into the ejector pins
is open and before the knock-out rods are to help break any vacuum or provide that little
connected. This will confirm the maximum ejector extra to push the part off the ejector pins, or an
stroke allowed. accelerated pin system that will push the part off at
another time.
If parts do not automatically eject on the first
bump, the technicians will usually add another EJECTOR PINS
bump or add some speed to the ejection system to This two-plate ejector system utilizes the ejector
get the part to release. Both of these corrections pin as the only method of ejecting the part. Ejector
are good short-term solutions, but they will prove plates must move freely. The two things that prevent
to cause other problems for the long run if not a plate from moving freely are the fit between the pin
corrected. The double bumping will add twice as and the holes, and the alignment of the ejector plates
much wear to the ejector system and add cycle with the core. To ensure that the alignment is taken
time. The quick slamming of the ejector system care of, it is generally recommended that the plates
and abrupt stops will eventually break the knock- have guide pins and bushings.
out rod and wreck the ejector system. From a mold The fit between the pin and hole have a lot to
standpoint, this problem is a tooling problem that do with the type of material used. Note: We have
should be addressed during the mold qualification. to watch out for flash on such semi-crystalline

Figure 1. Ejector pin chart.

164
®
 Standard Two-Plate Mold Pin Ejection Components

materials as nylon or polypropylene. For EJECTOR SLEEVES

crystalline material the standard manufacturing
tolerances on pins can exceed the flash point. As a Ejector sleeves are used in parts that have
practice in most mold shops that deal with bosses and are usually standard sizes. The ejector
crystalline materials, therefore, they will select sleeve thickness should be no less than 0.03 in. or
the pin sizes within a certain range. Pins should it tends to be too fragile to withstand the rigors of
be noted on the bill of material when ordering. the ejector system moving constantly. In addition,
Select pin tolerance should be calculated so the heat-treat process makes them too brittle. Care
material will not be above the flash point. Normal must be taken with the core pin that is in the
pin tolerances will flash at 0.0006 in. Tolerance center of the sleeve. The same tolerances used on
cannot be too tight or galling will occur. A 0.005 the ejector pins for clearance is used on the core
in. oversized pin can be purchased for holes that pins inside the sleeve. The sleeves are usually
are worn and need to be resized to prevent flash hardened on the outside and soft in the middle to
for mold refurbishment. allow for resizing.

Figure 2. Ejector sleeve chart.

165
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 3. Ejector blade chart.

EJECTOR BLADES LOCATION OF PINS

Ejector blades serve the same purpose as As mentioned before, the location of the pins
ejector pins, but they are square or rectangular in is very important. There is sometimes confusion in
shape. They are primarily used in rib areas to this area as to what works and what does not work.
prevent excessive wall sections that could interfere The reason that so many different variations work
with other parts or cause sink. The ejector blades or fail depends on the material, additives in the
can be purchased in standard sizes, so a mold material, and the surface treatment of the mold it
self. Crystalline materials tend to have a lot of
designer must take care not to specify something
elasticity. If crystalline material was used and
that would have to be altered unnecessarily. In the
ejector pin locations are placed in the top of a deep
days before wire EDM the cores had to be split in
draw, the part may suffer from the Chinese
order to grind the slot in the steel to fit the blades. handcuff syndrome. When I was child growing up
Now that the wire EDM is available, ejector we often played with a finger puzzle called
blades can easily be wired to a very tight tolerance Chinese handcuffs. This toy consisted of a type of
and fits are no longer the obstacle they once were. bamboo straw that was woven into a tube. By
The radii must match or galling or flashing will placing the index fingers inside the tube it would
result. induce a force that would open the tube diameter

166
®
 Standard Two-Plate Mold Pin Ejection Components

FIT LENGTHS
It is important because if they are not correct
they can cause premature wear due to alignment
problems. They may also gall because the fit area
will be too long and create heat and expand,
causing a tight fit that results in galling. The
following rules of thumb for fit length are
generally accepted practice used in mold design:
Fit length equals 5x the diameter where
diameter is 0.047-0.188 in. (max of 0.38 in.
length).
Fit length equals 2x diameter where diameter
is 0.203-0.312 in.
Figure 4. Chinese handcuff syndrome
Fit length for any diameter larger than 0.327
for easy insertion, but when you pulled your
in. equals 2x diameter, but do not exceed 1.38 in.
finger out it would close up tightly and keep you
from pulling your finger out. You get the same
result when you try to pull off rubber gloves by
CLEARANCES
gripping the tip of the finger (Figure 4). Tolerances must allow for self-alignment and
This means that the ejector pin would push on reduced contact area. Keep in mind that the
the top underside of the part and cause a force to different materials will flash at different
tighten around the base of the core. The ejector pin dimensions. It is also a common thing to have
then tends to push through the part. Care must be plate temperature differentials that cause binding
taken when dealing with the placement of an if the proper clearance has not allowed for the
ejector pin next to a core wall to make sure that the pins to find their centers.
tool maker has enough room to ream the hole
without hitting the side wall of the core. For this CHAMFERS
reason it is recommended that the ejector pin be Chamfers must be taken into account for
located at least must be 0.005 in. from side of core. proper clearance in the mold base to prevent the
edges of the pins from chipping during
HARDNESS OF PINS
installation. The chamfers provide a lead in as
Ejector pins come case-hardened and hot- well as a natural vent relief.
staked heads or fully hardened. The reason for
this is that by increasing the hardness it provides a
CONTOURED PINS
longer-lasting pin because of the movement on
the ejector stroke. It also reduces friction and Any pins with angled parting lines must be
prevents galling of the steel. The explanation of keyed in place to keep pins from turning. In some
hardness of steel is covered in the mold large parts the tops of the ejector pins are cut with
construction section if you need more details on groves in them to prevent the part from sliding off
the subject. and the ejector pin deforming or bending the part.
If the keys on the pins are too tight, this can also
SHOULDERED PINS cock the pin and accelerate the wear or gall the
These shoulders are used on small diameter pin. The keys can sometimes be dowels, or
pins to prevent breakage. This feature is used on keyways can be used if the pins are in a row and
pins less than 0.093 in. can be used on more than one ejector pin.

167
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 5. Return pins without and with thumbnail spring.

RETURN PINS WITH THUMB leads to a double bump on the ejector system and
NAIL SPRING cuts the life cycle of the pin due to double the
wear. It also increases the cycle. Grinding the stop
A spring-loaded return pin is recommended
pins shorter will eliminate the problem and be
when ejector pins can come in contact with the
much easier than regrinding all the ejector pin
cavity due to thumbnail ejection. This raises the
lengths individually.
return pins above the ejector pins on the parting
line and acts like a shock absorber that prevents
the nitrided ejector pins from chipping. K N O C K -O U T E X T E N S I O N S
The knock-out extensions are inserts that help
STOP PINS to keep the knock-out rods used in press the same
The purpose of the stop button is to time-in the length. The ejector stoke and different thickness of
ejector pin length, so an exact length of an ejector plates will often cause a knock-out rod to be at a
pin can be easier to attain. The stop pins can easily longer or shorter length. By using the knock-out
be ground to a different height that allows the rod extensions, it helps to standardize the knock-
entire set of ejector pins to move together. This is out rods and prevents delays in setting the mold
especially useful when refurbishment of a plate is because of knock-out rods that need to be made
needed. The pins can also be replaced and the for the special length. If knock-out rods are
length increased should the mold repairers require overtorqued, they can also break and cause the
a new plate. Pins that are too long will protrude ejector pin to cock and either damage the mold or
into the part and will not eject properly, which the ejector system of the machine.

168
®
 Standard Two-Plate Mold Pin Ejection Components

Figure 6. Stop pins.

GUIDED EJECTOR SYSTEMS I highly recommend that all mold designs use this
system to increase the life of the mold. On
The guided ejector system consists of four prototype or short run molds this feature would
pins and bushings that are installed in the ejector obviously not be used long enough to justify the
plates, the bottom clamp plate, and the support additional expense.
plate. The purpose of the guided system is to
guide the ejector pins in a consistent straight line
to prevent premature wear or bell mouthing of the
WATER
ejector pin holes in the core, which will produce In the preceding support plate, the ejector
flash that will interfere with the ejection on the system is recommended to prevent plate growth
part. This is usually responsible for a double from thermal expansion resulting in excessive
bump on the ejector system and increased cycles. wear or binding. If overlooked in large molds this

169
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 7. Stop pin spacing from knock-outs.

feature will produce excessive wear, galling, and the right grease product. If you are having trouble
pin breakage. This is attributed to the thermal with dirty pin marks, this becomes a constant
growth. Pin plates will be at ambient temperature. battle with the quality department that typically
If the plates are allowed to get hotter, they will has a requirement that no grease or contamination
grow and the pin-hole alignment will be lost. is allowed on the part and the mold makers’
VENTS insistence that you have to have lubrication on the
ejector pins or it will cause mold damage. There
A vent down the sides of an ejector pin is a
are two primary causes of pinmarks on parts. The
good thing as long as it does not exceed flash
specification. This type of venting is good from a most obvious is the residue from lubricants used
molding standpoint because it is moving and on your knockout pins. Another source of your
considered self-cleaning. pinmarks may be the use of a penetrating
corrosion preventive or mold protector. A
LUBRICATION penetrating product can get into your mold, burn,
The old saying that the squeaky wheel gets the and bleed out through your pins.
grease is true in injection molding, except that the
squeaky ejector pins get the grease. Lubrication of How much grease is too much or too little is a
some form is necessary in most ejector systems. big debate. I have witnessed these grease wars
There are many forms of lubrication that can be between the toolmaker and the quality inspectors
used. If this were so simple, all our problems with the technicians caught in the middle. If
would be over. The problem of adding grease to an lubrication is not used, the mold makers contend
ejection system, as we may know, solves lubricity that the ejector pins tend to seize up and break. If
problems but can then cause another. the technician wipes the grease off due to a quality
Melting grease from ejector pins is a very complaint the toolmakers end up having to do a
common problem that can be overcome by using tool repair.

170
®
 Standard Two-Plate Mold Pin Ejection Components

Figure 8. Guided ejector systems.

LUBRICATION TECHNIQUES • Use a dry lubricant

• Use a plated pin For medical molding and other applications
where wet lubrication is not allowed, there
There are pins that are manufactured that
are some dry lubrication options available.
have plating already applied. If you want to
One product comprising Tungsten Disulfide
add your own plating that has a Teflon or
(WS2) has resulted from developments at
similar lubricant, contact your local platers
NASA. There may be similar products
and see what is available. I have heard that
available that can decrease the coefficient
good results have come from titanium
of friction to around 0.03. Other major
nitriding the pins and cavities (if small),
selling points of these products are that they
which is very inexpensive to have done.
are applied at room temperature and result
This gives a good wear surface. Caution
in very small changes in the dimensions
must be used because it cannot be altered
(less than 0.00002) of the base material. Be
once it is applied—and removal can be an
aware that coating mold components may
expensive process.
affect other operational aspects of the mold.
• Use no lubricant Reapplication may be required on a routine
basis.
The no lube solution can only be used with
caution and in such special cases as small Teflon can be added by using greases or oils
molds that do not have plate temperature that contain Teflon. One way to try this
differentials and the molding material is quickly is to remove your ejector pins from
amorphous and does not require the tight the mold, then place them into an oven at
tolerances to prevent flash. 300 degrees Fahrenheit for about 10

171
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

minutes. Next, dip these pins into the products. If you are looking for protection
lubricant that contains the Teflon for about from corrosion or moisture accumulation
30 seconds. Some Teflon will adhere to the there are non-penetrating mold protectants
pins. Remove the excess and you should get that may require reapplication every day or
about 50,000 cycles before another less frequent intervals.
application is required.
There are charts available that can show
There are also some greases specially
different types of mold lubricants and the
formulated for injection molding so that
coefficient of friction that will result upon
they will not freeze, melt or gum up the
application.
works. Grease has good load-bearing
properties and provides mechanical stability • Do a regular mold cleaning
even when sudden temperature changes
occur. Look for one that contains no As a final thought, there is nothing like a
silicones, is approved for use on food good old-fashioned mold cleaning at
machinery and a wide operating planned intervals; however, too much mold
temperature range. In many situations release will liquefy and absorb itself into
suppliers will provide free samples. your pin pockets via movement and heat
In a pinch, if the ejector pins need immediate transfer. Try cleaning off the knock-out pins
lubrication, there are products that can be with extra clean towels and compressed air.
applied very quickly by spraying onto the (Note: Used carefully—we do not want a
pins while they are in the forward position. lot of these fluids suspended in the air we
Look for products with high film strength, do breathe.) Use your “dry” mold release
not contain silicone and are FDA compliant. sparingly. In addition, some additional
It is important that the spray will not cooling time might help you demold
carbonize, varnish or bleed onto the plastic without using a mold release.

172
®
STRIPPER PLATE
COMPONENTS
W. DAVID OUTLAW
®

STRIPPER EJECTION core with minimal distortion. Combining best

mold design practices for round parts with center
Before we begin discussing the stripper gates gives us the opportunity to use the stripper
ejection concept, we need to define some mold design concept twice in one mold. With only one
types. We must first recognize that the stripper of these functions, we could still apply the term
ejection concept can be used on different parts of stripper plate.
the mold. It can be used either to strip a part off a
core, or to strip a runner off of sucker pins and out I will cover both of these concepts in this
of a runner plate. There are different mold types chapter. Even though the three-plate concepts are
defined by how the concept is used. For example, used in the runner section, its design exposes
a stripper plate designation means the action is some of the problems associated with stripping
applied to the part. A three-plate mold designation actions.
means the action is applied to the runner.
STRIPPER PLATE EJECTION
THE ROUND PART FACTOR Although the stripper plate action is fairly
simple, it includes several factors that can cause
Most stripper ejection concepts are used with
problems. When we understand the function of
round parts. (Note: In some cases oval shapes
the individual components it helps us to identify
lend themselves to these designs.) This is because
from where our troubles may be coming. There
the gate location for round parts is usually located
are five components to a stripper plate ejection of
on the top and center of the part. This gives an
which a technician should be aware:
even flow for the part and allows for the part to be
more concentric. With a top center gate a three- 1. Stripper ring.
plate concept would be used in a cold runner
application. The logical design choice for the 2. Stripper ring retainer (method of retaining
ejection of round parts, therefore, is stripper plate the stripper ring).
ejection. It is very effective on round parts
3. Stripper plate.
because it ejects the part from around the entire
bottom perimeter of the part. This applies the 4. Stripper bolts.
ejection force, where it can be maximized and
equally distributed, and pushes the part off the 5. Stripper bars.

173
Society of Plastics Engineers

DEFINITIONS AND FUNCTIONS come apart they must come back together with
precise alignment.
Stripper Ring
There are several different scenarios that we
Understanding how and why the stripper ring
need to evaluate. The stripper bushing is a
is constructed and understanding the fits and
hardened bushing that is housed in the stripper
subtle differences between a stripper ring and an
plate surroundings the core. When a stripper ring
ejector sleeve is important in mold design. This
is not fitted properly (i.e., it is either too loose or
understanding helps the designer decide how to
too tight), you will experience problems. In the
build the mold to provide the best value.
first scenario, if it is too loose, then you will see
The choice in design of when to use a stripper flash—typically between the core and stripper
for ejection and when to use an ejector sleeve boils ring. If it is not repaired, it will cause further mold
down to size and plastic material choice. Here are damage and possibly cause parts to hang up and
some factors that the designer must consider: the mold will close on them, cracking the cavity or
• The more clearance you have, the more cores. To make anything in a mold where the fits
potential for flash. are line-on-line will have a great potential for
galling. (Note: Line-on-line is toolmaker talk for:
• Crystalline material can flash into smaller “There is no dimensional difference between the
gaps than can amorphous materials. hole and the core.” For example, the hole is 1 in. in
• The tighter the fit to prevent flash increases diameter and the core is 1 in. in diameter.) Due to
the potential for galling. the accumulation of tolerances between
components that separate during mold opening it
• The need to have more clearance gets is wise to have the stripper shutoff on an angle or
proportionately larger as the mold you will gall the steel. How big an angle is the
components gets larger. Any mold next question. Anything less than a total of 7
component diameters larger than 1.00 in. degrees is considered a locking angle and can jam
require at least 0.0002 in./side clearance to itself too tightly around the core if there is too
slide freely, and that does not include the much preload. When this happens it may stall the
tolerancing the machining operation needs press hydraulics and you will not be able to
to manufacture the component. activate the press ejection, so tool designers
Dealing with this mold design puzzle, usually use 5 degrees per side to be safe, giving
therefore, can keep you up all night trying to the components a 10-degree total shut off.
figure out how you can have clearance so you will Designers use a rule of thumb that the length of
not gall and how you can have fit so you will not the shut off should be at least one time the
flash. (Because, every one knows you cannot have diameter. In addition, the core and cavity need to
fit and clearance at the same time.) There are some be fitted for proper alignment. This gets into the
subtle details about design choices for strippers next section of stripper retention methods.
and sleeves that can make your life easier if the The next item to discuss is how to design how
mold designer uses them properly. One of those the stripper ring is retained in the mold.
details is called “angle.” When the mold makers
Stripper Ring Retainer
discovered “angle,” they discovered a concept that
(Method of Stripper Ring Retention)
allows fit when you need it and clearance when
you need it. When the core and stripper are • Retainer plate. A retainer plate is a small
together, you have the fit when you need it. When plate that traps the head of the stripper
you move the stripper away from the core, you bushing with the retainer plate. This is
have clearance when you need it. The only usually viewed as an unnecessary expense
problem the designer is left with is: When they and is not the top choice of retention.

174
®
 Stripper Plate Components

Figure 1. Three-plate runner system.

• Snap ring. The snap ring design is popular flexibility to allow for alignment of the stripper
if it does not require too much room. The ring with the core it can cause cocking and galling
designer should make sure that enough or flash. The design choice on how to activate the
clearance is provided to spread the ring ejection involves the cavity layout and the layout
apart and allow for easy disassembly. of the knock-out pattern of the press. The stripper
• Press fit. This is a method that is used plates should have some cooling designed into it
primarily in small molds and is not to keep the plate from expanding and causing
generally recommended because it does not some alignment problems.
allow for “float” (i.e., some measure of self- Stripper Bolts
location) for alignment.
The stripper bolts can become problematic in
• Screw. This method is very effective. It any mold due to the tendency for them to
does require that the head be bottomed out unscrew. They should be tightened at every
in the plate to prevent cocking the stripper. preventive mold maintenance interval. One of the
• Keyway. This is the preferred method that is methods to retain the bolts is to mark the bolts so
similar to the retainer plate except with less they can easily be checked visually to see if they
expense and space required. This must be had moved. The designer has a limited choice on
manufactured in such a way as to prevent the shoulder-bolt lengths, so in some cases they
the cocking of the stripper ring. are made special. This needs to be noted and
spares must be on hand should a need arise to
Stripper Plate
repair or replace the bolt. Stripper bolt lengths can
The plate that contains the stripper rings is be a problem with limiting the plate opening. It is
called the stripper plate. It is typically activated a common practice to allow a minimum of 4 in.
by latches, bolts, or by the ejector knock-out rods. between the plates to allow a technician to get a
The amount of float between the stripper plate hand between mold plates at the parting line to
and the stripper ring is important. Without some clear a part or runner. A three-plate system

175
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

usually requires tying the plates together to required to be only about 0.06 beyond the top of
activate the ejector system. The mold designer will the sucker pin to ensure that the runner is
choose to attach the knock-out system to the completely free.
stripper plate or activate the stripper plate by using Stripper Bolts
a stripper bolt.
Used to sequence the openings of the three
Stripper Bars plates, stripper bolts should be long enough to get
Stripper bars are components used in your hands in between the plates to remove the
nonround parts that require ejection along the runner. In some instances the stripper bolts
parting line of the cores. become a hang-up point if they are not spaced far
enough apart to allow for the runner to fall freely.
T H R E E -P L A T E R U N N E R The designer will usually check to make sure that
SYSTEMS there is enough space to allow this to happen;
It is obvious to the casual observer that there however, in our infinite wisdom we sometimes get
are more than three plates. The name three-plate is the idea that we can turn the mold 90 degrees in
derived from the need for an additional plate the process, and when we get all set up realize that
opening required to remove the runner. Some the stripper bolt may be in the way when the mold
novices get confused between a three-plate and a is hung in that direction.
stripper plate because both of them use a stripping
Sucker Pins
action. The three-plate stripping action is used to
remove only the runner, whereas the stripper plate Sucker pins are used to retain the runner
is used to eject the part. A drawing of the stripper against the top runner plate as the plastic drop is
plate is shown in the next section (Figure 1). A being extracted from the cavity. The sucker pin
three-plate mold can be in combination with a has an undercut machined on the end that extends
stripper plate mold or pin ejection. In many cases into the runner. This attaches the runner to the
the most formidable challenge of these designs is sucker pin until the sucker pin is withdrawn from
getting the runner to eject because the goal is the plastic, leaving the runner free to fall. Sucker
typically to hold the runner onto a specific plate, pins are sized according to the type of material
and then strip it off of that plate cleanly. being molded. (Note: If possible they should be
The components of a three-plate mold may positioned so that they do not interrupt the flow of
include: material to the part either by offsetting them to the
side of the runner or past the drop (Figure 2).) If
1. Top runner stripper plate. this is not feasible, then a deep counter bore
2. Stripper bolts.
3. Sucker pins.
4. Sucker pin bushings
5. Three-plate sprue bushings.
6. Springs.
7. Air assist.
8. Robot removal.

DEFINITIONS AND FUNCTIONS

Top Runner Stripper Plate
Used to strip the runner off the sucker pins.
This plate usually has a minimum of travel, Figure 2.

176
®
 Stripper Plate Components

Figure 3. Molding sequence for sprue picker.

underneath the pin will help keep the restriction to most effective is the use of a small undercut in the
a minimum. Proper design would result in a side of the trapezoidal runner just under the sprue
sequence where the undercut would hold the bushing area. This will pull the runner away from
runner until the top plate strips it completely off the bushing and permanently distort it so it will
of the sucker pins and allows it to fall freely to a not go back into the sprue-bushing hole.
collection point below the mold. The sucker pin Springs
should be able to spin freely and should have
Springs are employed between the sucker pin
about 0.005 in. vertical play. All other rules for
plate and the runner plate opening to make sure
diametrical clearance are the same as those for an
that the runner gate is pulled away from the part
ejector pin.
before the sucker pin plate strips it off the sucker
Sucker Pin Bushings pins when the mold is opened.
Sucker pin bushings are usually not in the Air Assist
original mold design unless specifically When all else fails it is very easy to add air
requested. They are added as the mold plate assist to blow off the runner from the plate. There
begins to wear. In some cases the extra expense of are several types available from your mold base
adding them up front keeps you from having to suppliers that can be added to the top of the mold.
send it back to the mold maker when the This addition will need to be sequenced in time
inevitable happens and you develop wear around with the mold opening. It is very good insurance
the sucker pinholes. This wear allows flash and because any runners that are caught between the
will keep your runner from falling free. plates can cause damage, which will further
Three-Plate Sprue Bushings hamper the ability of the runner to fall on
subsequent shots until the damage is fixed.
Three-plate sprue bushings are purchased
items that are designed to pull the sprue away Robot Removal
from the sprue bushing. The main problem all In some cases a robot (Sprue Picker) can be
molders face is having the sprue hang up on the employed to remove the runner and place it in a
sprue bushing. All kinds of clever designs have top-load grinder. Depending on the application it
been employed to keep this from happening. The can add cycle time, but the reduction of labor is a

177
®
Society of Plastics Engineers Next Page

Figure 4. Sucker pin and well design criteria.

plus. If a robot removal is decided on, the runner

will have to have an additional tab added to allow
for something onto which the sprue picker can
grab. This can present quite a challenge.

These under cuts have been used successfully

in most applications. This is only a reference to
get you in the ballpark. Please use these with
caution as additives in the plastic may be added
such as slip agents of stiffeners that will affect the
pull off forces.

This is one design solution that will help

reduce the restrictions in the flow between the
runner and the top of the sucker pins. There are
several other designs that can be employed to
achieve the same effect. Figure 5. Offset sucker pin.

178
®
Previous Page

DEALING
WITH
UNDERCUTS
CHAPTERS INCLUDE:
MOLD PLATE SEQUENCING AND LIFTERS
SIDE ACTIONS
UNSCREWING MECHANISMS
COLLAPSIBLE CORES

179
®
MOLD PLATE SEQUENCING
AND LIFTERS
JAMES BARRETT AND ROBERT IRWIN
®

Mold plate sequencing is used to allow steel 1. Springs work by exerting force between
cores to be removed in sequence to allow for two mold faces that must open first. This
undercuts to flex out of the mold without may be considered the easiest way to
shearing. There are several mechanisms a determine sequencing; however, with
designer may use to ensure proper plate springs there may be some sacrifice of
sequencing. Some of the most common methods mold protection. This will be most evident
will be listed in this chapter. There are also when changing from a mold with springs
standard sequencing mechanisms available from to one without springs. The mold protec-
the mold maker by venders. These mechanisms
tion pressure should always be adjusted
come with the correct steel choices and proper
with any mold change!
steel selection for maximum life.
As with any mechanical actions, components 2. Latches are designed to keep some plates
that determine the sequence of mold opening will together, and allow other plates to separate.
wear over time. Technicians must be alert to the Technicians should understand the
fact that a mold has plate sequencing mechanism sequence of opening and realize that with
in it; otherwise, they may change the process some latches require a specific mold
incorrectly when they see pulling of undercuts or opening position be attained before the
pushing of ejector pins. next part of the sequence is allowed. Some
Problems commonly occur when these latches are designed so that the stationary
mechanisms will wear and the sequence will no side of the mold can become physically
longer functions properly. A noticeable change in detached from the movable mold side.
ejector pin push or stripped undercuts will alert
you to investigate wear areas. Some sequencing 3. Scissors is the nickname for any system
devices will be visible from outside of the mold. that may separate at a certain rate and
Some may be subtler and even invisible. A careful distance for one opening and have a
review of the mold design with the mold maker different opening rate and distance in
can help you identify where to check. The another location. Just as with ordinary
following is a list of mechanisms that you will scissors, a small movement of the fingers
find on molds that indicate there is a mold will result in larger movement at the end of
sequence designed into the process. the scissor blades.

181
Society of Plastics Engineers

4. Gears are used with stack molds and have to be removed by the use of a cam action
other applications in mold sequencing. A that slides the steel away from the plastic.
typical gear application will include at least There are few things that the designer must
one rack, or an equivalent, to result in mold be aware of when using lifters:
movements at more than one rate of speed.
In stack molds, it may be necessary to • The top of the lifter surface cannot protrude
make sure that all of the parting line into the wall section. It is a good practice to
openings are the same or that the location have the top of the lifter at least 0.003 in.
of a mold face is precisely where it needs to below the wall section to insure that there is
be prior to a machine activity. no hang up when it is activated.
5. Harmonic ejectors use the same principle
• The lifter should not pull the part over with
as scissors, but they typically comprise
its action and result in the part sticking. A
moving components balanced from one
protrusion in the nonlifter area will usually
side of the mold to the other to minimize
help keep it for sliding the part over with it.
cocking of the mold plates. At the pivots or
actuation points there may be a There are many standard lifter designs that are
combination of bolts, rollers, or other available from mold component manufacturers.
devices to activate another mold Because lifters have a tendency to wear it is good
component mechanically. practice to design a mold operation that includes
6. Lifters are sometimes used as an alternative standard components. These designs are mass
to cam actions. The lifter concept is usually produced and take into account the proper
used where it is not feasible to have a cam. tolerances and steel selections to provide the mold
They are primarily used to allow the steel with the maximum life.

Figure 1. Example of lifter closed and opened.Side Actions

182
®
SIDE ACTIONS
W. DAVID OUTLAW

Cam actions or side actions are used in a mold prevent collisions between the slides and
to extract steel that is forming a hole or undercut components of the ejector mechanism.
in the product that would prevent the part from
being ejected. Designers must deal with internal CAM COMPONENTS
or external undercuts. The way a designer treats 1. Heel Block. The function of a heel block is
each one of these depends on the flexibility of the to keep pressure on the backside of a slide
part and whether it has a high or low annual to prevent it from pushing back when the
volume. projected area of the plastic exerts force
A technician should be aware that there are a during the molding process. There are sev-
few “best practices” that are considered by the eral items that a technician and mold
mold designer considering the application: maker must be aware of in the design of a
heel block. Most heel blocks complete the
• Always try to keep the horn pins engaged in location of the slide to the home position.
the slide. The angle pin and/or horn pin is on the
same angle (or close to it) as the slide and
• Avoid placing ejector pins under the core or heel block. The heel block must be
slides. anchored in the cavity plate and can be toe
• Never rely on springs or detents to hold a locked in the core plate to resist the large
slide in position when the mold is open. A forces applied during molding.
preferred method to hold the slide in place 2. Gibs. Gibs are “L” shaped. They are what
is not to allow the cam pin to disengage hold the slide in place and serve as a guide
with the hole in the slide. In cases where to the slide. They are usually fit on the
this is not possible it is wise to have limit underside with 0.003 to 0.005 clearances
switches mounted on the slide to keep the on the inside.
press from closing should the limit switch
3. Horn Pin (also known as angle pin or cam
not engage.
pin). The most common method of moving
Always mount safety switches to the mold a slide is with a horn pin. This is by far the
that are tied into the press core pull sequences. most economical and simplest method. It
These will typically prevent the mold from has several downsides of which a techni-
closing when the slides are out of position and/or cian must be aware. The main problem

183
Society of Plastics Engineers

with horn pin activation is with the fact that to replace; unfortunately, the most common
the horn pin can be retracted during the method used to detect when they need to be
mold opening. In addition, the hole posi- replaced is after the mold slide comes out
tion and horn pin can fail to match up on of position because the spring inside the
the closing of the mold. When this happens detent has failed and mold damage has
the horn pins will either hob themselves occurred.
into the slide or they may brake and
become projectiles that can strike any one SLIDE PROTECTION
in close proximity. This safety hazard must
be recognized, and precautions must be 1. Photo Cells. Photo cells or electronic eyes
made when setting up molds that will auto- are becoming one of the best methods to
matically abort the closing should a mis- provide mold protection. It stops any clos-
alignment occur. ing if a slide is not in position. The problem
most technicians face in using this arrange-
4. Wear Plates. Wear plates are found under ment is that they are sometimes not aligned
the slides and are used to help sequence the properly or the aperture is not focused.
slide as well as give the slide a wear sur- There are several ways to check and align
face. Distances of 1 in. or less usually do the photo eyes.
not warrant the expense of wear plates
2. Bermer latch. This is a design concept I
SLIDE RETENTION have seen used in the early tenth century
church on door latches. It is a simple con-
1. “Clothes pins” (a.k.a. slide retainers).
cept that provides a mechanical action that
These ensure that slides remain in place.
drives the ejector system home before the
The clothespin is a direct copy of a simple
mold closes and will not allow the ejector
concept used to hang laundry. The spring
system to be activated until the proper mold
action closes the pin and keeps pressure on
opening has occurred. This allows the cam
the dowel that hangs down from the slide.
pins to pull the slides out of the way should
These are usually rated according to how
you have a need to have ejector pins under
much weight they can secure. Be aware
the slide area.
that they do not last forever and should be
replaced routinely to make sure the slides
are held properly PURCHASED HYDRAULIC
CYLINDERS
2. Springs. Springs are often used in keeping
the slide retracted in the mold open posi- Slides can be pulled using hydraulic cylinders.
tion. The potential for the spring to fail The drawback to using this method is that any oil
increases as the mold life gets longer. The that can leak will and it will land on your parts. If
spring must be monitored and replaced the mold designer is careful, a mold can be
when they become weak. designed where the cylinders are on the side of the
mold. Care must be taken to make sure that the
3. Detents. Detents are another method of cylinder does not interfere with the gate on the
retaining the slide. The detent consists of a press. Internal cylinders can also be designed into
setscrew, spring, and plunger in the center the mold plates. Standard cylinder piston can be
of the setscrew. They are usually located used providing for inexpensive and quick
under the slide and will wear out and replacement if any wear items need to be replaced.
become nonfunctional if they are not main-
tained. They are very inexpensive and easy

184
®
UNSCREWING
MECHANISMS
JAMES BARRETT AND ROBERT IRWIN
®

Unscrewing molds are routinely considered as closure deep enough to keep it from turning while
a viable method of closure (i.e., screw-on bottle the core is unscrewing and retracting, yet shallow
caps, etc.) manufacturing. If you are looking at a enough to allow easy ejection.
closure and have ever wondered what kind of
mold was used to manufacture it, the serrations on The second type is known as an unscrewing
the bottom of closure will reveal if a part has been stripper mold. In this type of design the core does
unscrewed or stripped. not reciprocate, it simply turns. The outside cam
lifter bar of the mold drives the stripper up at the
Unscrewing molds will typically have a
same rate of the thread pitch. This design requires
longer cycle time than a stripped closure mold or
collapsible core mold, which may cause you to that the hydraulic cylinder and the thread cores
ask why any are made this way. There are two move simultaneously. If the thread pitch and the
basic reasons: cam bar angels do not match, it will cause the
threads to strip.
• Unscrewing molds are usually necessary
when the thread profile and the material Both types of molds require a hydraulic
chosen cannot flex due to the lack of cylinder that has an alignment coupler, as well as
elasticity in the material. gears and gear racks. The hydraulic cylinder must
• The closure would be tightened to provide a be long enough to provide adequate revolutions to
seal that would be leak proof. The strip complete the unscrewing action and should be in
thread mold design is not robust enough to line with the pull direction for best operating
provide this result. characteristics. An alignment coupler must be
used to prevent the force of cylinder from cocking
THERE ARE PRIMARILY TWO the rack and binding the mold. The flow rate of
TYPES OF UNSCREWING the oil, along with the design of the cylinder, are
MOLDS. most important to determine the best operation. A
The first type is known as a reciprocating cylinder that is too large will have slower
core. This type does not require the stripper action operating speeds. A cylinder that is too small may
to take part in unscrewing. This type of not have enough force to operate the mold action.
unscrewing mold requires racks, gears, and Remember also that the maximum speeds and
hydraulic cylinders. It must also have serrations forces will likely be different from one direction
along the parting line of the open end of the to the other.

185
Society of Plastics Engineers

Conventional rotary core molds are known to patented technologies to improve unscrewing
have some significant disadvantages. In particular, technology. Most recently, the patented “Rotating
these molds require rotary seals in order to provide Ratchet Ring” system by Husky Injection Molding
cooling to the cores. These seals are prone to wear Systems was introduced using “dog teeth”
and leakage and require significant maintenance imbedded into the part to rotate the part off of the
time. Further, rotary seals limit the size of cooling core of the mold. The “ratchet ring or stripper
lines and result in slower cycle times. The tapers ring” is rotated using a hydraulic cylinder driving
between a stripper plate and the core also tend to
pinion gears, in turn driving the ratchet ring. This
get worn quickly due to the core rotation.
system allows for stationary cores, improved
In response to molder’s cycle time and cooling, and virtually eliminates taper wear.
maintenance concerns, certain suppliers to the
injection molding industry have developed

186
®
COLLAPSIBLE CORES
ROBERT W. DEALEY

Plastic parts that contain internal undercuts The round

(e.g., plastic trapped by steel in the mold that collapsible core is a
prevents the part from ejecting from the core method for molding
unencumbered) are frequently molded with cores internal threads,
that collapse to free the undercut. Parts that are undercuts, and
not round require special custom-manufactured protrusions. It is
cores. These cores typically use a series of predominantly used
dovetailed segments that move upward and in the closure
inward in the ejection stage of demolding the part, industry, but it can be adapted to any round (or
freeing the trapped plastic. The types and styles near round) parts that have internal undercuts,
are dependent upon part design; styles vary O-ring grooves, or threads. This concept makes
widely, creating many individual and dedicated use of special spring steel that is painstakingly
designs. In fact, there are more designs than we heat treated and can flex without breaking or
have room to discuss in this format. It is important fatiguing over millions of cycles. A collapsible
to understand, however, that mold designs are core set comprises a center core pin, surrounded
possible to deal with undercuts in a wide variety by a slotted collapsing core and a positive
of methods. collapse sleeve. The cylindrical core has the part
detail machined into the segments to form the
Standard off-the-shelf collapsible cores are
impression of threads or undercuts on the inside
available to meet the needs of many round parts.
of the plastic part.
Due to the large usage of closures that either snap or
thread on bottles (e.g., bottle caps), it is easy to see The concept that makes the core work is the
that round collapsible cores are used more often than special design that cuts the collapse sleeve into
any other shape. As a result we will concentrate on segments where they alternate from narrow to
discussing that style of standard core. Small- wide. Imagine a round hollow cylinder, slightly
diameter cores are available that, due to internal larger in diameter than the final sleeve size, that
area, allow the molding of parts with interrupted when looking at the molding end has a series of
threads only. Larger-diameter cores, because of slots cut into the face. These slots are precisely
more internal room, allow for full threads or cut at special angles so that a series of two distinct
undercuts on the entire diameter of the part. equal-size segments are formed.

187
Society of Plastics Engineers

Narrow segments have the taper running in the would create a condition whereby the part would
direction that allows them to leave the round not eject freely. Notice how the threads are
sleeve when an area is vacated by the sleeve interrupted (not continuous) the next time you
moving off the center pin. These will be the first open a plastic soft drink bottle.
segments that move inward. The same cutting Collapsible cores can produce many parts,
operation leaves an equal number of wide usually circular in shape, that are otherwise difficult
segments that will then collapse into the area to mold without very expensive mechanisms.
vacated by the narrow segments. Molds, with collapsible cores, can usually run faster
This mechanism movement, or collapse, because there is no waiting for a cam to slide or a
results in a sleeve that is much smaller than when threaded core to unscrew from the part. Part cooling
expanded in the molding position, and removes is achieved by circulating coolant in the center pin
the undercut or hindrance to part ejection. The and transferring heat away from the part through
total amount of the core collapse is a result of how the segments. Due to the inability to get coolant
much area can be vacated and then the edge to passages in the segments some materials will create
edge distance on the segments. The total collapse longer cooling cycles over conventional cores. This
must not allow the segments to hit each other. concept, however, allows for the part to be molded
A special heat-treating process has instilled a in the first place, and there is usually a small penalty
memory into the segments that will cause the if the cycle time has to be slightly extended.
segments to move into the collapsed position The collapsible core concept is manufactured
when they are free. This memory is similar to that in many standard off-the-shelf sizes, ranging
of a rubber band. In mold sequencing, with the from 1 to 3.5 in. Each size has a limit to the
collapsible core mounted in the ejector plate, prior amount of undercut that can be pulled. The
to the mold fully closing at parting line, the smaller the diameter of the core, the lower the
collapsible core is expanded when the ejector collapse amounts. In addition, the part must have
plates return home and pulls the sleeve core onto a stripper ring ejection and multiplate sequencing
the center pin. The mold then closes at the parting to accomplish the actions required. One subtle
line. When the mold fully opens, the ejector plates consideration that the designer must be aware of
and collapsible core move forward together. This is that the stripper ring must have a raised cored
pulls the collapsing core off the center pin, and the area along the surface to keep the part from
core segments collapse under their own spring shifting, or favoring, one side of the core when
force. The positive collapse sleeve, if needed, collapsing or during ejection.
provides further collapse assistance. This In recent years
collapsing allows the steel to clear the part's the collapsible core
internal cuts or threads. The part is then ejected, concept has been
typically with the use of a stripper plate. reversed. The
Miniature collapsible cores, which are “expandable cavity”
available for molding parts from 12 to 25 mm in can be used on
diameter, work on a similar principle. Due to the external threads and
small diameter and resultant lack of space in the outside diameter
center of the sleeve, however, the narrow segments features by reversing the process. The segments
are contained on the center pin. The wide expand, as opposed to collapsing. These
segments are contained in the core sleeve and are “expandable cavities” are made in various sizes,
the only portion of the component that can ranging up to 3 in. in diameter. This tool offers the
collapse; therefore, if a thread is being formed it advantage of eliminating slides, pulls, and side-
can only be machined into the wide segments. The action, which is normally required when molding
threads cannot cross over the center pin or they parts with external threads and undercuts.

188
®
 Collapsible Cores

PROS AND CONS OF of a blank core is $2000, not including any thread
COLLAPSIBLE CORES grinding or special machining for the specific
detail. A special core, if not in stock, may have as
Faster Cycles
long as 6-week waiting time to get a new one
When used in place of a conventional manufactured. There are very few distributors of
unscrewing mold with a rack and pinion that is these standard collapsible cores.
activated by hydraulic cylinder, the collapsible
core can allow for the mold to run faster cycles. Delicate Balance
This is because there is no waiting for a hydraulic The reason most parts have a tendency to
cylinder to stroke and unscrew the threaded core hang up is due to the retention ring on the stripper
from the part. (Note: Con—No cooling: Due to
that prevents the part from hanging up on one side
lack of cooling on the collapsible core, some
of the thread. These rings must be designed so
materials may cause the mold run to be slower.)
that an easy release can be accomplished with a
Only Viable Construction Method gentle bump from the stripper plate. This balance
Collapsible cores can produce many parts that must be tuned in the beginning of the mold
used to be difficult to nearly impossible to make debugging cycle.
in a mold. Internal undercuts that cannot be
Inexpensive Protection
unscrewed (e.g., a square box) can only be done
with a collapsible core design. A photocell light is strongly suggested to
prevent a part from being closed on. This
Cost Considerations
inexpensive feature would detect a part that has
The collapsible core can only be used in some not fully ejected and prevent the mold from
applications (i.e., those that contain undercuts), closing on a part. The use of this concept may
where an unscrewing core mold will not work. require more than one photocell unit. One unit
When directly comparing molds that can use must be used on each row of cores. It also
either unscrewing methods or collapsing cores, requires that the press have an interface or core
however, the total build cost of the mold normally
pull to allow for the proper sequence.
favors collapsible cores when the mold size is six
to eight cavities or less. Molds that contain more In conclusion, the collapsible core concept
than eight cavities tend to be less expensive when has its place in mold construction. A careful
built with rack and pinion unscrewing molds. evaluation of requirements can lead you to the
Each mold should be estimated to determine the best choices when considering this concept for the
most economical build concept. mold. There is one other drawback that some
Durability insist is a problem. The spring steels may
eventually lose their resilience and collapse if
There are a few things that a molder should
there is a preload from a direct shut off on the
consider before using this concept. As is the case
core face. In this instance, an O-ring was added to
with all delicate mold components, damage can be
done if the mold is mistreated. One inherent assist the collapsibility of the core sleeve. This
problem with these long collapsible cores is that can be avoided with good mold design and quality
they may be damaged if you close with mold with construction. Although this may be a possibility,
full clamp tonnage, on a part. The molder must we have never experienced this problem in any of
bear in mind that, in the year 2002, the typical cost the applications we have used to date.

189
®
MOLD RELATED
PROBLEMS
CHUCK JONES
®

It is obvious to everyone that a bad mold solving part problems, and it may lead to
design cannot produce good parts, but, how do we permanent improvements in productivity.
define “a bad mold design.” When a technician Although you may argue that some of the
cannot correct a problem with the process, the problems can be addressed in the molding
technician sometimes may very well decide that process, it will usually narrow the process
the mold is poorly designed or constructed and window down to the point that with any minor
cannot yield a good part, no matter what process variation it will cause rejects. Thus, “pay me now
variables are used. This can take care of the or you will pay big time later” is an old saying
technician’s problem if the mold design can that will come to pass if you do not fix your tools.
blamed as the culprit. If the supervisor agrees, the Let us therefore begin to look at part defects and
technician is no longer accountable for correcting
analyze the mold to determine what could cause
the molding problem.
these conditions.
A properly designed tool can produce the
optimum cycle time (i.e., the fastest cycle that will FLASH
consistently yield good product). When this
One of the most common defects found in
occurs, the part manufacturing cost will be
molded parts is flash. Flash is excess plastic
reduced to its lowest value. In this chapter, we
material that extends past the part surfaces, either
want to look at defects or unacceptable conditions
on the parting line, across through holes or
found on the molded part and identify mold
conditions that could yield this unacceptable cutouts in the plastic surfaces, or vertically from
condition. As we identify the problems, we want slides and ejector pins. Flash can occur when two
to present solutions achieved by improving the pieces of steel come together. For this reason the
mold. There could be other causes in the process moldmaker will have to manufacture the molds to
and molding machine (see toolbox chapter on a closer tolerance depending upon the plastic
troubleshooting); however, we want to used. In general, a crystalline material may flash
concentrate here on the mold. This, of course, is a into a gap of 0.0005 in. An amorphous material
little more expensive than changing the process may flash at 0.0015 in. and greater. This is why
and requires more time to complete. Nevertheless, precision is required in the mold building phase to
it is sometimes our only viable alternative to prevent flash.

191
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 1. Worn parting line, worn vent,

damaged parting line.
[Courtesy of Paulson Training Programs]

Flash Extending from the Parting Line and/or Vent Area

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

Wear in these areas can begin with highly filled and abrasive
materials, escaping from the mold cavity section. As they
are allowed to pass over these usually sharp edges, they
begin eroding the edge, rounding it. This rounding effect
usually shows up on the part as a thick section of flash close Build new cavities.
to the edge of the intended molded surface. When the
injection or packing pressure is reduced to the point of
nonfilling and flash still remains on the part, the indication
is a worn mold.

It is easy to damage the parting line/seal-off land in the

cavities. Using brass implements to dislodge the cavity from
the retaining plate can also damage the parting line if the Weld up worn areas, remachine, and polish these
face of the brass plug is not flat on the sealing surface. This surfaces.
can cause a small indentation on the sealing surface that can
erode as material escapes over it.

If the mold is allowed to close up on flash on the parting line

damage can occur on the sealing surfaces of the cavities and Selectively plate with chrome, nickel, and the like, and
cores. Once the damage occurs, flash will continue to erode resurface the repaired area(s).
the surface to cause even heavier flash.

Note: Flashing may result from injection pressures and velocities that were increased to get rid of short shots (or
incomplete fills). The short shots may be caused by inadequate venting. Talk with the moldmaker about the vents in the
mold. Are there any? Where are they and are they the proper design? Refer to the section on vent design.

192
®
 Mold Related Problems

Figure 2. Flash around an ejector pin.

[Courtesy of Polymers Center of Excellence]

Flash Extending from Around an Ejector Pin

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

Due to the sliding motion of the ejector pin or bar in its hole,
either the pin has been worn small or the hole has worn Replace worn ejector pins with oversize pins to reduce
larger. This increases the gap between the two mold the gap between it and the core steel.
components, allowing plastic to be pushed down and around
the ejector component. When this is allowed to continue, the
part often could begin hanging to the ejector by the flash. If
this is an automatic cycle, the part could hang up and
become caught between the mold halves as the mold is
clamping together. This can easily cause a more severe mold Plate the existing worn pin.
problem by possibly damaging the mold to a greater extent
(i.e., damaging the parting lines, breaking other ejection
devices, crushing small core pins, or damaging thin pieces
of standing steel). Remember, it is easier to correct a small
problem before it becomes a large problem. It is much less
expensive to correct a small problem (i.e., replace a worn Drill, ream, and bush the worn hole in the core steel.
ejector component).

193
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 3. Mechanical side action mold.

Flash Extending from Mating Steel from a Core Slide

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

When a configuration is required on a vertical side of the Repair/replace the heel block.
molded part that will not allow a straight pull as the mold
opens, a sliding motion is required to form this detail. When
the mold opens, this steel component must be pulled away Replace bent angle pin.
from the side surface so that the part can be removed freely
from either the cavity or the core. This is accomplished by Resurface the receiver section for the angle pin in the
using a mechanical or hydraulic slide section. slide block.
When flash begins to form at the intersection of this sliding
part and the stationary part of the core or cavity, either a Retime all the interlocking sections so that seal off
worn condition or clamping problem is indicated. These occurs simultaneous to the final clamp of the mold.
slides will often wear quicker than the standard parting line
surfaces due to the continual sliding of the steel components
against each other, especially if it is a shutoff. The
secondary problem is losing clamping force required to hold
the moving section properly against its stationary
counterpart while the material is being injected into the Increase hydraulic pressure to the hydraulic core to
cavity. The loss of holding pressure on this section can be provide additional sealing force.
caused by wear on the “heel block” holding this section in
the mold. This can also be caused, when there is no heel
block, by a bent or worn angle pin that forces the sliding
section home as the mold closes.

194
®
 Mold Related Problems

Figure 4. Flash around most of the part.

[Courtesy of Polymers Center of Excellence]

Flash Extending from the Majority of the Parting Line

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

Add sufficient pillars underneath the cavities to prevent

any flexing of the cavity steel and/or backing plate

Check the sprue bushing to determine if it is too long and

holding the mold open, allowing flashing.
When the mold parting lines do not maintain a seal Most cores and cavities are built to seal off above the
against one another during the injection and packing face of their respective retainer plates. This means that
phase of the molding cycle, flash will be squeezed out in the core and cavity should always seal off, keeping the
the resultant gaps. retainer plates apart by the distance that each is raised
from the surface. When one cavity of a multiple cavity
mold is not at its proper height, the mold faces can
become “cocked,” allowing several cavities to flash. All
core and cavity heights from the retaining plate surfaces
should be checked and corrected to provide proper seal
off. This height is generally 0.001 in. for each
component.

Check the return pins to make sure that they are the
proper length. If these pins are too long, they can
The injection pressure required to densify the part actually hold the mold faces open during clamp,
properly is sometimes greater than the flexural strength of resulting in flashed parts. This condition would likely be
the steel, and the steel “gives” under this greater pressure. evident by hobbing that has taken place in the mold
This is usually an indication that there is not proper plates.
support underneath the cavities and cavity backing plate Bluing can be used to perform a quick check on the
to counteract this pressure. sealing surfaces. It works by applying it to one of the
sealing surfaces and then closing the mold to see if that
surface touches as it is designed to do.

195
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 5. Molded part with mismatched

parting line.
[Photo Courtesy of Peter Wood]

Mismatch at the Parting Line

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

A “step” or flash on two opposite sides of the parts appear Check for wear or straightness on the leader pins/
where the two mold halves come together to seal off the bushings or other aligning devices (e.g., parting line
flow of plastic. The “step” tells us that there has been a shift interlocks or taperlocks). Replace as required.
of location between the mold halves.

196
®
 Mold Related Problems

Area that flashes after

3 hours run time

Cavities

Hot Sprue Bushing

Figure 6. Flash using a hot sprue mold.

Flash Using a Hot Sprue Mold

After 2-3 hours into a production run, a four-cavity mold with a hot sprue bushing begins to flash
around the center of the mold on the parting line. After checking the set up and mold clamp, it was found
that the set up and clamp were exactly to process specifications.

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

Check water lines for corrosion build up.

Insure that baffles in water lines are working correctly.

The mold steel is overheating in this area, causing the
Resize water line to allow more water flow (Note: 5
plastic to flow easier and thus flash the parts and runner
gallons/minute/channel is recommended).
system beginning in the center and proceeding outward the
longer the mold is run. The root cause of this condition is Add an air gap around the hot sprue to help dissipate
insufficient cooling in the center of the mold around the the heat. Check manufacturer’s recommendations.
hot sprue bushing.
Replace the hot sprue with a cold sprue bushing.
(This is the least cost effective because you may
increase your material consumption.)

197
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 7a. Burns on a plastic part at vents.

[Courtesy of Paulson Training Programs]

Figure 7b. Burns on a plastic part at bottom of boss.

[Courtesy of Paulson Training Programs]

BURNS however, it is not limited to these locations. The

cause of burns, from a mold standpoint only, is
Burns are another common defect found in
trapping air in these areas and not letting it escape
molded parts. Burns are evidences of degraded
properly from the cavity. This hot air can combine
materials in the plastic. Degradation occurs when
with the material gases and become superheated as
the material has been exposed to too much heat or
remained too long under elevated temperatures. it is trapped. This high temperature will burn the
The material has lost its property values. It adjoining melt front. As plastic is injected into the
appears as a dark brown or black area, generally cavity area, it must replace all of the air in the
near or on the edge of the molded part. It also can cavity to become a properly filled part having no
be seen as dark or black streaks, generally areas of degraded material. (Note: Burns can also
beginning at the gate and extending across the face appear if the material is changed to a more shear-
of the molded part. These can also appear in blind sensitive material such as PVC. This could require
pockets or along internal rib features of the part; changes throughout the mold.)

198
®
 Mold Related Problems

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

No venting in the cavity or runner system. Grind vents into the cavity at the location of the burn
marks; vent the runner system. A good starting place
for vents is 0.0005 in. deep by 0.25 in. wide. Check
with your material supplier to determine the maximum
depth of vents to prevent flashing of the parts.

Mold damage to vents due to wear or lack of proper mold Repair the damaged vents by remachining.
maintenance.

Material degradation in the hot runner system due to Check heaters and/or thermocouples, replace defective
heaters that are above the set point. components.

Sharp corners in the part design causing excessive shear as Determine if the part can be redesigned to eliminate the
the material passes over them. sharp corners. Evaluate placing an active ejector pin
near the affected area to allow more gas/air to vent from
the cavity.

Degraded material because of improper fit between the Resurface both the nozzle radius and the radius in the
nozzle and the nozzle seat of the mold. When this fit is mold sprue bushing. A short-term fix may be to place a
interrupted, material is allowed to collect in the gap. The piece of cardboard between the nozzle and the sprue
material begins to degrade over time at the elevated bushing.
temperature of the nozzle, and then breaks off in the melt
stream and lodges in the molded part.

Damage to the orifice of the nozzle in the form of a burr Remachine the ID of the nozzle to remove any damage.
extending inward into the flow path of the material. This Be careful not to machine it larger than the ID of the
will cause excessive shear and heating of the material until sprue bushing. This will cause the sprue to hang up in
it degrades. the mold.

Undersized gates may cause excessive shear as the A mold-flow evaluation software may be used to size
material is shot under higher pressures in an attempt to the gates properly. After determining the size, recut the
overcome this condition. gates.

Build up of residues in the vents, preventing the air from Determine the frequency to clean each of the vents, add
escaping properly. this procedure to the process set up/part run sheet. A
soft clean cloth can be used to remove the residue in the
vents adequately.

It is impossible to vent all the areas that are nonfilling due Add a sealed vacuum system to evacuate all air ahead
to trapping hot air. of the melt stream.

199
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 8. Severe flow lines.

[Courtesy of Polymers Center of Excellence]

FLOW LINES
Flow lines are imperfections on the molded scratch on the surface; however, these knit lines
surface. These imperfections can also be called are often through the entire thickness of the part. It
weld lines, melt lines, or knit lines. These can be in must be noted that this area will be the weakest
the form of either jagged lines beginning at the area of the part. Although this is the hottest area of
gate and proceeding out into the part or various
the melt due to the fountain flow behavior of the
ripples or arcs jetting into the part. Knit lines or
material, the molecules have been broken apart
melt lines occur when the material flows around
an obstruction in the flow path. These obstructions when the flow front broke apart as it went around
can be core pins forming a through hole in the the core feature in the mold, and when the flow
part, a window cut-out of any configuration (i.e., fronts come back together, the plastic molecules
square, rectangular, etc.). A knit line appears as a will not re-entangle easily.

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

Lack of proper venting. Check the vents to insure that they are large enough to
provide enough area for the gases and air to escape
from the cavity, and are placed strategically in the
cavity to prevent any entrapment of air in the cavity.

Gate location does not provide for the proper flow of the Redesign the gating system. When multiple gates are
material into the cavity. used, opposing melt fronts meet and try to merge to
become a solidified front. Different gate sizes may be
needed to insure that the material meets in the proper
place and melts together. This would best be
determined by a software flow simulator.

The wall section of a part causes the material to meet in Change the adjoining wall section to change where the
thinner areas. material will meet. This will often move the “weak”
section to a less critical area where strength may not be
an issue.

200
®
 Mold Related Problems

Figure 9. Part warpage.

[Courtesy of Polymers Center of Excellence]

WARPAGE
Warpage is a dimensional change in the part allow for adequate cooling, the designer will
after it cools. Warpage is usually a result of stress recommend cooling fixtures to minimize the
in the part, caused either by the molding process effect of warping.
or the part design. Uneven wall sections/
thicknesses may result in uneven cooling, which Warpage is generally objectionable due to
is a major cause of warping. In some cases, causing problems with proper fit or function of
warpage is a recognized problem up front. When the product, therefore, we should try to minimize
the part design dictates geometry that does not its effect.

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

Uneven cooling of both sides of the plastic walls. We

ideally want to cool both sides of the plastic part at the
same rate, thus reducing stress to a minimum. This
means that the core and the cavity are not at the same
temperature. Remember, we are trying to maintain the
same steel temperature on the core and cavity, not the
same mold temperature controller temperature. Due to
different heat transfer rates and flows between the two
mold halves, it will probably be necessary to develop
two different mold temperature control temperatures
settings.
Corroded water channels. This scale/build up will act as Drill/ream all water channels to remove
an insulator, slowing down the heat transfer rate, not corrosive build-up.
removing heat as quickly.

Insufficient water flow through the mold to maintain a Check all pipe fittings to make sure that flow is not
constant mold surface temperature (5 gallons/minute/ restricted by undersized internal diameters. Check
cooling channel is recommended). damaged/missing baffles; replace as required. Insure
that mold temperature controller is sized large enough
to maintain the correct water flow per cooling channel
based on the diameter of the cooling channel.

201
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

The core temperature cannot be maintained at a constant Evaluate using bubblers, heat transfer pipes, and
temperature. manifolds to increase water flow for effective cooling.

Uneven part ejection can cause stress. This stress causes Check for causes of uneven ejection.
warpage as the part cools.

Uneven undercuts on the core to pull the part from the A quick fix is to hand grind undercuts on the cores
cavity. while the mold is still in the press. This is a quick but
ineffective fix in the long run. Undercuts cannot be
manually cut in the steel evenly. As a result, parts of the
undercut will be deeper than others. This will cause an
uneven pull on the plastic part. This results in stress and
thus warpage when cooled. Properly machined
undercuts are best. They are even and do not required a
lot of depth to be highly effective. Depending on the
part geometry, a 0.001/0.002 in. deep undercut will be
adequate to remove the part from the cavity and allow a
less stressful ejection from the core.

The ejection system itself can cause uneven ejection and Check the height of all stop buttons on the rear of the
thus warpage. ejector backing plate.
Check for loose screws holding the retainer plate to the
backing plate. If the plates are not held together evenly,
some pins on the loose side are allowed to slide
unevenly and possibly bind and break.
Make sure that the ejection system does not bind, but
moves easily.
Check the ejector rods for proper length. Insure that
they are not loose from either the ejector plate or the
ejection cylinder.

Mechanical/hydraulic slides may interfere with the part Make sure all slides will travel far enough back. This
as it is ejected allows the molded parts to come off of the core freely
without becoming caught underneath any core detail.
When at all possible, mount the mold with all slides
horizontal. This will reduce any effect gravity may have
on the blocks moving inward while the mold is open.

Sticking of the part features in the mold causes stress Additional draft may be required to allow the parts to
and warpage. Sticking can occur on deep ribs or bosses. be removed freely. Draw polish can facilitate part
Mold damage in these areas will occur if stuck sections removal. Mold release is always a last resort because
are removed incorrectly. This can cause small scratches this introduces other variables into the molding process.
or indentations in these areas that will act like undercuts
and actually increase the part sticking.

202
®
 Mold Related Problems

SURFACE APPEARANCES
There are several types of visual defects found a couple of these and identify the problems with
on the surfaces of molded parts. We want to look at the mold that can cause these defects.

Figure 10a. Surface imperfections—discoloration.

Figure 10b. Surface imperfections—dullness.

Figure 10c. Surface imperfections—splay.

[Courtesy of Polymers Center of Excellence]

203
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Defects and Possible Causes Mold Solutions

Discoloration is a change in the original color of the Check the cooling channels for build up.
virgin plastic. This can be caused by overheating, Drill/ream as needed.
extended time under heat, or too much mechanical shear
during the injection process. Mold is too hot and allows Check to insure that both mold halves are the same
the parts to densify in the hot areas. The color will temperature. Remember, the hotter side will tend to
change in these areas due to a difference in density. produce a darker surface due to the elevated temperature.

Add vents to remove the gases from the materials and/or

trapped air in the mold. This will reduce the incidence of
superheated air/gases that will burn or char the plastic.

The mold temperature is too low, allowing the fillers to Increase the mold temperature in increments of 10ºF.
migrate to the surface. Allow several cycles for the temperature to normalize in
the mold.

Improper gate sizes and runner sizes affect the The gate and runner sizes require evaluation both for
appearance of the parts. Gates that are too small will size and location on the part. The best method is to use a
cause a pressure drop in the cavity. This allows the computer software program for this evaluation to save
material to start setting up too early and form a frosty time and multiple mold modifications.
surface. Insufficient flow prevents the part from packing
properly to force out the surface imperfections.

Mold surfaces may have become dulled during molding. Polish the mold surface to remove any residue build up
Trapped gases can dull and coat the mold surfaces with a on the molding surfaces.
residue. This residue will not allow the material to flow
evenly across the surface.
Contaminated molding surfaces will affect the Determine why mold release is necessary in the first
appearance of the molded surface. If excessive mold place. Add draft or draw polish the walls that cause
release is used, a build up will occur on the mold surface. sticking. A redesign of the part may be necessary to
Again, this may alter the material flow and even eliminate completely any sticking problem that persists.
contaminate the material.

Gates that are too small may require a high injection Evaluate the gate size and location.
pressure to fill the part properly. Squeezing the material
through extremely small gates can overheat and degrade
the plastic.

If the runner system is damaged by peening over a sharp Inspect the entire runner system and gate areas for burrs
edge into the material flow path, frictional overheating or damaged sidewalls. Weld up any splits found and
will occur. This will also degrade the material. As the resurface. Remove any and all burrs to provide a smooth
material is injected into the cavity, this degraded material flow path.
will rise to the surface as a visual imperfection.

Molds using O rings to seal cooling channels are another Develop a preventive maintenance system to inspect all
source of moisture. O rings can harden and crack, losing sealing components periodically in the cooling system.
their sealing ability. Steel can crack and allow the coolant Replace all rubber sealing devices periodically to
to enter a runner system or even the cavity itself. prevent them from hardening and losing their sealing
ability.

204
®
 Mold Related Problems

SINKS
Sinks are shallow depressions on the surface thin the shrinkage of the material within the wall
of molded parts. Sinks normally occur on the may pull it inward to create a sink mark. (Note: If
opposite side of thicker sections on the molded the skin is solid enough the sink mark may not
part. The skin of the plastic hardens due to losing appear, but the shrinkage will result in a void
heat to the mold surface. If the skin is relatively within the wall thickness.)

Figure 11. Sinks on molded surfaces.

[Courtesy of Polymers Center of Excellence]

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

The mold temperature is either too high on the Measure the mold temperature at the area of sink.
“sinking” side of the part or there is a “hot” spot in the Evaluate different mold temperatures to see if the sink
mold surface. is positively affected.
Check the cooling channel to insure proper coolant
flow. Clean as necessary.
Add cooling channels in the mold, if possible, to help
evacuate the heat from the part.

Gate and runner size and location impact sinks. If the Evaluate the gate size with a software flow simulator.
gates and runners are too small, flow restriction occurs. Adjust the gate size accordingly. In addition, multiple
This will not allow the cavity to pack out properly gates may be needed to provide enough material to be
because it is somewhat less dense. supplied to the cavity and still allow time for packing or
densifying of the plastic.

Thick ribs and bosses are design issues. The large size A trade off is generally required at this point. If the
may be needed to accommodate a mechanical function thick sections can be redesigned to allow a more
that a smaller part cannot meet. uniform wall thickness, and thus uniform cooling, a
part with minimum sinks can be consistently molded.

205
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

S H O R T S H O T S /N O N F I L L S
A short shot is an incompletely filled part. The walls on the perimeter of the part. A short shot or
plastic has not been pressed into the cavity to force nonfill can also be an extended recess or void of a
the outer skin completely up against the cavity flow line or knit line.

Figure 12. Short shots.

[Courtesy of Polymers Center of Excellence]

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

A cool mold temperature will cause the flow front to Check for proper placement and function of the cooling
lose its required heat too fast. This slows the melt front channels.
and does not allow it to flow to the furthermost part of Raise the mold temperatures in increments of 10°F
the cavity before setting up. until the part is properly filled.

Gate and runner size and location impact sinks. If the Evaluate the gate size with a software flow simulator.
gates and runners are too small, flow restriction occurs. Adjust the gate and runner sizes accordingly. In
This will not allow the cavity to pack out properly addition, multiple gates may be needed to provide
because it is somewhat less dense. enough material to be supplied to the cavity and still
allow time for packing or densifying of the plastic.

Insufficient venting will not allow the material to flow to Add vents to the cavity.
the extremes of the cavities. Air pressure builds up and Add vents to the runner system
tends to counteract the injection pressure on the
material. Vent blind areas with active ejector pins if possible.
If vents do not remove all the trapped air/gases, it may
be necessary to add a vacuum system to pull the air
from the cavity ahead of the melt front. A brief
injection delay is generally necessary to pull a vacuum
in the cavity and runner system just prior to injecting
the plastic.

206
®
 Mold Related Problems

GATE IMPERFECTIONS
Gate imperfections vary with the size, will try to cover only the most common types of
location, and type of gates. It is difficult to list all imperfections at the gate areas.
the possible variations that can exist. Rather, we

Possible Causes Mold Solutions

Material protruding from a hot runner gate may indicate Evaluate gate sizes with a flow simulator and adjust the
that the gate is too large or the gate drop is too cool. gate sizes accordingly.
Check the gate nozzle temperature and compare with
recommendations of the material supplier.

Angel hair protruding from the gate nozzle or material Check the hopper dryer for proper operation and
bubbling occurs while the mold is open. drying.
Reduce the nozzle temperature.

The gate breaking too far into the part can have several It is always advisable to build gate areas as replaceable
causes: inserts. Replace insert with a new gate.
Gate has eroded and is too large. Remove the part from the gate/runner while the part is
still warm. This may take some trial and error before
The part has cooled too long.
arriving at the appropriate interval for an acceptable
gate vestige. Thick gates are manually clipped a lot
easier when hot than cold.

One large gate has been used where multiple small gates A mold redesign to include analysis of flow is
would be more effective. indicated. The analysis should also determine if there
will be any problem with melt fronts coming together
inside the cavity to form a consistently strong part.

207
®
PLASTIC FLOW
BASIC FLUID FLOWS AND FLOW
PHENOMENA
LAWRENCE R. SCHMIDT
®

This chapter will discuss the flow of molten

plastics in the injection molding process. The
analysis begins at the origin of the flow (i.e., the
barrel), and includes all major flow channels (i.e.,
barrel, nozzle, runners, gates, and cavities) until
the cavities are completely filled.
(b) pressure-driven flow.
The flow on the melt-air interface (i.e., flow
Figure 1. Simple shear flow velocity profiles.
front, and its influence on the formation of a
hydrodynamic skin-core structure, a distinct Whenever fluids are contained in a channel,
structure created by the flow into an empty cavity) the fluid adjacent to the wall sticks to the wall
will be covered in considerable depth. The (i.e., maintains intimate contact with the wall). In
“fountain flow” on the front controls the mapping Figure 1(a) a fluid is contained between two flat
of fluid elements in the barrel to final locations in plates. The top plate is moved at a constant
a molded part and provides special insights for velocity, but the bottom plate is held fixed. The
understanding the unique features produced by fluid molecules contacting the top plate move
the injection molding process. with the same velocity as the top plate. The fluid
in contact with the bottom plate has a zero
BASIC FLOWS velocity. This is generally referred to as a no-slip
There are two basic types of flow: shear flow boundary condition. Between the plates, the
and extensional flow. A shear flow is created layers of fluid slide past each other with a relative
whenever a fluid is deformed in such a manner velocity depicted in Figure 1 by the length of the
that layers of the fluid are forced to slide past each arrows. The distribution of fluid velocities in the
other. Figure 1 shows two types of simple shear channel is referred to as a velocity profile. A drag
flow: drag flow and pressure-driven flow.1 flow is created in the screw channels when the
screw rotates to plasticate a resin. In this example
the thin film between the barrel wall and the solid
bed in the screw channel undergoes a drag flow.
Figure 1(b) depicts a pressure-driven flow
between two flat plates or inside a tube across a
(a) drag flow. diameter. Fluid in contact with the channel walls

1
Society of Plastics Engineers

sticks to the walls and has a zero velocity. The JETTING

velocity of the layers of fluid between the walls
varies, as shown in Figure 1. The highest fluid Process conditions occasionally exist that
velocity is in the center of the channel. Pressure- deviate from basic shear flows and lead to other
driven flows are created in the barrel, nozzle, types of flow phenomena. An example worth
mentioning at this point is an artifact that occurs
runners, gates, and cavities during injection.
when the no-slip boundary condition is not
The actual shape of the velocity distribution established. If this occurs at the transition between
between the center and channel walls varies in a the gate and a cavity, a jet of fluid will shoot
nonlinear manner for pressure-driven flow. The through a cavity and strike a wall before
distribution follows a parabolic curve for a simple conditions for pressure-driven flow are developed
fluid such as water, and this is commonly referred as shown in Figure 2. The jet stays intact, like a
to as Newtonian behavior. For plastics with long solid “rod,” because there are no drag forces on
molecules that exhibit non-Newtonian fluid the exposed surfaces, and no internal shear
behavior and more complex flow characteristics, stresses. The velocity profile is flat across the jet.
After a pressure-driven flow becomes established
the distribution is seen as a “flattened” parabola.
at the gate, the molten plastic eventually encases
The specific distribution depends on the rheology
the jetted material. Because mixing does not occur
of the molten plastic. The more non-Newtonian
with the jetted material, poor bonding of this
fluid behavior exhibited by a plastic, the greater
material with the surrounding plastic can result in
the flattening of the velocity profile.
a physical defect.
Pressure-driven flow illustrated earlier is If the no-slip boundary condition is not
dominant in the injection molding process. It is properly established in the cavity, the filling often
important to note that the flows are laminar shear proceeds with a stick-slip sequence. That is, the
flows. The very high shear viscosity of molten molten plastic flows in a normal manner as shown
plastics controls the flow phenomena (i.e., parallel in Figure 1(b), when the plastic adjacent to the
streamlines characteristic of laminar flow). cavity walls sticks to the walls, but if the adhesion
Conditions for turbulent flow (i.e., chaotic motions is too low at the walls, the molten plastic will slip
of fluid elements) are never achieved, even in the along the wall and move as a solid plug. Variations
gates under the highest injection rates. The of surface gloss are generally seen as wide bands
misconception of turbulent plastic flow, when this occurs. Although other types of flow
unfortunately, is still cited occasionally in the phenomena do occur during injection molding, the
injection molding field. primary goal of all process design is to establish

FLOW

Figure 2. Jetting.

2
®
 Plastic Flow

and maintain laminar shear flow conditions effective cavity wall for the pressure-driven flow
throughout the process. between the skins. The complex formation of this
The rest of this chapter will be limited to an skin is discussed in the section on “Cavity Flows
analysis and discussion of laminar shear flows. in Injection Molding.”
Extensional or stretching flows occur on the flow The idealized velocity profiles depicted in
front and at certain junctions in the injection Figure 3 as parabolas will be somewhat distorted
molding process. Extensional flows will be (i.e., somewhat flattened in the central region for
introduced later to reinforce specific points. molten plastics). It is important to note that
whether the molten plastic adjacent to the walls is
TRANSIENT FLOW hotter (viscous heating) or cooler (conduction
The injection molding process is a highly loss) than the walls, the no-slip boundary
transient process. That is, the flow rates in the condition at the wall is still maintained, and this
various channels are constantly changing. The wall effect never completely flattens the center
molten plastic in the barrel is initially at rest region. The velocity will always be maximum on
before it is injected through the distribution the midplane, assuming thermal symmetry about
channels and into the cavities. As the screw this plane. The misconception of “plug flow” in
moves forward to inject the molten pool, a high the center region is occasionally cited as a
pressure is generated at the screw tip. The molten characteristic, but this condition is never achieved
plastic accelerates through the interconnected with typical plastics. Extremely high filler loading
channels and into the cavities. The flow rates would be required to create a true plug flow in the
continuously change throughout the process, and central region.1
the changes can be very large. Despite these
At any location in the process the flow rate is
changes the flows are always laminar.
constantly changing. The flow field established by
Velocity Field Development the molten plastic moving through the various
Figure 3 illustrates how the velocity field channels constantly changes to minimize the
develops as the melt starts to flow out of the pressure losses (i.e., plastic always takes the path
barrel, through the nozzle, runners, and gates, and of least resistance). As the channel depth changes
into a cavity. Pressure-driven flow dominates at and/or the channel expands, the cross-sectional
all locations in the process. The development of area for flow changes, resulting in the flow either
the velocity field takes time, as shown in Figure 3 accelerating or decelerating. The changing flow
at five discrete process times. If the channel walls field continues throughout the entire fill as a
are at a lower temperature than the molten plastic, response to changes in channel dimensions and
as is typical for cold runners and cavities, some injection pressure. The mold temperature is
thermal energy will be transferred to the walls and typically not maintained at a uniform
a stationary plastic “skin” will form at the walls. temperature, and this also contributes to the
The stationary skin in these cases becomes an changing flow field.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 3. Velocity profile development for transient conditions: (a) at rest, before injection; (b) start of flow,
accelerating; (c) maximum flow rate; (d) cavity nearly filled, decelerating; (e) at rest, cavity filled.

3
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 4. Pressure-driven flow in a barrel.

BARREL FLUID FLOW high capacity to store thermal energy or heat. As

the molten plastic is filling the cavity, the plastic in
The molten plastic in the barrel is initially at
contact with the cavity walls rapidly solidifies and
rest before injection. When the screw moves
forms a layer adjacent to the walls. Figure 5
through the barrel during injection, a pressure-
depicts the skin-core macroscopic structure that is
driven flow field develops, as shown in Figure 4.
formed with a solid “skin” and a molten “core.”
The region in front of the screw tip is special
The filling proceeds by pressure-driven flow in the
because it maintains the high centerline velocity.
core. The same skin-core structure forms in cold
Molten plastic near the barrel wall is forced into
runners and large gates.1
the central region, as shown in Figure 4.1
Molten plastic in the central region of the The solidified layer (i.e. skin) thermally
barrel exits the barrel before any plastic near the insulates the core during filling. The skin
walls. The last plastic to enter the nozzle, runner, thickness does not change dimensions during
gate, and cavity is the molten plastic near the wall filling because conduction heat transfer is very
close to the end cap. Whenever the injection low due to the poor thermal conductivity of
conditions maintain a cushion, a large portion of plastics and molten plastic continues flowing
the cushion material is stagnant material near the through the core. If the channel temperature were
barrel wall at the transition between the barrel and maintained at the same temperature as the molten
the nozzle (i.e., an outer ring of material that does plastic during filling, the pressure-driven flow
not contribute to the flow). Each subsequent would be created between the channel walls, as
injection forces molten plastic through the ring, illustrated in Figure 1. The barrel, nozzle, and hot
but the screw stops short of forcing the outer ring runner manifolds maintain these conditions.
of material away from the wall. The basic skin-core structure (i.e., a skin that
completely encases a core) is unique to injection
CAVITY FLOWS IN INJECTION molding. It occurs for all plastics, injected at all
MOLDING rates and mold temperatures into all cavities. The
The injection molding process injects molten relative thickness of the skin and core vary,
plastics into cold molds to shape a part. Molds are depending on the material rheology and process
typically made from steel or other materials with conditions. Thus, it is referred to as a

Skin

AIR

Skin

Figure 5. Hydrodynamic skin-core structure.

4
®
 Plastic Flow

hydrodynamic skin-core structure because it is a front). This is the most critical region of the flow
direct consequence of a fluid being injected into in the cavity for property development. The
an empty cavity or channel. complex flow and deformation of the polymer
Coinjection molding is a process that molecules on the front is still not well understood.
generally injects two different molten plastics Experimental results and theoretical models have
sequentially into a cavity. When the plastics are of provided special insight into the phenomenon at
different colors, the skin-core structure is revealed the flow front.2-5
whenever a part is sectioned. Figure 6 shows a The no-slip boundary condition at the
schematic of the co-injection molding process
intersection of the cavity walls and the melt-air
where material “A” is injected first, followed by
interface creates a stretching flow as well as a
material “B,” and, finally, a small amount of
shear flow. The front continuously splits along the
material “A” again to fill the gate region. It is
midplane, allowing polymer molecules on this
important to note that all injection molded parts
interface to acquire a velocity in the thickness
have a similar hydrodynamic skin-core structure.
direction as well as a velocity component that
In traditional injection molding with a single
forces fluid elements down the channel. This
plastic, the boundary between the skin and core is
phenomenon has been termed fountain effect by
not easily identified, even when thin cross-
Rose6, who studied two immiscible fluids (i.e.,
sections are observed under a microscope.1 More
fluids that do not mix, like oil and water) in a
examples are presented in the chapter on co-
glass tube undergoing pressure-driven flow.
injection molding.
Tadmor7 applied Rose’s observations to injection
As mentioned earlier, the skin-core structure molding and termed the phenomenon at the melt
is created as a direct result of injecting a molten air interface fountain flow. Tadmor’s theoretical
plastic into a cold mold. The solid-state features model, though, considers only a purely viscous
of a molded part when viewed through the cross- fluid and prevents the interface from splitting.
section (i.e., morphology) will show considerable
variation. A quenched, featureless zone near the Fountain-flow studies with highly entangled
part surface is at times referred to as a “skin.” This molten polymers reveal the details of the splitting
thin zone is a result of very rapid heat transfer flow front. The experiments used fluid elements
adjacent to the cavity wall and should not be with colored tracers (i.e., molten polymer fluid
confused with the skin illustrated earlier. This will elements with inorganic pigment) positioned at
become more apparent later when the part precise locations in the melt pool in the barrel.
morphology is discussed in detail. When the melt pool is injected into the cavity, the
flow and deformation of these tracers clearly
FOUNTAIN FLOW shows the acceleration of fluid elements to the
The unique skin-core structure in all injection flow front, the splitting front and the movement to
molded parts is a direct consequence of the the cavity walls. This sequence was captured on
dynamics of the melt-air interface (i.e., flow movie film using a mold with glass windows.8

B
Cross Section

Figure 6. Co-injection molding process.

5
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Cross-sections of molded parts with the tracers core and their final shape in the skin provide
record the final deformation of each tracer.2-5 valuable insight for analyzing the splitting flow
front. The dynamics of the splitting front control
A two-dimensional pressure-driven flow is
both the molecular orientation in the skin, and
maintained far from the front. As the centerline
more importantly, the distribution of physical
fluid elements catch the front, the splitting front
properties through the cross-section which is
successively forces half of each element to the top
greatly effected by the deformation on the front.
wall and the other half to the lower wall. All fluid
elements on the front have three velocity F L O W I N E D G E -G A T E D
components, two planar (i.e., parallel to the plane
CAVITIES
passing through the parting line) and one in the
thickness direction. On the front all fluid elements When a gate is positioned along an edge of a
move down the channel with the same average part, plastic is injected through the gate at a very
velocity as the front. The component of velocity in high velocity. The walls of a typical gate direct the
the thickness direction varies greatly. It is nearly plastic in only one direction (i.e., parallel to the
zero adjacent to the midplane and zero at the axis of the gate channel). A much larger cross-
cavity wall. Between these two extremes, this sectional area for flow is established by the cavity
velocity component is a maximum, as illustrated walls downstream of the gate. The spreading
in Figure 7. The acceleration and deceleration of radial flow emanating from the gate is again a one-
the fluid elements on the front in the thickness dimensional flow (i.e., the fluid has a velocity only
direction constitutes a very strong extensional flow in the radial direction that varies in the thickness
(i.e., stretching flow). Only fluid elements on the direction). This flow is illustrated in Figure 8.
flow front and adjacent to this interface have a The transition between pressure-driven flow in
velocity component in the thickness direction. the gate to pressure-driven flow in the cavity
occurs rapidly as the molten plastic is injected into
Some of the molecular alignment that results
the cavity. The one-dimensional flow field
from the extensional flow on the front becomes
established in the gate channel (similar to Figure
frozen into the skin because this material is
3(c)) is transformed to a one-dimensional
rapidly quenched at the cavity walls. The lengths
diverging radial flow in the cavity adjacent to the
of the arrows in Figure 7 represent the relative
gate as seen in Figure 8. The pressure drop
magnitude of velocity components in the
between the gate and any position on the flow
downchannel direction and in the thickness
front at any point in time is always the same. This
direction.2, 8
pressure energy is what produces the specific
In the pressure-driven shear flow away from filling patterns (i.e., flow front positions with
the front, polymer molecules are also aligned. The time). The leading edge of the flow front is shown
experimental details of a tracer movement in the at two different times in Figure 8.

Skin

AIR

Skin

Figure 7. Schematic of fountain flow.

6
®
 Plastic Flow

FLOW

Figure 8. Flow into an edge-gated cavity.

The molten plastic continues to fill the cavity centermost region. Figure 9 depicts pressure-
with a semicircular flow front until the front driven, radial flow in a center-gated cavity.9
extends to the side walls of the cavity. The flow
The transition of the flow between the gate
front then flattens somewhat as the side walls
and the cavity is much more complex for this
resist the flow, redirecting the pressure energy
alignment than it is for the edge-gated cavity
down the rectangular channel. The same guiding
arrangement. The first plastic to enter the cavity is
principle is used to predict the filling pattern of all
forced to the opposite wall of the cavity as a “rod”
cavities, even the most complex with ribs, bosses,
or “jet” of molten plastic. This is shown in Figure
and changing channel depths.
10. The molten plastic rod in the cavity moves
The skin thickness generally varies like a solid because there are no lateral walls to
throughout complex cavities as the local front resist the movement. As the rod impinges on the
velocity changes with channel depth or gate opposite wall of the cavity, this wall creates an
pressure. The mold temperature and the melt “infinite” resistance. The forces in the rod are
temperature also affect the skin thickness, but then redirected radially in the cavity. The melt-air
these temperatures remain relatively constant interface deforms (i.e., bulges), as shown in
during the time it takes to fill the cavity. That is, Figure 10. Additional material injected into the
after the skin is quenched by the mold wall, the cavity pushes the interface down the channel,
skin thermally insulates the core and very little establishing the pressure-driven flow shown in
heat is transferred to the mold if the fill rate is Figure 9.
unchanged. The mold surface temperature
increases upon contact with the molten plastic at Once the pressure-driven radial flow is
the flow front, but it then remains nearly constant established in the cavity, fluid elements enter the
during the remaining time of filling. cavity in a very regular, orderly manner. The
constant velocity streamlines for the transition
between pressure-driven flow in the gate to
F L O W I N C E N T E R -G A T E D pressure-driven flow in the cavity are depicted in
CAVITIES Figure 11. These streamlines are actually surfaces
Center-gated cavities have the gate positioned with symmetry about the centerline. Fluid on one
perpendicular to the midplane of the cavity away streamline does not move to another streamline
from the part edge. The gate is most often during filling. In addition, once a fluid element
positioned in the center of the part, but at times it begins to move on a streamline it stays at the
is advantageous to position the gate outside the same angular position on the streamline surface

7
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

F
L
O
W

Figure 9. Flow into a center-gated cavity.

during the rest of filling, in this simple example. the velocity profile near the skin-core interface on
This also applies to complex cavities until the flow the side opposite the gate.
is redirected by such features as ribs, bosses, or
large variations in channel depth. Although there is a redistribution of fluid-
The streamlines redistribute the fluid-element element velocities after the elements enter the
velocities. This is easily seen by mapping fluid cavity, on the flow front, away from the gate-
elements in the gate to their cavity locations using cavity transition region, the fountain flow develops
Figures 9 and 11. The highest fluid velocity in the as described in Figure 7. Fountain flow in edge-
gate is in the center. After this fluid enters the gated cavities and center-gated cavities is exactly
cavity, it is directed to the slow velocity region of the same.

Figure 10. Development of diverging radial flow field.

8
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

B A R R E L -C A V I T Y F L U I D is 1B in this example, and it is found in the core in

ELEMENT MAPPING the gate region. If a cushion is maintained, then
only a portion of 1B is injected into the cavity.
The fountain flow discussed earlier produces a
highly predictable skin and core structure. The The preceding mapping is a direct
fluid elements making up the skin and core can be consequence of two conditions that are
mapped back to their original locations in the characteristics of all injection molding flows.
barrel. Figure 12 depicts this mapping for an edge- First, the high viscosity of the molten plastic
gated cavity.1 The different patterns that identify assures that the flow is always laminar with
the “A” elements should be thought of as parallel streamlines. Second, the fountain flow at
cylindrical volume elements, whereas the “B” the flow front splits the front, which distributes the
elements are annular volume elements. fluid to the cold cavity walls in a very regular
The molten plastic in the central region of the manner. The solid skin remains stationary during
barrel enters the cavity first and forms the skin. In the filling, packing, and cooling of the mold.
Figure 12 the 1A material flows out of the barrel, For center-gated cavities (sprue-gated cavities)
through the nozzle, runners and gates, and enters the mapping is similar to Figure 12, but it is
the cavity first. It becomes the skin closest to the necessary to analyze the barrel volume as if it were a
gate, as shown in Figure 8. The 2A fluid element rod in the center with two annular shells surrounding
follows the 1A material and becomes the skin the rod.1 This is depicted in Figure 13.
adjacent to the 1A skin, but further from the gate
than the 1A material. As this sequence continues,
HESITATION FLOWS
the screw continuously forces material from the
barrel walls into the central-flow region to The skin thickness is generally not uniform in
maintain the velocity profile, as shown in Figure 4. molded parts. As mentioned earlier, process
Hence, fluid element 5B enters the cavity after 5A conditions, material rheology, and mold
and is found in the core region at the far extreme temperature have a large effect on the distribution
of the cavity. The last material to enter the cavity of the skin thickness throughout a molded part.

Streamlines

Stagnation Point

Figure 11. Stagnation flow—velocity field redistribution.

9
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

5A

4A

3A

2A

1A
4B

3B
Melt Pool
BARREL
2B

1B

1A 2A 3A 4A 5A

Injection

1B 2B 3B 4B 5B
Figure 12. Edge-gated cavity—fluid element mapping.

Any design parameter or process condition A circular disk mold provides a very simple
that can affect the local flow rate in the cavity will example to illustrate the effects of process
affect the heat transfer and influence the skin conditions on skin-thickness variation. In this
thickness. A nonuniform mold temperature will example, consider that the injection rate, V
also contribute to a nonconstant skin thickness. (volumetric flow rate through the gate), is
The skin thickness at any location is a direct constant, and that the mold temperature is
uniform. For this common injection condition the
reflection of the balance between convection heat
flow-front speed will not be constant during filling
transfer (plastic flow) and conduction heat transfer
(to the mold wall).

10
®
 Plastic Flow

Figure 13. Center-gated cavity—fluid element mapping.

(i.e., the front will decelerate during the entire for flow. In a circular disk cavity the cross-
filling time). sectional area for flow is 2πRfH, where Rf is the
The flow-front speed is calculated as the radial position of the flow front at any time and H
injection rate divided by the cross-sectional area is the cavity depth. The flow-front speed at any
time is then V/(2πRfH). Because V and H are both

11
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

constant and Rf increases as the cavity fills, the cavity changes the mold temperature; more
flow front speed will decrease continuously specifically, the temperature distribution in the
throughout filling. As the front speed decreases, a cavity walls and the walls in the region adjacent to
thicker skin is produced. the cavity walls. Because molten plastic does not
heat the mold walls in a blocked cavity, the
The flowing plastic conveys thermal energy to
blocked cavity walls become a cold spot in the
the front. Some of this energy is removed by
mold. Over time this cold region can cool the
conduction to the mold walls. The rate of heat
adjacent mold cavities, further affecting the filling
conducted away by the mold walls is controlled by
characteristics of these cavities. With large parts,
the temperature difference between the molten
these cooler cavities will fill last.
plastic and the mold walls. Lowering the mold
temperature (increasing the temperature With smaller parts it is often observed that the
difference) will conduct heat away faster, open cavity on a runner with a blocked cavity fills
producing a thicker skin. Likewise, slowing the earlier than the other cavities. In this case, the
front speed produces a thicker skin because less mold temperature is not significantly lowered. The
thermal energy is conveyed to the front during any sudden increase of pressure at the gate of the open
time increment, yet the conduction to the mold cavity after the molten plastic reaches the gates
wall remains at the same level. causes a temporary increase in flow rate into the
open cavity. It is the rapid redirection of the
The variation in skin thickness can have an
pressure energy to the open cavity that produces a
effect on the filling pattern for complex mold
bias in filling behavior.
cavities. Thicker skins restrict the flow in the core
and can lead to a condition often called hesitation INFLUENCE OF FLOW AND
flow. When the flow in the core is severely HEAT TRANSFER ON
restricted, the flow front can even stop. As MORPHOLOGY
pressure builds in the cavity after the front moves
The skin at the mold walls is formed in two
into other regions of the cavity, the flow can once
stages. The splitting flow front directs highly
again begin in the region where it had slowed
oriented polymer molecules to the cavity walls.
down or stopped. The molecular orientation in the
These molecules are quenched as they contact the
skin and the skin thickness vary greatly. This type
cold walls, freezing in the orientation. The rapid
of filling progression generally leads to large
cooling of the molten polymer adjacent to the
variations in properties of a molding and should be
walls results in an initial stationary layer. Material
avoided.
adjacent to this layer continues to flow in the core
Another type of phenomenon occasionally and cools relatively slowly due to the insulating
referred to as “hesitation flow” occurs when the characteristics of the surface layer. This
cavity flow becomes restricted to one or more intermediate layer is often referred to as the shear
cavities of a multicavity mold. If the gate becomes layer. The hydrodynamic skin consists of the
blocked in one cavity of an eight-cavity mold surface layer and the shear layer. Experimental
during filling, for example, the pressure energy studies with pigmented tracers have revealed the
will be redistributed to the seven open cavities. details of the skin formation2-5 and the planar
The pressure drop between the nozzle and all gates dynamics captured on movie film using a cavity
will be the same if the runners are geometrically with a glass window.8
equal. In theory all open cavities will now fill the
The movement of a single tracer in a cavity at
same.
five different times during filling is depicted in
In practice, all cavities generally do not fill the Figure 14. The pressure-driven flow in the core
same. The open cavity on the runner with the deforms the tracer (initially entering the cavity
blocked cavity can fill first or last. The blocked about the midplane) into a “U” shape. The velocity

12
®
 Plastic Flow

distribution continues to extend the tracer in the Unless the process is interrupted during filling
shear field as it accelerates to the flow front. the skin thickness remains constant during the rest
When the leading edge of the tracer touches the of filling. Flow in the core is essentially at a
front, it splits and acquires a velocity in the constant melt temperature (i.e., isothermal flow
thickness direction as shown in Figure 7. As the conditions). This has been verified experimentally
flow front moves further into the cavity, the with tracers of different colors placed at different
leading edge of the tracer is directed to the mold locations in the barrel. There is no build up of
wall, where is becomes stationary upon contact. different colors in the skin as would be required if
This is illustrated in the third time step of Figure the skin were increasing in thickness during
14.10 filling.
The “V” tracer deformations shown in Figure
The large thermal mass of the mold walls 14 are general for all plastics, with amorphous
rapidly conducts heat out of the plastic as it and semi-crystalline polymers, including those
contacts the wall. The thickness of the layer containing particulate fillers. When fibers (e.g.,
initially quenched by the mold wall coincides short glass fibers) are used to reinforce a plastic,
with the point of the “V” of the tracer (Time Steps the “V” tracer pattern does not develop. The
4 and 5). The trailing portion of the tracer remains trailing portion of the tracer is not swept forward
in the slow-moving portion of the flow field until in the shear field. Instead, the final tracer pattern
sufficient heat is removed by conduction through for fiber-filled plastics is “S” shaped.
the growing skin layer. During this time this The pressure-driven flow and fountain flow
portion of the tracer continues to be sheared and is have a dramatic influence on the morphology or
eventually seen as a horizontal “V” (Time Step 5). solid-state structure (i.e., the macroscopic and
It is important to recognize that the trailing microscopic structure created in all molded parts).
portion of the tracer will continue to be deformed The deformed state of the polymer molecules in
by the shear flow in the core, as illustrated in the skin layer and the core are different and
Figure 14, until the skin fully develops, at which greatly influence the distribution of the physical
point the tracer will be solidified. and mechanical properties.

t1 t3
t2

t 4 t5

Figure 14. Tracer deformation at five time steps during filling a cavity.

13
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

REFERENCES
1. Schmidt L.R. Injection Molding: Advanced Concepts and Analyses, SPE Seminar Series (1992).
2. Schmidt L.R. “A Special Mold and Tracer Technique for Studying Shear and Extensional Flows During
Injection Molding,” Polym. Eng. Sci., 14, pp. 797-800 (1974).
3. Schmidt L.R. “The Interrelationship of Flow, Structure and Properties in Injection Molding,” Proceedings
of the Third World Congress on Chemical Engineering, 6, pp. 516-518 (1981).
4. Schmidt L.R. “Experimental Studies of Injection-Mold Filling,” Science and Technology of Polymer Pro-
cessing, Suh and Sung, editors. MIT Press, pp. 315-328 (1979).
5. Schmidt L.R. and Lovgren E.M. “The Influence of Injection Rate on the Development of Hydrodynamic
Skin-Core Structure in Injection Molding,” SPE ANTEC, 26, pp. 312-315 (1980).
6. Rose W. “Fluid-Fluid Interfaces in Steady Motion,” Nature, 191, pp. 242-243 (1961).
7. Tadmor Z. “Molecular Orientation in Injection Molding,” J. App. Polym. Sci., 18, pp.1753-1772 (1974).
8. Schmidt L.R. Injection Molding of Glass-Filled Polypropylene: Mold-Filling Studies I & II, LR Schmidt
Associates video tape (1973).
9. Schmidt L.R. “Velocity Field Rearrangement in Stagnation Flow Leading to Diverging Radial Flow
Between Parallel Plates,” J. Rheol., 22(6), pp. 571-588 (1978).
10. Schmidt L.R. Injection Molding Fundamentals, LR Schmidt Associates Seminar Series (1993).

All Figures reprinted with permission from LR Schmidt Associates.

14
®
MOLDING: MACHINE
START UP AND SHUT
DOWN PROCEDURES ®
ALEX MORA

INTRODUCTION This chapter is not meant to replace machine

operations manuals. For specific machines, the
In the 1960s the job of technician in injection best source of information is still what comes
molding was thought of as chiefly “removing a from the manufacturer. We will present the
mold and installing another.” One might suggest fundamentals of starting and ending operations,
that injection molding started to become scientific and, in some cases, offer techniques that have
in the 1970s. New philosophies (e.g., programmed proven successful within injection molding shops.
injection and process control) dominated Again, we should emphasize that none of the
conversations in the aggressive businesses. The procedures presented should be adopted without
image of the technician has changed over the years understanding the “whys and wherefores.”
from the mold installer to the “professional” who
spends most of the time studying the process and TOOLS
improving productivity. A technician should always have a full set of
appropriate tools, such as:
Still, there is a need to know how to install the
intricate molds of today’s manufacturing plant— • hand pyrometer with needle probe and
and to make sure they are productive. We will surface sensor
explain in this chapter what we think are the best • cutter pliers—copper alloy preferred
ways to do this part of the job properly. This may
• needle nose pliers
not be the only way, but for every step explained,
there were trials and errors, suggesting that doing • brass rod and pick
it this way will do the job right. In some cases, we • hammer (copper alloy preferred)
will identify other ways to accomplish a similar
end result. It has become obvious over the years
• Allen wrenches
that injection molders who provide different types • mold release (e.g., zinc stearate or neutral
of parts, made from different materials for oil)—check material supplier brochure for
different customers, have developed their own compatibility
best practices. It will be the combined experience • torch, propane—if allowed
and wisdom of the technicians, their supervisors,
and engineers to decide which techniques work • soldering iron
the best for them. • voltmeter and ammeter

15
Society of Plastics Engineers

• scale, in grams with at least two decimals aware of the mold design so that impacts
• micrometers, verniers with tools or prying the plastic from the
mold face will not jeopardize expensive,
• pressure gage—water and oil close-tolerance mold details.
• dew point meter • Propane torches may not be allowed on the
• water flowmeter shop floor; however, if available they can be
• clipboard with paper, pen and pencil, used to heat tools to enable easier removal
specification sheet of plastic.

• molding guide for the material that will run • Soldering irons can be handy for melting
(this is not only one sheet!) localized areas of plastic as well as helping
to open gates in runnerless molds.
What If?
For a brand new technician, the need for the • The hand pyrometer should be used to
previously listed tools may not be obvious. check the temperature of the plastic and the
Experienced technicians recognize the mold.
possibilities when faced with a task of starting up • The scale should be used to monitor part
a mold, especially if it is a new one. Any critical weight.
error can cause several thousands of dollars in
damage. This can be caused by improper machine • Micrometers and vernier calipers can be
settings or even misuse of tools. used to check part dimensions.
Give yourself every chance for success by • The clipboard with paper, pen, or pencil and
trying to find out: specification sheet should be used to
• What shot size do I need? document settings and changes; once “best
settings” have been achieved, the data
• What is a good approximate cycle time? should be stored on permanent records or
• What levels of pressure and velocity will be archived in a computer.
required? Once you are ready with all of the tools, you
If the mold has already been run, there should should mentally prepare for the first shot. Unless
be a datasheet for reference. If the mold is “new,” this is a replacement mold (identical to one that
you should have access to the parameters used was worn out), it may behave in some unexpected
when the mold was sampled prior to shipment to way. Many experienced technicians and engineers
your plant. If the mold was not previously have been humbled by an oversight or a failure to
sampled, you have to start from scratch. That is consider possibilities when the mold opens and
where the tools may be required as follows: the result is something unexpected.
• Copper alloy cutter pliers, needle nose Before Plastic is injected into the mold, think
pliers, brass rod and pick (like a rod only and ask yourself:
much smaller), and hammer may all be
What if:
required to remove parts from the mold.
Giving specific recommendations for part • The part comes out short. How is it going to
removal can be dangerous, so we offer some be ejected?
very important considerations. Never go
• If the mold is overfilled (flashed), can it
into a mold with tools made from ferrous
be damaged?
alloys (i.e., iron or steel). Damage can be
caused even though soft tools may be used. • Can I damage the mold when I take out
The important point is that you should be the part?

16
®
 Molding: Machine Start Up and Shut Down Procedures

• Can I damage the mold if I hit it with hoses or piping); each mold water
the brass? circuit should have an inlet and outlet
that go directly to an external manifold
• What happens if I overpack the mold (e.g.,
for increased flow.
part sticks, part cracks, mold will not
open—amorphous materials)? d. Tie down water hoses so they will not
ride on anything sharp. Watch the hoses
• Stand ready to inspect every shot coming when the mold moves.
out of the mold(s) and pay attention to
sounds and noises that the part(s) or the e. Make sure hose female connectors are
mold(s) make. in all the way and that they are snapped.

• Spray mold release where the part is more f. Tighten hose clamps.
likely to stick. g. If you use hot water, check conditions
of water hoses; if you use water or oil
• If the part sticks, how am I going to take it
hotter than 175ºF, consider using hoses
out? (Make a tool. Past experience shows
with stainless steel braiding; (the
that tools can easily be made with brass
threshold of pain is somewhere around
picks, rods, and a belt sander.)
130ºF).
Note: Hitting a mold with brass can cause
h. Check your plumbing by blowing air
extensive damage! Before you use brass in a
through circuits.
mold, think about the mold details in that area—
are they vulnerable to breakage or other damage? i. Leave valves open (to check for leaks).
j. Heat the mold in a closed position (if
GETTING THE MOLD READY you have a toggle clamp, do not lock the
Mold Set Up—Things to Do when Doing toggle); after a short period, check with
a Mold Set Up a pyrometer around the mold to make
1. Make sure all auxiliary equipment has sure the water is getting through.
been turned on and is ready to run; it may k. Check mold temperature controller’s
be advisable to turn a dryer on several vent valve to make sure it does not leak.
hours prior to start up so that the material
will be dry when the machine temperatures 6. Knock out (K.O. or ejector) bars.
come up. a. Check to make sure the ejector plate is
square and travels in alignment.
2. Turn on the main air and water lines to the
molding machine. b. Check the length of K.O. bars. They
should be the same length by eye-using
3. Turn the machine on. a straight edge. If they are not, it is very
4. Turn on low pressure—die set or set up easy to make them the same length.
mode. Make sure they are straight. They
should be installed with the machine
5. Figure out how you are going to “plumb”
“butterfly plate” all the way back. Hint:
the mold (i.e., hook up the water hoses):
One company standardized on sizes for
a. Preferred positioning would be opposite ejector bars (e.g., 7.5, 8, 8.5 in.). In this
the operator—in case one breaks. way, there is a lot less chance of using
b. Underneath (so it will not drip over the bars that may be of different lengths—
mold if it leaks) 0.5 in. difference is easily seen.
c. No hose loops (connecting a mold c. If you use bolts on ejector bars, do not
outlet to an adjacent inlet—to save on overtighten, but make sure they are

17
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 1. Clamps touching the mold clamping plate slots.

tight. The machine K.O. plate can go out d. How the parts drop: it may be beneficial
of squareness. Check the machine in some cases, to have parts drop on top
manufacturer’s data sheet for torque of lower cavities.
limits. Ejectors should never lay in the e. If “top” is different due to machine size,
machine ejector holes and be allowed to mark “Top with *****” (number of
flop around. This usually causes galling machine).
or premature wear.
8. To locate and set up a mold:
d. Some molds have spring-return ejectors.
On precision molds this can cause a a. Install eyebolts or safety rings at least
problem when the springs weaken or if 1.5 diameters deep into the mold base.
there is breakage, keeping the ejectors b. Before lifting, make sure there are safety
from returning fully. Any slides or side straps attached across all mold openings.
actions can become damaged or even
c. Center the mold on the stationary platen
completely broken (i.e., consider using a
and align it with the locating ring hole
safety electrical circuit to keep the mold
(in low pressure); the mold should hang
from closing when the ejectors are not
straight up and down.
all of the way back).
d. Lower the mold between the platens and
e. Lower ejection pressure to a low
slowly close the mold while aligning the
pressure (e.g., 200 psi).
mold, locating ring with the machine
f. Set with the mold closed. locating ring.

7. Mark “top” on top side of mold, depending e. Support mold hanging until clamps are
on: installed: if the mold is fastened through
the platen, now is the time to install bolts.
a. Water.
f. Level the mold: although one might
b. Mold measurement. argue that this is not necessary, it helps
c. Slides (or side actions)—these should insure that the clamps are located
generally operate back and forth, not up symmetrically compared with the center
and down, or else, if there is a failure in of the locating rings and will allow more
the mechanism that is supposed to keep equal forces to hold the mold in place.
the slide in position, it can fall, creating g. Put clamps in with the correct angle and
major damage. with the correct spacers; clamps should

18
®
 Molding: Machine Start Up and Shut Down Procedures

Figure 2. Placement of clamping bolts.

touch the mold clamping plate slots flat Insufficient torque may allow the mold
surface-to-surface (Figure 1). to loosen gradually. Too much torque
h. How many clamps should be installed? can lead to premature wear of the
This usually comes from experience and threads in the platen.
depends on the mold design. The k. After the mold is fixed to the platens,
locating ring usually helps hold the slowly open the mold and get an idea of
mold base on the stationary platen, so where you will set your positions for
less clamps may be required. Keep in clamp speed changes.
mind that the clamps maintain
9. Slowly close the clamp (make sure you are
alignment of components held to very
still in mold set):
tight tolerances. In addition, the force
holding the mold components to the a. Check to make sure you are in low
platens must be strong enough to pressure.
overcome the force opening the mold, b. Look to see when components from one
which could be significant if a part is side of the mold start to engage the
overpacked and causes sticking. other side. This may be a good spot to
(Parting line interlocks will not prevent slow the mold down during production
damage.) There are many rules of of parts—Remember, with a hydraulic
thumb. A good one is to install as many machine the momentum of the mold
clamps as possible. Another one is to and platen will cause the “slow-down”
install a minimum of four clamps on the to occur after the setpoint is reached.
stationary mold and six on the movable
c. Setting mold protect-mold kiss (i.e.,
mold. Less clamps should be used only
when the two halves of mold come
in special cases.
together). Setting this point varies
i. Put bolts as close to the mold as among machine manufacturers. The key
possible (Figure 2) (this should increase factors to remember are distance (very
the holding force). small), pressure (as low as you can get
j. How much torque? The machine it), velocity (if too slow, this will slow
manufacturers may show the maximum down the cycle), and time (there may be
torque allowed without damaging the a machine internal timer that will alarm
mounting holes. In addition, the bolts if the mold machine stays in “mold
have been rated for torque. For example, protect” too long). When this point is
an SAE 8 bolt, 0.5 in. in diameter, is reached a “prefill valve” or equivalent
rated for a torque of 128 foot pounds. will typically kick in. In many hydraulic

19
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

circuits, especially on hydraulic clamp e. Once the appropriate settings are made, it
machines, a “jack ram” will provide the is good practice to open and close the
speed—and the lower force—to close mold in mold-set a couple of times. Then,
the mold until you are ready for the switch to normal operation, set the
“kiss.” A jack ram typically applies machine to manual, and run the mold
about one tenth of the force a clamp unit closed then opened several times. It
can generate and becomes much more should look right and sound right. If any
precise than applying pressure over the peculiar noises are heard or if you see the
entire clamp cylinder. The “kiss” point mold is shifting, this is the time to make
switches over to the large clamp area the adjustments. Closing the mold should
and allows maximum tonnage to build, be a quiet operation. If “clanking” noises
thus, if there is a part caught, the set up are heard, this may be due to excessive
will cause the cycle to interrupt instead impacts of mold components and an
of closing the precision mold under full adjustment should be made.
clamp pressure on a piece of plastic. One
approach that seems to work well is to SPECIAL CASE: LOADING
set the mold movement so that the mold THE MOLD IN HALVES
“stalls” upon closing—even before any This procedure can be dangerous if not done
molding takes place. The argument is properly. We recommend the following as
that the absolutely lowest pressure/ guidelines only.
velocity settings have now been
achieved. To complete the adjustments, Install the stationary half first. The mold
the pressure should be increased until plates should hang vertically to allow alignment
the kiss point is made, and then “just a with the stationary platen. The locating ring will
help locate this part. Clamps should be installed to
little bit more” added. The reason for the
allow for the removal of the crane or hoist.
little bit more is that usually as the
process reaches a steady state operation, Hang the movable half to rest approximately
the mold closing forces will increase, centered on the movable platen. Install enough
and then they may exceed the setpoint. clamps to stabilize the mold. Make sure the
machine is in mold set! Close the clamp slowly
d. Consider the size of the mold to adjust and carefully watch to make sure that the leader
the tonnage or toggle. In general, the pins are aligning with the bushings. Start leader
mold base projected area should be at pin engagement. At this point it might be wise to
least half of the platen area. Set the loosen the mold clamps to make sure that there are
clamp tonnage according to the no undue stresses due to alignment problems.
projected area of the plastic between the Close the mold in low pressure. If you are
mold plates. There are many rules of convinced the mold is properly aligned, tighten the
thumb (e.g., 2-5 tons per/in.2). Judgment stationary mold clamps. Loosen the movable mold
must be used depending on the expected clamps to allow the movable side to break free
pressure build up and viscosity of the from the movable platen. Open the machine to
plastic. Using full clamp force for all produce daylight between the movable mold and
molds wastes energy, damages molds, platen. Install the ejector bars. Close the mold.
and makes processing difficult due to Reinstall the clamps on the movable mold. Now,
closed off vents. Using it for small remove the crane or hoist. Open and close the
molds can permanently damage the mold in low pressure to check mold movement as
machine. below.

20
®
 Molding: Machine Start Up and Shut Down Procedures

When half of a mold is left in the machine it speed and, once established, we must not move it.
should be protected with a wooden cover or other Because we do not know how much pressure will
device to avoid damage during loading or be required to deliver the injection speed that we
unloading the other half. desire, the hydraulic injection pressure will
initially be set to maximum and then later
COOLING MEDIA adjusted to be 200 psi greater than what is
(W A T E R /O I L /H O T /C O L D ) actually required. For machines with only two-
When hooking up the mold cooling check: stage capability the first stage can be used for fill
only, or for fill and pack. This would depend on
• It must be opposite to the operator or down the product being produced and the condition of
below to avoid spraying personnel if a hose
the mold. Fill and pack is generally not
breaks.
recommended, but it is used for some types of
• Loops or tees will not allow maximum molding (e.g., thin-wall molding, where the flow
water flow, so ask your supervisor or plant fronts freeze exceptionally fast).
manager if you need to do so.
Second Stage
• Tie up hoses to avoid any friction on the (We will call this Follow-Up Pressure)
sharp corners.
These are the pressures after the first stage that
• Make sure all connectors are placed we use to finish filling and packing the part, or
correctly and tighten the hose clamps. these can be used as the holding pressure(s). This is
• Check the hoses and make sure to use the determined by how much pressure the mold can
ones in best condition when using hot withstand before it flashes or before it overpacks or
water. (Better yet, get rid of “bruised” or the part sticks, or the ejectors start to stress.
even slightly damaged ones.) Injection Speed
Hook up any air or hydraulic connections for This is determined by the plastic amount, or
core pulls. volume, that can go through the runner and the
Getting the Machine Ready gates without flashing. In addition, the aesthetics
When checking the nozzle: of the part determine how quickly we can inject.
Up to a limit, the faster you inject the easier the
• confirm nozzle size—radius (usually 0.5 or plastic flows.
0.75 in.)—must match sprue bushing in the
mold Screw Speed
(The Speed at which the Screw Returns—rpm)
• length (shortest possible)
This is determined by the type of plastic that
• type (Nylon, etc.) we are molding, or by the cure time. Ninety
• orifice ( “O” dimension (smallest) or less percent of cure time should be used to return the
by 1/32 or so) screw. The design of the screw and the type of
material that is molded determine the speed at
Setting up the Process Parameters
which the screw rotates as it returns.
First Stage (Boost, Fill Stage)
Cure Time (Cooling Time)
The hydraulic pressure that we use on fill and
filling time depends on plastic flow resistance The time that the plastic is cooling inside the
when the mold fills. Allow at least 200 lbs. of mold, after injection, is determined by the cooling
pressure (psi) more than required to be sure that of the mold, the thickness of the part, and the type
we do not restrict speed and have inconsistencies. of plastic being molded. This affects the
This pressure has an interaction with the injection shrinkage of the part and the dimensions.

21
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Fill Time (Booster) plastics heat up and mix better. It is determined by

This is the time that takes to fill the part from the plastic that we are molding; in general we
90 to 99%. It is determined by the injection speed. must use 50-100 lbs. (psi) of backpressure for
We generally recommend speeds that fill fastest, consistency if the plastic permits it. Running a
consistent with part quality. It is also called machine at “zero” backpressure has been known
“first-stage time.” to cause problems. When you set a zero value, the
actual pressure comes from line losses in the
Hold Time (Used for Follow-Up Pressures) hydraulic system (estimated 30 psi). Experiments
It is the time of injection after fill. This could have shown that this can lead to erratic machine
be the time of packing or holding. The maximum behavior. It is recommended that a minimum value
time of packing or holding is determined by the (e.g., 50 psi) be set on the machine controller.
time it takes for the gates to freeze. It affects the
Mold Temperature
part weight and dimensions.
Cycle Time This is the temperature of the mold to run a
certain type of material; we know it when we read
It is the total time used to make one shot. It the molding guide for this material. It should be
covers all the actions of the machine, including the measured on the surface of the mold with a
opening and closing. Cycle time can be measured pyrometer. Infrared temperature guns can give
at any point in the cycle, to the same point in the false readings, and if used, measure the mold
next cycle. surface directly and calibrate with a pyrometer.
Melt Temperature The water flow and temperature that cools the
It is the temperature at which the plastic mold and the amount of cooling channels in the
should be molded. The best place to go for a mold affect it. We must read it when the mold is
starting temperature is the material supplier’s running, between cycles. It affects the mechanical
molding guide for your specific material. This data properties of the plastic. One way to keep track of
was developed by the material supplier to give the mold temperature is to use an ejector or core pin
temperatures that have resulted in the best with a thermocouple installed.
physical properties. This temperature is read by Injection Profile
taking an air shot and sticking a hot probe into it,
after the machine has been running for at least 15 For the typical profile of injection, the filling
minutes. If your pyrometer response is slow, it time almost fills the part, then the second stage
would be a good idea to warm the needle probe finishes the filling of the part and packs the part.
before shoving it into the melt puddle. It is also a Injecting at one speed or at a constant speed is the
good idea to coat the needle with a dab of grease best recommendation—and the easiest. For
or mold release so that the plastic can be wiped off machines with more stages, the sequence would
of the needle. Do not use any flammable agents. normally be fill, pack, and then hold (maybe at
The melt temperature affects the physical different pressure setpoints).
characteristics of the parts. It is a good idea to Injection Speed Profile
make a note of the melt temperature compared
with the front zone and nozzle setpoints. It is sometimes necessary to vary the injection
speed, and use two or three speeds on the
Back Pressure injection. This may be necessary to eliminate flow
This is the restriction to the oil on the back of marks in the gate or close to it by injecting slowly
the injection piston, when being pushed back by in the beginning, and then getting faster. To
the pressure created by the plastic that enters to support a core, we sometimes inject slowly, then
the front of the “nonreturn” valve when the screw faster. This feature comes in handy with shear
is turning. It makes the screw work harder. The sensitive materials and/or difficult-to-mold parts.

22
®
 Molding: Machine Start Up and Shut Down Procedures

Transfer Point (and Methods to Control It) movement of the screw or injection cylinder,
The transfer point (a.k.a. VPT) is the point in usually within the last 0.5 in. of the stroke. This is
the injection forward motion of the screw when it a more accurate way of controlling the volume of
changes from first stage or fill time to second plastic injected during the fill stage. Use this
stage or low volume injection (Note: read combined with time. For example, if it takes 2
definition of first stage and second stage.) In order seconds to get to the position you want, give the
to use second stage we must choose how to machine 0.25 seconds more to compensate for
control this change or transfer. There are typically variation. In this manner whatever happens first
four options to control it. will control the machine. If a cavity freezes and
Transfer by Time the screw does not reach the position, the time will
run out and transfer to second-stage pressure. Do
This method lets you adjust time in fractions
not use more than one quarter to one half a second
of seconds, and when time runs out the injection
more than what is needed, so that the cavity does
changes from first stage pressure and high volume
not get severely overpacked and cause mold
to second-stage pressure and low volume. This is
damage. Logic used by one manufacturer requires
probably the worst way to control the transfer
point because it does not take the changes in that both the timer and position setpoint be
material viscosity during fill into consideration. satisfied to activate the transfer from fill to pack.

Transfer by Hydraulic Pressure Transfer by Cavity Pressure

Hydraulic pressure transfer relies on reading This method may be an option on a molding
machine hydraulic pressure at a certain point or machine, requiring a transducer to be installed in
segment to make the transfer from fill to pack. the mold behind the head of an ejector (or other)
Typical results from the shop floor show that this pin or directly on the surface of the cavity. When
is the least accurate technique. In fact, as with the pressure of the plastic inside the cavity raises
many machine adjustments, if not properly as the mold fills, this transducer senses the
understood, “fine tuning” may actually introduce pressure and tells the machine to transfer to
more variation into the process. We recommend
second stage. Placement of the transducer is
against using this technique because the other
critical. If placed in the runner, cavity-specific
techniques are easier to understand and can
information will be lost. If placed at “the last
accomplish similar or even better results. For
place to fill” the short duration of information
accuracy, this method requires machine
conditions, specifically hydraulic oil conditions, transmitted may result in unreliable performance.
to be very accurate over the operating life of the If this cavity is blocked, all information is lost.
machine. Hydraulic and machine conditions Another factor to be considered is the cost of the
unfortunately change over time and may vary transducer and installation.
with operating temperatures (e.g., oil temperature, (Editor's note: Many technical papers have
wear, degraded oil conditions). Even more
been written comparing transfer modes and the
importantly, this requires the material viscosity to
one conclusion always drawn is that transferring
be very consistent over time. This is not the case,
by time is the worst. Depending on the paper, we
due to the methods used in the manufacture of
have seen conclusions that say cavity pressure is
polymers. Having regrind in the mix may add
even more viscosity variation than virgin material. most accurate, and other conclusions suggest that
position, hydraulic, and cavity pressure control
Transfer by Position yield similar results. If there is no appreciable
This method allows you to control the transfer difference, position transfer seems to be favored
point by selecting a position in the forward because of its simplicity and lower cost.)

23
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Transfer by Parting Line Separation until it gets to 500 or less for the last second. This
(A Fifth Technique to Transfer) allows the machine to save energy, and the gate
There have been suggestions that this area is not going to be overpacked with built-in
technique provides a robust method for controlling stresses because of too much pressure. If used
a process. For more information, refer to the properly this technique can help control shrinkage
chapter on optimizing the molding process. differentials, and possibly reduce warpage.

Programmed Injection Steps To Be Taken When Filling the Mold

(or Stepped Injection Speeds)
Set the machine controller to transfer between
With new control designs we get to select first and second stage by means of screw position.
various or different speeds during injection. First, If available, set a back-up transfer method by
we must understand that the best way to fill the means of time or hydraulic pressure. If it is safe,
mold is to use one speed and to maintain that set the first stage pressure to maximum, initially.
speed constantly. Some molds might require (Note: This should be done only if the machine has
varying the speed for different reasons. programmed injection or can provide true velocity
For example: control for the first part of the injection cycle.) Set
the second stage pressure to zero, initially; and the
• Gate blush or gate defects. Inject very injection speed to midrange of the velocities. Set
slowly until the plastic goes through the
the shot size or the feed of the screw to about your
gate area, then inject fast or at whatever
calculated or actual shot size of the mold and your
speed you need to get good part.
transfer point or cut-off position to transfer with a
• Unsupported cores. Inject fast to go around large cushion so a short shot can be obtained. (If
the core or cores, then slow down to the for some reason you do not want to get a short
speed needed. shot, set the transfer close to screw bottomed-out
position with almost no cushion. See the following
• Shifting core. Inject slow to go around the
filling procedures 1 and 2). Set the cure timer
core, then inject faster to the speed needed.
conservatively long so the part will eject and set
Big parts—inject as fast as you need, then
the backpressure to a minimum (e.g., 50 psi),
slow down before you get to transfer
depending on the type and size of the screw and
position. Remember, every time you vary
screw drive. If possible, always use some
the injection speed you change the viscosity
backpressure.
of the polymer. The faster you inject, the
more liquid it becomes; the slower you Determine which of the following procedures
inject, the more viscous it becomes. should be selected, based on how large the short
Step Injection Hold Pressure
shot needs to be so it can be ejected from the
(or Follow-Up Pressures) mold. This can be determined by the location of
the ejector mechanism, blades, lifters, unwinding
With the new controls we get to select more
cores, and the like.
than one hold (or follow-up) pressure. Some
machines have pack pressure, then hold pressure. Filling Procedure 1 [short shot <90% (i.e., less
In this case you finish filling on pack, then change than 90%) of full part and can be properly ejected].
to hold. If you do not have pack stage, you finish Increase the injection speed progressively, in
filling on hold or second stage, then pack, 0.2 in./second increments, until part begins to flash
followed by hold. For start ups if you are using 6 or cosmetic defects appear on the parts. Then,
seconds of total holding time, we recommend that decrease the injection speed slightly until the flash
the first 2 seconds should be at your high hold or the cosmetic defects go away. The cut off
pressure; then, for every second or fraction of time position value (i.e., toward the nozzle) should then
left on hold, you should step down the pressure be decreased until the part is 95-99% full.

24
®
 Molding: Machine Start Up and Shut Down Procedures

Filling Procedure 2 [short shot must be >90% • Take a hand pyrometer with a surface
(i.e., more than 90%) of full part so that the part sensor and measure the actual part surface
can be ejected from the mold]. Your shot size on and mold temperature, on the core and on
the machine must be big enough to fill the part or the cavity. Record it.
the parts in the mold. Set the cut-off position to • Speed up the cycle by taking off time from
almost no cushion. the cooling timer, 2 seconds at time.
Inject one shot at a time, increasing the Continue doing this until the part
injection speed in 0.2 in./second increments and temperature (check with a pyrometer and
increase the cut-off position value (i.e., away surface probe) at the thickest section at
from the nozzle) in small increments as you see ejection is 30ºF less than the heat distortion
fit, 0.1-0.2 in. at a time. Repeat this until the parts temperature (when tested at 264 psi) of the
either start to flash or develop cosmetic defects, polymer being molded.
then slightly decrease the injection speed until the • Check the part for warp and dimensions,
flash or the cosmetic defects go away. Remember, and check for proper ejection. If the part is
if the part flashes, it can be because you are fine, continue running. We recommend
injecting too fast, blowing open the mold due to monitoring the part surface temperature for
too much pressure in the cavity in the area near the next 2 hours. If the part surface
the gate or transferring too late, or blowing open temperature goes up, it would indicate the
the mold due to too much material in the mold cooling is not adequate, so lower the water
cavity. A careful analysis must be done. Adjust temperature, increase your flow, remove
the cut-off position to fill the part safely close to loops, and so on. If the parts that came out
99% full, or enough so it can always be ejected. of the mold immediately after the cycle
Packing the Part time reduction are good, then as long as
(Finish Filling and Packing the Part) you maintain the same part surface
temperature in the cavity and the core, the
Set the second stage (hold) timer to 2-3
parts will continue to be good. If the
seconds initially. Raise your packing pressure to
cooling system is not adequate, the part
50% of the peak (first) injection pressure (this is
surface temperature will go up and the
the maximum pressure the screw used right
cycle will have to be slowed down to
before it transferred to second, also called cut-off
compensate for a poor cooling system.
pressure). Continue to increase the second-stage
Remember the cooling system includes the
pressure until the screw does not bounce back and
chiller, the water flow, the mold
continues to move forward to finish filling and
temperature controller, the number of
packing the part. Increase your holding time
cooling channels and location in the mold,
enough to see that screw stops moving forward.
and the hoses and loops. All of this directly
Establish your gate seal time by weighing the affects the cooling time and the cycle time
parts as you increase your holding time. Once the
weight quits going up, it means that the gate S H U T D O W N ( A N D S T A R T -U P )
froze, so leave an extra second of hold time for PROCEDURES
consistency. The proper way to shut down a molding
machine is one thing, and whether it should be
Setting the Cooling Time
purged or not is determined by the type of plastic
Most of the time used to mold a part goes into that is being molded. While surveying the
cooling the plastic in the mold, so setting an committee, it became obvious that there is no one
economical cooling time is essential. Once a good way to do these things and satisfy everyone’s
part is molded we must do the following: needs. I will describe different examples of the

25
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

shut down. Shutting down the machine properly is Although we would normally recommend that
important because it will lengthen the life of the the material suppliers’ data sheet be used to
equipment and save production headaches. establish purging procedures, over the years we
have seen a lot of discrepancies among the
Without Mold Change
documents. For example, polystyrene is
Shut down for the Weekend or Holiday, or recommended by one polycarbonate supplier (but
Because of No Operator, or Because the Order not another) to give the best results purging;
is Finished however, it is typical for polystyrene to leave a
Begin by shutting off the feed, and then letting strong smell. In some plants the polystyrene would
the screw run out of material if you are running a never be used—and maybe the purging not done—
nonheat-sensitive or a nonflame-retardant material, because the personnel found the odor offensive.
or a material that will not quickly degrade or Mold Change
chemically degrade with heat. Finish emptying, and
retract the screw back to the limit switch, or to the Taking a mold out of the press
position where it indicates that the screw is back. Clean and spray faces of mold with
Leaving the screw in the forward position can lead corrosion preventive
to breakage of tips if the machine is not started • Start the machine on low pressure (die-
properly. Many processing guides suggest that the set or set-up).
screw be left in the forward position. This
minimizes the possibility of plastic that has been • Close the mold under low pressure, start
partially melted, breaking away from the barrel loosening the clamps. (Do not remove
surfaces, then falling toward the bottom of the the clamps yet! The eyebolt(s) must be
barrel. This may cause the screw to shift when the secured to the hoist or chainlift first.)
first “inject forward” operation takes place. With Remove any bolts from K.O. bars.
some plastic materials leaving surfaces of the barrel • Separate the mold from the movable
exposed to air at high temperatures may cause platen to remove the bars (K.O.), and
premature corrosion problems. then close the platen against the mold.
For Heat-Sensitive and Flame-Retardant Secure any safety straps.
Materials
• Place the eyebolt and tie the mold
We recommend purging the screw with securely with the chain to the forklift
polyethylene or polypropylene, and then leaving or hoist, release the mold from the
the screw in the rear position. If you do not know front platen, and then take it out.
what type of material you are molding, read the
molding guide. The only materials recommended • Attach the last shot to the mold and ID
to be left in the barrel without purging are usually of the person who took it out. Fill out a
polyethylene, polypropylene, styrene, and mold repair ticket if available. It is
nonflame-retardant ABS. In general, anything else helpful to include the last shot or two,
should be purged. (Note: Special situations may including the runner!
exist in your shop that dictate other procedures. If • Wipe and clean the platens.
this is the case, they should be documented to
make sure that everyone does it the same way. The
• Mark or identify the left-over material
and the regrind material from the grinder
way to the easiest start ups is by shutting the
and place them on the correct rack.
machines down according to “best practices.”) In
addition, shut off the water to the mold, the heats, • Clean up the drier used to replace the
the heats to the mold if it is a hot runner, and the material with a new material to be
dryer and the pump motor. dried (if it requires it).

26
®
 Molding: Machine Start Up and Shut Down Procedures

• Clean the grinder, mark it with the color, clear, or white, I suggest you start the
number of the new material and machine with clean regrind of the same material if
identify drier and hopper. you have some. After the machine is cycled in and
the parts are coming out clean with no black
Shut down for mold change and start up
specks, put in the virgin expensive material.
on the same day
If you are running a nonheat-sensitive Getting the Mold Ready
material and you are going to continue (see section on Mold Set Up)
using the same material, shut off the feed, If the mold uses hot water, heat up the mold
empty the screw, leave the screw in the with the mold closed (i.e., never heat molds in the
rear position, and lower the temperatures open position), close them and leave the toggle in
of the barrel down to 300ºF. Proceed with the unlocked position or the hydraulic clamp with
the mold change, and after the set up has no pressure. Locking the toggle under these
been completed, raise the temperatures to circumstances could create tremendous forces and
the running temperature of the material possibly damage the molding equipment. It is
and then start up the machine possible that the clamp may not be able to
immediately after the temperatures overcome this force to open.
reached the set point.
Getting the Material Ready
If you are running a heat-sensitive
material or the mold change requires a If the material is hygroscopic, you must dry it
material change properly (see section on drying materials). Read
In this case you must purge the screw the molding guide of the material.
with polyethylene or polypropylene, leave Getting the Machine Ready
the screw in the retract position, lower the
temperatures to 300ºF, and then proceed Start up the motor so the oil will come up to
to do the mold change. Never have the temperature, establish the kiss point to the two
heats on greater than 300ºF while doing a halves of the mold, adjust the mold protection or
mold change or when the machine is low pressure, and adjust the ejection pressure to
down and not running. the minimum needed for the mold. Always inject
the screw first at the start up. Never turn the screw
Purging Procedures first at the start up. Machine shut down
In case of a shut down for personnel breaks procedures typically suggest that the barrel be
(or lack of operator), if you are not running a emptied completely and the screw left in the
heat-sensitive material, shut off feed, empty the forward position. There may be reasons for doing
screw, leave the screw in the rear position, lower it this way; however, if done improperly, or if the
temperature to 300ºF, shut off water to the mold, temperature setpoints for the next operation allow
turn off dryer, turn off power to the hot runner, or the screw to turn before the residual material in
lower the temperature of the hot runner to 300ºF. the front of the barrel is melted, the result can be
Shut off the pump motor. If the mold has a mold shearing of the screw tip or some other damage to
heater, lower the temperature to 100ºF and leave the screw. Leaving the screw farther away from
the mold closed with the toggle unlocked. the end cap virtually eliminates this possibility
from happening. When in the fully forward
Proper Machine Start Up
position the screw should be 0.06 - 0.09 in. away
First, you must get the machine, the material, from the end cap; however, if the shut down or
and the mold ready. If it is an expensive material start-up procedures are improperly done, the
(i.e., more than a dollar a pound), and if it is light machine could be damaged.

27
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

High Temperature and Noncompatible Materials the injection unit forward and, in manual mode,
There are some polymers that are not run the extruder to fill the manifold with plastic.
compatible with others, and any contamination of When the manifold and barrel are full, proceed to
the two can cause an explosion. An example single cycle the machine. In this way you will start
would be PVC and any acetal, (e.g., Delrin™ or the process with fresh plastic throughout. (Unless
Celcon™). Any combination of PVC and acetal you know that the hot drops are bolted onto the
can become a bomb. Most polymers will degrade manifold, you should never purge a runnerless
and decompose with temperature and time. A few system by injecting with high pressure through it.
are very sensitive and can blow up in less than 5 If there is any type of blockage, you could blow
minutes if they are left in the barrel at high open the seal between the hot drop and manifold
temperatures (e.g., acetals). PVC might not blow and then fill the air cavity around the manifold
up, but it will degrade and stink in less than 5 with hot molten plastic. This could end up
minutes. The only two materials that will take high covering heater and thermocouple wiring for the
temperatures and more time are polyethylene and runnerless system and cause damage to their
polypropylene. Use these two to purge high- insulation. Always extrude through the runnerless
temperature materials and any other material, and system first to determine if there are any
make sure the screw has been purged with blockages.)
polyethylene or polypropylene before raising Take heed that once the plastic in a runnerless
temperatures for high-temperature materials. system is allowed to degrade, it is very difficult or
Never follow PVC with acetal or vice versa. impossible to clean out while still in the machine.
Runnerless Molds If many runnerless molds are run in your
A runnerless system will add at least one other operation, it may be wise to purchase a fluidized
step to mold start up—turn on the runnerless bed cleaner to clean manifolds (and screw
controller. There are several systems available, components) outside of the machine area.
including some that require two different zones of If you find that when the mold opens some of
control per cavity (plus the runnerless distribution the gates have little balls of plastic in front of
system) and some that ask for setpoints in terms of them, they should be removed immediately.
amps instead of actual temperature. Knowing the Closing on these pieces can damage intricate mold
temperature at some point in the manifold, or details and may prevent the next shot of plastic
somehow monitoring what might be considered a from coming through. It does not take long to
“melt” temperature, seems to be a practical view realize that temperature control in the gate area is
for designing a runnerless system. critical and may be difficult if the mold is designed
The minimum requirements are the material improperly. When removing these pieces, always
manufacturer’s data sheet and the operations move the injection carriage back away from the
manual for the runnerless system. One common mold, and never place your body in front of these
thread flows through each system design: It can pieces. If there is any pressure built up behind the
and will heat up very fast. For this reason, it is pieces, when you break them loose, they will fly
suggested that you turn on the runnerless heat out like a bullet, and could cause bodily harm.
control shortly before expecting to first cycle the There are also some safety considerations
machine. Keep your eye on the temperature while here. If a process stops and the runnerless
purging. When the purging looks clean, bring the controller is not tied into the molding machine, the
injection unit forward (without any plastic on the molding machine may have safety features to shut
nozzle tip), push the single cycle or semi- down the heat, but the manifold will continue to
automatic mode button, and proceed to make cook the plastic. This can very quickly end the
parts. If the runnerless system has never been used production run and cause permanent mold
before, one technique that works well is to bring damage. One solution is to interface the controller

28
®
 Molding: Machine Start Up and Shut Down Procedures

with a machine function, automatically shutting soon see the material come out of the nozzle. For
down the controller when the machine stops less viscous materials, it is recommended that you
operating. Some controllers can actually sense run the screw for 10-15 seconds, or until the purge
when a zone is going out of control and signal looks consistent. Getting the screw to move back
alarms for that situation along with broken or may be a challenge. One way is to jog the
open thermocouples. Although these can cause “extruder run” (or equivalent) switch so that the
some grief for the technician, they are worth the screw will run, then pause, then run again. This
money to keep the system safe. normally gets the screw back. Faster start up can
Degradation Problems in Runnerless Systems usually be obtained by using your “suckback” or
“decompression” to move the screw back almost
Once the runnerless system is filled with
until the shot size setpoint, and then rotating the
degraded plastic, one might suggest that a process
screw until it reaches the shot size setting. For
is doomed. In a pinch, it may pay to try some
higher viscosity materials, the screw may go back
unusual tactics. When some degraded plastic is in
too fast. If it does, it may be a good idea to increase
the gate area, resulting in streaks in the parts, the
the backpressure temporarily to hold the screw
streaks can sometimes be made to disappear by
forward until the purging material is completely
increasing the temperature in the gate area. Why
cleaned out of the barrel. Once the purge becomes
would this work?
consistent, reduce the backpressure to your normal
Increasing the temperature causes the setting and bring the screw back.
effective flow channel to increase in size.
If drool occurs, it must be cleaned from the
Continuing the injection of plastic through the
nozzle surface prior to bringing the injection unit
larger flow channel can sometimes “wash” the
forward. If the nozzle continues to drool, the
degraded plastic through the gate and into the
nozzle temperature may be too high, or the
melt stream, and then into the parts. Once the
material may be too wet. If these problems cannot
degraded pieces of material have come through
be solved right then, the screw should be sucked
the gates, the temperature should be returned to
back until there is no plastic between the nozzle
its original setting and the process observed to see
tip and the sprue bushing. There is sometimes a
if the streaking has disappeared.
faster and a slower way to bring the injection unit
Loose thermocouples can cause the forward to touch the mold. With some machines,
temperatures to “bounce around,” causing the if the clamp is closed, the hydraulic circuit will
controller to become confused. Some controllers cause the injection unit to move forward fast. This
can sense this and will sound an alarm. Some procedure may damage the mold or even the
controllers have the capability to track more than nozzle, especially in the case of a recessed sprue
one zone of the system to monitor for bushing, because the support steel could be
peculiarities. If you have this capability, you appreciably less than a normal sprue bushing.
should use it. With the appropriate settings, the machine should
Taking the first shot perform relatively quietly, with a minimum of
Once you have verified that everything is vibration. Without appropriate machine
hooked up and the relevant equipment is ready to mountings, a noisy, vibrating machine can
go, it may be a good idea to open and close the actually start to move along the floor!
mold a couple of times while the machine is in If there is any doubt about parts coming out
“manual” control. If you are convinced that the on the first cycle, it would be a good idea to start
mold travel setpoints are OK, then purge the in the “single cycle” mode. The machine will stop
machine and open the hopper gate to let the when the cycle is completed and the gate usually
appropriate material into the injection unit. The has to be opened and/or closed to start the next
screw will likely make more noise, and you will cycle. It is always a nice feeling when you see the

29
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

mold open, you have injected approximately the cause the ejectors to come forward and “break”
correct amount of material into the mold, and then the slides right out of the mold. This could be $50
it ejects out of the mold! to $50,000 worth of damage—and no doubt the
From here on some “tweaking” might need to process will be shut down until the mold is fixed.
be done until you get a good cycle. There is one When in doubt, wait until the machine is stopped
very important note: Even the most capable and before making changes at the operator station.
confident technicians will be caught on occasion
when they change machine settings while the The next steps will be to identify problems
process is going. One wrong button push can with the process or optimize the molding cycle.

30
®
MOLD MAINTENANCE
ROBERT W. DEALEY

The mold is a finely crafted, one-of-a-kind, running, once a shift, once a day, or once a week.
expensive tool that requires care and preventive When the mold is removed from production and
maintenance. When damage occurs, the mold then the more detailed mold tear-down procedures,
needs major repair, often at great expense, for it to depending on the number of cycles completed.
regain its performance and keep it running at peak Each type of mold is different, but a
performance. The technician plays a major role in conventional mold can typically run 250,000
taking care of the mold while it is production, as cycles before a major maintenance procedure
well as prescribing work required when the mold (semi-annual) is required. The annual procedure
is pulled out of service. could then be scheduled for 500,000 cycles. This
is of course provided that a good preventive
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
maintenance program is addressing the smaller
Even though each mold is different, there is a issues before they can grow into major problems.
certain commonality. They can be scheduled for
certain maintenance procedures either by time or It is best to review your type of mold and
by the number of cycles run. Let us start with establish a program that is “proactive” (i.e., one
outlining a preventive maintenance procedure. that discovers problems before they have had a
chance to do damage and maintains the targeted
Based on time, a schedule could be cavity efficiencies established by your molding
established to perform certain functions once on team). The time to perform the maintenance
each shift, others once a day, some once a week, should be defined and scheduled into your
and more detailed work once a month. production runs. This will insure that the mold is
More intense work could be scheduled on a available when parts are required and will not be
semi-annual or even annual basis. Of course, not in the repair shop.
all molds run 100% of the time. In these situations
it makes more sense to perform the functions at I N -P R E S S M A I N T E N A N C E
mold shut down. For others the number of cycles PROCEDURES
run can be used to identify the requirements for For all in-machine mold maintenance
the procedure. procedures, turn off the machine, interlock
Many successful molding operations use a machine controls so the machine cannot be
combination of both. They perform the started, block mold on vertical machines to
maintenance procedures, when the mold is prevent the top half from drifting down, and

31
Society of Plastics Engineers

observe all safety precautions. Use extreme much may result in grease actually falling
caution to prevent injury to yourself and others. from the mold surface into the part collection
Read and follow your molding machine safety container, contaminating the products.
procedures for working on the mold. Consult with
7. Detect if any water or coolant is leaking.
your supervisor on the safe and proper methods
for performing these maintenance procedures. It is 8. Check the mold for any stuck plastic parts,
crucial for the safety of all personnel to render the flash, or foreign objects that are lodged or
machine and mold inoperable and unmovable stuck in any openings, bolts, or leader pin
before performing any inspection or maintenance bushings.
procedure when the mold is in the machine.
9. On molds with movements (e.g., slides,
The frequency of the in-press maintenance lifters, wedges, rack, collapsible, or
will vary depending upon the company, type of rotating cores), determine if proper
mold, and program implemented by the molding lubrication is present for the movements.
team to maintain the proper balance between
machine, molding and cavity efficiency, and mold 10. Check mold surfaces to determine that they
availability. Molds are typically cleaned and are not gased or fogged up, stained, or
inspected once per shift and lubricated on one of discolored.
the daily shifts. 11. If no major problems are found, perform an
If any sign of trouble is noted, be it from in-mold cleaning procedure. Paper towels
observing the parts or the mold, hearing or are frequently used to remove excess and
smelling something abnormal, or for any other old grease, residue, or foreign material
reason that molding conditions change, stop the from the parting line. Insure that the paper
machine and inspect the mold immediately. The will not scratch the mold’s surface. In
mold will not fix itself. addition, make sure that no residue is left
from the article used to clean the mold
Mold Parting Line
faces.
The parts of mold affected here are the main
parting line and other secondary mold separation 12. Clean vent bleed offs if residue or burning
points if present on the particular mold. is present. (In severe cases a cleaning fluid
may be necessary to assist in removal of
1. Shut molding machine down with the mold gas residue).
in the open position, using the proper pro-
cedure to insure safety. 13. Never wipe the molding surfaces of the
core—and especially the cavity—with the
2. Look at both sides of the parting line. same wipers used on the mold base parting
3. Observe if peening or hobbing of the mold line.
faces are taking place 14. Wipe old and any excessive grease from the
4. Observe if excessive gases are building up leader pins and leader pin bushings.
on plastic, forming and vent bleed off areas 15. When all cleaning has taken place,
(look for discoloration and/or burn marks). lubricate the leader pins and bushings with
5. Observe if shiny spots are appearing where an approved lubricant. Remember that
mold halves meet or movements of parts excessive grease can cause as much harm
take place. as good. A little grease goes a long way and
will not migrate to the parts as rapidly.
6. Determine if the mold has too little or too
much grease. Too little can be seen by dry 16. If problems are found that are not corrected
spots or listening to components rubbing. Too by the normal clean-up procedure, notify

32
®
 Mold Maintenance

your supervisor immediately for corrective 10. Apply the proper lubricant to the leader
action prior to restarting the mold. pins and all leader pin bushings; some
Mold Guiding System
large molds have grease fittings for
applying grease.
The parts of mold affected here are mold
leader pins and leader pin bushings, typically 11. Remove any excessive lubricant.
four locations.
12. Insure mold is clear and on manual close
1. Shut molding machine down, with the and open mold, insuring that everything is
mold in the open position, using the proper ready to resume molding.
procedure to insure safety.
Mold Ejector System
2. In the manual mode, open and close mold,
watch, and listen to insure that the mold The parts of mold affected here are ejector
faces are coming together smoothly and pins, sleeves, or blades (stripper plates or other
that no shifting takes place. Mold opening mechanisms), which are responsible for ejecting
should be smooth and without the sound the parts at the end of the molding cycle. These
similar to pop (vacuum breaking). If the parts move and it is imperative that they operate
movable (or stationary) half of the mold smoothly.
moves, it may be necessary to reclamp the
mold because something is out of position.
If the mold has other plates, which ride on
the leader pins (e.g., stripper or three-plate
mold), insure that the plates ride smoothly
and the bushings are not worn excessively.
3. Render the machine inoperable.
4. Visually inspect leader pins and leader pin
bushings for signs of wear, transfer of
metal or shiny spots.
5. If any areas show wear, report that to your
supervisor for tool room correction and/or
component replacement.
6. Wipe the mold leader pin and bushing with
a clean paper towel or rag, remove all Figure 1. An exploded illustration
of an ejector system.
traces of grease and foreign material.
7. Always use a new or clean wiper and avoid 1. Shut the molding machine down with the
the possibility of leaving behind any metal mold in the open position, using the proper
chips or contamination on the guiding procedure to insure safety.
surfaces.
2. In the manual mode, advance and retract
8. Inspect components again.
the ejector system. It should move freely
9. Look into the leader pin bushing and with little effort. There should not be any
insure that no parts or plastic are present at noise, binding, or hesitation. Should any
the bottom of the component. A mirror and movement or operation be abnormal,
flashlight are frequently necessary to view immediately cease operation and notify
the components properly. your supervisor.

33
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

3. Visually inspect the ejector housing and 9. If the mold is equipped with ejector return
back of the ejector plate to insure that no springs (typically four placed in the ejector
foreign material has lodged between the housing around the ejector return pins),
bottom clamping plate and ejector plate. insure that they are operating smoothly and
Never place hands or body parts between not broken. If a broken spring is
mold openings or plates because springs, discovered, cease mold operation
cylinders, or other mechanisms could immediately because the springs (replaced
suddenly cause the plates to move and do in sets) must be replaced by disassembling
grave bodily injury. Notify your supervisor, the mold.
before continuing operating the mold, if
10. After cleaning or lubricating, operate the
anything is found.
ejector system to insure smooth movement.
4. With a new clean paper towel or rag, wipe
11. Some molds have an air blow off or poppet
away any grease or plastic residue that may
valve system. If the mold is so equipped,
be on the ejector system that protrudes
insure that these components are clean and
from the mold parting line.
functioning properly.
5. Many pins have vents ground into them, 12. Other molds have early ejector return
and the residue must be cleaned from the systems. Some are mounted internally and
mold vents, collector rings, and bleed offs. require lubricating each day. Other systems
White residue is typically a sign of gas are mounted externally, and the wear points
build up; gray or black is typically a sign of need to be cleaned and lubricated daily.
burning and is more serious as an
indication of inadequate venting or Mold Vents
blockage of bleed offs. These vents are used to allow the air, gases,
and volatiles to escape during mold filling. It is
6. If any metal scrapings, metal transfer, or
imperative that these superheated gases are
shiny spots are present, further out-of-the
allowed to escape from the mold cavity and travel
press maintenance will be necessary.
to the outside of the mold.
7. Each molding operation has its own
procedure to insure proper operation of the
ejector system. One school of thought is
that with proper mold design, machining,
alignment, and use of the correct bearing
lengths and machining surfaces finish, the
ejector system (i.e., pins, sleeves, blades,
etc.) can operate without lubrication. Some
operations have a set procedure for
lubricating the system and method. Follow
your company’s procedures exactly.
8. Check the ejector return pins (typically
four), clean, and lubricate as necessary. The
return pins should all be sticking out the Figure 2. Parting line vents.
same height, if the opposite side of the
mold is flat and on the same plane. If there The short vent extending from the mold cavity
is much discrepancy, the ejector system must be shallow enough to prevent flash from
may have cocked due to a problem. forming. The blend into bleed offs which must

34
®
 Mold Maintenance

extend to outside atmosphere (out of an area of affected in any way. Some mold surfaces are
the mold where escape of the gases would be textured, some have a stone or abrasive finish,
impeded). These bleed offs are ground or and others are highly polished. In any event they
machined into the mold and are frequently 0.250 - must be consistent and great care must be taken to
0.500 in. wide and 0.020 - 0.030 in. deep. maintain the specified finish.
1. Shut molding machine down, with the Figures 3 and 4 depict typical mold cavities
mold in the open position, using the proper and cores.
procedure to insure safety. A mold may have the ability to make from
2. When the parting line has been cleaned, one to as many as 128 impressions (called
inspect and clean the vent areas. cavities) or more parts on a cycle. On multiple
cavity molds, one or more cavities may be
3. A slight amount of residue build up could producing rejects and could be blocked until a
be normal; remove this residue and use a “cavity regain plan” can be developed and
mold cleaner if necessary. implemented. Blocking cavities should be
4. If signs of burning (dieseling) are present, considered a last resort.
notify your supervisor because out-of-the-
1. Shut molding machine down, with the
press vent work may be necessary.
mold in the open position, using the proper
5. Never apply lubricant to a vent because procedure to insure safety.
this will block the escape of gases.
2. Never expose the plastic forming areas of
6. Observe the part being molded for traces the mold to any kind of metallic tools or
of flash at vents or burn marks on the part. objects. It may even be necessary to
Flash is an indication of metal removal due remove jewelry when working on these
to trapped gases or vents installed too surfaces. A diamond in a ring will scratch
deep. If flash is objectionable and cause any metal mold.
for rejects, the mold must be corrected in
3. Inspect the molded part to determine if any
the tool room.
dimensional or aesthetic defect exists.
7. After inspection and cleaning the vent
maintenance is completed. 4. Correct cause of defect or block cavity
affected (if your procedure allows). The
Mold Plastic Forming Area best method to block a cavity is with the
The parts of mold affected here are cavities use of a “runner shut off,” previously
and cores. Great care must be taken to insure that installed into the mold. These are
these items are not scratched, surface finish commercially available.

Figure 3. Mold cavities. Figure 4. Mold cores.

35
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

5. If the mold core has plastic residue or cases, the mold must be sent to the tool
staining, clean the core. Mold cleaners are room for cleaning, either with mold
sometimes used for this stage. They are cleaners or vapor blasting; however, these
sprayed on the core surface and then wiped procedures must be carried out by skilled
clean. Care must be taken to use a paper mold technicians or mold makers.
towel that will not scratch the surface.
9. Insure that the cavity and core is clean, that
Some paper towels have cotton in them and
it does not have any damage, and that the
work well without scratching. As strange as
surfaces have a consistent appearance prior
it may sound, many paper towels have the
to restarting the molding machine.
ability to scratch hard metals.
Mold Injection System
6. Observe the mold cavity and its surface
The parts of the mold affected here are sprue,
finish. Mold surface finishes are specified
runner system, and gates. Plastic material must
by an SPI standard. Surfaces specified by
flow unimpeded to the mold cavity for proper
an “A” are highly polished diamond
filling, and then must be able to eject freely.
surfaces and will shine. The A-1 is the best
surface finish and is used on lenses, A-2 is 1. Inspect the sprue end and insure that if a
in the middle of the range, and A-3 is the portion of the primary runner is machined
lowest (uses the coarsest diamond grit) into the outlet end, that it aligns properly
high-polished surface. The “B” surfaces are with the corresponding runner installed in
put on the mold with the use of abrasive the runner block or mold. Any mismatch
paper and range from B-1 (the best using will cause severe pressure loss in molding.
600 grit paper) to B-3. The “C” surfaces are 2. The mold parting line should have been
with the use of a benching stone. C-1 is the cleaned in the prior operation; if not, it
best stone finish (600 grit stone) and C-3 is should be cleaned now.
the coarsest stone. The “D” surfaces are
applied with the use of abrasive blast. 3. Observe the runner and adjacent surfaces.
Again, the D-1 is the finest blast and D-3 is Look for signs of peening (mold surface
the coarsest with a higher pressure. Great spotted with craters). This is an indication
care must be taken not to affect the surface that plastic is being shaved off the edge of
finish of the cavity. The cavity is typically the parting line and that small pieces of
the appearance side of the molded part, and plastic are being forced into the steel due to
affecting the mold surface finish will be the clamping pressure. These sharp edges
costly to restore to the original finish. typically must be stoned down by a tool
technician.
7. If the mold has a highly polished surface,
which has become dull due to the build up 4. Observe for gas build up. If build up is
of gases, an experienced mold technician or light, it may be cleaned in the machine.
mold maker will be needed to clean the Indications of burn marks or heavy, very
surface. The normal method is to use a dark deposits indicate that vents must be
cotton or felt pad, along with the added to the mold.
appropriate polishing compound and 5. Inspect the gate areas to determine that
thinner, and to work the affected area. they are not broken and that the gate land is
intact.
8. Textured surfaces will typically stain due to
the flow of plastic materials. These surfaces 6. Check ejector pin heights in the runner
should be cleaned with mold cleaner and system. Ejector pins should be flush with
wiped with clean paper towels. In extreme the surface. If the ejector pin is protruding

36
®
 Mold Maintenance

into the runner system, it will interfere style interlock, “shiny” surfaces may be
with the flow of plastic and make ejection common.
release difficult. Below flush ejector pins 5. If no grooves, wear, transfer of metal, or
create an undesirable flow pattern in the other signs of problems exist, lubricate the
melt and can adversely affect part interlocks adequately (remembering that
appearance. Adjusting ejector pin height excessive grease will migrate to other parts
must be done with the mold and ejector of the mold where the lubricant is not
plates disassembled. desired).
7. Insure that the machine nozzle properly 6. Open and close the mold on manual and
seats in the center of the sprue bushing observe that no shifting takes place at the
radius. Proper seating and smooth sealing point where the interlocks pick up. If
surfaces will prevent stuck sprues and movement takes place, reclamp the mold
plastic leakage. to insure proper alignment.
Mold Interlocking System Mold Action Systems
The part of mold affected here is the The parts of mold affected here are slides,
alignment between the “A” and “B” mold halves. cams, lifters, slifters, rotating cores, collapsible
1. Interlocks are either machined directly into cores, expandable cavities, wedges, and other
the mold “A” and “B” plates, in which case mold actions involved with creating movement in
they will be tapered, or installed as sepa- the mold.
rate inserts. The mold interlocks, not the 1. Slides, those portions of plastic forming
leader pins and bushings, form the align- areas of the mold, which are used to free
ment of the two mold halves and must be undercuts on some molds and allow part
precisely maintained for the highest qual- removal from the mold, must both be free
ity parts. to move and be precisely guided.
2. Tapered interlocks should already be 2. During mold cleaning and preventive
cleaned in the previous steps and should be maintenance procedures, the mold actions
viewed to determine that no galling or should be manually moved to insure
excessive wear is taking place. Transfer of smooth movement and ease of operation.
metal or suddenly appearing shiny Most mold movements have wear plates
surfaces are indications that excessive for the action to move on. These wear
wear is taking place. plates are typically made from aluminum
3. Indications of wear, typically along one bronze materials, and a lubricant (if
side of the interlock, is an indication that allowed on the mold) should be used.
the mold is improperly aligned. Notify Note: The mold item must be in the proper
your supervisor immediately of your position prior to mold movement and/or mold
findings. closing to avoid severe damage to the
4. Inserted interlocks can be tapered or movement mechanism and mold. Make sure
straight. If tapered, use the procedure as you know what the correct position is!
stated earlier. With straight interlocks, 3. Inspect the mechanism responsible for
either side or top mounts, carefully mold movement. Cam pins mounted in the
observe both of the mating surfaces of the opposite mold half at 15- to 20-degree
female and male component. Look for angles are frequently used to create mold
transfer of metal, grooves, or other signs of movement. These cam pins should not be
wear. Note: Due to the close fitting of this bent and must be free of scrapes or

37
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

grooves. Closing the mold with the mold The slifter dovetail (or guiding) surfaces
action in the improper position will bend or typically require lubrication.
break cam pins. Bent cam pins must be
replaced immediately, typically with the 10. Unscrewing molds have many moving
mold out of the press, or additional damage parts and bearing surfaces that must be
will be caused. maintained to reduce wear and prevent
seizing. Most of these molds use a stripper
4. Most mold actions have positive locators to plate for ejection and the mating surfaces
insure that the mold action is securely held in between the rotating core and stripper plate
the mold open position. Inspect these can be a high-maintenance item.
locators, which could be springs, slide locks,
detents, or mechanical mechanisms, insuring 11. The first detection of a problem on
that they are operating properly. Never allow unscrewing molds can be a strange sound
the mold to run with an improperly coming from the mold. The first step in
functioning slide (action) locator. determining if something is wrong,
therefore, is listening as the mold action
5. Inspect the wear plate and slide-guiding takes place. Rubbing, scratching,
surfaces for any signs of grooves, dents, or screeching, or banging sounds are all
gouges. Minor surface imperfections can indications that problems are occurring.
usually be cleaned up in the press with the Stop the molding cycle at first indication of
use of a fine grit stone, worked flat over the something changing from normal and
surface to remove any high spots. Insure inspect the mold.
that no stone grit or other contamination is
left behind, or accelerated wear will occur 12. A flashlight and mirror are handy tools to
between the bearing surfaces. inspect these areas of the mold. First
indications of problems are more than
6. Lifters are used to free undercuts in molds. likely to center on moving items that are
The fit between a lifter and the core starting to bind up. Indicators are transfer
channel should be checked at the of metal, metal flakes, gouged surfaces, or
maintenance interval, along with inspecting even shiny surfaces.
the part for indications of flash. Flash is an
indication of advanced wear. 13. Identify problems and affected cavities,
and notify the tool repair department.
7. Lifters should be cleaned and have any
Cease molding immediately because
signs of metal transfer stoned smooth. The
further operation will contribute to greater
lifter (typically manufactured from
mold damage.
aluminum bronze) should be centered in
the lifter channel. 14. At normal maintenance intervals with no
8. In the lifter returned position (ready to indications of severe wear to the rotating
close the mold), no noticeable gaps should cores, clean and inspect the contact areas of
be apparent between either side of the the stripper plate, antirotation lugs, ejector
lifter. sleeves, or other unscrewing mechanism.
Lubrication requirements depend upon the
9. Slifters (some times referred to as wedges mold, design of the unscrewing systems,
or dovetailed collapsible cores) need to parts being molded, and individual
have their guiding surfaces clean and free preference of the molding department.
from any contaminate and/or plastic Follow your department procedures for
scrapings. Inspect these surfaces closely. care of the mold.

38
®
 Mold Maintenance

15. On rack and pinion unscrewing systems, should have extremely narrow (appearance
lubrication is typically required. High- of) gaps. Should one set of segments have
temperature grease is generally used on the a larger gap, cease mold operation and
gearing arrangement to prevent migration have a mold maker check for burrs on the
of lubricant to the molding area. In segments, which may prevent the segments
addition, with this type of system a cam or from properly fitting up to each other.
inclined plane arrangement is used to
22. With the core in its collapsed position,
advance the stripper plate at the correct
insure that the wide segment edges are not
rate with the unscrewing of the part. These
overcollapsing and touching each other.
surfaces should be wiped clean and
These cores typically have to be kept
relubricated to insure against wear.
clean, free from flash and/or scrapings of
16. Limit switches (or other positioning plastic. Lubricant is generally not
devices) should be checked to determine necessary between the core segments;
that the rack or rack cylinder is in the however, it is more common to apply a
proper position for mold closing and/or thin lubricant layer to the center pin and
opening. the segment bumps. (This procedure may
17. If a spline and gear arrangement is being have to be performed outside of the press
used for unscrewing, insure that the spline with the mold disassembled).
and gears are properly lubricated. The 23. Early ejector systems are used on molds to
right amount of grease is essential. If there insure that ejector pins will not hit mold
is too little grease, the moving members movements during mold closing. Internal
are starved for lubricant; too much, and the early ejector systems use movable cam
grease migrates into the molding area and fingers, which expand when the ejector
collects contamination. system is advanced. A corresponding pin,
18. Electric or hydraulic motor, gear, and mounted on the stationary side of the
chain systems should be checked to insure mold, makes contact with these cam
wiring or hose connections are not fingers, insuring that the ejector system is
damaged and the gear and chain has the fully returned prior to mold closing. These
proper lubrication. A chain that is cam fingers and the end of the pin should
stretched can jump a gear tooth and give be inspected for signs of damage at the
improper thread orientation. It should be mold maintenance interval.
reported immediately. 24. Externally mounted early ejector return
19. Collapsible core molds should be systems should have the contact areas
inspected each shift or at the first sign of wiped free of any contaminates and be
problems on the molded part. relubricated.
20. Extreme care must be taken to prevent 25. In either case (i.e., internal or external
damage to these precision, but normally early ejector return systems), check to see
robust, devices to insure that the end of the that the ejector plate is fully returned and
core does not close on a part or foreign the stop buttons are resting squarely.
object.
26. Other mold actions should be checked to
21. With the core in its expanded position insure that they are free to move, will align
(mold prepared to close for injection), precisely when in the molding position,
view the separation between the narrow and have the proper lubrication (if called
and wide core segments. The entire core for in the procedures).

39
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Mold Temperature Control System 8. Inspect the part drop chute for indications
The parts of mold affected here are coolant of slow leaks from the mold. Molds have
lines, connectors, and hoses. internally plugged and/or connecting
coolant lines that can leak between mold
1. Care must be taken when inspecting the
plates if not properly installed. Any leakage
mold temperature control system to avoid
must be corrected immediately by taking
being burned by the hot water or circulat-
ing media used in mold temperature control the affected mold component apart and
systems. Use gloves when temperatures implementing corrective action, typically
exceed 100ºF and be aware that fluid at this by removing the mold from the machine.
temperature or hotter will cause burns. Mold Shut Down Procedure
2. Never do anything that would cause the This procedure should be followed whenever
water line to become disconnected. If any the mold will be idle for extended periods or will
close inspection has to be made, drop (or be removed from the molding machine. This may
raise, if running chilled water) the mold occur at the end of the week, at individual shifts,
coolant to room temperature, close both the or at longer periods of inactivity. The procedure is
inlet and outlet valves, and insure that no not typically performed if the mold will be idle for
pressure is in the system. It is only safe to a few hours, (e.g., waiting for set up approval).
disconnect water lines or work on the hose 1. Once the molding machine has ceased
clamps when the system is at room operation, stop the machine in the mold
temperature and no pressure is in the open position and turn it off. Insure that all
system. electricity to the machine is turned off.
3. Visually inspect the mold, both at the
2. Set the mold temperature control system to
parting line and the outside, for signs of
room temperature and lower the mold
water leakage. Any sign of coolant is an
temperature to stabilize at room
indication of a leak someplace in the mold.
temperature.
Due to the clamping action of the mold, the
leak may not be occurring when coolant is 3. Purge the mold coolant from the mold,
found. hoses, and manifold (if used). Some
machines are equipped with an automatic
4. Check all coolant hoses, connections, areas
around the manifold, and temperature purging system, or the manifold may be
control systems, be it heaters or chillers, for equipped with a purge system to perform
any sign of leakage. this operation. Remember that both the
inlet and outlet may have pressure; closing
5. Inspect all hoses to insure that they have the inlet valve alone does not isolate the
not become frayed due to rubbing against mold from the coolant pressure.
part of the mold or machine. Be especially
diligent on the movable side of the mold. 4. After the mold coolant system has been
purged, close all of the inlet and outlet valves.
6. Insure that “quick disconnect” male and
female connectors are matching sizes and 5. Clean the mold parting line, vents, ejector
are from the same manufacturer to insure system, runner system, vents, core, and
proper coupling. cavity, as previously mentioned.
7. If hoses are clamped directly to pipes on 6. Complete a mold repair ticket and indicate
the mold, insure that the hose end is in any mold-related problems, reason for
good condition and not cracked. Check and blocked cavities, areas of flash, or any other
tighten clamps to make sure that they are maintenance issues that should be resolved
clamped securely to the pipe. before the mold runs again.

40
®
 Mold Maintenance

7. Retain last shots (including the runner 4. Open and close the mold slowly and insure
system) for reference, should maintenance proper alignment, and that the mold is
on the mold be necessary, or that parts are clamped safely. If any misalignment is
available for any other reason. noted the mold clamping should be
checked and the mold reclamped.
8. Spray or coat the mold with mold
preservative to prevent rust formation. 5. The mold design and process temperature
Mold preservatives are available from differential determine whether the mold
suppliers to the plastics industry and the should be in the open or closed position
best type to use should be evaluated before turning on the mold temperature
according to your type of mold. Some control system and any auxiliary
preservatives with rust preventors and equipment. Be concerned regarding the
cleaners have been known to etch highly effects of thermal expansion on the mating
polished surfaces of the mold cavity and mold halves.
therefore should be avoided on that type of
mold. Others may be difficult to remove 6. Inspect the mold, hoses, and mold
when the mold is put back into production. temperature control manifold and system for
leaks as the mold is reaching its operational
9. Close the mold, using care not to apply set point. Correct any leakage before starting
lock-up pressure. the mold in the production mode.
10. Clean and spray the outside of the mold to 7. Watch and listen to the mold operation to
prevent rust formation. insure proper function. The mold action
11. A mold map should be generated for each should be smooth and no loud sounds
new mold. This map should have a detailed should be heard from closing, the mold
description as to the number and location actions, or ejector system operating.
of individual cavities. Things That Must be Avoided When Performing
Mold Start-Up Procedure Maintenance on a Mold
Before turning on the mold temperature 1. Never work on a mold or molding machine
control system, runnerless molding system when the machine is running. Machine
heaters (if the mold is so equipped), or any other movement could create an unsafe condition.
auxiliary equipped that is not necessary to open
the mold without damage, open the mold. 2. Never work on a mold where a machine
movement, mold plate, or mold action
1. With the mold at room temperature, could suddenly move and create any kind
remove the mold preservative with clean of pinch point.
towels or rags. Depending upon the type of
mold a mold cleaner might be used to 3. Never place hands or other body members
assist in the cleaning process. between plates or mold actions that could
move. Gravity, springs, cylinders, and/or
2. Take the opportunity to inspect all possible other mold actions can create conditions
wear areas of the mold while the mold is where mold parts could move or shift.
clean. Pay attention to surfaces that ride
against each other and components that 4. Never try to lift heavy plates alone. Use
shut off when the mold is closed. appropriate and safe handling devices like
safety eye bolts and chain hoists.
3. Lubricate all of the items mentioned
previously and cycle the mold on manual 5. Never leave a mold plate standing
to insure proper operation. unsupported. Thin plates are unstable

41
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

when standing on edge and will easily tip the properties of the mold steel, material, or
over. component.
6. Always support all mold items when 14. Always disconnect electrical power before
separating plates or components. Plates attempting to inspect, repair, or touch any
held together with cap screws and/or electrical devices on a mold. Be especially
dowels or alignment devices can separate careful when working around electrical
unexpectedly and cause serious bodily components for runnerless molds.
harm to you or your working companions.
15. Always wear appropriate clothing, eye, and
7. Always use approved safety eyeglass hand protection when handling cleaning
protection. Wear hearing protection when solutions.
appropriate. Follow your company’s safety
rules completely. Seek appropriate help and 16. Never use screwdrivers, chisels, or hard
instruction whenever attempting something metal tools on the mold surfaces. Hard
for the first time and/or when an unsafe metals will scratch molding surfaces and
condition is observed. ruin mold cavity and core surfaces.
8. Wear the appropriate footwear to avoid 17. Never use steel hammers when working on
slipping or injury from falling objects. mold maintenance. An unintentional or
misguided strike could cause thousands of
9. Never used harsh chemicals, acids, or
dollars worth of damage to a mold. Even a
solutions that are not approved for and
brass hammer can cause major damage!
supplied by your company while
performing any maintenance or cleaning 18. Do not use steel pry bars, screwdrivers, or
operation. the like, to separate mold plates or free
10. Insure that the work area is properly stuck mold components. Special die bars
ventilated before working with approved are made for these operations and can be
cleaning or mold protection solutions or purchased with protective brass or bronze.
compounds. 19. Never use dirty or contaminated rags (that
11. Insure that all electrical power is off prior could be contaminated with metal chips) to
to touching or working on any electrical wipe any mold surfaces. Either new,
wiring and/or devices. properly cleaned rags or clean paper towels
should be used for cleaning or wiping.
12. Never allow water, mold coolant, oil, or
other liquids to collect and/or stand while 20. Do not use harsh chemicals, acids, and/or
performing any maintenance function, or unapproved mold cleaners on a mold.
while working on or handling any mold or Acids can etch molding surfaces. Some
component of that mold, especially when cleaners can release harmful vapors when
electrical power is in the vicinity. coming in contact with mold residue. Only
approved cleaners, provided by your
13. Never use a torch or open flame on a mold, company, should be used. Other chemicals
as tempting as that it may be to remove can damage mold components or other
unwanted plastic. First, an open flame nonferrous materials contained in the mold.
could ignite cleaners, preservatives, and/or
lubricants, creating a dangerous situation. 21. Use care not to scratch or mark any mold
Second, a concentrated heat source on tool cavity or component with jewelry when
steel could temper the steel and soften that working on a mold. A diamond will scratch
area and/or burn out the carbon, destroying any molding surface. Either remove

42
®
 Mold Maintenance

jewelry or properly tape over the jewelry, to loosening and/or removing any cap
to both protect the mold and you. screws or retaining devices.
22. Do not use Allen wrenches that are 5. Use clean paper towels or clean
rounded over or damaged to remove or uncontaminated rags for wiping mold
install cap screws. Replace worn or surfaces. Extreme care must be taken when
damaged tools immediately. contacting molding surfaces. The SPI A-1,
A-2, and A-3 surfaces (shiny) should not
23. Do not use steel brushes, power or hand,
be touched by anything other than a clean
while cleaning molding surfaces. The steel
and dedicated soft felt cloth dedicated for
brushes will scratch and mark molding
that specific surface. The diamond
surfaces, rendering the mold unusable.
compound that is used for accomplishing
24. Always use clean, uncontaminated, and the specific surface (e.g., A-3) will ruin the
high-quality grease or lubricants. finer A-1 and A-2 surfaces. The felt cloth,
Lubricants will collect and hold metal diamond, or polishing compound and
chips and grit in suspension and in turn thinners must therefore be kept separate
accelerate mold wear. for that particular surface and definitely
must be free from any contamination.
25. Never lift heavy mold plates or
These items should be stored in a sealed
components where weight exceeds
container to avoid any contamination.
appropriate safety limits. Use appropriate
and correct size safety eyebolts installed 6. Use nylon bristle brushes when necessary
properly in center, based on weight for for mold cleaning.
proper balance, of mold, plate or
7. Always use safe and approved mold
component.
cleaners in well-ventilated areas. Avoid
26. Never stand a mold or any plates on pipe inhalation of and/or contact with any
fittings that may protrude from the edge. fumes.
Things That Should be Done When Performing 8. Use brass or aluminum scrapers on mold
Maintenance on a Mold steel plates (not mold cavities, cores, or
1. Always work safely. Think before acting, plastic forming surfaces). Use plastic
taking care to avoid injury to you, other scrapers on aluminum, copper alloy, or
workers, and the mold and molding nonferrous mold plates to avoid damaging
machine. the surface.
2. Wear approved safety glasses, hearing 9. Think before acting; put your personal
protection, appropriate clothing, gloves, safety and that of co-workers first. Next,
and safety shoes when performing mold avoid any damage to the mold. Ask for
maintenance, as well as other job functions help, instructions, and direction.
at work.
10. Remember: Our ultimate goal is a well-
3. Only use a plastic-tipped hammer or maintained mold and an injury-free
mallet when working on a mold. operation with healthy employees.
4. Use appropriate size and undamaged PROCEDURES AND FORMS
Allen-head wrenches for removing or
installing cap screws. Always insure that Maintenance Procedures and Frequency
the mold, mold plates, or mold Molds and their types will vary in the
components are properly supported prior frequency and special needs. As a result each

43
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

mold should have its own maintenance procedure corner” on the “A” side. The numbers
and schedule as established by the mold team. ascend from top to bottom and right to left.
They should, however, conform to your
1. Each mold should have a detailed mainte-
company’s standards and practices if
nance procedure developed for the individ-
different.
ual mold. Even duplicate molds can contain
components that will create different main- 3. The figure illustrating the cavity can be
tenance conditions for each particular mold. very simple and might be a circle for round
parts or a rectangle for other shaped parts.
2. The maintenance procedure should contain
Each cavity obviously should be
all of the pertinent mold information and
represented by one figure.
descriptions. It should list the frequency of
each of the required maintenance steps 4. Each and every time a problem is
(e.g., shift number, daily, weekly, end of encountered the mold map should be
run or number of shots). marked so a permanent record is
documented and recorded. The mold map
3. The procedure should be a living
should accompany the mold to repair and
document. It should be established before
then be maintained in a permanent file for
the mold is put into production, based on
further reference.
previous experience with similar molds. If
the mold has new features, error on the safe 5. Be sure to document and retain “last” shots
side and inspect those features more for any cavities that are to be blocked. It is
frequently until a history is developed. difficult or impossible to obtain these “last”
shots showing the defect at the end of the
4. Review these procedures periodically.
run. Include the runner.
Update the procedures based on historical
and/or empirical (history) data to meet the 6. The mold map should accompany the
particular needs of the subject mold. mold, last shots and maintenance
paperwork to the mold repair shop.
5. Insure that the procedure lists those items
that should be addressed by people other Examples of Possible Defect Codes
than the mold technicians. AL = all cavities
Mold Map BR = broken
Each mold should have an illustration of the CA = cavity
“A” (cavity) side of the mold. Each cavity should CO = core
be numbered and a space provided to communicate CR = cracked
problems with that particular cavity. Many
DY = dirt or dirty
companies have codes that denote particular
defects. A suggested list follows this section. DC = date code
1. The mold map should contain the mold DM = dimensional related
number, storage location (when not in use), EJ = ejector-related problems
machine number where the mold is being ER = ejector return
run, description of the mold, and other per-
EY = eye bolt
tinent data required to assist the mold
maintenance department with getting the FL = flash
mold back into top condition. GT = gate related problems
2. The cavity location shown, typically cavity GP = gate pulling
one, is located nearest the “zero-zero LR = grease or lubricant problems

44
®
 Next Page Mold Maintenance

LO = locating ring the mold maintenance needs to others, and to

MB = mold base create a historical document for further reference.
MI = missing 1. The maintenance form or paperwork
NS = number of shots should be generated with the order to run
the plastic part production. It is best to
SC = scratch
have it enclosed in a plastic folder and
SL = slides retained at the molding machine to insure
ST = stripper plate that it is available to complete and submit
SP = sprue when work is required.
OL = oil leak 2. The responsible person should fill out the
PD = plastic defect necessary information required on the
form completely to insure that any and all
PD–1 = flow lines (melt, knit, flow
problems have been communicated to the
or weld)
respected mold maintenance personnel.
PD–2 = burn marks (dieseling)
PD–3 = jetting 3. Information contained on the mold map,
quality documents, and/or other sources
PD–4 = pulling
should be summarized and reported.
PD–5 = distortion
4. The form should have a section that is filled
PD–6 = short (nonfill)
out specifying that the maintenance items
PD–7 = secondary attributes not met have been completed and that the mold is
PD–8 = esthetic properties not met ready to be put back into production.
PD–9 to ? = items related to your
5. Last shots should be collected and
particular operation
packaged to accompany the paper work
RT = rust and mold.
RU = runner
The secret to a successful mold maintenance
OR = orientation (mold configured wrong) program is first to have the agreement of those
PF = polish or surface finish involved in the total molding operation. It starts with
top management, sales, and marketing, and a firm
VN = vent
commitment to make continuous improvements. It
WL = water leak continues with the supervisors and people indirectly
Other codes can be devised and/or added to fit involved with the operations. It encompasses the
your operation’s particular needs. Codes should mold maintenance and repair departments. A critical
conform to the nomenclature used within your ingredient is the correct implementation,
company or particular industry to insure that identification, and documentation of the mold
everything described to everyone means the same maintenance requirements. Above all, it should be a
thing and that each and every person is on the “proactive” approach.
same page.
The molding technician is the keystone in the
Maintenance Work Orders foundation that forms a successful maintenance
These are sometimes referred to as and molding operation. Performing this phase of
maintenance tickets, tool tickets, repair tickets, your job will pay handsome rewards to you and
last shot documentation, and/or other names. The your employer, and make your job easier by
idea is to document problems and communicate insuring top-performing molds.

45
®
 Previous Page

OPTIMIZING THE
MOLDING PROCESS
JERRY GOLMANAVICH
®

Once the molding machine has been put on PRODUCTIVITY TOOLS

cycle, the intent should be to optimize the molding There are a few tools to help improve
cycle. Optimizing may require some compromise; productivity, and these will be examined.
however, a technician should be wary of different
ways to make the process run “the best.” Designing Temperatures
an experiment based on a process will give the Injection molding is characterized by being a
most robust results in determining which machine heat transfer process. The more heat put into the
settings affect the part characteristics most desired plastic molecules, the more heat has to be taken
by the customer; however, this approach consumes out of the plastic. The major sources for heat
much time and is not always practical. There are include heater bands and shear heat developed
also computer simulations that can give a either during the plasticating action of the screw
recommended set of values for machine start up. or flow through a channel. The heat is transferred
Whenever these are being considered, one must after the mold is completely full, typically by
remember the assumptions made for the results, circulating water or some other heat-transfer
(e.g., cavities that are built to nominal dimensions, medium through cooling channels. How can the
fill rates that are absolute, and mold temperatures temperature of the material be measured? Nozzle
and barrel temperatures should be used only as a
that are well defined).
guideline. Another indicator of how much energy
Some operations have installed monitoring is put into the plastic is the screw motor torque—
systems that can watch specific machine inputs the higher the torque, the more energy input.
and outputs each cycle. This also requires Measuring bulk material temperature would
determining which factors are the most critical to logically be the best way to measure the plastic
give the most productive output. temperature. The most accurate technique is to
stick a needle probe from a pyrometer into the
Each situation stands on its own merit. In one melt pool. Melt puddles are usually relatively
case, the fastest possible cycle will give you the large and the heat transfer properties of the plastic
optimal process. In another case, minimizing will give you enough time to find the peak
energy usage will be the goal. A third temperature by placing the probe in the center of
consideration would be to tune the process for the puddle until the temperature stops going up.
minimizing variation. The best case would have Another technique that is easier is to use is an
all three of these. infrared measuring device. One problem with this

47
Society of Plastics Engineers

technique is that it is affected by surface is known, then set the pressure for that value and
temperature, and shear heating of the material may add maybe 10% just to cover abnormal
lead to erroneous readings. situations.
One of the goals of the technician would be to Packing pressure settings depend on the nature
verify that the melt temperature is the same as the of the product and plastic material used. They are
nozzle and/or front zone temperature. When this is best set experimentally. There should be no reason
true, it can be expected that the temperature to set the initial packing pressure higher than the
differences within the melt pool are small and the maximum injection fill pressure (Note: This does
chances of localized degradation promoted by the not mean that you will never need to do this—only
heaters is minimized. Once this is verified, the that it results from an exceptional situation). After
barrel temperatures can be decreased, but keep in the filling is completed, the packing pressure
mind that the ratio of energy put into the material would normally be used to push additional plastic
may change, so it is a good idea to verify that the into the mold to control shrinkage and other part
zone temperatures are still close to, or identical to, characteristics (e.g., sink marks). One possible
the melt temperature. approach would be to set the packing pressure at
the same pressure experienced at transfer;
Judgment must be used when making these however, with some molds, overpacking will
adjustments. If the temperature of the barrel is cause parts to stick. A better technique would be to
decreased too much, the screw motor may be start with virtually no packing pressure, then
forced to operate at maximum pump pressure that gradually increase the setting until the part seems
could lead to an inconsistent process, especially if to have the desired appearance, and then make
the batch of material is changed to a more viscous sure the control is locked into this number.
lot. One other likely result is that the pressure
required to move the material during the fill The chief function of holding pressure is to
section of the cycle would go up. If the required keep plastic from flowing back through the gate. If
pressure is too high, the operation may become this is too high, localized stresses may occur in the
“pressure limited.” This will also lead to gate area because the plastic will be flowing while
inconsistent performance due to lack of the it is freezing. If you like this effect, the packing
machine’s ability to control the injection velocity. time should be increased—then switch to the
holding pressure. If the screw bounces backward
Pressures at the switchover from packing to holding, more
Setting the pressure that can be used during variation may be introduced into the process. In
the fill segment of the injection cycle can also be fact, watching a machine respond to changes in
looked at from several standpoints. There are hydraulic commands may tell you instantly that
strong arguments that much variability can be the process needs to be adjusted. Some of the
eliminated from the process if the fill times are bounces may be happening at critical junctures,
the same. A major objective would be to set the such as the transfer point (VPT). The holding
injection fill pressure high enough to maintain pressure should be set such that in the gate area
the injection velocities requested, even when the parts will always exhibit the best properties.
there are changes in the viscosity of the batches Some of these processing techniques can help a
of material, which will affect machine technician control gate vestiges.
performance more if the parameters are not Backpressure can work for you or against you.
properly set. It is reasonable to ask, “What is the There are some materials that are sensitive to
maximum pressure required to maintain the molecular breakdown if worked too hard by
programmed fill rates?” If the answer were backpressure and screw revolutions per minute. As
unknown, then the safest bet would be to set the more plasticating takes place by the action of the
pressure at the machine maximum. If the answer screw, it is more likely fibers will break in filled

48
®
 Optimizing the Molding Process

Figure 1. Structure of the Molding Area Diagram.

materials. This could lead to major effects on also likely be good for a limited period of time
physical properties. At the other extreme, allowing because the equipment being used will generally
backpressure to be controlled by the minimum a encounter enough wear and tear over time that the
hydraulic system will allow may lead to “molding window” will become smaller—or even
inconsistent cycling. The material suppliers’ close completely.
recommendations should be followed and will
Velocities
likely recommend settings between 50 and 200 psi.
Generating a Molding Area Diagram
Many companies have adopted the “fill as fast as
you can” philosophy. Looking at the process from
It may be beneficial to create a Molding Area the standpoint of optimizing the physical properties
Diagram (Figure 1) when time permits (1). These of the resultant parts, there is good reason to apply
diagrams are mold and process specific, and this philosophy. Some advantages are:
require disciplined changes to pressure and
temperature to define the boundaries of good 1. The oriented layer formed as the plastic
product. The lines could represent the moves would be thinner and because the
combinations that lead to flash, sink marks, and melt would fill the cavity faster, there
discoloration. When this type of criteria limits the would be more time for the molecules to
setpoints, it may be prudent to set the nominal relax and decrease stresses in the product
settings toward the center of the diagram so that before it comes out of the mold.
any deviations will still fall within the boundaries.
2. Better weld line strength—the melt fronts
The technician should keep in mind that while come together sooner with more force, and
data is accumulated from the operation, the they have not cooled off as much, thus per-
machine is busy adjusting the barrel temperatures mitting the molecules in the flow fronts to
according to the closed-loop tuning constants, the knit together better.
dryer desiccant beds may be changing, material
lots may be on the verge of changing, the shop 3. Faster cycles—because the plastic flow
environment may be fluctuating, and other factors rate is faster, thus the injection fill time
may be introducing variability. This diagram will will be shorter.

49
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 2.
So, why would this philosophy not be applied example, if the screw rotation stops just before a
across the board? mold opens and the backpressure within the
Running Shear Sensitive Materials Such as PVC system is high enough, there is a high likelihood
that drooling will occur. This usually leads to
Newer formulations of PVC allow a lot more
inserting a suckback or decompression value. The
abuse than they had in the past; however, there is
effect of suckback is not immediately felt at the
still a limit to how fast these materials can be
front of the injection unit. This can be shown by
injected without creating some degradation or
running a test to see how much delay there is
surface imperfections. Here, one might start with a
between when the screw goes back and how long
low velocity and keep increasing it until there is
the melt front takes to move in the reverse
some evidence of molecular breakdown in the
direction. Sticking a small diameter piece of
form of splay or discoloration.
plastic (e.g., a piece of a runner, or sprue) into the
Venting problems nozzle tip immediately following decompression
Some molds require extremely shallow vents should show you that there is a delay, and that the
due to part design or mold design peculiarities. If movement of the melt would be substantially
the vent follows the flow path along a thin wall, it slower than the movement of the screw rearward.
may be necessary to stop the fill portion of the This must be taken into account when determining
cycle a little earlier, then to continue the plastic when you want the screw to stop turning.
flow by using packing pressure—and lower The parameters for the injection unit must
velocity. have enough time to melt all of the plastic.
Times Unmelted particles in the nozzle can lead to
Can it be said that a process that has a longer inconsistent performance by clogging gates and
cycle time can actually be more productive? If upsetting the balance within the mold.
there are less parts thrown outside the collection Plotting Fill Time Versus Pressure to Select
area or if there are less cycle interruptions, then the Best Velocity
this can easily outweigh a small difference in There are many ways to collect information
cycle time. from the process that can “lead” a technician to a
Some thought should be given to the actions minimum fill speed or range of fill speeds. It is
taking place during the molding cycle. For important to look at the mathematics involved in

50
®
 Optimizing the Molding Process

Figure 3.

calculating the magic numbers. Figure 2 shows already rooted itself in some shops is “one more
the plot of transfer pressure versus fill time. This than it takes to guarantee that all of the parts will
information was established from the shop floor. come out.”
The data can help steer you to optimized flow
rates. The line will flatten earlier as the material This attitude hints that there is a very low
temperature is increased. confidence level that ejection is positive. If the
mold ejected all of the parts and runner on the
An even more impressive chart can result
very first ejector stroke, it should always do that.
from plotting the reciprocal of the fill time against
The complexity of the mold or the wear and tear
the transfer pressure (The Wenskus transform).
Based on experimental results, the graph (Figure caused by incorrect setup parameters too often
3) resembles a straight line (1). Does this mean cause ejection problems. When a part sticks in the
that any other technique is invalid? No, only that mold, the resulting damage is contingent on how
it is up to the technician to select the velocity the mold protection is set up. With only one
based on the criteria of the process. That is, the clamp up cycle, the operation of the whole mold
recommendation is to inject as fast as possible— may be changed indefinitely. Although adding
consistent with part quality requirements. another ejector stroke could provide a temporary
Counters solution to the problem, the mold maintenance
department should be asked to perform the work
One way to upset the steady-state operation of required to get all of the parts out the first time.
your process is through the gradual wear and tear
of the components. It would seem obvious that In general, unless running materials with
the more often a nonreturn valve acts, the faster it abrasive fillers, mold details should not be
will fail. A subtle but important counting function expected to wear out due to erosion from the
has to do with ejector strokes. plastic. The exception is the ejector system, where
One could ask, “What is the optimum number increasing the number of ejector strokes from one
of ejector strokes?” One very specific answer that to two will wear out components substantially
opens itself to challenge is “one.” Well, what faster. Increasing the number to three makes the
could be better that this? One philosophy that has life shorter still.

51
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

WHAT ABOUT THE CLAMP? minimum pressure when the mold is first tried in
Efficient use of the clamp comprises several production. The high pressure is normally used
factors: clamp speed, pressure, and mold only until the holding pressure times out; then the
protection. We will look at them one at a time. low pressure kicks in. This again can be
determined by performing experiments for each
Clamp speed mold, but a general range would be about half of
In general, the faster the clamp moves, the the full mold closed pressure—or less.
faster the machine can cycle. This becomes most Mold open forces generally are dependent on
obvious when watching machines cycle quickly the design of the machine, but will be appreciably
(i.e., 3 or 4 sec). Keep in mind that mold lower than mold closing forces. In fact, it is
components can be extremely fragile and may unlikely that a machine adjustment will be found
require precise setting of mold protection. for this setting.
The leader pins are normally the first Mold protection
components to locate into the opposite mold half.
When the mold closes, it starts at high speed and Mold protection involves the preceding two
then is slowed as determined by the application. factors, as well as the precise positioning of the point
One possible slowing position could be at the point at which the machine will recognize as “mold
the leader pins engage the bushings. If there is no closed.” With many hydraulic systems, this point is
concern about this, the next slowing point could be identified as “prefill valve closed.” “kiss point,” or an
when cavity details engage, or when interlocks on equivalent identification. This means that the
the parting line are starting to engage. machine is told that the two mold faces are
“touching” and valves shift, allowing maximum
Remember, at this point the mold may be mold pressure to be applied. If this is set improperly,
traveling very quickly and will not slow this could cause major damage to a mold.
immediately, so consideration must be given to the
momentum of the platen. Prior to this position the mold must be slowed
and “low pressure mold protection” kicked in. One
Mold opening will at first be relatively slow to very good way to set mold protection is to
separate the mold gently, sometimes breaking a combine the pressure and speed settings to
vacuum, then speeding up. The most important completely stop the mold at a calculated distance
consideration will likely be position of the clamp prior to complete closing. This distance is
when completely open. This could be most dependent on how far mold components project
important when running a machine with sprue from the mold faces along with the size of the
pickers or other robotic devices that may require parts being molded. If the mold can be stalled,
precise positioning of the runner or parts for then it is left to the discretion of the technician to
ejection. One should generally expect more use a combination of increased speeds and
accurate positioning when using slower speeds. pressures to overcome the friction forces the mold
With some machines, if the eject position is presents. The mold ultimately should close
activated prior to the position at which the clamp quietly, without physically jarring any
is fully open, the machine may slow, or even stop, components.
to accomplish this task.
When this is set to the bare minimum, it will
Clamp pressure likely cause the need to return to the process
High clamp pressure should be determined by periodically, because the machine cycle will be
the projected area of the parts being molded. Rules interrupted and alarms will normally occur, so
of thumb typically suggest that this be set at additional pressure will be required. Be aware that if
between 2 and 5 tons per square inch. A better way the operation requires additional adjustments to keep
to establish this would be to determine the going, something is happening in the process that

52
®
 Optimizing the Molding Process

Figure 4. Cycle chart Pressure versus time.

will likely result in failure at some point in time. The All of the preceding can be applied as
practice in some shops is to keep an actual sample generalizations; however, the application of these
plastic piece that has been “squashed” during mold principles may require additional thought under
protection as evidence that some pains were taken to circumstances where other factors need to be
set these values precisely. considered (e.g., thin walls in the product or
running materials requiring high temperatures,
When a machine stops because the mold will
such as 700°F).
not close, the logical action would be to open the
mold, check for any build up, or even parts, on
USING A MONITORING SYSTEM
mold components or in the leader pin holes. If
nothing can be seen, then ask a moldmaker to Many operations have monitoring systems
help diagnose the problem. Either physical that can be used to detect peculiarities and suggest
resistance or peculiar noises could alert a how “repeatable” your process is. Of course, as
technician that something has changed in the with design of experiments, the first decision to
mold and requires attention. This statement also be made is to choose parameters to monitor. The
applies to mold opening. easiest, and most practical, would likely include
times, distances/velocities, and pressures.
GENERAL COMMENTS Cavity pressure information can provide the
Please remember that after making changes to feedback required, leading to a high confidence
machine parameters, it may take up to 1 hour or level that the process is set up optimally. The
more for the process to stabilize. Running trials usefulness of this information will depend on the
will reinforce the theory that many machine location of the mold pressure transducer(s) and
parameters are interrelated—and that the the flow path, or part geometry.
“optimized process” will require compromising the There are molders who provide a series of
best settings for any individual machine settings. data showing such measured distances as cushion,
It should also be obvious that recording any as well as such timer functions as fill time. They
and all changes is very important along with the have determined that the risk involved in not
results of the changes. Although the best time to knowing other information is very small, or
go through these exercises would be when new manageable. Under the right conditions,
facilities are being broken in, a technician should monitoring systems can show when a dryer
also be wary of machines or molds—or even stopped working or a lot of material has changed.
material formulations—that may be different A typical monitoring system has a set of two
from the previous production run. charts available, one which reflects data from one

53
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 5. Segmented molding process.

cycle and another which collects the requested nonreturn valve mechanically acts to provide the
data points for each cycle (Figure 4 ). For short required actions. Wear and tear on components
runs the “cycle chart” will most readily show should lead to development of a preventive
changes in the operation. Over longer periods of maintenance schedule. This applies to the molding
time (several hours or shifts), a summary chart machine, mold and all of the auxiliary equipment.
will show trends that may indicate a process out of Once the wear patterns are understood, the
control or on the verge of becoming out of control. supervisor can plan on tearing a process down for
The most popular technique for determining maintenance instead of encountering failure and
that the shot that was just made is acceptable is to quality problems.
look at or to inspect the parts. If one assumes that
My favorite analogy for this situation is that of
these parts are good and that the variation in the
a typical gas water heater. These pieces of
selected parameters is small, the cycle will be
equipment are typically expected to last 8-10
optimized. There will be other “killers” out there
years. How does a water heater failure show itself?
that can blow the confidence level right out of the
One way is by leaking out of the tank. The first
water (e.g., clogged mold vents, worn or broken
time I finished cleaning my basement of all of the
mold details, or mechanical failure within the
water which leaked from my heater, I looked into
molding machine). For some insight regarding
typical life spans for these items. What I saw was
response to these changes, please review the
that the expected life is 8 to 10 years and mine was
section on what to do when the process changes.
10 years old. Armed with this information I
PROCESS CONTROL decided that the rest of my life I would plan on
replacing water heaters on an 8 to 10 year cycle—
A technician who wants to control his process
even if it still worked.
should have a good grasp of the way his equipment
responds to his commands. Process control should This violates the old adage “If it ain’t broke,
also include the evolution of the process. don’t fix it!,” but in order to gain full control over
Every time the ejector system is activated an operation, this must be considered an important
there is wear and tear in the mold. Each cycle the part. Armed with the confidence that everything is

54
®
 Optimizing the Molding Process

working properly we apply the basics of process to deliver the high volume of oil to the
control to injection molding. machine cannot fill the system fast enough
Segmenting the Molding Process to move the plastic at the prescribed rate. If
this is the case, it may be wise to reprogram
Examining the requirements of injection
the machine interface to not allow a higher
molding has led to the adaptation of segmenting
velocity.
the molding process to concentrate on the most
important variables. These depend on what part of Typically, hydraulic systems are calibrated at
the process, or which segment, is being analyzed. the minimum and maximum limits of the actions.
“Fill, then pack, then hold” applies to the Any place in between is subject to divergence
phase of the cycle where the plastic is being since the relationships will not likely be 1 to 1.
injected into the mold. Breaking the cycle into In any case, changing the fill rate will change
these segments allows production of the best parts the flow pattern in the system. In a robust system,
along with improved ability to solve problems this may be of no consequence. In other cases, it
with the process. could lead to mold flow imbalances and sub-par
The fill segment performance of cavity pressure control.
The fill segment of the process is normally How long should the fill rate control the
controlled by the velocity control on the injection process? What needs to happen during this part of
unit. If the fill routine is the same from shot-to- the cycle is that the thickness of the layer of skin
shot, one could expect that the quality will be which forms during the plastic flow should be
similar, if not the same, throughout all of the parts. consistent, any weld lines will be formed and the
Programmed injection is the term more potential length of the flow will be determined.
likely applied to setting a velocity “profile” for a What pressures are required to do this? The most
process. Why would anyone want any more than correct answers is, “It depends!” We know
one velocity? There may be times that part pressure does matter, but the point is that we are
geometries require adjusting the velocities to most concerned about velocity or speed in this
avoid a cosmetic defect. Perhaps the best way to segment. Once the character of the plastic that has
overcome this requirement is to redesign the part filled the cavity has been determined, we rely on
to eliminate the need for this extra consideration. the follow up pressures to pack enough molecules
Each parameter added to the process allows for into the cavities to control dimensions or other
another opportunity for variation. part characteristics.
The technician should be wary that with a Processes that require balancing or
typical hydraulic molding machine, the requested normalizing may not allow 100% filling, so 90-
velocity will likely be different from the actual. It 95% may be a better number. One possible
usually can be proven by changing the settings. consideration would be to allow the cavity that is
For example, if the velocity is shown as 11 mm/ most full to control the switch to the next
second and the fill time is 0.66 seconds, then the segment.
velocity is changed to 10 mm/second and the fill
time is still 0.66 seconds, there are several Next, the technician needs to determine the
possibilities. Here are the two most likely: mechanism for transferring to the next segment.
Intuition suggests that transferring on mold cavity
• The machine is pressure limited and cannot pressure would provide the best results. There are
provide enough pressure to move the lots of opinions on the transfer technique and
plastic at the requested injection rate. many tests will argue that there is very little
• The hydraulic limits of the machine have difference between them. Let’s look at four
been reached. This means the pumps used possible options and the way each one works:

55
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

1. Position transfer. This is perhaps the easi- causing damage. Recently at least one
est to understand and set up and many manufacturer is promoting time as a transfer mode
molding shops have established it as the as well as “hydraulic psi”. With advances in
standard. The philosophy is that the screw technology, there may be even more transfer
will move forward until a specified position modes available, but the one factor that looms as
is reached and then transfer to the packing most significant is that the technicians should
stage. clearly understand how their preferred transfer
mode works—and when it’s not doing the job.
2. Hydraulic transfer. This works differently
in that once a particular position is reached, Another consideration must be made when
the machine must sense a certain pressure any cavities are blocked. A good rule of thumb is
which will perform the transfer function. do not block cavities. If this must be done, we
Usually the process is designed so that the must consider the fact that as soon as the plastic
trigger can only be activated in the last pro- gets to the gates, the velocity should be decreased
grammed velocity segment. Picking this since the flow is now going into less cavities than
position properly will make a world of dif- before. The shot size should have already been
ference. decreased!
3. Cavity pressure transfer. For machines so
Packing Pressure Segment
equipped, the way this can work is that at a
predetermined cavity pressure the transfer At the time of switchover from the filling to
would take place. Some machines are the packing segment, the pressure may be known,
designed so that if the peak cavity pressure but it is not set at the machine control panel. The
is not between certain settings, the molding technician must determine what needs to happen
machine can send a signal to a piece of after the fill segment is completed. There are
equipment to automatically reject that shot. generally 3 options.
One major drawback to this technique is if
the cavity with the pressure transducer is 1. Pack additional plastic into the cavity.
blocked. This may require high pressures; however,
it is not always desired. Many machines
4. Parting line sensing. Although this tech- have packing “rate” controls which allow
nique is not popularly used, experiments additional control over molecular arrange-
will show that some very good results can ment—especially in the gate area. Packing
be obtained running a process in this way. pressures which are too high for too long
What is needed is an ultra-precise position- may result in an overpacking condition that
ing sensor which can read to millionths of causes physical part failures over time. If
an inch. The way this technique works is the plastic molecules are frozen in place in
that once an established mold opening is a non-relaxed state, they may relax under
achieved, transfer will take place. the influence of solvents or high operating
In any of these cases there should be a temperatures. Solvents can cause crazing or
“transfer override timer” or an equivalent. This serious cracks. Bug sprays and similar
should be set for a time only slightly longer than chemical compounds can dramatically
the longest fill time based on collected data. This affect polycarbonates and other materials.
is needed so that if , for some reason, the transfer High temperatures can cause distortion.
is not carried out, the cycle will default to this Vinyl records which have been left in car
timer and allow the machine to continue cycling. windows on a hot summer day relieve
One possible outcome for improperly setting this themselves of the stresses by bending or
timer is overpacking the mold and possibly warping.

56
®
 Optimizing the Molding Process

2. Pack no additional plastic into the Packing rate can also have an effect on part
cavity. Theoretically, this would mean characteristics. As with fast fill, following with a
there would be no flow through the gate at fast packing rate will allow more time for the
this time. This situation suggests that the molecules to relax. Slowing the packing rate will
appropriate amount of plastic has been encourage more frozen orientation, especially in
injected. Using cavity pressure control can the gate region. Faster packing rate will also help
suggest how repeatable this would be. On equalize cavity pressure away from the gate with
the surface one could understand why this the pressure in the gate vicinity.
theory should prove to be the most reliable
process control; however, experience Although fill speeds contribute dramatically,
shows that process improvement may be packing pressure usually determines how much
negligible. Remember that the primary the surface appearance of the part resembles that
function of the fill segment of the injection of the mold cavity itself. Also steering away from
cycle is to control part properties by extremely high or low packing pressures will tend
controlling the flow of the plastic to produce parts with lower stress levels.
throughout the mold. This segment “does
Hold Pressure Segment
not care” what the pressure is at the
transfer point, so trying to match the The popular use of holding pressure is to keep
packing pressure to this value can be a the plastic from flowing through the gate until
formidable challenge. freeze-off occurs. Holding pressures are normally
lower than packing pressure. If higher pressures
3. Allow backflow through the gate. This
are required, it may be less confusing to call them
situation would be expected to give the
follow-up pressures.
smallest part dimensions and greatest
shrinkage in the gate area. Another So, what is the typical function of holding
byproduct of molding like this is the pressure? It is normally used as the pressure
appearance of the gate vestige. Backflow required to keep plastic from flowing back
will allow relaxation in the gate region to through the gate until the gate freezes. How high
give the most relaxed molecular should it be set? It depends on what pressure is
orientation and under certain conditions exerted by the plastic. It also depends on the part
has been shown to give the smallest gate and gate design. There are tests that can be run to
projections. determine what the gate “freeze off” time is.
Part and gate design will dramatically affect Please remember, the local effects of packing
the importance of packing pressure, but since this pressure can be negated by holding pressures
part of the cycle contributes such a great deal to which are improperly set. If the holding pressure
part consistency, the part design and runner and is set too high, it becomes an additional packing
gate configuration must allow the technician to pressure which may cause localized stresses. If
see part characteristics change with varied the holding pressure is too low, the release of
machine settings. Gates or runners that are too pressure in the gate area may help relieve stresses,
small will not give the latitude desired to do but may also allow sink marks. Setting this
proper tuning. On the other hand, gates and pressure properly is dependent on the process, the
runners that are too large can lead to prolonged part design and the material lbeing molded.
cycle times and less precise control due to the Again, watching a cavity pressure sensor chart
increased volume of plastic through which the can help determine how high this pressure should
pressures must be transmitted. be set and how long it should be held.

57
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Back Pressure Segment be easier to use this feature, and in some cases
When the hydraulic injection cylinder pushes may even make the process more robust.
the screw forward, the plastic in front of the screw Care must also be taken for some glass-filled
tip is injected into the mold. Then the screw begins materials and some materials whose physical
rotating to auger the material forward to create the properties have been known to suffer with too
next shot. As the material begins to accumulate in much plasticating action.
front of the screw tip, it exerts pressure on the
A typical byproduct of increased back
screw tip, pushing the screw backwards. On the
pressure is additional tendency to drool. A
other end of the screw is the injection cylinder that
possible corrective action for the drool would be
has hydraulic fluid behind the injection piston.
suckback or pullback, but this can create problems
This hydraulic fluid must be permitted to flow
such as splay if too much is used.
back to the tank as the plastic pushes on the screw
tip. If the hydraulic fluid is restricted from going Screw run time goes hand-in-hand with this
back to the tank by means of a hydraulic valve, parameter for having a pronounced effect on the
and we measure the pressure in the hydraulic line melt. Certainly, the best possible suggestion for
between the injection cylinder and the hydraulic setting the combination of these two parameters is
valve, we are measuring back pressure. If we set to experiment and decide which settings are the
back pressure higher, we restrict the flow of least likely to cause degradation of the polymer or
hydraulic flow back to the tank, making it more variations in the process. Some suppliers will give
difficult to be pushed backwards. Since the screw recommended screw rpm in surface feet per
is still rotating but not being permitted to come minute. This seems like a more practical approach
back to shot size as quickly as when the back to setting screw speed since the shear effects on
pressure was set lower, the screw puts more the material will change with the diameter of the
mechanical work into the melt, raising the temp- screw and the compression ratio.
erature of the melt, mixing it more, and creating a Two Stage Machines
denser shot of plastic in front of the screw tip.
If you are faced with working with machines
This pressure is usually used to complete the with only two stages of injection (and maybe no
plastication of the material being used. The higher pure velocity control) many recommendations will
back pressure is set, the more work will be exerted continue to hold true. At the least, the machine
on the compound. Increased back pressure also should be run so the process is segmented into two
tends to compact the plastic in front of the screw. stages—injection high volume and injection low
Generally a minimum of 50 psi set-back volume. There are distinct advantages to using
pressure will suffice for an operation. Sometimes a position transfer over timers to control the
lower amount may be desired, but if left to the switchover from high to low volume. Using this
minimum of hydraulic system pressure, the technique will treat the mold more gently if set
performance of the machine may become erratic. properly. The drawback is that the follow-up
Care must be taken when running shear sensitive pressure must be used for packing and holding,
materials (e.g., most PVCs). There are many thereby eliminating some of the flexibility in
opinions regarding the usefulness of multiple back processing. If there are viscosity changes in the
pressures, including the argument that the back material the transfer point will likely be hit at
pressure should be increased toward the end of various times, introducing variability. Without fill
screw rotation to make up for the residence time speed controls, the fill time can vary, resulting in
difference with the rest of the shot. Experiments different part performance characteristics. Setting
should tell you how important this is for your a timer to transfer at the same time is not the
application. One important fact to consider is that answer since the amount of material to be pushed
many machines have a screw delay timer. It may into the mold would likely vary.

58
®
 Optimizing the Molding Process

Summary And the Door is Always Open

If the basic tenets of process control are Many shops allow a lackadaisical approach to
understood, the result should lead to robust environment control. A strong argument for not
processes which continually perform within controlling the environment in a molding shop is
predetermined limits and produce good product. that it is extremely expensive. Although difficult
The key factors focus on setting the machine to support with data, it is the molding shop that
properly the first time, then the technician can control operating conditions that will be able
shouldn’t have to revisit with his parameters very to produce the most consistent output. If there are
frequently—if at all. doors that are normally closed, a sudden change
will take place if left open. The heat transfer
steady-state that has been established will no
WHAT TO DO WHEN THE
longer be steady. Humidity will affect the
PROCESS CHANGES capabilities of dryers and can lead to an unstable
It is gratifying when a molding process has process. If machines are vented, leaving a vent
been set up properly and results in a continuous open during processing can result in hot spots in
output of top-quality product. Every once in a the barrel and throwing away the energy it took to
while the robust process can “run amok" without heat the barrel in the first place. In a worst case,
any human intervention. I suggest that the wrong the plastic will solidify, and the process will be
thing to do is run right over and make machine shut down.
adjustments. Technicians (and supervisors) Turn the Equipment “On”
should be trained to think on their feet rather than
“respond to stimulus.” We have provided a As simple as it sounds, this has led to, and
troubleshooting guide to help steer you in the will continue to lead to, variation in the process.
right direction, but it should be obvious that these Again, if something suddenly happens (i.e., a
procedures are expected to be implemented when dryer or mold water circulation unit stops), you
the process is started instead of after it has may not realize it immediately. In many molding
stabilized. Over the years there are a few culprits shops, the auxiliary equipment is serviced by the
that may have surprised an operator, technician, same circuit breaker used by the molding
or supervisor, creating an uneasy feeling about the machine. If the molding machine is shut down for
kind of product that is being produced. You can service, the auxiliary equipment will usually not
find out for yourself, or you can read some of turn back on when the machine breaker is thrown.
them here so that you may become aware of what Diligence is required from your support
personnel. Even at that, there may be times when
can happen.
a piece of equipment is overloaded and shuts
Look for Loose Components down. I guess the key thought is, “Don’t take
anything for granted.”
These can be very obvious or extremely
subtle. There have been times that parts of Preventive Maintenance
auxiliary equipment have worked loose and Although many people in manufacturing
caused such problems as damaging granulator challenge preventive maintenance, there is a key
blades or molds. A monitoring system can scenario I have used in technician training that
sometimes give you enough evidence to lead you teaches a good lesson. Many pieces of equipment
to a limit switch that might need to be tightened. could be considered equivalent to water heaters.
Motion detectors require precise calibration for Even though there are water heaters that have a
many operations and the safety required by them. lifetime guarantee, most are only offered for 6-8
Loose components can lead to inaccurate years. As discussed earlier, the expected lifetime
readings. Bent parts can also lead to this. for a typical water heater is about 10 years. How

59
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

do you want to know when to replace the water Again, monitoring systems usually provide
heater? As said, but worth repeating, you could information that can be used to detect trends
either replace it at approximately 10-year leading to complete failures. I have seen machines
intervals, which seems like a reasonable bet, or run even after the nonreturn valves were rendered
you could wait until it fails and then replace it. The useless by the glass-filled materials being
difference, as we saw, is that failure could lead to processed. The problem was discovered after an
catastrophe. Because you cannot see what is unfilled grade was loaded into the hopper.
happening in the molding process, there may be Another factor that needs consideration is
equipment (e.g., heat exchangers) on the verge of lubrication. Machines can be built with “automatic
failure at any time. Reliability theory proves that lubrication.” Automatic lubricators are not
when more components are added to any system, foolproof, and the lubricant must be replaced.
the more likely failure will occur. Automatic lubrication systems are also trained to
do their jobs at predetermined times. They do not
Each application must stand on its own merit.
clean off excess lubricant! Many molds also
There are rules of thumb for so many things;
require lubricant. In general, it should be applied
however, relying on a rule will ultimately lead to
sparingly. If too much is applied it may
failure if there is any variety at all in the operation.
contaminate some of the output, which may wind
If you asked me how often a nonreturn valve
up in the granulator, after which it may be blended
should be replaced, my answer would be, “It
with virgin material for processing. I have seen
depends.” Is this evasive? I think it more
huge globs of grease fall into collection pans from
intelligent. You must know what materials are
machine tie bars. The corrective action is to
being processed, what material is used in the observe tie bars regularly and wipe off excess
nonreturn valve, how many hours a week the grease and/or decrease the dosage of grease from
operation is running, and so on. Material the automatic lubricators.
manufacturers can provide good guidelines, but
even at that, some judgment must be used. Dryer filters and other machine components
should periodically be looked over, using
I once had an experience with some new manufacturer’s recommendations to insure
molding machines that were not put into a continuous operation.
preventive maintenance routine. No problems
From Where Did the Burn Come?
were encountered for several months, and then
some of the machines started to behave erratically. Burn marks are a source of concern for most
In some cases, they even stopped operating. As the operations. You need to look at what is happening
failures were occurring we were building the here. If a process has been producing good output
database to put the equipment into a preventive for a few days or even a shift, then starts to put out
maintenance system. When the machine product with streaks, the knee-jerk reaction of
manufacturer was alerted to the failures some technicians is to start to adjust temperatures
happening, they accepted no responsibility somewhere. If the process was robust, what caused
because the maintenance prescribed in the the change? I suggest that there are several
operations manuals was not being performed. possible culprits, including improperly installed
machine end cap, pitted nonreturn valve, screw or
Hydraulic system breakdowns are not pretty. It barrel, or maybe even a corroded thermocouple
is also an unpleasant experience to go to your fitting. I have seen adapters mounted on machine
support personnel and ask, “When can you barrels where corrosion resulted in the
completely disassemble the machine and clean out thermocouples breaking loose from their
all of the valves and tubing?” Preventive positions, causing low temperature readings,
maintenance may save you from these headaches. activating the heater bands to the point where

60
®
 Optimizing the Molding Process

discoloration appeared. One factor that could be removing this particle, he set the machine back
considered when looking into this kind of into operation. After I left he increased the mold
situation is to see if the discoloration is always in protection pressure so that these nuisance
the same place or if it moves around, or is the particles would not cause a cycle interrupt. They
plastic mixed so that all of it is slightly caused no mold damage. This showed me that the
discolored. If the discoloration moves around the mold protection was set very well.
cavities in a conventional mold, it should point
Another possibility is that as the process settles
you toward the nonreturn valve or screw tip
in, the growth of the mold due to thermal expansion
because the rotation of the screw will likely result
will not allow the process to move the mold close
in a different orientation after each shot. The next
enough to obtain the “kiss point” (i.e., the point
place to look is where two or more components in
called “prefill valve closed” on many hydraulic
the injection unit are assembled and could cause
machines). If this is the correct diagnosis, then a
an area of hang up.
reset of this critical position is in order.
Discoloration of plastic is time and
You should be aware that arbitrarily changing
temperature related. This means at a slightly
this setting could lead to major mold damage. Be
elevated temperature, the material will take a long
careful when taking steps to set the process back
time to discolor. At an extremely high
into motion!
temperature it will obviously not take as long. I
once did a “quick and dirty” study with just a hot The Machine Has Stopped
plate, which showed that at approximately 803°F, There may be times when you will walk beside
a pellet of polycarbonate could cook for about a row of machines only to find one machine has
four minutes before it started to yellow. stopped dead in its tracks. It is imperative to take a
Thus, if your machine holds six shots of close look at the situation prior to taking any steps
capacity and half of the shot capacity is used such as purging the machine. One situation that
every cycle, and the cycle time is 15 seconds, reared its ugly head occurred when a machine
the residence time in the machine should work running glass-filled PBT was found not operating.
out to about 3 minutes. Based on this very The machine parameters were set well within
rough calculation one could conclude that the limits and the operator retracted the injection unit
temperature could not be hot enough along the so she could place a “purge catcher” in front of the
entire barrel to result in a noticeable yellowing nozzle. Before she could remove her hand, the PBT
of the material. It is usually the case that the splattered out of the nozzle all over her. One lesson
discoloration is brown or black, and that the to be learned from this is to use appropriate
material is hung up somewhere. This will not clothing when performing operations such as this.
be permanently resolved by adjusting a Another is to check and see that the machine heats
machine setting. are actually at temperatures reasonably close to the
setpoints. Improper heater band installation can
The Mold Won’t Close
cause very hot spots in the process. In this case
If there are cycle interruptions happening on a when I measured the internal temperature of the
frequent basis, this might actually be a good sign. nozzle, my peak temperature was more than
On one occasion I had a “red light” happen twice 600°F—well over the danger point with this
over the time span of about 15 minutes. Each time material.
the technician knew what to do, and I was
The Jury Is Still Out
impressed by what caused this to happen. When
the technician looked between the mold faces I had the privilege of working in a molding
prior to starting the process back up, he saw a tiny shop with a monitoring system between 1994 and
particle of plastic on the mold face. After 2000. Systems such as these provide tons of

61
®
Society of Plastics Engineers Next Page

information—maybe even more than a person can the field—that these actually cause problems, or
practically use. that they do not deserve serious consideration.
One peculiar performance characteristic in one Each situation must be evaluated on its own.
of the molding shops was a perceived change in
the character of processes at shift changes. On CONCLUSION
several occasions printouts were presented to me The troubleshooting guide will walk any
wherein you could see a noticeable shift in a technician through the steps to problem solving.
process and guess the time of the occurrence. We have provided a “take heed” warning here that
Discussions with engineers schooled in this there are other factors that both have to be
discipline discounted the effects from changes in considered, and which may be the complete cause
power load, but other intelligence hinted that this of the problem. Remember to apply logic to the
was a factor to be reckoned with. In large situation. The process was running OK, but
manufacturing plants that work all day long, you something changed on its own. No parameters
might see that, as some areas of the shop are were adjusted on their own, and maybe an
allowed to shut down, there is a change in the adjustment will overcome the problem, but the
character of the power supplied to processing better answer would be to explore further—then
equipment, or in the cooling water coming from tell everyone what needs to be done to avoid this
the water towers. There are at least two opinions in situation in the future.

REFERENCES
1. Wenskus J.J. From proceeding of Injection Molding India Conference 11/97, Mumbai, India. “Disciplined
Process Strategy for Injection Molding.” (1997).

62
®
 Previous Page

TIPS FOR SUPERVISORS

AND TECHNICIANS
JERRY GOLMANAVICH
®

The following information could likely be be to set the process up so that it consistently
filed under common sense. In some cases the produces good products. Segmenting the
information has limited application, but it is molding process is a robust approach to
important to people learning injection molding achieving a process that should almost never
operations to learn from the experience of others require a need for adjustments.
and might be called best practices and rules of
thumb. 3. Communications among shifts can be a life-
saver. A whole chapter could be written on
1. Many defects can be corrected by adjusting this subject, but here the high points will be
process parameters. Before pulling a mold emphasized. It may be wise to allow, or
and sending it for repair (unless plenty of insist, that when mold changes are being
time is available), a technician can tune some made, the same person who starts the process
part defects out of the process by adjusting should finish it. The other alternative is to
parameters. If the process is set up identically guarantee that the technician that takes over
to a set of parameters that worked at previous the task knows exactly what has been done
times, the deficiencies should be noted on a and what needs to be done so that time is not
mold repair ticket, even if the process can be wasted trying to figure out what the next
tuned to minimize the problem. If this is not steps are. Checklists are useful only if filled
done, the real cause of the problem will not out regularly and completely. Filling them
be identified and the process will gradually out in advance or incompletely is evidence of
deteriorate. Molds that produce parts with a lack of concern on behalf of the employee.
both flash and underfill can in many cases be
“fixed” —temporarily—by making changes Communication within the shift is also
in the process. Demonstrating these capabili- important. When help is requested, the
ties can seem almost miraculous to a mold- requesting person should always be available
maker. when assistance arrives. Explain the problem
and provide any additional relevant back-
2. Technicians should know how long a supervi- ground information.
sor would expect them to work on a problem
before they decide to call for support from 4. Teamwork should be emphasized. A techni-
maintenance. This balance could prove criti- cian will too often develop a feel for certain
cal, because the goal for a technician would approaches to solve problems. If there is

63
Society of Plastics Engineers

some mystery regarding why corrective go off. As machines and molds change due to
actions do not work and the idea pool is build up in water lines, depletion of grease, or
exhausted, others in the department should be other wear and tear, it may be prudent to
sought out to lend assistance. The first contact encourage technicians to increase cycle time
would likely be another technician, but there to eliminate interruptions instead of insisting
may be support personnel (i.e., mold makers, on the specified cycle times that may result in
machinists, electricians, etc.) who could sug- alarms in the operation.
gest different approaches to the situation.
8. Give the technician and engineer time to
Supervisors should consider training the sup-
introduce a mold to the production environ-
port personnel in molding technology along
ment. The “molding window” too often is not
with the technicians
established and the technician does not know
5. Blocking cavities is not a good answer to a how robust the process is. The first trial is the
problem in a mold. Blocking cavities creates time to document the peculiarities of the mold
imbalances in molds that were previously bal- and machine combination. If possible, work
anced. Blocking cavities cuts efficiency. Los- the bugs out prior to the first production run.
ing one out of four cavities causes a decrease We like to achieve the establishment of the
of 25% in output. Blocking cavities increases large molding window and then allow the
the residence time of the plastic in the barrel, technician some flexibility to make the
causing premature degradation. The forces on adjustments required to optimize the output.
the ejector system become imbalanced. The Write the information down, along with any
velocity profile and shot size or transfer point special instructions for this particular opera-
have to be adjusted. The heat transfer proper- tion.
ties of the operation change, which may
9. Keep records on mold and machine history.
require an adjustment in machine times.
Employees may challenge this habit when it
There are more reasons why this should not
is perceived that “nobody ever looks at
be done. This decision is ultimately, usually
them”; however, when you need them, they
left to a supervisor. Only the supervisor can
will be there. There should be procedures in
decide what needs to be done.
place to track requests for maintenance for
6. Keep your eye on ejector counts. A technician machines and molds and to determine that the
can sometimes try to solve an ejection prob- problems are, indeed, fixed. In addition, it is a
lem by adding ejector counts. In many cases good idea to store a complete shot, including
these problems can be tuned out of the opera- runner, with any mold, just in case there is
tion by adjusting other parameters and leav- some question regarding the nature of the
ing the ejector set at 1 or 2. This is where you quality of the last production run, as well as
want to be. the identification of the part that was last pro-
duced. When a mold is taken out of produc-
7. Studies have shown that cycle interruptions
tion and sent to the tool room, it should be
can be the leading contributor to inefficient
accompanied by enough information so that
operation. There are many reasons for this as
the moldmaker can both fix any problems and
well, including the nature of the parts pro-
keep an eye on wear patterns that may
duced just prior to, or just after, the interrup-
emerge.
tion, the character of the plastic that may be
left in the barrel for an inordinate amount of 10. A good routine is to check mold protection at
time, and cooling off or heating up of compo- least once per day and maybe once per shift if
nents. A goal for the technician is to create an it is convenient. When there are time con-
operation where the lights and buzzers never straints, some shortcut methods may often be

64
®
 Tips for Supervisors and Technicians

used to get into production. This is false that unpredicted failures happen less fre-
economy when plastic is caught between the quently. This applies to molds and machin-
mold surfaces. ery. Machine manufacturers usually provide
maintenance schedules. If you buy a new
11. Insist that each technician shut down the pro-
machine, and do not perform the mainte-
cesses properly. For example, if some
nance contained in the operations manual,
melted, and then hardened, plastic is sticking
the manufacturer may not cover repairs that
out of the sprue bushing when a runnerless or
fall within the warranty period. This has hap-
hot sprue bushing mold is shut down, it
pened.
becomes difficult to remove to start up the
next time when a little care at the end of the 16. Saving money on replacement parts could
run (e.g., scraping this vestige off when it is ultimately cost more. Buying an injection
warm) will save a lot of time when restarting screw made from the wrong material may
the process. lead to premature failure. Buying a nonreturn
12. Start the process properly. The flip side of valve that wears out early, or does not do a
the coin. These procedures could determine precise job of controlling flow, will also lead
the character of the complete production run. to inefficient operation.
As stated earlier, ejector problems or inter- 17. Preventive maintenance may identify check
ruptions are indicators that the operation has
rings that leak too much. The check ring is
not been optimized.
the control point of the molding process,
13. Do not skimp on mold building costs. This is unless you are controlling with cavity pres-
the heart of the process and should be sure. If the check ring is not seating properly
designed for continuous service over several each shot, you will get parts that are receiv-
years of time. ing different amounts of plastic material
from one shot to the next. This could give
14. Once you are happy with the results, try at you inconsistent part quality. A check ring
least one more time to make it better. There test should be done on a regular basis, espe-
are consultants who often help shops out by cially if you are running close tolerance parts
“proving” that cycle times can be reduced. or if the parts must closely replicate the mold
Most shops will typically run operations with steel surface. Observing to see if the amount
a little padding in their overall cycles, so it is of cushion is repeatable is also a good indica-
reasonable to expect that cycle savings could
tor as to whether the check ring is seating
be achieved by changing only parameters. As
properly each time. Another indicator is
the history of the equipment is taking place,
observing to see if the screw is rotating more
one might find that some tweaking is
than a quarter turn as it is injecting. If it is,
required to the parameters established when
the plastic is backflowing through the check
the facilities are new. This is not unusual. It
ring seal when it supposed to be injecting
may be possible that performance will
into the mold. It is then hitting the flight of
improve if a different approach is taken
the screw and rotating the screw during injec-
toward the baseline operating philosophies.
tion. When this happens, less plastic is being
15. Preventive maintenance could be the key to injected into the mold and not packing out
success. Plan your downtime accordingly so the part as well.

65
®
POLYMER DRYING
PETE STOUGHTON

WHY DRY PLASTIC PELLETS extrusion, large amounts of moisture may cause a
BEFORE PROCESSING? trail of gas bubbles in the extrudate, or even
spitting, sputtering, and a foamy melt at the die.
Many plastics, when exposed to the
atmosphere, will pick up moisture, the amount of Cosmetic Problems
which will depend upon the humidity conditions A cosmetic problem is a visible defect in the
of the surrounding air and the type of polymer in product being produced. The moisture [steam]
question. If the amount of moisture pick up is escaping through the die may cause surging,
excessive, it may have an effect upon the waveforms, arrowheads, or a rough and scaly
performance of the processing machine, the surface finish in the extrudate.
cosmetic qualities of the product being produced,
or even the physical and structural properties of Structural and Physical Problems
that product. Processing problems due to moisture Even the presence of very small amounts of
can be avoided by carefully following the proper moisture may cause problems (chemical reaction)
handling and drying procedures outlined by your when processing many of today’s engineering
material supplier and auxiliary equipment thermoplastic polymers. This reaction occurs
manufacturer. when these polymers are heated higher than their
melt temperatures in the presence of moisture.
MOISTURE PROBLEMS The reaction will cause hydrolytic degradation,
The effects of processing a polymer that resulting in a change of the polymers molecular
contains excess moisture may manifest itself in a weight, melt viscosity, and mechanical strength.
variety of ways that are dependent upon the Nonhygroscopic Polymers
amount of moisture present, the type of polymer,
and the product being produced. Some polymers, do not have an attraction or
affinity for moisture and do not absorb it into the
Machine Processing Problems pellet. They are called nonhygroscopic polymers.
Moisture in or on the pellets surface during Nonhygroscopic polymers, however, may
melt processing may cause a change in the pick up surface moisture (this is called
polymer’s melt viscosity that may in turn affect adsorption) when exposed to high humidity
the processing parameters of the extruder. In conditions (Figure 1).

67
Society of Plastics Engineers

to prevent airborne fines from entering the

processing area’s atmosphere.
Compounding Additives
into Nonhygroscopic Polymers
If a nonhygroscopic polymer has been
compounded with a hygroscopic pigment or
Figure 1. Nonhygroscopic pellet surface moisture. additive, the resultant compound will be
hygroscopic and may need to be dried with a
Since the moisture is on the surface of the
dehumidifying dryer.
pellets, it is very easy to remove. A simple hot
air dryer with a single pass air circuit, HYGROSCOPIC POLYMERS
maintained in a good state of repair, will usually
provide good results.

DRYING NONHYGROSCOPIC
POLYMERS

Figure 3. Hygroscopic pellet.

Most engineering thermoplastic polymers are

hygroscopic.
When a hygroscopic polymer is exposed to the
atmosphere, the pellets will absorb moisture from
the surrounding air (Figure 3). The migration of
water vapor from the atmosphere into the pellet
Figure 2. Hot air dryer. happens over time, and will eventually slow and
stop when the pellet’s moisture content reaches
Figure 2 shows a typical hot air dryer. The equilibrium with that of the surrounding air. The
dryer draws ambient air through the inlet filter. amount of moisture a hygroscopic polymer will
The air is then passed through the dryer’s heater, absorb will vary depending upon the type of
where it is brought up to the selected drying polymer, the length of time it was exposed to the
temperature monitored at the inlet of the drying atmosphere, the humidity, and temperature of the
hopper. The heated drying air is then passed surrounding air. Some hygroscopic polymers have
through the bed of material and exhausted to the a greater affinity for moisture than others, and one
atmosphere. type of polymer may absorb moisture faster or
slower than another type of polymer under
The drying hopper should be sized to hold a identical humidity conditions.
volume of material equal to the drying time that is One type of polymer may also reach its
desired. Example: If the processing machine is equilibrium moisture content at a higher or lower
running at the rate of 100 pounds per hour and level than another polymer when exposed to
your desired drying time is two hours the drying identical conditions. With many hygroscopic
hopper should hold 200 pounds of material. polymers the absorbed water molecules become
bound to the polymer chains by intermolecular
Other critical features of the drying hopper forces. The strength of these forces is what makes
such as Air Distribution, Material Mass Flow, and the drying a hygroscopic polymer difficult.
insulation will be discussed later in this chapter. Moisture absorption, fortunately, is completely
The moisture laden exhaust air should be filtered reversible.

68
®
 Polymer Drying

DRYING HYGROSCOPIC Drying Time

POLYMERS Plastic pellets do not dry instantaneously, so
time is critical to the drying process. It is
Figure 4 shows a typical dehumidifying dryer. important to note that effective drying time is the
The processor must be armed with a good basic time the pellets are exposed to the hot, dry air.
understanding of how the dehumidifying drying The time the polymer is in the drying hopper at
system functions in order to keep it in a state of less than the recommended temperature and dew
good repair. Effective moisture control of point cannot be considered drying time.
hygroscopic polymers almost always requires a
Airflow
dehumidifying air dryer.
The drying air is the medium that transports
the heat energy (BTU’s) from the dryer to the
material in the hopper. It also strips the moisture
off the surface of the pellets and carries it back
to the dryer. The minimum amount of airflow
needed will vary from one drying system to the
next, depending on the type of polymer being
dried, the incoming pellet temperature, drying
hopper design, heat losses within the drying
Figure 4. Dehumidifying dryer. system, and throughput volume (pounds/hour).
Poor system design and lack of insulation will
THE DEHUMIDIFYING DRYER necessitate additional airflow to overcome the
heat losses in the system. Good drying system
A basic understanding of the fundamental design and insulation will reduce heat losses,
drying parameters (temperature, dewpoint, time, resulting in a reduced CFM requirement.
and airflow) is necessary to understand the drying
of hygroscopic polymers. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
The dehumidifying desiccant dryer comprises
Drying Temperature
three operating sequences: the “on stream” drying
The polymer temperature is probably the most air circuit, the regeneration air circuit, and the
important consideration in most drying desiccant cooling circuit. The following is a
applications. Temperature has a strong effect on description of each sequence of operation of a
the diffusion rate of water molecules through a dehumidifying desiccant dryer.
hygroscopic polymer, so the rate of moisture gain
or loss is dependent on the polymer temperature.
T H E “O N S T R E A M ”
DRYING AIR CIRCUIT
Heating a hygroscopic polymer is a The “on stream” drying air circuit employed
prerequisite to drying. by all desiccant-dehumidifying dryers used in the
plastics industry today is of the closed loop
Dewpoint
configuration (Figure 5).
To reach a low final moisture level in the The delivery air hose (item “A”) should be
polymer, the polymer must first be heated and well insulated to reduce heat loss. The drying
exposed to a dry-air (low dewpoint) environment. temperature should be monitored and controlled
Passing the drying air through a desiccant bed at the inlet of the drying hopper so as to
lowers the dewpoint of the drying air. The compensate for any heat losses in the tubing
desiccant filters the water molecules from the between the dryer and the drying hopper. Losses
drying air. can be on the order of 10°F per foot! The delivery

69
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

air circuit must be air tight because any air leaks in be exposed to the heated, low dewpoint drying air
the delivery air tubing will result in reduced air for approximately the same amount of time.
volume to the drying hopper, wasted heat energy,
loss of drying efficiency, and dewpoint Air Distribution
deterioration. As the air travels upward through the drying
hopper it must envelop each and every pellet in
the hopper.

Insulation

As mentioned earlier, temperature is probably

the most important consideration in most drying
applications; therefore, minimizing heat loss by
thoroughly insulating the drying hopper is of
paramount concern.

All dehumidifying polymer dryers used in the

plastics industry employ a closed loop drying air
Figure 5. Drying air circuit. circuit. The reason for this is that the moisture
content of the air exiting the drying hopper will
The drying hopper (item “B”) is a critical always be drier than the atmospheric air. This is
component of a dehumidifying drying system. A due to the fact that plastics do not absorb very
poorly performing drying hopper may result in much moisture. Under normal humidity
drying problems that seem to come and go with conditions the maximum saturated moisture
the changes in local weather conditions. content of a typical hygroscopic polymer will not
When the hot, dry air enters the drying hopper exceed 1%. The dewpoint in the return air circuit
it is dispersed throughout the drying hopper (item “C”) of a typical drying system is usually in
enveloping each and every pellet and granule the range of 10°F to -20°F, which is much drier
within the hopper. As the hot, dry air travels than ambient air.
upward through the hopper, the drying air gives up It therefore makes economic sense to use a
its heat to the pellets. As the cool, moist pellets closed loop drying air circuit to salvage and reuse
absorb the heat from the drying air, they will begin the moderately dry air exiting the drying hopper
to give up their moisture. rather than using the wetter ambient air. The return
When the drying air exits the top of the air circuit must be air tight to prevent the high-
hopper, it has given up a substantial amount of its humidity ambient air from entering the dryer and
heat to the pellets within the drying hopper and in prematurely overloading the desiccant.
exchange has absorbed the moisture given up by Dehumidifying dryers are sensitive to high
the pellets being dried. There are some important return air temperatures. This is due to the fact that
features of a well-designed drying hopper, which the dryer’s desiccant adsorption capacity is
will be examined. dependent upon its temperature (Figure 6). The
temperature of the return air entering the dryer
Mass Material Flow
should not exceed 150°F. Return air temperatures
The distinguishing characteristic of mass flow greater than 150°F will greatly reduce the dryer’s
is that each pellet traveling through the drying efficiency. If the air exiting the top of the drying
hopper will spend approximately the same amount hopper exceeds 150°F an optional return air heat
of time in the hopper. Each pellet, therefore, will exchanger (Figure 5, item “E”) should be

70
®
 Polymer Drying

employed to reduce the dryer’s return air’s molecular sieve desiccant is a synthetic zeolite
temperature to less than 150°F. material composed of crystalline metal
aluminosilicates. The molecular sieve is a
crystalline material employing pores uniformly
sized at 4 angstroms to sieve water molecules from
the drying air. The molecular sieve has a very
strong affinity for the dipolar water molecules. The
moisture adsorption and capacity is dictated by the
desiccant’s temperature (Figure 6).
The most common type of heaters (Figure 5
item “I ”) used in dehumidifying dryers are
Calrod-type electrical heater elements. Natural
Figure 6. Desiccant adsorption capacity chart. gas heaters are becoming very popular with large
dehumidifying dryers due to the lower energy
Over a period of time fines may build up on
costs for natural gas. The process heater enclosure
the cooling coils of the heat exchanger, which will
should be well insulated to minimize heat losses.
result in insulating the return air from the cooling
coils. A heat exchanger prefilter (Figure 5, item
“D”), therefore, should be employed to keep the
REGENERATION AIR CIRCUIT
cooling coils clean and free of fines. The high-temperature regeneration air circuit
A dehumidifying dryer’s desiccant is sensitive employed by all desiccant-dehumidifying dryers
to contamination. The purpose of the dryer’s used in the plastics industry today is of the single
return air filter (Figure 5, item “F”) is for the pass configurations (Figure 7).
protection of the dryer’s desiccant. A coating of The regeneration air circuit of a dehumidifying
contamination (fines) on the surface of the dryer utilizes heated ambient plant air in a single
desiccant beads will prevent moisture from pass air circuit to purge the moisture from the
entering the desiccant’s pores, rendering the desiccant out to the atmosphere.
desiccant ineffective. It is critical, therefore, that
any fines present in the return air be filtered out
before the air reaches the desiccant.
The dryer’s blower (Figure 5, item “G”) must
overcome the resistance of all the components in
the drying air circuit beginning with the dryer’s
desiccant bed, heater enclosure, delivery air
tubing, the pellets within the drying hopper,
return air heat exchanger, return air filters, and
return air tubing.
The dryer manufacturer’s CFM rating should Figure 7. Regeneration air circuit.
always be given for normal operating conditions The ambient plant air is drawn into the dryer
and not for free air, as is sometimes the case. through the inlet air filter (item “A”) it then
The dryer’s desiccant (Figure 5, item “H”) is passes through the blower (item “B”) and into
the substance that removes the moisture from the the regeneration heater enclosure (item “C” )
drying air. The most common type of desiccant where it is heated to the regeneration
employed by dehumidifying dryers in the plastics temperature. The hot regeneration air is then
industry is a type 4 molecular sieve desiccant. The passed through the desiccant (item “D”). When

71
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

heated, the desiccant will release its adsorbed exposed to drying temperatures that are slightly
moisture (Figure 6). greater than their manufacturers suggested drying
Regeneration temperatures in the range of temperature). If processing a natural nylon, it may
410°F to 450°F will produce good results in most oxidize and yellow when exposed to higher than
dryers. Regeneration temperatures greater than suggested drying temperatures.
425°F will result in achieving a lower residual
moisture content in the desiccant, but the additional
DESICCANT DRYER DESIGNS
energy needed to achieve higher regeneration The majority of dryers used in the plastics
temperatures is usually beyond the point of industry today are of two basic designs. The
diminishing returns and is therefore not needed. rotating carousel design and the twin tower
design. The basic principles of operation of the
Some dryers with large desiccant beds will drying, regeneration, and cooling circuits
utilize a higher regeneration temperature, in the described earlier apply to both the carousel and
range of 500°F to 600°F. This is done in order to twin tower dryers. The basic principles of
bring the larger mass of desiccant up to operation of the dryers may be the same but the
temperature as quickly as possible. designs employed vary widely. Following is a
brief description of a carousel-type dryer and two
DESICCANT COOLING
variations of the twin tower design.
Upon completion of the regeneration cycle the
desiccant’s residual moisture is at a very low level The Carousel Dryer Design
and its temperature is elevated (Figure 6). The
desiccant must be cooled prior to being moved
into the process air stream.
Moving a hot desiccant bed into the on stream
position will result in the two following
conditions. First, if a hot desiccant bed is moved
into the on stream position it will not adsorb
moisture from the return air coming from the
drying hopper (Figure 6). The moisture present in
the air returning from the drying hopper will pass
through the hot desiccant and into the drying air Figure 8. Carousel dryer.
circuit, resulting in an undesirable dew point spike
in the drying air. Figure 8 shows the airflow diagram of a
typical carousel dryer with four desiccant
Second, moving a hot desiccant bed into the cartridges. The number of desiccant cartridges
on stream position may result in a high may vary from three to ten depending upon the
temperature spike in the drying air. If the dryers size of the dryer. The desiccant cartridges are
set point temperature is adjusted to the lower end positioned between two sets of rotating bed-
of the operating range (140°F to 200°F) and a hot plates (item “A”) on the carousel assembly. The
desiccant bed is moved to the on stream position, carousel indexes the desiccant cartridges from
the heat from the desiccant bed will cause the one position to the next periodically. Carousel
temperature of the drying air to rise above the set indexing may be initiated on either a timed cycle
point drying temperature. or dew point level of the on stream drying air.
A temperature spike in the drying air may have When the indexing cycle is initiated, the
catastrophic consequences if you are processing a cartridges shown will index one position to the
temperature-sensitive polymer (e.g. Surlyn, PETG, left, the cartridge in the far left position will
ABS or others that may stick together when move to the far right position.

72
®
 Polymer Drying

The desiccant cartridges labeled 1 and 2 are in

the on stream drying position. The moisture-laden
return air is passed through cartridges 1 and 2
where the moisture is trapped in the molecular
sieve desiccant. The dehumidified air is then
reheated to the set point temperature and sent to
the drying hopper. Desiccant cartridge 4 is in the
regeneration position. Ambient air is drawn in
through the regeneration filter (item “B”), heated
to a very high regeneration temperature, and
passed through the desiccant cartridge in a
counterflow direction. When heated to the
extremely high regeneration temperature, the
desiccant releases its adsorbed moisture, which is Figure 9. Twin tower, single blower dryer.
exhausted to the atmosphere. (Figure 6). The moisture is then purged through
After the high temperature regeneration the four-way valve to the atmosphere. The
cycle, the hot desiccant cartridge is cooled prior desiccant is cooled after high temperature
to being brought back to the on-stream drying regeneration by de-energizing the internal
position. Desiccant cartridge 3 is in the closed regeneration heater prior to bed switch over and
loop cooling position at this time. The desiccant allowing the air stream to purge the residual heat
is cooled with closed loop air from the dryer’s to the atmosphere.
return air circuit, which, as mentioned earlier, is The larger air stream (approximately 80%) of
always much drier than ambient air. The the drying air is directed through the process
carousel design dryer is noted for (1) multiple heaters where the air’s temperature is brought up
desiccant cartridges, (2) small desiccant to the set point drying temperature. The hot, dry
cartridges, and (3) short indexing cycles (15 to air is then forced through the drying hopper. The
30 minutes). moisture-laden air returning to the dryer is
The Twin Tower, Single Blower Dryer Design
approximately 80% of the blower’s capacity. The
smaller air stream was used for regeneration and
Figure 9 shows the airflow circuit of a typical purged to the atmosphere. Make up for the
twin tower, single blower design dryer. As its name regeneration air that was purged from the dryer
implies, the twin tower dryer utilizes two desiccant must be drawn into the system. This is usually
beds or towers. The single blower version of the accomplished with a make up air port located on
twin tower dryer employs a single blower for both the regeneration filter (item “D” ).
the on stream closed loop drying air circuit and the
single pass high temperature air circuit. The Twin Tower Dual Blower Design

The drying air from the discharge of the Figure 10 shows the airflow circuit of a typical
blower is directed through the four-way valve twin tower dual blower dryer design. The dual
(item “C”) to the on stream desiccant tower (item blower version of the twin tower employs a blower
“B”) where the moisture is adsorbed by the for the on stream closed loop drying circuit and
desiccant. The drying air exits the on stream another independent blower for the single pass
tower and is split into two air streams, where the regeneration circuit. Twin tower dryers usually
smaller air stream (approximately 20%)of the employ large solid bed desiccant towers. Desiccant
drying air is directed to the desiccant tower in the tower switchover between the on stream drying
regeneration position (item A). circuit and the regeneration circuit is accomplished
by means of two four-way valves.
The desiccant is heated to a high regeneration
temperature by the internal regeneration heating Desiccant tower switchover is done on either a
element. When the desiccant reaches the timed basis of by dew point level. Twin tower dryers
regeneration temperature the moisture is released usually have long on stream and regeneration

73
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

cycles—4 hours in the on stream position and 4 • by de-energizing the regeneration heaters
hours in regeneration and cooling is common. and blower prior to bed switchover and
allowing the desiccant to cool statically

• by utilizing a combination of the ambient

air cooling and static cooling that was just
described. Figure 11 illustrates a partially
completed ambient air cooling cycle.

Figure 10. Twin tower, dual blower dryer.

Tracing the airflow circuits of the twin tower

dryer, the dry air exits the top of the desiccant
tower (item “ B”). It then passes through a four-
way valve where it is directed to the on stream
process air heaters (item “D”). The air is heated to Figure 11. Twin tower, dual blower dryer.
the selected set point drying temperature and is
then directed to the drying hopper. The moisture- Desiccant bed switchover may be initiated by
laden air exits the top of the drying hopper and either of two methods: a timing circuit within the
returns to the dryer via the return air filter where
dryer control or when a dewpoint monitor within
airborne fines are removed from the air stream.
The return air then passes through the blower and the dryer control registers the deterioration of the
into the second four-way valve where it is directed drying air dewpoint below a preset level.
to the on stream desiccant tower (item “B”). Desiccant bed switching occurs by repositioning
both of the dryer’s four-way valves. Figure 12
The desiccant tower in the regeneration
shows the four-way valves repositioned after bed
position (item “A”) is heated to a high
temperature. First, ambient air is drawn in through switchover. The hot regeneration air is now being
the regeneration filter (item “C”). The air then directed to the desiccant tower (item “B”) that has
passes through the regeneration blower and the been removed from the on stream position. While
regeneration heaters. The high temperature the desiccant tower (item “B”) is being heated and
regeneration air is then directed through the four- purged of its adsorbed moisture the other
way valve to the desiccant tower in the desiccant tower (item “A”) is now in the on stream
regeneration position (item “A”). When the position removing moisture from the return air
desiccant is heated to its regeneration temperature,
stream.
its adsorbed moisture is released and purged
through the upper four-way valve to the
atmosphere.
The postregeneration cooling of the
desiccant may be accomplished in any of several
ways, depending upon the dryer manufacturer.
This includes:
• by de-energizing the regeneration heaters
prior to bed switchover and allowing the Figure 12. Twin tower, dual blower dryer.
cool ambient air to cool the hot desiccant

74
®
 Polymer Drying

DRYER TROUBLESHOOTING CHART

Problem Possible Cause Possible Solution

1. Heating element failure 1. Inspect and replace heat-

2. Thermocouple failure ing elements as needed.
3. Heat loss through dryer tubing 2. Inspect thermocouple for a
Loss of temperature control at short or open circuit and
4. Controller failure
hopper air inlet replace as needed.
3. Insulate tubing as required.
4. Inspect and replace con-
troller as required.

1. Ambient air leaking into the 1. Inspect for leaks and repair
drying air circuit as required.
2. Improper regeneration, loss of 2. Inspect regeneration filter
regeneration air flow and hoses for obstructions.
3. Improper regeneration, loss of 3. Inspect and replace heaters
regeneration heat as required.
Loss of dewpoint control 4. Contaminated desiccant 4. Inspect and replace the des-
5. High return air temperature iccant as required.
entering the dryer 5. Confirm return air tempera-
ture entering the dryer is
less than 150°F. If 150°F is
exceeded add a return air
line heat exchanger.

1. Incorrect drying temperature 1. Verify the correct drying

2. Material throughput is too high temperature with material
for size of dryer being used. supplier and set accord-
ingly.
Material will not dry 3. Drying hopper is too small for
material throughput. 2. Verify dryer capacity with
dryer manufacturer.
3. Verify hopper capacity
with manufacturer.

1. Heat loss through a poorly 1. Insulate the drying hopper.

Cannot maintain desired vertical insulated drying hopper
temperature profile within the 2. Inspect return air filter and
hopper 2. Loss of air flow clean or replace as
required.
1. Drying temperature set point 1. Add an optional return air
exceeds 250°F heat exchanger.
2. The extruder has been shut 2. Reduce the drying temper-
down and the material in the ature to 100°F until the
The dryer’s return air drying hopper is now static extruder is restarted.
temperature exceeds the
suggested limit of 150°F 3. The material throughput is less 3. Add an optional return air
than the dryer’s rated capacity heat exchanger.
4. Drying hopper capacity is too 4. Replace drying hopper
small with a correctly sized
hopper.

75
®
GLASS-FILLED
MATERIALS
RANDALL L. CHARBONNEAU
®

INTRODUCTION EFFECTS ON GATE AND

Processing methods and mold design of RUNNER DESIGN
modified thermoplastics are determined by the The path that a resin takes between the
resin type, modifier type, and modifier level. injection molding machine barrel and the part
Although resin choice is the primary factor in cavity can influence the physical properties of the
determining general processing parameters, finished part. Glass-filled compounds require
additives are also an important contributor. larger runners than unfilled resins. The number of
Additives can be fiber reinforcements or bends or turns should be minimized to prevent
particulate fillers. fiber breakage and, consequently, insufficient
Fiber reinforcement additives include glass aspect ratio.
fibers, carbon fibers, nickel plated carbon fibers, Cold slug wells are recommended at the end
metallized glass fibers, and stainless steel fibers. of 90-degree angles. Full round runners are
These additives have a high aspect ratio between recommended for optimum flow.
the length and diameter (typically higher than Gating type, size, and location are critical
40:1). To maintain the compound’s physical factors in obtaining quality parts. Glass-filled
properties during processing, the critical aspect compounds require larger gates than unfilled
ratio of the fiber must be preserved. The specific resins because of higher viscosities. This prevents
type of fiber will determine its ability to flex fiber damming, which occurs when too many
rather than break during molding and, fibers move through too small an opening.
consequently, will determine how sensitive the Damming results in severe pressure drops and
processing will be. unfilled or unpacked parts.
Additive level is another factor that affects General guidelines for gating of glass-filled
processing. Depending on the additive type and materials are a minimum gate depth of 0.060 in.
the physical properties required, modified (1.5 mm), but preferably 0.090-0.100 in. (2.28-
compounds may contain anywhere from 3 to 60% 2.54 mm). A tab or sprue gate is recommended
additives. over pinpoint, tunnel, or subgates.
This chapter discusses unique processing
characteristics of glass-filled thermoplastic EFFECTS ON MACHINE SIZING
compounds. Comparisons will be made between As with any material, molding glass-filled
reinforced compounds and straight resins. compounds must consider three criteria: mold

77
Society of Plastics Engineers

size, clamp tonnage based on the projected area of Injection Speed

the cavities and runners, and shot size based on To keep fiber breakage to a minimum, run the
cavity and runner volume. slowest injection speed possible without
Mold Size sacrificing appearance. Slower fill times may
increase glass orientation and compromise weld
The molding machine must have adequate line integrity.
platen area and spacing between tie bars for
mounting and clamping the mold in place. Back Pressure
Because back pressure can affect the shear
Clamp Tonnage
rate, use only enough to remove air from the melt
The clamp tonnage recommended per square stream (approximately 25-50 psi or 0.17-0.34
inch of projected area for glass filled materials MPa). This minimizes fiber breakage and property
should be calculated at 1-2 tons/in.2 (15-30 deterioration.
N/mm2) higher than the unfilled resin.
Injection Pressure
Shot Size Injection pressure is especially dependent on
Recommended shot size is 40-70% of the part design and other processing parameters.
barrel capacity. Set the pressure high enough to provide a fully
packed cavity without flash. In general, because
CHANGES IN PROCESSING glass fiber additives increase resin viscosity, a
PARAMETERS higher injection pressure will be required than
with unfilled resins.
There are seven processing variables
associated with injection molding glass-filled Barrel and Mold Temperature
compounds. They are not all independent Glass-filled compounds will normally require
functions because changing one parameter may higher mold and barrel temperatures than unfilled
have an effect on another. The following, resins of the same type. Depending on the glass
therefore, are general guidelines. additive level, melt viscosity increases and causes
Drying
the material to flow and push harder through the
screw and into the runner and mold cavity. Raising
Straight, unfilled resins may or may not the mold temperature keeps the resin melt higher
require drying, depending on their type and for a longer period of time.
hygroscopic nature. When glass fibers are added to
Glass reinforcements also increase the thermal
thermoplastic resins, however, drying becomes
conductivity of compounds in proportion to the
important due to “wicking” (moisture absorbed
percentage of fill. As this happens, the ability of
into the resin pellet by capillary action along the
the material to absorb or pick up heat improves
filler or fiber). The presence of moisture in certain
along with the ability to give off or lose heat. This
polymers can cause a severe loss of physical
means the resin reaches a melt point quicker in the
properties. See Chapter on Polymer Drying for
injection molding barrel and solidifies faster when
more imformation.
injected into a cold mold. The result may be poor
Screw Speed fill and short shots; increasing mold temperatures
Screw rpms affect shear on the resin, and will cause slower cooling and prevent premature
consequently, its heat or melt temperature. The solidification.
mixing and tumbling action that can cause fiber Because melt viscosity and thermal
breakage and loss of physical properties is of conductivity properties require barrel
greater concern. If a glass fiber additive is being compensation in opposing directions, the resultant
used, keep screw rpms as low as possible. barrel setting change is, to some degree, canceled.

78
®
 Glass-Filled Materials

Therefore, glass-fiber compounds will require to both resin degradation and fiber degradation
slightly higher barrel settings than an unfilled when reground. The resulting loss in physical
resin of the same type. properties is greater than that of unfilled resin at
Regrind Consideration and Usage the same regrind level.
General guidelines for unfilled resins allow a Testing both the product and the process will
20% to 30% usage of reground materials without indicate what level of regrind, if any, is
sacrificing product performance. However, acceptable. See Table 1 for a summary of
compounds reinforced with fiber are susceptible guidelines.

Gating

Minimum Gate Depth 0.060 in. (1.50 mm)

Preferred Gate Depth 0.090-0.100 in. (2.28-2.54 mm)

Gate Pinpoint Not recommended

Tunnel Not recommended

Subgates Not recommended

Tab or Sprue Gate Preferred

Machine Size

Adequate platen area and spacing between tie bars to allow the mold
Mold Size
to be mounted and clamped in place.

Shot Size Recommend 40-70% of barrel capacity

Clamp Tonnage 1-2 ton/in.2 (15-30 N/mm2) higher than unfilled grade

Drying

Always recommended for glass filled compounds.

Processing Speeds, Pressures, Temperatures

Screw Speed Minimum speed without causing delays in molding cycle

Injection Speed Slowest speed without sacrificing appearance

Back Pressure Low (25-50 pounds/0.17-0.34 MPa)

Injection Pressure Higher than unfilled resin because of higher viscosities

Glass fiber slightly higher than particulate

Barrel Temperature
Carbon fiber slightly lower than unfilled

Glass fiber higher than particulate

Mold Temperature
Carbon fiber higher than glass fiber, particulate, or unfilled grade

Regrind Usage

Not recommended

Table 1. Summary of Guidelines for Processing Glass-Filled Materials.

79
®
HEAT-SENSITIVE
MATERIALS
ROGER A. STELLER
®

Editor’s Note: Although this chapter pertains supplier, and what number can I call to get material
to heat-sensitive materials, the concepts can be processing parameters for my particular size,
applied universally. Keep in mind, as we remind make, model, and injection molding machine?
technicians about the importance of the
principles, that any of these ideas may be You can call the material supplier and receive
considered a giant step toward optimizing the processing parameters by e-mail or Fax to look
molding process. over. Ask questions of the material supplier
technical representative. Take notes and take the
Most heat-sensitive materials are also very
time to study the processing parameters. In the
shear sensitive. This simply means that when
case of rigid vinyl, you will notice that the total
shearing occurs on the polymer, its melt
melt temperature processing range is only 30ºF
temperature rises. When too much shear energy is
(385-415°F). You will also notice that the
applied, the heat sensitive material's processing
recommended barrel temperatures on your 500
temperature will rise until the compound
overheats or starts to degrade. It is also important ton press are 340ºF rear zone, 345ºF Middle Zone,
to recognize that in general heat sensitive 345ºF front zone, with a set nozzle temperature of
polymers have a narrower processing melt 360ºF. These barrel/nozzle heater band settings
temperature window. Rigid polyvinylchloride are considerably lower than the recommended
(PVC) is an excellent example of a typical-heat polymer melt processing tempers. This means you
sensitive, shear-sensitive polymer. are dealing with a heat-sensitive, shear-sensitive
polymer that will actually generate higher
The very first question, therefore, that a good
polymer melt temperatures at these lower settings.
processing technician should ask is: What do I do
differently; What precautions should I take to Note the material supplier’s low or slow
process this more heat/shear-sensitive polymer recommended screw rpm settings. For your 500-
effectively in my shop’s injection molding machine? ton press, the recommended screw speed is 30-50
Let us use rigid vinyl for our example. You rpm. This should throw up a warning sign that
have been told you are going to sample mold a part you are processing a shear-sensitive polymer.
out of rigid vinyl next week on your 500 ton Keep in mind that with larger diameter screws, for
Cincinnati injection molding press in a brand new the same rpm, the surface feet per minute of the
laundry appliance mold. The first questions you screw diameter will be greater than it is with a
should ask is: Who is the rigid vinyl material smaller screw.

81
Society of Plastics Engineers

At this stage the material supplier technical Barrel capacity also plays an important role in
service representative will start to ask you specific successfully processing heat/shear sensitive
questions about the machine you will be sampling compounds. Barrel capacity is usually stamped on
in next week. the side of the injection molding machine. It is
usually given in ounces of styrene. A 60 ounce
• How old is the machine? Does it have solid barrel will hold 60 ounces of styrene when the
state closed looped processing heater
screw is retracted all the way back for the
controls?
maximum shot size.
• What is the barrel capacity of your Most heat/shear-sensitive material suppliers
injection-molding machine? How does this will recommend that you use at least 50-75% of
compare with the molded part weight of the the barrel capacity of the injection molding
sample laundry appliance part you will be machine after you factor in the specific gravity of
molding? the polymer you intend to mold. Suppose our
• What kind of screw is in your injection- sample rigid PVC appliance part weighs 30
molding machine? What is the screw- ounces. The injection molding press that you were
compression ratio? going to use has a 60-ounce barrel. That is based
on the specific gravity of styrene being
• What type of screw tip is on the front of the approximately 1.0. vinyl on the other hand is
screw (i.e., ballcheck, three-piece check heavier, with a specific gravity of 1.33. 1.33 × 60
ring, four-piece check ring, smear tip)? ounces = 79.80 ounces. If your molded PVC part
• Is there an adapter off the endcap to the weighs 30 ounces, 30.0 divided by 79.80 =
nozzle? How long is the nozzle? 37.59% of the barrel capacity. As a general rule of
thumb, once your barrel capacity utilization is
• What is the diameter size of the rear below one third on an average 0.125 in. thick wall
opening of the sprue bushing on the sample molded part with about a 1 minute cycle time,
appliance mold? your processing window narrows considerably.
• What is the nozzle tip exit diameter size you The screw type and its configuration are
intend to use? critical to the successful processing of heat/shear-
sensitive polymers. If you are not familiar with the
Let us take a minute and go over the preceding
screw in your particular injection molding
questions and proper answers along with the
machine check with your maintenance personnel
understanding of why each of these questions and
for blueprints and screw configuration geometry
answers are important to achieving the largest
records. You will typically hear that it is a general
possible injection molding processing window for
purpose (GP) screw with a 20:1 L/D. GP screws
your heat-sensitive/shear-sensitive polymer.
are built by the injection molding manufacturers to
Older injection molding machines with relay- run different types of plastic polymers in the same
type temperature controllers that have a tendency machine with the same screw. A 20:1 L/D just
to stick and override the set temperatures 30-40ºF means that the screw is 20 times longer than its
will produce larger percentages of scrap-molded diameter dimension. These two facts tell you very
parts along with making it very difficult to process little to how well a particular screw will process
heat-sensitive polymers on a smooth reliable our heat/shear sensitive materials.
processing schedule. You need to know what the screw compression
A more modern machine with solid-state ratio is along with the feed flight and metering
closed loop processing heater controllers will keep flight depths. Most screws are made up of three
the recommended set barrel, end cap, and nozzle separate zones. The first zone is the feed section.
temperatures within 5ºF of their set temperatures. The second zone is the transition section. The

82
®
 Heat-Sensitive Materials

Figure 1. Screw geometry drawing.

third zone is the metering or compression section. depth) metering section. The preceding screw
(See the above screw geometry drawing: designed configuration works very well on many other
for rigid vinyl.) engineering thermoplastics (e.g., modified PPO,
FR/ABS, PC/ABS, and PVC/ABS).
SCREW TERMINOLOGY The preceding screw recommendations are
L/D: The length of the screw divided by the for 99% of rigid vinyl and 90% of flexible vinyl
diameter of the screw. compounds that are all precolored. For natural
Compression Ratio: The depth of the first compounds that a liquid or solid colorant is added
feed flight divided by the depth of last metering at the injection molding machine hopper a mixing
flight. screw is recommended, designed for heat/shear-
sensitive polymers to achieve the best possible
Screw Geometry: The number of feed,
color.
transition, and metering flights.
It is highly recommended that the production
SCREW GEOMETRY screw be made of a 17-4 PH Stainless™ steel
Most GP screws are usually designed to favor with Colmonoy 56 or equivalent hardened flights,
crystalline types of plastics. These screws will with highly polished screw root and flight faces. If
generally have about 25% in the feed section, two you are going to recut/rework or rebuild a worn
to three flights in the transition section, and the GP steel screw to the previously described screw
remainder of the screw length in the metering section configuration, triple chrome plate the root
section. The typical GP screw metering section and flight face surfaces. Both of these screws will
flight depth will most often be shallower than help to eliminate the possibilities of vinyl sticking
recommended for heat/shear-sensitive polymers. to the screw surface and potentially degrading.
This longer, shallower general purpose metering In addition, all channel radii on a shear-
section will require you to run very slow screw rpm sensitive screw should be as large as possible. The
in order to process shear-sensitive polymers with channel radius is normally approximately one half
front zone readings on the injection molding barrel the channel depth, but for shear-sensitive screws
overriding set temperatures by 25-40ºF or higher. the radius should be approximately 80% of the
The preceding drawing shows the proper channel depth. The large radius eliminates any
screw configuration for heat/shear-sensitive “dead-spot” where material might hang up and
polymers: 35% feed, 50% transition, and only degrade.
15% metering for processing composite, rigid and Using the above 500 ton injection molding
flexible PVC. This configuration is very gentle on machine with a 60 ounce barrel with a 2.5 in.
the polymer transferring the solid pellets from a diameter screw, to get a 2.2:1 compression ratio
feed section into a long gentle transition section you would machine the depth of the first feed
where polymers pellets melt and are transferred to section flight to 0.352 in. deep and the depth of
the higher compression (i.e., shallower flight the last metering section flight to 0.160 in. deep.

83
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Note that the preceding feed flight and metering nozzle and nozzle tip). These assembled parts
flight depths were taken from our material supplier should act as one streamlined melt delivery
screw technical service literature. Screw enclosure. This means that there should not be any
compression ratio is equal to the feed depth steps (i.e., sharp edges creating shear heat or
divided by the exit depth. undercuts from one section to the next) where the
0.352 in. polymer can stagnate, stick and potentially
--------------------- = 2.2 degrade. The barrel exit diameter must match the
0.160 in.
end cap entrance diameter. The end cap exit
Just because the compression ratio is 2:1 does
diameter must match the adapter entrance
not mean you have a good screw design. Ask the
diameter. The adapter exit diameter must match
technical service representative from the material
the nozzle entrance diameter. The nozzle exit
supplier that you are using to send you their screw
diameter must match the nozzle tip entrance
chart recommendations that will spell out the
diameter. All of these internal surfaces should be
proper screw flight feed and metering depths for
kept polished so the polymer does not stick to it.
your particular injection molding press screw.
All of these internal streamlined polished surfaces
In general, three-piece free-flow check rings ideally should be made out of 17-4 PH Stainless™
work best on heat/shear-sensitive polymers. Ball steel. Although this is normally out of the control
check valves can create shear heating and have of the technician, these points should be verified
stagnant areas in which the material can hang up. and addressed during routine injection molding
Smear tips (see the injection unit chapter) are used machine maintenance.
on much higher viscosity polymers. The nozzle should be as short as possible with
One question that is often asked is, Are there only one heater band. This heater band should be
any special venting requirements for molding controlled by a thermocouple in a well on the hex
heat/shear-sensitive polymers like rigid vinyl? section of the nozzle. With one heater band you
The answer is, There are no additional are uniformly controlling the internal steel
injection molding machine requirements temperature of the nozzle. In addition, the heater
necessary for processing rigid vinyl. OSHA states band should cover as much of the nozzle surface
that all plastic mold shops must provide as possible. Murphy lives in molding shops, and
“adequate” ventilation during plastic processing. with more than one heater band, wire-nutted
This could mean opening the shop doors at each together, it is not uncommon to find one 120 V, the
end of the building, or an overhead ceiling fan in next 220 V heater band, each heating at different
the roof. I recommend for processing any plastic rates. Good nozzle heat control is critical to the
polymer that a sheet metal vent hood with exhaust proper processing of heat/shear-sensitive
to outside air piping is installed over the front end polymers. All internal nozzle surfaces should be
of the injection machine barrel to be turned on kept polished smooth to avoid velocity shear
when purging or in an emergency situation where heating of the high velocity incoming polymer
a thermocouple fails and a barrel zone overheats. flowing over rough-pitted internal surface areas.
Under normal processing conditions leave the Nozzle tip exit diameters should be the same
sheet metal exhaust duct vent shut off so barrel size as the rear opening diameter on the back of
heats remain stable without the influence of a vent the mold sprue bushing or 1/32 in. in diameter
fan evacuating heat from all the barrel zones, smaller. Never process with a nozzle tip exit
potentially fluctuating barrel heat temperatures, diameter larger than the rear-opening diameter on
and adversely affecting processing parameters and the sprue bushing. This will create velocity shear
overall part quality and consistency. heating on the polymer.
The next area to concentrate on is the injection Set-up barrel temperatures, screw rpm, and
molding machine front end (i.e., end cap, adapter, backpressure to material manufacturers

84
®
 Heat-Sensitive Materials

recommendations. Short shot the mold slowly When building new tooling for rigid vinyl, the
changing transfer point and shot size to produce a best cooling cycle can be achieved using copper
full part. Stop the process and check the melt alloy (e.g., MoldMax®) cores and stainless steel
temperature with a calibrated hand-held cavities. Copper alloys transfer heat better than
pyrometer. If the melt temperature is too low, twice as effectively as aluminum. Mold cores are
leave the barrel temperatures where they are and usually the toughest mold half from which to
increase either screw rpm or backpressure. For remove processing heat. The polished copper
our example the 500-ton machine uses 5 rpm alloy cores hold up very well to everyday
increments and 25 psi increments of backpressure production vinyl processing.
until the desired melt temperature is achieved.
Check periodically with the pyrometer. Try to One of the topics that always seems to bring
process in the center of material manufacturers about spirited discussion is which type of
specified range. injection molding screw tip you should use for
which grade of shear-sensitive polymer you are
Let us now address the gates/runner/sprue sizes
getting ready to process. In general the screw tip
for heat-sensitive/shear sensitive polymers. As you
selection is made based on the viscosity of the
would suspect, gates, runners, and sprues must be
polymer you are processing. I will use the
larger to keep the polymer from degrading. For
different types of vinyl as an example. Soft
rigid vinyl, most gate thicknesses are 90-110% of
flexible PVC, of a Shore A hardness 50-70, can be
the wall thickness they are feeding. The minimum
processed with a ball-check tip because of how
subgate size is 0.125 in. diameter.
well flexible vinyl flows. The negative is you still
The smallest full round runner is 0.25 in. can get potential hang ups using a ball-check
diameter, whereas the smallest sprue bushing rear valve tip even with soft flexible vinyl, so the best
opening is 9/32 in. (0.281 in.) diameter. The recommendation is to use a free-flow check ring
smallest nozzle tip exit diameter that we for all flexible PVC.
recommend is 0.25 in. diameter. Heat/shear-
sensitive polymers will fill the cavity Our high-flow appliance and business
volumetrically, with less velocity with the larger equipment-grade PVC also work best with a free-
gates and runners. This generally relates to better flow check ring. More viscous pipe-grade vinyl
packed out parts, with more consistent part compounds were processed for years with smear
weight and appearance. tips to pack out the very thick wall fitting parts.
When processing rigid vinyl or any of the Large machine cushion settings were used (i.e.,
other flame retardant polymers, 420 stainless steel generally more than 1 in.) to get adequate packing
mold core and cavity provide the best corrosion results. Some fitting mold shops today still use
resistance. If you are converting a P-20 or H-13 smear tips, even though better, more consistent
steel mold over to run rigid vinyl, after initial positive packing pressure will be achieved using a
sampling and part submittal approval, electroless free-flow check ring.
nickel plate all core and cavity surfaces. Once The most viscous vinyl processed today is
production processing starts, have the first shift called CPVC. It generally flows less than half the
operator spray all the mold surfaces (once every distance of the normal pipe grade compound.
24 hours) with a neutralizing spray to neutralize Most molders processing CPVC use smear tips.
any residual acid that could build up on the
molding surfaces. Wipe off neutralized mold When your production run is finished, once
surfaces with a clean rag. This daily neutralize again spray down all the internal mold surfaces
spraying and cleaning will insure that the mold with a neutralizing spray, then spray over the
vents are kept clean, producing uniform molded neutralizer with a good rust preventive spray.
parts every day of the production run. Close mold and put into storage rack for the next

85
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

production run. Note: Do not forget to spray the processing window. If the same attention to detail
inside sprue bushing surfaces. were followed on all thermoplastic molded parts,
Paying attention to the details we have cycle times and existing scrap rates would
discussed will ensure the best-looking molded improve across the country.
plastic parts with the lowest scrap rate and largest

REFERENCES
1. 17-4 PH Stainless™—trademark of Armco Steel Co.
2. MoldMax®—Registered Trademark Brush Wellman Engineered Materials

86
®
ACETALS
STEPHEN M. SINKER AND Z. JAMES CHEN

Acetal polymers are chemically known as Acetal is easily converted from pellet form
polyoxymethylenes (POM). They are high- into parts of different shapes using various
strength, crystalline engineering thermoplastics. processes (e.g., injection molding, blow molding,
Because of their predictable long-term extrusion, rotational casting, and compression
performance over a wide range of in-service molding). Also available are rod, slab, and sheet
temperatures and harsh environments, they are stock that can be machined into desired shapes.
strong candidates for replacing metals and Commercial acetal resins include general
thermoset plastics. Two types of acetal polymers purpose and many special grades. General
are commercially available: Homopolymer is purpose products are usually identified by melt
prepared by polymerizing anhydrous flow rate. Products with a higher melt flow rate fill
formaldehyde to form a polymer composed of thinner walls and complex shapes more readily
oxymethylene repeating units and maintain the same strength and stiffness, but
they exhibit a slight decrease in toughness.
(-CH2O-); Copolymers are prepared by
Special grades include glass fiber coupled, glass
copolymerizing trioxane (a cyclic trimer of
bead filled, low wear, mineral coupled, ultraviolet
formaldehyde) with a cyclic ether (usually resistant, weather resistant, antistatic, electrically
containing an ethoxy or other oxyalkylene group) conductive, impact modified, and laser markable
to form a polymeric chain composed of grades for special applications.
oxymethylene (-CH2O-) and oxyethylene (-CH2-
CH2-O-) or similar repeating units. Acetal GENERAL GUIDELINES
polymers have been widely used in transportation Storage, Handling, and Drying
applications (fuel pumps and other fuel-handling
Acetal polymers should be stored in their
system components, control cables, windshield
original container on pallets in a dry place. Open
wiper pivots, interior door handles, and seat belt
containers should be carefully resealed before
components), industrial applications (faucet returning to storage. In the winter, containers of
underbodies, shower heads, pumps, irrigation resin should be brought into the warm processing
equipment and valves, conveyor links), appliance area at least 24 hours prior to use and allowed to
applications (gears, timers, and pumps), come to room temperature before opening. If this
information technology products, and consumer is not done, moisture in the air may condense on
products (gears, hand tools, and toys). the surface of the pellets and lead to surface

87
Society of Plastics Engineers

defects on molded or extruded plastic parts. This is When ignited, acetal burns with little or no
especially critical with impact-modified grades, smoke, and with a barely visible blue flame.
which can be moisture sensitive and deteriorate Combustion products are carbon dioxide and
during processing. water. If acetal burns with a muffled flame and
Acetal polymers do not readily absorb combustion is incomplete, then carbon monoxide
moisture and can normally be fed to the extruder and some formaldehyde may be released.
or molding machine without drying. If the Exposure to high concentrations of formaldehyde,
material has adsorbed moisture due to improper especially in a poorly ventilated area, can be
handling or storage, however, drying may be harmful. For more detailed information on worker
necessary to prevent splay and odor problems exposure limits for formaldehyde, refer to the
during processing. It is good practice, and MSDS for specific grades of acetal homopolymer
preferable for processing consistency, to dry the or copolymer.
resin before processing to avoid potential Warning: Avoid flame. Do not allow mixing of this
production problems due to moisture. material with PVC, other halogen-containing
Acetal copolymer should be dried in a materials, and partially and/or fully cross-
linkable thermoplastic elastomers. Do not heat to
dehumidifying oven or a hopper dryer. For oven
more than 238oC (460oF). Avoid prolonged
drying, the pellets should be spread evenly in less
heating at or above the recommended processing
than 1 inch deep layers on trays and placed in the temperature. Recommended melt temperatures
oven for 3-4 hours at 82oC (180oF). For a hopper are 182-200oC (360-390oF) for most copolymer
dryer, a 3-hour residence time at 82oC (180oF) is grades, and 210-220oC (410-430oF) for most
sufficient. homopolymer grades.
Caution: Formaldehyde fumes may be released; Avoid strong acids and oxidizing agents. Do not
good ventilation is required in the area. allow the end use application to come in contact
The use of a hopper magnet in the feedstream is with acidic solutions of pH = 4 or less, especially
highly recommended to insure against any form of mineral acid solutions like hydrochloric, sulfuric,
metallic contamination, which could occur while hydrofluoric, perchloric, nitric, or phosphoric
acids. Do not use with such strongly acidic salts as
transporting the resin and cause equipment damage.
zinc chloride or other Lewis acids. Do not use
Safety, Health, and Flammability Information with chlorinated water solutions, which are not
The usual precautions must be observed as typical of domestic potable water.
when processing any hot and molten
thermoplastic. Normal processing temperatures
I NJECTION M OLDING E QUIPMENT
and residence times should not be exceeded.
AND M OLD D ESIGN
Acetal polymer should never be heated to more Molding Equipment
than 238oC (460oF) nor be allowed to remain Injection molding is the most widely used
greater than 193oC (380oF) for more than 15 method for processing acetals. Acetal can be
minutes without purging. Excessively high successfully processed in all types of commercial
temperature or long residence time in a heated injection molding machines designed for
chamber can cause the resin to discolor and, in thermoplastics. These may be single or two stage,
time, to degrade, releasing formaldehyde, a reciprocating and stationary screw injection, and
colorless and irritating gas. This gas can be ram-type machines. Screw injection provides fast
harmful in high concentrations, so proper plastication and a homogeneous melt, which will
ventilation is essential. Consult the Material permit molding parts at reduced melt temperatures
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for heath and safety and pressures, as well as decreased cycle time. A
data for specific grades of acetal polymer prior to single stage reciprocating screw injection molding
processing or otherwise handling these products. machine is most commonly used with acetal.

88
®
 Acetals

Even though the standard metering screw may be used if the level of moisture encountered
available in commercial reciprocating screw during molding is high enough to warrant removal.
injection molding machines can be used, it is not When improved melting is required to reduce the
totally satisfactory. Such problems as excessive cycle time, a barrier flight may be introduced in the
oxidative deterioration, poor thermal first stage. The barrier flight clearance should be
homogeneity, unmelted resin pellets, and/or lower 1.02-1.52 mm (0.040-0.060 in.)
productivity rates can sometimes occur. A screw Conventional free flow and reverse taper
with the following characteristics is nylon-type nozzles fitted with a heater band for
recommended for optimum results: temperature control of the nozzle are recom-
• The L/D (length-to-diameter) ratio should mended for acetal polymer. A nozzle heating
preferably be no less than 16:1 and no band with independent temperature control is
greater than 24:1. recommended for fine tuning nozzle temperature
to prevent nozzle drool or freeze-off of resin in
• The flight clearance should be this area.
approximately 0.13 mm (0.005 in.).
Caution: Nozzle designs with positive shut-off
• The flight width (w) should be devices are not recommended for safety reasons,
approximately 10% of the screw diameter. although they have been used successfully.
• For unfilled acetal resins, the screw should Formaldehyde gas may be released from acetal in
be hard faced or coated with a corrosion- the molding process, particularly if left at
resistant material (e.g., chrome or Stellite 6). elevated temperatures in the heated barrel for an
extended period. This gas must be free to escape
• For filled reinforced acetal resins, the screw through the nozzle. If the nozzle is blocked for
and barrel should be hard faced or coated any reason (e.g., by malfunction of the positive
with a corrosion and abrasion resistant shut-off device or resin freeze-off in the nozzle),
material (e.g., tungsten carbide, CPM-9V then sufficient pressure could develop to cause
or Colmonoy 56 for screws and CPM-10V, blowback of the resin through the feed zone and
Bimex, or Xaloy 101 or 306 for barrels). hopper or create other hazardous conditions.

• The screw should be fitted with a nonreturn Mold Design

valve to prevent backflow of resin in the Standard industry principles for good mold
screw channel as the resin is injected into design and construction apply to the design of
the mold. The valve should have large molds for processing acetal polymer. Conven-
clearances and well-radiused corners when tional two-plate, three-plate, and runnerless molds
open to ensure that the melt flows freely, is may all be used.
not “hung up,” and is not overheated. Mold Bases and Cavities
• The channel depth ratio (i.e., the ratio of the Mold bases should be fabricated in a suitable
channel depth in the feed zone to that in the steel grade and be made sturdy enough with pillars
metering zone) should be between 3 and to support the cavities and the cores adequately
4.5. A channel depth ratio of 4:1 is recom- without buckling of the retainer plates during
mended for optimum results. injection molding. They should also be large
• The feed section should occupy about 40% enough to accommodate water cooling channels to
of the screw length, the transition zone about provide uniform mold temperature. This operation
30%, and the metering section about 30%. is essential to produce acceptable parts.
Although standard unopened containers of Mold Surface Finish
acetal usually do not have to be dried, a vented A wide variety of surface finishes can be used
barrel machine with a two-stage extraction screw with acetal, because the resin exhibits excellent

89
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

mold definition. Various surface finishes, designs, and air. It is advisable to have as much venting as
script, and the like, can be obtained by using such possible without allowing the resin to flow out of
standard techniques as sand blasting, vapor the mold. Vents should be 0.0254 mm (0.001 in.)
honing, embossing, and engraving the mold maximum deep by 3.175–6.35 mm (0.125-0.250
cavities and cores. Flash chroming is recom- in.) wide. To prevent blockage of the vents, they
mended to prevent rust and preserve a highly should be deepened to 1.59 mm ( 1/16 in.) at a
polished surface condition. Matte finishes are distance of 3.175-4.76 mm ( 1/8 - 3/16 in.) from the
also achievable with an appropriate metal surface cavity to the outside. The use of peripheral venting
treatment. is preferred whenever possible. The vents should
Sprue Bushings preferably be located at the last point to fill. The
vents should also be placed in various other
Standard sprue bushings with a taper of 2.5
locations, including the runner system, weld line
degrees per side perform satisfactorily with acetal
regions, and other areas of possible gas
polymer. The sprue diameter should be larger than
entrapment.
the mating end of the molding machine nozzle to
prevent an undercut and to facilitate ejection of the PROCESSING START UP
sprue. The sprue size must also be larger than the
AND SHUTDOWN
maximum wall thickness of the molded part. The
end of the sprue bushing, which mates with the Processing Start Up
runner, should be larger than the diameter of the Before placing acetal resin in a molding
runner and be radiused at the junction. Opposite machine, it is highly recommended that you refer
the junction of the sprue bushing and the runner, to the previous general guidelines, product
provision should be made for a cold slug well and datasheets, and MSDS of specific grades of acetal
a standard “Z” (or other design) sprue puller. The for safe handling and processing information.
spine puller pin should be kept below the runner
To start up a machine that was shut down with
system to prevent interference with resin flow.
acetal polymer in the cylinder, the nozzle must not
Gating be blocked. This is one of the main reasons a
Gate size should be selected so that the molten nozzle heater band is recommended.
plastic in the gate freezes before the second stage The procedure for starting a machine with
pressure is released, thereby preventing backflow acetal polymers already in the cylinder is: Set the
of the plastic. The minimum diameter nozzle temperature at 205-215oC and cylinder
recommended for a round gate is 1.0 mm (0.040 temperatures to 120-135oC. As the nozzle and
in.), preferably greater than 1.5 mm (0.060 in.). cylinder come up to temperature, the nozzle
For rectangular parts, the smaller dimension orifice should be watched for signs of drooling.
should be one half to two thirds of the maximum When drooling occurs, (which indicates that the
part thickness. material in the nozzle is fully molten, cylinder
Gating in areas of the molded parts that will be temperatures may be raised to 175-195oC. A few
subjected to high stress, bending, or impact during purge shots should then be taken at reduced
use should be avoided. Gates should generally be injection pressure and speed with no booster. If
located in the thickest cross-section of the part and there is no blockage, cylinder and nozzle
be in a position so that the initial flow of plastic temperatures as well as other conditions may be
into the mold impinges on a wall. This will adjusted as desired, the heating cylinder closed to
prevent jetting and blush marks. the mold, and molding started on cycle.
Vents When acetal polymer is started in an empty
As with all plastics, cavities should be very cylinder, nozzle temperature should be set at 205-
well vented to allow the escape of trapped gases 215oC and cylinder temperature at 190-200oC.

90
®
 Acetals

Using low pressure (approximately 35 Mpa or Changing from Acetal Polymer to Another Resin
5000 psi) and slow injector speed, pack acetal In changing from acetal polymer to another
resin into the cylinder with several short, resin, similar considerations as described earlier
deliberate strokes of the screw. After a few will apply. When the machine is started up with
minutes, commence another series of strokes and acetal in the cylinder, the proper procedure
repeat this procedure. outlined in “Processing Start Up” must be
followed before changing over to another resin. If
As the material melts, successive packing
the new resin requires a higher or lower
strokes will work the material farther into the temperature or is one that can chemically react
cylinder until it is full. A few air shots should then with acetal (e.g., PVC), an intermediate purging
be taken to clear the cylinder of any air bubbles compound (e.g., polyethylene or acrylic) must
that may have been entrapped during the packing first be used to clean the machine thoroughly. The
process. Cylinder and nozzle temperatures, cycle new material should be introduced to the machine
time, and other conditions may then be adjusted only after proper cleaning and adjustment to the
as required and molding may proceed. appropriate processing conditions.
In all cases, once acetal polymer is introduced Processing Shutdown
into the cylinder, it should be kept moving to To shut down a machine with acetal, the same
prevent overheating. If a delay of more than 15 precautions must be taken against blockage of the
minutes is anticipated, the cylinder should be nozzle as when starting up the machine. The
backed away from the mold and the machine nozzle should be the last part of the heating
purged (on cycle or manually) every few minutes. If cylinder assembly to cool. Leave the screw in the
a longer delay is expected, it is recommended that forward position.
the machine be shut down entirely, following the
• Set the nozzle temperature at 205-220oC
procedure outlined under “Processing Shutdown.”
• Turn off the cylinder heaters
Changing from Another Resin
to Acetal Polymers • Shut off the feed to the cylinder

If the other resin in the processing equipment • Purge and run the barrel dry
requires a higher melt temperature than acetal • Leave the screw in the forward position
polymer (e.g., nylon, polycarbonate, etc.) or is a
• Shut off the power to the machine
resin such as PVC (see Warning in previous
“Safety, Health, and Flammability Information” TYPICAL
section) which can chemically react with acetal and MOLDING CONDITIONS
cause degradation, the cylinder must first be purged
Melt Temperature
thoroughly clean of these resins to avoid problems.
Most moldings of acetal copolymer are made
High-density polyethylene or acrylic is suitable using a melt temperature in the range 180-200oC to
for purging and should be put in the machine facilitate processing and provide good quality parts
directly behind the resin already in the cylinder and at minimum cycle. Melt temperatures substantially
kept at the same temperature settings. After all greater than 200oC should be accompanied by a
traces of the other resin are removed, the corresponding decrease in residence time to avoid
temperature should be set at 190-200oC. After the overheating and possible degradation of the resin.
temperature has stabilized, acetal polymer can then This can be achieved by using a smaller capacity
be placed in the machine to remove the purge machine relative to the shot size, decreasing the
compound. The machine settings can be adjusted overall cycle time, or, if practical, increase the
to the desired production conditions. number of cavities in the mold.

91
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Acetal homopolymer usually requires higher generally necessary to fill the mold adequately
melt temperature (210-220oC) as homopolymer without flash. To avoid backflow before the gate
has a higher melting point. seals, first- and second-stage injection pressures
Acetal polymer should never be processed should be the same for most moldings. In some
higher than 240oC. If overheating is observed or cases, it may be advantageous to reduce second-
suspected, lower the cylinder temperature and stage injection pressure (e.g., to reduce molded-in
purge the overheated material, dropping the stress in the gate area).
purgings into water. Stay away from the nozzle Injection Speed
and the machine hopper as much as possible to Rapid fill of the mold cavities is preferred for
avoid inhaling any fumes. Provide local exhaust to most moldings and can be accomplished by
remove off-gases. opening the flow control valve to the maximum
Mold Surface Temperature and adjusting the first stage so that it stays on for
Mold surface temperature required for acetal the full injection stroke. If flash occurs, the
resin ranges from 40 to 125oC with 90oC being the injection speed should be reduced (preferably by
most common. A mold temperature in the range of reducing the injection velocity set point) as little
80-95oC is typically used to provide a good balance as is necessary to eliminate flash. The injection
of properties, reduce molded-in stress, provide a hold time should be adequate to fill the mold
high surface gloss, and assure good part cavities completely, with the screw coming to a
dimensional stability. Lower temperature should complete stop in the fully forward position, and
only be used with thick-walled parts (>3 mm or then to allow the gate to seal under pressure before
1/8 in.) because the retained heat in the thick parts the pressure is released. This is particularly
after ejection from the mold will anneal out the important to prevent suckback of resin through the
stresses during cooling. Mold surfaces cooler than gate and potential void formation when the screw
80oC may also lead to surface pits, flow marks, and is withdrawn. If such surface imperfections as
a hazy surface appearance because these defects are splay or flow marks are encountered, reduce the
frozen into the skin. For fiberglass-reinforced acetal injection speed in small increments.
polymer, a slightly higher mold temperature of 95- Solidification Time
125oC is recommended to provide a resin-rich, Solidification time should be adequate for the
high-gloss surface. Molding with this higher mold resin to properly set up in the mold and maintain
temperature will also facilitate resin flow into the dimensional tolerance and geometry without
cavities, reduce molded-in stress, and provide parts distortion, warpage, or ejector pin penetration of
with improved dimensional stability in end-use. the molded parts on ejection.
Uniform mold temperature control is Decompression Settings
extremely important, especially for molding parts Most commercially available injection
consistently within precision tolerances. molding machines are equipped with a
Cycle Setting decompression (suckback) feature. This is used to
Injection Pressure relieve pressure on the resin after plastication in
the heating cylinder and to prevent nozzle drool
Injection pressure will vary with several
during the mold open time prior to beginning the
factors, including geometry of the molded part,
next cycle. About 0.2-0.6 seconds decompression
length of flow, design of the runner and gates, melt
time is usually satisfactory for acetal polymer.
temperature, clamp capacity of the molding
machine, condition of the mold with regard to Screw Speed
flash, and so on, even though most moldings of Screw rotational speed and backpressure
acetal are successfully produced in the range of should be kept to a minimum, preferably 20-40
76-138 MPa (11-20 Kpsi), adjustments are rpm and zero backpressure, respectively. The

92
®
 Acetals

screw speed should be set such that the screw (QC) tests are usually done many hours (24 or 48)
fully retracts just prior to the expiration of the after the parts are molded. Over the years, we
mold close time. Excessive screw speed and have found that one of the best and most timely
backpressure can cause severe overheating of the QC tests that a molder can perform to predict just
resin and, in the case of fiberglass-reinforced how a part will measure up against the established
products, increase glass fiber breakage, leading to release specifications or end-use performance
a significant reduction in mechanical properties. criteria for the part is part weight. A major feature
Cycle Time of part weight testing is that it can be done almost
contemporaneous with the part’s molding (i.e.,
Cycle time depends primarily on wall
the weight can be determined just seconds after
thickness, which governs the rate of cooling, and to
the part is ejected from the mold). Thus, the
some extent on part design, dimensional tolerance,
molder can obtain almost immediate feedback,
molding equipment, mold design, and so on. Faster
allowing very timely corrective actions to be
cycles than indicated may be obtained with grades
taken.
of resins that are reinforced or filled, as well as
those with higher melt flow rates. The procedure that is normally followed is to
Plasticizing Capacity determine the average weight of known “good”
As with other engineering plastics, acetal parts, along with the range of deviations from the
polymer should not be exposed to excessive average (e.g., 10.6 ± 0.03 g). A systematic weight
temperatures or very long residence times. For the check is then made on all production parts as they
best results, the shot weight for acetal should be in are produced. Any part over or under the range
the range of 50-75% of the rated machine capacity. (10.57-10.63 g) is set aside, whereas those within
the range are kept for the usual subsequent QC
Clamping Force tests. Causes can be identified and corrective
Clamping force should be high enough to actions taken to improve production efficiencies.
prevent the mold from opening during resin
injection at maximum pressure and speed. Five to Part Dimensions
ten tons clamping force per square inch of In the same way that part weight can be
projected area (including molded parts, sprue, and determined directly after molding, part
runners) is usually adequate for molding acetal dimensions can be used as a QC check just as
polymer. The clamping force must exceed the soon as the part is ejected from the mold. Even
projected area times the second stage pressure. though we know that dimensions change with
time after molding, this could be factored into
QUALITY CONTROL OF the analysis. One would measure the particular
MOLDED PARTS dimension(s) as a function of time after
Part Weight molding (e.g., 0.50, 1, 4, 8, 12, 18, and 24
Molded parts most often have to meet very hours). Next, plot these data, and extrapolate
exacting specifications (e.g., dimensions, color/ the plotted line back to “zero” time. This would
appearance, or some measurement of then give you a dimension for parts “right off
performance capabilities, including mechanical the mold,” and indicate what the dimension
strength, end-use tests, etc.). Such quality control would be 24 hours later.

REFERENCES
1. Ticona Product Literature. “Processing Celcon Acetal Copolymer (CE-6).”
2. DuPont Literature. “Delrin Acetal Resin-Moulding Manual.”

93
®
INJECTION MOLDING
ENGINEERING
THERMOPLASTICS
IN COMPARISON TO
COMMODITY MATERIALS
PETER F. GRELLE
®

Plastic materials can be classified in many acrylonitrile butadiene styrene terpolymer (ABS),
ways. One way they are classified is into what are polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) or acrylic,
called commodity materials, and the other polybutylene terephthalate (PBT), polyethylene
engineering thermoplastics. This chapter will terephthalate (PET), polyetherimide (PEI),
further explain what differentiates these materials. thermoplastic polyurethane, acetal, polyphenylene
sulfide (PPS), and polyetherether ketone (PEEK).
Miriam-Webster’s Dictionary defines a
commodity as “a mass-produced unspecialized When comparing how commodity materials
product.” When we talk about plastic materials, mold in comparison to engineering plastics, some
there are several materials that are considered basic differences can be found. This section of the
commodity materials because these are mass- toolbox will provide a guide in comparing these
produced in large quantities. Commodity plastics differences in the molding of a commodity
are lower in cost per pound in comparison to material versus an engineering plastic. Taking a
engineering plastics because they are mass- “walk” through the injection molding process,
produced. In addition, commodity plastics are starting with the hopper and ending with the
mostly used in applications where parts are also mold, will do this. The topics to be covered
mass-produced in large quantities (e.g., packaging, include drying of plastic materials, process melt
and consumer products). Materials that fall into temperature, injection molding machine screw
this category are typically polyethylene, type, purging of material from the barrel, and
polypropylene, polystyrene, and PVC. mold temperature.
Engineering thermoplastics are produced in
large quantities, but not mass-produced in DRYING OF PLASTICS:
comparison to commodity materials. They are used COMMODITY VERSUS ENGINEERING
in applications where parts have special THERMOPLASTICS
requirements (e.g., high heat resistance and higher
impact, high rigidity, and higher tensile strengths in Plastic materials are either hygroscopic or
nonhygroscopic. When they are hygroscopic, they
comparison to commodity materials). Some of absorb moisture either internally (inside the
these applications include electronic, automotive, pellet) or externally (outside the pellet). This is
and appliance parts. Materials that can be classified based on the chemistry of the plastic material. The
as engineering plastics include nylon, problem arises when the materials processing
polycarbonate and polycarbonate blends, temperature, which can exceed 400°F (204°C),

95
Society of Plastics Engineers

Process Temperatures
°F °C
Commodity Thermoplastics
Polyethylene 340-540 171-282
Polypropylene 420-520 216-271
Polystyrene 380-460 193-238
Polyvinyl Chloride, rigid 320-365 160-180
Engineering Thermoplastics
Acetal 365-437 185-225
Acrylics 420-485 216-252
ABS 440-510 227-266
Medium Impact 440-510 227-266
High Impact 440-510 227-266
High Heat 510-540 266-282
Polycarbonate 540-640 282-338
Low Viscosity 540-570 282-299
Medium Viscosity 540-570 282-299
High Viscosity 590-640 310-338
Nylon 6/6 500-560 260-293
Nylon 6 470-530 243-277
Polyetherimide 685-720 363-382
Polyphenylene Sulfide 590-670 310-354
Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET) 520-560 271-293
Polyethylene Terephtalate (PETG) 480-520 249-271
Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT) 460-490 238-254
Polyphenylene Oxide (PPO) 480-580 249-304
Polysulfone 650-750 343-399
Styrene Acrylonitrile (SAN) 400-500 204-260
Table 1. Process Melt Temperatures: Commodity vs. Engineering Thermoplastics.
[Source: Multiple Industry Sources.]
forces water out of the material at 212°F (100°C). when commodity materials may need to be dried.
The effect the water has on a molded part is that An example of such a rare case is for talc-filled
imperfections will appear on the aesthetic surface polyethylene or polypropylene because these
because the bubbles generated from the boiling of types of fillers are capable of attracting moisture.
the water get trapped in the material, cooling and Another rare case is for polyethylene and
solidifying in the mold. This results in splay
polypropylene colored with carbon black because
marks, or silver streaking. Degradation can occur
in some materials, causing reduction in physical carbon black can also attract moisture.
properties and poor part performance; therefore, it Engineering thermoplastics are typically
is very critical to dry certain materials. hygroscopic, and do need to be dried. Typical
Commodity materials typically do not require drying temperatures range from 155°F (68°C) for
drying because these are nonhygroscopic and do some PET materials to 310°F (154°C) for PEEK
not absorb moisture. There are some rare cases and PEI.

96
®
 Injection Molding Engineering Thermoplastics in Comparison to Commodity Materials

High Medium Low

Compression Ratio Compression Ratio Compression Ratio
Comments
(3-4.5 Compression (2-2.8 Compression (1.2-1.8
Ratio) Ratio) Compression Ratio)
Commodity Thermoplastics
(1)-Medium to Low
Polyethylene X(2) X(1) Melt Index; (2)-
High Density
(1)-Medium to Low
Melt Index; (2)-
Polypropylene X(2) X(1)
Medium to High
Melt Index
Polystryrene X
(1)-Rigid Grades;
Polyvinyl Chloride X(2) X(1)
(2)-Flexible Grades
Engineering Thermoplastics
Acetal X X
Acrylics X
ABS X
Polycarbonate X
Polycarbonate Blends X
(1)-Low Melt
Index;
Nylon 6 or 6/6 X(2) X(1)
(2)-High Melt
Index
SAN X
Table 2. Screw Type—Compression Ratios for Commodity and Engineering Thermoplastics.
[Source: Rosato, Donald V. and Dominick V. Rosato, Injection Molding Handbook, 1995, Chapman & Hall Publishing.]

M ATERIAL P ROCESS M ELT temperature controls, especially in complex

T EMPERATURE : C OMMODITY molds, which have steep temperature gradients.
V ERSUS E NGINEERING Commodity materials have a range of
T HERMOPLASTICS processing temperatures that can be molded. For
Commodity materials have shorter, repeating example, depending on its molecular weight and
polymer chains in comparison to most melt flow rate, polyethylene can be processed
engineering plastics. The short chains allow for from 340°F (171°C) up to 540°F (282°C).
commodity materials to be molded at lower Polypropylene can be molded from 420°F (216°C)
injection molding process temperatures than that to 520°F (271°C). The process temperature for
used for engineering plastics. Engineering polystyrene can range from 380 to 460°F (193-
plastics have more complex polymer chain 238°C) for general-purpose grades, and 400 to
systems that require process temperature ranges 480°F (204-249°C) for high impact grades.
to be narrower than that found with commodity Recommended melt temperatures for most rigid
plastics, and they must be processed at higher PVC range from 320 to 365°F (160-180°C).
temperatures than commodity plastics. Engineering thermoplastics, in general, require
Engineering plastics also require stricter process higher processing temperatures in comparison to

97
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

commodity materials. For example, nylon 6/6 can be old material becomes necessary to perform the
processed between 500 and 560°F (260-293°C). transition in production. Purging can be time
PMMA process temperatures range from 420 to consuming because it can take minutes or even
485°F (216-252°C). Polycarbonate can be molded hours to change materials, depending on materials
between 540 and 640°F (282-338°C) depending on or machine complexity.
the viscosity used. The process temperature for ABS There are some general guidelines to use when
ranges from 440 to 510°F (227-266°C) for medium purging.
impact grades, to 510-540°F (266-282°C) for higher
impact grades. Polyetherimide process temperatures 1. Follow the guidelines listed in the material
range from 685 to 720°F (363-382°C). suppliers molding guide on purging
Table 1 compares the melt temperatures of procedures and material recommendations
several commodity plastics in comparison to for purging.
engineering plastics. 2. Follow a light-color material with a darker-
color material. Black is one of the toughest
INJECTION MOLDING MACHINE materials to purge.
SCREW TYPE: COMMODITY VERSUS
ENGINEERING THERMOPLASTICS 3. Thoroughly clean out all materials handling
In looking at screw type to be used in injection equipment (e.g., hoppers, feeder, material
molding commodity versus engineering plastics, conveying equipment, mixers, etc.).
one of key criteria that needs to be considered is 4. Maintain and upkeep all equipment.
the compression ratio of the screw. This gives an
indication of the amount the screw compresses the 5. Use a purging material that can bridge the
plastic pellets that are being conveyed through the temperature gap between the existing
barrel. The compression ratio is defined by the material in the barrel and the new material
following equation. to be molded, or use enough different
materials sequentially until the proper
Compression Ratio = Depth of screw in the feed
operating range is reached.
section / Depth of screw in the metering section
The compression ratio varies with each For engineering thermoplastics, materials
material. Table 2 gives a general guide on that can be used to bridge this temperature gap are
compression ratios used for several commodity high density polyethylene, polystyrene, cast
plastics, and engineering plastics. acrylic, and ABS. In some cases, reground
polycarbonate can be used with such materials as
P URGING OF M ATERIAL FROM polysulfone or polycarbonate.
B ARREL : C OMMODITY V ERSUS For commodity materials, high-density
E NGINEERING T HERMOPLASTICS polyethylene, general purpose polystyrene, and
When production of an injection molded part cast acrylic are normally used for purging material
is completed, it may become necessary to change from the barrel. In addition, in some cases, two
materials or to change colors of the same or stages of purging should take place, using
different material. At this point, purging out the materials from two different melt ranges.

98
®
 Injection Molding Engineering Thermoplastics in Comparison to Commodity Materials

Mold Temperatures
°F °C
Commodity Thermoplastics
Polyethylene
Low Density 50-100 10-38
Medium Density 50-120 10-49
High Density 50-150 10-66
Polypropylene 60-150 16-66
Polystryrene 50-120 10-49
Polyvinyl Chloride, rigid 50-120 10-49
Engineering Thermoplastics
Acetal 140-220 60-104
Acrylics 120-180 49-82
ABS
Medium Impact 90-180 32-82
High Impact 90-180 32-82
High Heat 140-180 60-82
Polycarbonate
Low Viscosity 160-200 71-93
Medium Viscosity 160-200 71-93
High Viscosity 180-240 82-116
Polycarbonate/ABS Blends 160-200 71-93
Nylon 6/6 120-180 49-82
Nylon 6 100-180 38-82
Polyetherimide 220-300 104-149
Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS) 190-230 88-110
Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 70-120 21-49
Polybutylene Terephtalate (PBT) 100-140 38-60
Polyphenylene Oxide (PPO) 150-220 66-104
Polysulfone 200-320 93-160
Styrene Acrylonitrile (SAN) 120-180 49-82
Table 3. Mold Temperatures: Commodity versus Engineering Thermoplastics.
[Source: Multiple Industry Sources.]
M OLD T EMPERATURE : molding commodity materials in order to speed
C OMMODITY V ERSUS up the cooling of the part.
E NGINEERING T HERMOPLASTICS For engineering thermoplastics, the melt front
Controlling mold temperature for commodity can cool too much as it is forced to fill cooler
plastics is different from that found in molding cavities at sections farthest from the sprue,
engineering plastics. In general, commodity resulting in stiffened or hardened flow. This stiffer
materials will cool slower in comparison to flow can result in higher injection pressures, poor
engineering plastics and usually will require melt distribution, and weld lines in the part where
lower mold temperatures than engineering the melt fronts converge. With some engineering
plastics. Cooling of the mold below room plastics, hot water is circulated through the mold to
temperature (73°F, 23°C) can be found in provide the basic heat needed to fill the mold;

99
®
Society of Plastics Engineers Next Page

Item # Molding Parameter Engineering Thermoplastics Commodity Thermoplastics

Most materials are hygroscopic, Most materials are nonhygroscopic,
or absorb moisture. or do not absorb moisture. No
1 Drying of materials Materials need to be dried to drying is needed. An exception to
avoid poor surface finish, or this is acrylic, which does absorb
material degradation. moisture.
Have processing temperature
Have lower process temperatures
2 Process melt temperature ranges that can be as low as
than engineering thermoplastics.
420°F, and as high as 650-700°F.
Medium to low compression Medium to high compression ratios
3 Screw type
ratios used in screw design. used.
High-density polyethylene,
polystyrene, cast acrylic, and
High density polyethylene, general
Purging of material ABS can be used for purging.
4 purpose polystyrene, and cast
from barrel Reground polycarbonate can be
acrylic is recommended.
used with such materials as
polysulfone or polycarbonate.
Mold temperatures range from Mold temperatures range from 50°F
5 Mold temperature 70°F (21°C) for PET to as high as (10°C) to 150°F (66°C) for some
320°F (160°C) for polysulfone. high-density polyethylenes.
Nylon, Polycarbonate,
Polybutylene Terephthalate,
ABS, Polyetherimide, Polyethylene, Polypropylene,
Examples of Materials
Polysulfones, Acetal, Polyvinyl Chloride, Polystyrene
Polyphenylene Oxide, Styrene
Acrylonitrile, Acrylic
Table 4. Injection Molding Engineering Thermoplastics versus Commodity Thermoplastics.

however, this method may not keep the entire mold higher mold temperature ranges than that found in
surface temperature constant, and may result in commodity plastics.
temperature gradients within the mold cavity. All
Table 4 provides a summary of some of the
melt passes through the sprue, runner, and gate, basic differences between molding commodity
making the area nearest the gate hotter than the rest materials and engineering thermoplastics.
of the mold cavity. In these hotter areas, the higher Although the main difference may be cost, there
temperatures slow down the molding cycle and are some differences that are found in molding
cause such surface defects as sink marks and part commodity and engineering thermoplastics. The
warpage. In some cases, the use of electrical purpose of this chapter was to make the technician
heating elements or using oil instead of water or molder aware of the differences in molding
circulating through the mold may be necessary. each of these materials. Still, the best reference to
use in molding any of these materials is to review
Table 3 lists mold temperatures for a number the molding guides supplied by material suppliers,
of engineering thermoplastics and commodity and to use the technical expertise available from
materials. In general, engineering plastics require these suppliers to assist with molding issues.

100
®
 Previous Page

COMPUTER FLOW
SIMULATIONS
DAVID KAZMER
®

CHAPTER OBJECTIVE going on inside the mold when the process is

operating. Third, the material is compressible (it
The provided chapter will provide technicians
shrinks under higher pressure and expands with
understanding of what flow simulation can do for
higher temperature) and its viscosity changes with
them, their role in the running the flow analysis
temperature and flow rate. Fourth, there are many
and interpreting the results, and a flowchart/
conflicting design and processing requirements:
worksheet to assist them in the area.
higher melt and mold temperatures, for example,
INTRODUCTION will facilitate filling the mold but may increase the
cycle time.
Competitively designing and manufacturing
plastic molded products can be difficult. There are Now, you or your local expert may think that
many performance requirements on a molded they have seen it all and know all the answers (or
part, including high stiffness, good appearance, at least enough to get by); however, incorrect or
and tight tolerances, among others. Profits, inaccurate estimates of the process will cost your
however, drive the need to reduce costs company big profits. There are so many trade-offs
continually, through reduced material between performance and cost that incorrect
consumption, lower tooling cost, and faster cycle assumptions can drastically change the
times. In injection molding, there is a big trade-off profitability of a molding job. Given the risk and
between performance and cost. Knowing the uncertainty that exists in plastics molding, an
behavior of a material in a molding application external review of the situation may be very
can impact such major design decisions as wall valuable.
thickness, number of gates per cavity, number of
cavities per mold, molding machine selection, and WHAT IS FLOW ANALYSIS?
even long-term plant-level capacity planning. Have you ever wished that you could undo a
Making the best decisions regarding material major bad decision? Have you wished that after a
selection, mold design, and processing conditions bad day, you could have avoided your problems or
is challenging for several reasons. First, the had somebody else solve them? Injection molding
process is complex. The molten plastic is flowing process simulations (mold flow analysis) may be
in three dimensions and the flow rates, able to assist you. These simulations have been
temperatures, and pressures are always changing. developed over the past 30 years to provide
Second, it is not possible see everything that is critical information so that the best decisions get

101
Society of Plastics Engineers

Mold
Geometry

Melt Temp = 280C

Contour Plots
Mold Temp = 90C Process Flow
Inj. Time = 2 Sec History Traces
Conditions Simulation
Pack Time = 5 S ec
... Sensitivies

Material
1− α
MW n Properties
η =T+ √
Viscosity

V ↵

Mol. Weight

Figure 1. Inputs to flow simulation.

made. Through the early 1990s, these analyses had WHY USE A FLOW ANALYSIS?
fairly limited capability and were quite expensive The general reason to use a flow analysis is to
to use; however, significant progress has been improve our understanding of the molding
made in process modeling, material process. Flow analyses are sometimes performed
characterization, and computational power. Today, as standard operating procedure for marketing
simulations are extremely powerful and purposes or to verify design feasibility. To be more
inexpensive, with results being available within specific, however, analyses can be used to support
hours or sometimes minutes. critical decisions during the design, tooling, and
processing stages of the molded part development
As shown in Figure 1, there are three separate process. Table 1 provides an overview of the top
inputs needed to run a flow analysis: (1) mold three uses of flow analysis.
geometry, (2) material properties, and (3) There are two very important notes that should
processing conditions. On the inside, the flow be mentioned about the use of flow analysis. First,
analysis decomposes the complex three- flow analyses should be performed before most
dimensional geometry of the injection mold to a critical decisions are made. Running a flow
mesh of triangles or pyramids (tetrahedrons) that analysis after most of the decisions are made will
are easier to handle numerically. Because the incur the same analysis costs, but have little
injection molding process is dynamic, the flow positive impact on the molding application.
simulation progresses in a series of many small Second, computers do not make decisions—
people do. If a computer simulation provides a
time steps. At each time step, the simulation
recommendation regarding wall thickness or a
calculates the position of the polymer melt in the
processing condition, a person must consider the
mold, the pressure distribution throughout the quality of the recommendation and decide about
mold, and the temperature drop between the core its acceptance. Remember that computers cannot
and the skin everywhere in the part. The simulation be fired and people are accountable for their
can end once the mold has been filled, continue to decisions. For this reason, it is important to know
simulate the packing of the mold, or predict the both when to use flow analysis, and how to verify
shrinkage and end-use of the molded part(s). and use the results.

102
®
 Computer Flow Simulations

Application Description

Multiple-mold and runner designs can be analyzed to ensure moldability, properly

balance flow, position knit-lines, estimate clamp tonnage or shrinkage rates. Key
Mold/runner design
decisions that are supported include wall thickness, number and location of gates,
runner and gate layout, number of cavities per mold, and machine selection.

For a fixed mold design, multiple materials can be characterized and simulated for a
fixed mold design to provide comparative estimates of fill pressure, clamp tonnage,
cycle time, and shrinkage. Compared with melt flow indexes, flow analysis can
Unknown material
provide significantly more accurate results for comparisons. Key decisions that are
supported include selection of specific grades from a family of materials, or across
multiple families of materials.
For a fixed mold design and material selection, multiple-flow analyses can be
performed to provide the effect of such critical processing conditions as melt
temperature, mold temperature, injection velocity, pack pressure, pack time, and
Sensitivity analysis
cooling time on peak fill pressure, clamp tonnage, shear rates, and shrinkage rates.
Key decisions that are supported include relative changes in most processing
conditions.

Table 1. Top three uses of flow analysis

RUNNING A FLOW ANALYSIS Assumptions and issues surrounding each of these
three areas will next be discussed. Afterward, the
Despite significant advances in the capability
module will describe how the team can interpret
of flow analysis, only little progress has been
and use the analysis results.
made with direct integration of flow analysis with
molding machine controllers. The reasons are Geometry Assumptions
simple: (1) flow analysis requires significant A big advantage of flow analysis is that it
information that may not be readily on the allows virtual molding for molds that have not
production floor, and (2) simulation technology is been created. The computer models the flow
not currently capable, and may never be capable, through the mold with a mesh made up of
of precisely producing optimal machine settings triangles or pyramids, called elements. By using
in a reliable manner. There are several significant many small elements as shown in Figure 2, the
sources of error. For instance, the simulation may mesh can approximate the true complex three-
not model some fundamental process phenomena dimensional geometry of the mold design.
(e.g., three-dimensional flow effects or The accuracy of the results will generally
uncharacterized complex material behavior). improve as the number of elements increases. The
Moreover, even if one assumes a perfect computation time required to perform an analysis,
simulation, there are many physical aberrations however, increases significantly with the number
that can induce error. Such instances may include of elements. The conversion of the part’s
unmodeled mold geometry, shut off and leakage computer-aided design to a discrete finite element
of the melt back into the screw during injection, mesh occurs in a step called preprocessing. Many
tuning-dependent and unmodeled molding flow analyses now have automatic preprocessing
machine dynamics, and so on. for automatic generation of the finite element
As a result, the design and manufacturing mesh; however, the quality of the mesh should be
team must work together to ensure that the verified to ensure that the geometry is correctly
analysis is using the correct set of mold designs, represented and essential features of the product
material properties, and process conditions. have not been deleted.

103
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 2. Finite element mesh. [Courtesy of Moldflow Corporation.]

The flow analysis will assume that the mesh wall thickness that are never fed back to the
perfectly represents the three-dimensional flow analysis. Always verify that the com-
geometry of the mold. All commercial analyses puter design of the mold matches the actual
assume that the mold is perfectly rigid with no mold design.
deflection, and that the thickness of the mold and
Material Assumptions
geometry of the gates are correct. Problems with
flow analysis often stem from two common errors Flow analyses require a significant amount of
in the geometric modeling: information about material behavior. The behavior
includes thermal properties (e.g., thermal
1. Feed system not modeled. Many flow ana-
conductivity, specific heat, and density) as well as
lyses assume that the melt is directly
rheological properties (e.g., viscosity). Depending
injected from the nozzle into the center of
on the type of flow analysis that is required, highly
the part. This assumption is made because
specialized material characterization experiments
the gate locations, gate size, and runner
may be required to generate data to model the
layout are unavailable. Without the feed
material behavior.
system, however, the analysis cannot prop-
erly predict the pressure drop through the For the most commonly used materials, it is
feed system, or the proportion of flow likely that all the material models required by the
going through each of the gates. Always flow analysis exist. Problems with flow analysis,
question results that were generated with- however, often stem from two common errors in
out a feed system, and request another set the material modeling:
of analysis runs with a reasonable estimate
1. Use of incorrect material. If a molding job
of the feed system.
requires a flow analysis for a material that
2. Mold geometry inaccurate. Because analy- has been not been characterized, properties
sis can be performed throughout the plastic for a similar material are frequently uti-
part development, the computer design lized. For instance, it may be a reasonable
used for the analysis may not accurately assumption to use an existing viscosity
reflect the geometry of the final tooling. model for similar grades of polypropylene.
Change orders specifically are frequently Always verify that the material model is
made to gate location, gate size, and even representative of the material to be used for

104
®
 Computer Flow Simulations

molding. Using grades with similar names amazing how well materials seem to flow 50ºC
will frequently lead to errors because the greater than their specified temperature range,
grades may have different filler contents or when in fact these set-points are nowhere near a
operating ranges! feasible process window.
2. Incorrect material characterization. Even
INTERPRETING RESULTS
when the exact material to be used in a
molding job has been characterized, signif- Flow analysis can provide estimates of any
icant errors may occur when the material process variable, anywhere in the mold, at any time
was characterized at process conditions during the molding cycle. There is so much
that do not reflect those of the molding information that sometimes many of the results
process. To be specific, the range of melt will go unused. It is therefore important to know
temperatures should go from 20ºC below what purpose the flow analysis is serving, and to
the lower processing temperature up to the review the right type of results output. There are
upper processing temperature. typically three different kinds of output results: (1)
contour plots, (2) history traces, or (3) sensitivity
Processing Assumptions
graphs. The interpretation of each of these outputs
Flow analyses also require estimates of the will next be discussed, prior to concluding the
machine set-points at which to process the module with a discussion of best practices.
material. Knowledge of the exact process
Contour Plots
conditions are unfortunately, not precisely known
before the mold is trialed at the machine. Even Contour plots are those red, green, and blue
worse, there is sometimes no direct correlation three-dimensional pictures that look like the
between the flow analysis parameters and the molded part, as shown in Figure 3. Contour plots
machine set-points. Melt temperature, for are typically used to indicate the distribution of
instance, is assumed as a constant in the analysis, fill time, pressure, temperature, or other process
but it is really a complex function of the barrel variables across the molded part. In general, each
temperature, screw rotational speed, and banded region represents the magnitude of the
backpressure during plastication. process variable.
When processing conditions are missing, the The three most common contour plots are
analysis may estimate them from the material melt front advancement, cavity pressure, and bulk
characterization ranges and/or the size of the part. melt temperature. In Figure 3(a), the fill time
Always verify that the process parameters used in contour plot indicates the location of the melt at
the flow analysis closely match the process different moments in time—each contour line
conditions to be used during actual molding. It is corresponds to the melt front in increments of

(a) fill time b) cavity pressure c) melt front temperature

Figure 3. Common contour plots.

105
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

(a) fill time b) cavity pressure c) melt front temperature

Figure 4. Contour plots for revised design and process.
0.18 seconds. The contour lines can be used to contour plots shown in Figure 4 were achieved by
estimate the position of knit-lines, where two melt moving the gate to the center of the part and
fronts come together. In this example, there are decreasing the fill time. The results indicate that
four knit-lines formed by the windowed sections the knit-lines have been moved to the exterior
of the part and identified by the lines in the fill edge of the part, the pressures are lower and more
time contour plot. uniform, and the melt front temperatures are
Figure 3(b) shows a pressure contour plot at nearly uniform. These changes would likely
the end of fill for the same molding job. Because increase the quality of the part while allowing for
the cavity pressure varies during the molding more cavities per mold and faster cycle times.
cycle, it is necessary to specify the time at which There are other types of contour plots that can
to examine the pressure distribution. The pressure also be generated, including orientation, residual
at the end of the filling stage is most frequently stress, shrinkage, shear stress, and others. Contour
used to indicate a balanced fill. If one area of the plots are very useful for supporting critical design
mold cavity fills before the rest of the mold, the and processing variables (e.g., number and
stagnating flow will generate high local pressures location of gates, wall thickness, and approximate
that may cause flash, high residual stress, or processing conditions).
dimensional defects. In this example, the pressure History Traces
is very high near the gate. Contour plots are useful for showing a process
Figure 3(c) shows a bulk temperature plot at variable across the mold cavity at an instant in
the end of the filling stage. Because the time; however, they do not show the process
temperature of the plastic varies from the skin history at a given location throughout the molding
(very cold) to the core (very hot), the bulk cycle. For this reason, it is useful to plot history
temperature is simply an average of the traces. The most common history traces plot
temperatures across the thickness. Variations in injection and cavity pressure as a function of time
bulk temperature from one area of the part to the throughout the molding cycle. These traces can be
other have been shown to cause significant used to identify critical process events (e.g., when
warpage. Such bulk temperature variations are the melt reaches the gate or when the mold cavity
normally caused by poor gate locations, is filled). As such, flow analysis can provide
processing conditions, and significant wall information at any point or any location that could
thickness variations in the part. In this example, otherwise only be received with a sensor.
the pressure-limited fill causes the melt front to Figure 5, for example, shows the injection
cool significantly before filling the part. pressure and cavity pressure for the molding of a
In the previous example, the previous gate part similar to that shown in Figure 3. Note how
selection and process parameters were poor. The the injection pressure climbs quickly as the melt

106
®
 Computer Flow Simulations

150
C
125

Pressure (MPa)
100
Nozzle E
75

50 D
A Cavity
25 C

B
0
0 2 4 6 8
Time (sec)
Figure 5. Pressure history traces at nozzle and cavity.
pushes through the gate (A), then again toward example demonstrates the required clamp tonnage
the end of the cycle (C). The cavity pressure (B) of molding a part for two different materials.
similarly indicates that there is a loss of 70 MPa
If a molder needs the job to run on a 300-ton
(10,000 psi) going through the runner system, that
machine, the sensitivity analysis indicates that the
the cavity begins filling at 1.5 seconds, that the
minimum wall thickness is 3 mm for material A
cavity is completely filled (C) at 2.25 seconds,
and 3.5 mm for material B. Because a thinner
and that the gate freezes around 6.0 seconds (D).
material is desired if stiffness is not an issue (i.e.,
Such results can be very helpful when adjusting
less material consumption and lower cycle time),
gate design, choosing the packing time, or
then material A may be selected with a wall
understanding the processing behaviors.
thickness of 3.2 mm and may be specified to leave
Sensitivity Analysis some margin for error.
By running many analyses for different mold After selecting the material and wall thickness,
designs, material types, or process conditions, the molder may wish to minimize cycle time by
flow analysis can be used to understand the ensuring that the maximum fill pressure is less than
potential sensitivity of process performance. Such 100 MPa (14,500 psi). To support this decision, the
analysis is vital when selecting nominal wall sensitivity of fill pressure to melt temperature and
thickness, choosing between multiple materials, mold temperature may be investigated as shown in
or optimizing process conditions. Figure 6, for Figure 7. As such, the molder chooses to utilize as
600

500 Material B
Clamp Tonnage

400
Material A
300

200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5
Thickness (mm)
Figure 6. Using sensitivity plot to choose thickness for 300-ton machine.

107
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Maximum Injection Pressure (MPa)

140

130

120

110 Mold T emp=40

100
Mold T emp=60
90
Mold T emp=80
80
200 210 220 230 240
Melt Temperature (C)
Figure 7. Using sensitivity plot to choose temperature for 120 MPa injection pressure.

low a melt temperature as possible with a moderate • always verify that the material model is
mold temperature. representative of the material to be used for
molding
BEST PRACTICES
Know When and How To Use Flow Analysis
• always verify that the material was
characterized at temperatures from 20ºC
Flow analysis cannot be used to do the below the lower processing temperature up
impossible, but it can help to support critical to the upper processing temperature
decisions about the mold design, material
selection, and process optimization. It is important • always verify that the process parameters
to understand the capabilities and limitations of used in the flow analysis closely match the
flow analysis. To be specific, the best practitioners process conditions to be used during actual
of flow analysis: molding
• use analysis early and frequently in the Using Results
mold tooling and processing stages
Flow analysis can provide estimates of most
• know exactly why they want a flow analysis processing variables at any point in the mold at
and what they can get out of it any time during the molding cycle. Knowing what
• understand how to convert the simulation results are important, how to use the results, and
results (temperature, pressure, etc.) to questioning their accuracy is vital to utilizing flow
estimates of part quality (short shot, flash, analysis effectively. The best practitioners of flow
dimensions, appearance, etc.) that they can analysis:
use in their shop
• always question results that were generated
Make Sure The Analysis Was Run Correctly without a feed system, and request another
Flow analysis makes many assumptions about set of analysis runs with a reasonable
the mold design, material behavior, and process estimate of the feed system
conditions. These are really idealized and may not
represent the actual state of the molding job. The • use contour plots to indicate the process
best practitioners of flow analysis: variable across the mold at an instant in time

• always verify that the computer design of • make sure that contour plots use similar
the mold matches the actual mold design scales when doing direct comparisons

108
®
 Computer Flow Simulations

• use history traces to track the value of a limit are two methods to leave room for
process variable (like injection pressure) at process adjustment
a given point during the molding cycle Staying in the Loop
• use history traces to explain critical events Finally, the best practitioners of flow analysis:
during the molding cycle
• document the flow analysis results
• use sensitivity plots to make critical
decisions about mold design, material
• convert the flow recommendations into
action items
selection, and process optimization
• use a reasonable factor of safety to ensure a • implement the actions
margin for error—reducing the maximum • report back on the outcome of the actions,
allowable injection pressure or using share in the team success, or suggest
temperatures lower than the known upper corrective action when things go wrong

109
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

FLOW ANALYSIS WORKSHEET

Application:
Schedule & Responsibility
Responsible Personnel Part Design Completed
Part Design & Company:

Tooling Designer & Company:
Process Engineer & Company: Mold Design Completed
Flow Analyst & Company:

Geometry Inputs Material Selected
Wall Thickness:

Size (Width x Length x Depth): Process Conditions Verified
Number of Gates:

Runner Layout:
Analyses Performed
Number of Cavities Per Mold:


Processing Condition Ranges
Analyses Verified
Melt Temperature:
Mold Temperature:

Max. Injection Pressure: Decisions Implemented
Injection Time (or Ram Velocity):

Pack Pressure: Feedback Provided
Pack Time:


Critical Performance Parameters

Aesthetics
Is Flow Analysis

Balanced Flow Needed?

Clamp Tonnage

Cycle Time
Perform

Flow Length/Fillability Mold Design
No
3D Flow
Completed? Simulation

Knit Line Location XX

Shrinkage/Tolerances Yes

Strength Compare
Material

Other: Family & Grade No
Materials With
2D or 3D Flow
Selected?

Other: Simulation

Type of Analysis to Be Run Yes

Mold Design Process Perform

Material Selection Conditions
Selected?
No Sensitivity
Analysis

Sensitivity Analysis

Other: Yes

Notes Regarding Need for Analysis:

C hanges N o Flow
Yes No
Needed? Analysis Needed

110
®
 Computer Flow Simulations

Analysis Recommendations Flow

Analysis Needed

Verify
A ssumptions

Final Decisions
Compare V erify Right Verify that
Mold & Runner Material Tested Processs
Geometry to at Correct Process Conditions Are
Computer Model Conditions Correct

Decision Implementation & Outcome Run

Analysis

Verify
Quality of
Results
Feedback to Team

Check Goodness: Check Check

Fill Times, Fill Convergence: Do Completeness:
Pressures, Clamp Results Make Enough Results
Tonnages Sense? for Decision?

Interpreting Results
Accept
Flow analysis can provide estimates of most Decision
processing variables at any point in the mold at any
time during the molding cycle.
Implement Verify
Decisions about Implementation & Report Back on
Mold, Material, & Outcome of Flow Analysis
Process Decision

Contour Plots Time History Traces Sensitivity Plots

Maximum Injection Pressure ( MPa)

150 140
C
125
Pressure ( MPa)

130
100 120
Nozzle E
75 110 Mold Temp=40
50 100
A D
Cavity Mold Temp=60
25 C
90
B Mold Temp=80
0 80
0 2 4 6 8 200 210 220 230 240
Time (sec) Melt Temperature (C)

Use contour plots to examine the Use history traces to track the Use sensitivity plots to show the
process variable across the mold value of a process variable (like effect of process variables on
at an instant in time. Contour injection pressure) at a given point process performance. Sensitivity
plots support critical design and throughout the molding cycle. plots support critical decisions
processing variables such as Traces support adjustments in about mold design, material
number and location of gates, gate design and packing time, or selection, and process
wall thickness, and processing help to understand the processing optimization. Use a reasonable
conditions. behaviors. factor of safety to ensure a margin
for error.

111
®
MULTI-INJECTION
MOLDING
KAI JACOBSEN
®

OBJECTIVE material properties or colors, or to fit in ways that

The aim of this chapter is to describe process are difficult, if not impossible, using separate
variations, material and machine considerations, molding and assembly processes.
as well as tooling or mold designs in relation to Major markets and applications for
multicomponent molding. multimaterial molding include the automotive
market ( e.g., head/tail light lenses, interior and
INTRODUCTION exterior trim components, under-the-hood
For a successful production concept, it is components), medical markets (e.g., closures,
important to evaluate all possible production syringe plunger tips), and telecommunications
variations in terms of design freedom, feasibility, (e.g., cell phones, pagers), as well as industrial
product quality, and economics. This is especially tooling, personal care (e.g.,toothbrushes),
true when evaluating part concepts that would appliance (e.g.,hand tools), and consumer markets.
traditionally require such postmolding operations The following multicolor and
as painting, decorating, or assembly of parts. multicomponent injection molding techniques are
The process where any of these production all covered by the generic term combimelt:
steps can be substituted or combined into one • multicolor injection molding
molding operation can be referred to as
multicomponent molding. Multicomponent • multimaterial injection molding
molding is one of the fastest-growing trends in
injection molding. With the ability to mold • assembly injection molding technique
sophisticated end products of two or more similar
or dissimilar materials, while reducing several • overmolding
molding processes on several machines to a single
molding cycle on a single machine, the process • coinjection technique or sandwich injection
has tremendous benefits. molding
Multicomponent technology offers enormous The use of combimelt technology has
savings, both in machine investment and plant increased due to the greater availability of hard
floor space, and in lower part cost. It also offers and soft material combinations. Soft materials
advantages in part quality and sophistication— perform important functions in such structural
parts can be injection molded with a variety of parts as:

113
Society of Plastics Engineers

• sealing functions between components molding for the production of bonded

• absorbing of vibrations and shocks assemblies (e.g., hollow rubber seal as
shown in the cross-section in Figure 1,
• the improved tactile and nonslip quality on example 2)
grip surfaces
Innovative process techniques and molding • joint molding is used where two or more
solutions, as well as advances in material substrates are joined through injection of
developments, enable soft materials to be injected another material
onto hard material components in one process. The hard-soft material technique offers the
following possibilities:
PROCESS VARIATIONS
Multi-injection molding can be performed • combination of hard and soft plastics to
using a wide variety of processes, each with form multifunctional components utilizing
suitability to various part applications. This, specific material characteristics
combined with the number of material
combinations, and the variety of machine • the integration of secondary production
executions and mold designs available, allows stage or automated assembly steps saves
multi-injection to be a solution for many molding time and money
applications:
The following are groups of materials now
• the addition process is used for material used as soft components in composite injection
interlocking molding:
• overmolding is the injection of at least two • thermoplastic elastomers, as well as
layers of material modified bonding types with higher
• internal gas pressure technique is used in achievable bonding strength to
combination with multicomponent injection thermoplastics

Figure 1. Process variants of the composite injection molding technique.

114
®
 Multi-Injection Molding

Acute phase limit Wide phase limit Cross-linking via

(van der Waals Forces) (Interdiffusion) the phase limit

The molecular chains get tangled up along the

contact interface. The level of penetration is
dependent upon: Cross-linking in the diffusion zone with the
Chemical composition combination of different rubbers.
Not to be expected with a thermoplast-rubber
• compatibility
bond, because:
• molecular weight
• with thermoplastic molecules, sulphur often
Physical parameters finds no place to attack
• temperature • interphase cross-linking with peroxides is
• pressure possible
• time
• molecular weight

Figure 2. Materials bonding mechanisms.

• special rubber blends, which ensure a high BONDING STRENGTH

bonding strength to particular The tensile and shear strength at the bonding
thermoplastics without the necessity to surface is dependent upon:
prime
• material pairing (physical-chemical
• liquid silicone rubber, with bonding agent compatibility, polarity)
mixed in for the bond with thermoplastics • process variants and conditions
and thermosets • molded component geometry
This chapter will deal mainly with the • shape of the contact surfaces
following topics in relation with multi-injection With compatible material pairs (physical-
molding: chemical compatibility) the bonding strength is
determined by the effective adhesion or cohesion
• bonding strength forces.
• material combinations and application Adhesion is the adhesive effect of various
examples molecules in the contact surface area. The
adhesive forces are the effective electrostatic and
• process variants and mold technology intermolecular attraction (van der Waals forces).

115
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 3. Comparison of bonding strength of a PA6/TPU compound that is dependent upon

the gating distance by obtuse injection. The test specimen was manufactured in the sliding or in insert
technique. [IKT Erlangen: Ehrenstein, Kuhmann]

Cohesion is a special case of adhesion. It is the times as well as high mold temperature are
adhesion between identical molecules in the two advantageous (Figure 3)
materials. This type of adhesion achieves a much
greater bonding strength. With cohesion, fractures • the preform is made from a material with
due to excessive stress usually occur in one of the lower softening, or melting, temperature
two layers of material, whereas normal adhesive • short injection times and high melt
fractures or failures occur at the contact surface temperature of the subsequently injected
between the bonding materials. material in the second stage of the process
The mechanical, intermolecular interlocking of Good bonding between semi-crystalline
macromolecules, and the so-called interdiffusion, is materials is difficult. The postcrystallization of the
a further significant influencing variable for the rapidly solidifying amorphous boundary layers of
material compound (Figure 2). the preform material occurs before melting takes
In order to achieve a high bonding strength, the place via the second material. Diffusion of the
partial melting of the preinjected (also referred to molecules is therefore made more difficult.
as preform) material surface after exposure to the Measurements show that the bonding strength of
hot melt is of importance. After the molecular the hard-soft material combinations are greatly
chains have diffused with each other, looping influenced by the process and part dependent flow
occurs. Due to the rapid cooling via the mold wall and cooling conditions. Figure 3 shows the
and the short time in which the melts are in contact, resultant bonding strength achieved from two
the diffusion zone is very thin. methods of molding a “two material” part,
depending upon relative gate distance.
The following factors, which are to be seen as
process-influencing variables, ease a partial • the first method employed was to insert a
melting of the preform in the contact surface: cold PA6 preform and inject TPE-U
material onto the preform
• highest possible temperature of the preform
on impact of the melt • the second method employed was to mold a
PA6 preform in a sliding gate mold and then
• if the preform remains in a rotating, or inject TPE-U onto the partially solidified
sliding, mold, short and harmonized cooling preform

116
®
 Multi-Injection Molding

Figure 4. Temperature distribution in the material contact surface by obtuse injection of

TPE-O on a PP preform with 2.5-mm wall thickness, as a result of
an FEM- calculation.

• an increase in bonding strength related to failure of individual joints. Good bonds between
the increase of gate distance was recorded incompatible materials such as polar thermoplastics
The main reason for this increase in bonding (i.e., ABS, PS, PA, etc.) and nonpolar thermoplastic
strength is the formation of a solidified boundary elastomers (i.e., TPE-O, TPE-V, etc.) are
layer at the contact surface, combined with the impossible to achieve without the use of bonding
hot second material at the contact surface after a agents in the polar thermoplastic material.
successful filling. Good bond strengths have been recorded
where the hard material is injected over the soft
Using a computer to calculate the temperature
material. This is not always possible, however,
conditions at the boundary layers via what is known
due to soft material deformation and sealing
as the “finite element method” helps to estimate the
problems.
amount of bonding between the materials. Results
for a 2.5-mm thick preform made from PP and a Buttjointed connections generally produce a
TPE-O are shown in Figure 4. It can be seen here weaker bond, although smooth-joint surfaces can
that the preform remaining in the mold when the improve the bond strength. Rough surfaces
TPE-O melt impacts with a melt temperature of encourage air to become trapped between the
220˚C is still 70˚C at the edge and 100˚C at the materials, effectively reducing the bond strength.
core. One concludes from this that with a melt Mechanical anchoring by means of undercuts
temperature of 175˚C for PP, the border zone only can be used when combining incompatible
melts to a maximum thickness of 0.01 mm. The materials. When hard-soft material combinations
cause of this is the poor thermal conductivity of are used, undercuts are not sufficient due to the
plastics in general. The low temperatures in the flexibility of the soft material. In this case,
border zone of the contact surface to the mold wall mechanical anchoring elements (e.g., holes
also appear to be critical. After observing the through the preform) must be added.
temperature distribution, no bonding occurs in this It can be seen from Figure 5 that material
border zone to the mold wall. strength for several Nylon (polyamide) types are
The unbonded area or “microcrack” weakens shown in comparison to the “weld line” and
the bond and is probably the starting point for the “bonding” strength. As expected, a decrease in

117
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 5. Comparison: Material strength, weld strength and bonding strength for several PA types
with inserts. [EMS Chemie]

weld line and bonding strength compared with and soft chain segments are arranged alternately in
material strength is evident. Along with such the main chain, or with blends made from one
additives as softeners, glass fibers, or impact hard and one soft component.
resisting modifiers that aid bonding, there are also
lubricants, mold release agents, nucleating agents, Via the combination of hard and soft polymer
and color pigments that have an adverse effect on materials, sealing and damping elements can be
the material bonding. injected directly onto premolded parts. Due to
Table 1 provides an overview of possible similar processing temperatures and cooling times
material combinations. Please note that the table for comparable wall thicknesses, TPE is especially
should be used as a guideline only, and that suitable for hard-soft bonds with thermoplastics
material suppliers should be contacted for specific (Figure 6).
requirements or bonding information.

MATERIAL COMBINATIONS AND

APPLICATION EXAMPLES
Thermoplastic elastomers’ (TPE) elastic
characteristics result from the physical cross-
linking over partly crystalline areas during
cooling, in contrast with the chemical cross-
linkage with rubber. TPE, in its structure and its
behavior, therefore lies between thermoplastics
and elastomers, and combines the simple molding
characteristics of thermoplastic with the Figure 6. Seal made from TPE-V injected onto a
considerable characteristics of elastomers. TPE doorlock housing made from PP.
represents a two-phase or multiple-phase mixture
of a thermoplastic hard phase and an elastomer To improve the feel of a grip or to increase
soft phase. This morphology can be achieved friction (e.g., on gripping surfaces of hand-tools),
either through block co-polymers, in which hard soft coatings of TPE are injected on (Figure 7).

118
®
 Multi-Injection Molding

Table 1. Material combinations chart.

119
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Figure 7.
Grip handle made of
PP with soft
nonskid gripping
surface made of
TPE-O.

Figure 8. Rotary table process.

the mold cavities, the overmolding cavities. The

PROCESS VARIANTS
mold closes, and the preforms are overmolded
AND MOLD TECHNOLOGY
with a second material, whereas the next set of
Dependent upon the number of parts to be preforms are molded simultaneously in the first
produced and the geometry of the molded half of the cavities.
component, the following process methods, and
The advantages of the Rotary Table Method
mold concepts associated with them, have become
are:
generally accepted for hard-soft-bonded
components. While some methods are more • simpler mold construction because the
widely used than others, each has its own rotary table is a subassembly of the machine
particular advantages for specific applications. • economical utilization of the rotary table on
• rotary table process the injection-molding machine for several
molds
• index plate process
• less wear and tear in contrast to the index
• transfer method
plate process because no ejector elements
• in-mold slide technique need to be retracted and inserted, before or
Rotary Table Method after the rotation
The most widely used machine technology in Index Plate Method
overmolding applications is the rotary table. In With this method, the core plate is rotated by
this approach, the core mold half is mounted on a means of a rack-driven indexing mechanism
rotary table integrated into the machine’s moving integrated within the mold. Though the mold itself
platen. The rotary table is configured for either is more complex, eliminating the rotary table
360˚ or 180˚ forward/backward indexing. means a standard clamp execution on the injection
With this process the complete ejector side of molding machine can be used.
the mold is rotated, and the preform remaining at The index plate works in a way similar to the
the core is placed into a new cavity half (Figure 8). rotary table. First, preforms are molded in half the
This process begins with preforms being molded mold cavities. The mold is opened, and the index
in the first half of the mold cavities. After the mold plate is rotated to position the molded preforms
is opened, the core plate is rotated 180˚ to position opposite the overmolding cavities. After clamp up,
the molded preforms opposite the second half of the preforms are overmolded with a second

120
®
 Multi-Injection Molding

The lock housing (Figure 10) for a motor car

locking system is manufactured in a 4 + 4-cavity
injection mold (Figure 10). The housing made
from mPPE that is produced in the first station is
placed into the second station by an index plate
rotation module for the injection of the limit-
buffer and the seals made from SBR. The housing
is injected via a partial hot runner system. A cold
runner system is integrated into the mold for the
injection of rubber.
For the construction of such molds for
thermoplastic-rubber components, alongside
Figure 9. Index plate process: Lifting out, rotating, general knowledge concerning the construction of
and placing of the preform in new core and cavity-
side for overmolding, with the aid of an index plate. multicomponent injection molds, detailed
information concerning the construction of rubber
injection molds is also necessary. This refers,
material, while, at the same time, the next set of
above all, to the know-how regarding the design
preforms are injected.
of cold runner systems and mold heaters, as well
With this process the core and cavity side of as the selection of the correct tolerances for
the part can change for overmolding, where the movable components at high mold temperatures.
preform is lifted out or forward as part of the
index plate and than rotated to its next position Transfer Method
(Figure 9). The transfer method is employed in applications
The advantages of the Index Plate Method are: where the part dimensions require a relatively large
• greater freedom of design clamping unit, making the rotary table or index plate
• the rotation mechanism is, in the case of a method less efficient. This approach is also used in
single-purpose solution, generally a more such applications as screwdriver handles, where for
economical solution than the machine-side geometrical reasons, the preform cannot be held in
rotary table an index plate.

Figure 10. 4 + 4-cavity index plate mold with hot and cold runner for the production of a lock housing made
from mPPE, with seals and limit-buffer made from SBR, manufactured for a motor car locking system as a
plastic-rubber bonded component.

121
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

reasons of geometry used if molding with

alternative methods is out of the question.
The screwdrivers shown in Figure 12 were
produced using the transfer method. The insertion
of the metal blades, the transfer of components
between both injection-molding machines, and the
removal of the finished screwdriver, is performed
by one part-handling robot with a double gripper
head. The production of the PA 6.6 preform takes
Figure 11. Transfer molding machine cell. place, just like the overmolding of the soft TPE-U
gripping surface, in a six-cavity full hot runner
Although the transfer method can be used with mold, without sprue wastes.
a single mold, where the preform is transferred by
In-Mold Slide Method
the robot from first to second station, in many
applications the preforming and overmolding are With the in-mold slide method, the cavity area
done on two different machines with standard for the second material is sealed off by slideable
clamps. In this case, a robot can be used to transfer inserts or locking slides, which are opened after
parts between the two molding machines using a injection and initial cooling of the first material. In
special beam design for full integration. An added contrast with the other methods, injection of the
advantage is that either machine can easily be dissimilar materials is not done simultaneously,
but sequentially without opening the mold.
reconfigured for standard molding applications.
Because both the preform and overmolding
With the transfer method, the preform is
shots are injected into the same cavity, this method
inserted into a second new cavity on the same
allows the use of a more compact mold in a
injection-molding machine with the aid of a robotic smaller machine. With larger components that
handling device. As mentioned before, this is require the additional injection of soft sealing lips,
practiced with larger multicolor or multicomponent for example, the slide method can be more cost
parts, in order to avoid the rotation of heavy molds effective than such systems as rotary or index
in combination with large and expensive rotary plate. The suitability of in-mold slide technology,
tables. Furthermore, this process method is for however, is heavily dependent on part design.

Figure 12. Production of screwdrivers made from PA6.6 and gripping surface made of TPE-U,
using the transfer method.

122
®
 Multi-Injection Molding

layer of high-performance barrier material that

increases the shelf life of products.
With this method, the two materials are
injected into the same cavity. The first material
forms the outer skin. The second material,
injected inside the first, forms the core. State-of-
the-art coinjection technology combines two
injection units by means of a special nozzle. As
the melt from both injection units is directed
through this coinjection nozzle, the melt flow is
controlled using positively actuated or melt-
Figure 13. In-mold sliding technique.
pressure-controlled closing mechanisms.
Figure 13 illustrates the in-mold slide Extremely compact with few moving parts,
technique, where the mold cavities for the second current coinjection technology is highly cost
material are temporarily closed via slidable effective and easy to maintain.
inserts or cores, and opened again after the first
material has been injected. MACHINE TECHNOLOGY
Coinjection or Sandwich Molding Depending on part and mold design,
multimaterial machine configurations with two,
With the coinjection process, it is possible to three, or even four injection units are possible. By
create a sandwich-type structure of skin-core-skin combining the basic configurations (i.e.,
material. This process has been known for more horizontal/vertical, horizontal “L”, horizontal
than 30 years, and goes back to original parallel, and piggyback (horizontal/oblique)) in
developments by ICI. Coinjection molding innovative ways, the requirements of any
machines typically have two injection units that multimaterial application can be met.
can be arranged in various configurations. An added advantage of current multimaterial
technology is that it is extremely versatile. For
Coinjection offers dramatic cost savings in
example, a multimaterial machine in horizontal/
applications where the component can be
vertical (H/V) configuration can be used in a
multilayered to combine outer and inner materials number of ways: conventional molding with
with different performance and cost attributes. In horizontal injection; parting line injection by
automotive bumpers, for example, a high- moving the V-injection unit to the parting line;
performance outer material is combined with less two-shot molding by moving the V-injection to
expensive regrind in the core for reinforcement. the stationary mold side and connecting it to a hot
In other applications, (e.g., multilayer PET runner manifold; or coinjection by connecting
preforms) coinjection is used to create an inner both units to a coinjection nozzle.

Figure 14. With coinjection, the core material is injected through the same runner system into the center
of the skin material, pushing it into the unfilled part of the cavity.

123
®
Society of Plastics Engineers Next Page

A growing trend in multimaterial technology approach will become the norm as program
is tiebarless molding. A tiebarless machine offers development times continue to be reduced.
both free access around the mold, simplifying the
use of corepull cylinders and rack and pinion Coinjection continues to receive wider use.
devices, and typically provides about 30% more Rising material prices may necessitate the use of
useable platen area, allowing multimaterial reinforced regrind or microcellular foam material
configurations that would require a much larger in the core, with virgin plateable or paintable
conventional machine. material as skin. More expensive materials with
special shielding or chemical properties can also
TRENDS be cost effective when used only on the outside.
As material suppliers work diligently to match In-Mold Assembly (IMA) and 3-D Molded
the chemical compatibility of their products to a Interconnect Devices (MIDs) are other areas that
greater number of rigid substrate resins, will continue to grow, with IMA for such products
multimaterial molding is continuing to grow at a as toys and pacifiers, which allow molders to
tremendous rate, particularly in the automotive, combine two materials while providing a
industrial tooling, and consumer markets. functional movable joint. 3-D MID for connectors,
Multimaterial applications are becoming more in which an electronic circuit skeleton is molded
and more sophisticated. As a result, tooling is first, using a plateable material, and then
getting more efficient. Along with faster cycle overmolded with a nonplateable material that
times and higher cavitation, the industry is seeing forms the structural package.
such new concepts as rotating middle plates and There will, of course, be new material
three-station indexing systems. developments. We are already seeing clear TPEs,
In multimaterial molding, a seamless interface fluorescents, and special-effects colors, as well as a
between mold and machine is critical. There is a greater variety of materials that bond with
growing trend among machine suppliers to provide engineering resins, as multimaterial injection
tooling and even hot runner expertise. When hot molding moves into the mainstream. The end result
runner tooling is used, the only output of a properly will likely be a product that is both structurally
set up process will be “good parts.” This “turnkey” sound, and looks and feels good when used.

124
®
 Previous Page

®
THE MUCELL PROCESS
KAI JACOBSEN
®

CHAPTER OBJECTIVE liquid and gaseous state at the same time, of

The aim of this chapter is to discuss atmospheric gases to create evenly distributed and
innovation in microcellular foaming technology, uniformly sized microscopic cells throughout a
its process variations and considerations as well polymer. Suitable for injection molding, this
as application examples. breakthrough foam process enhances product
design, improves processing efficiency, and
INTRODUCTION reduces product costs. This foam process does not
Microcellular foam molding is a technology require chemical blowing agents (CBAs),
that has been introduced to the injection molding hydrocarbon-based physical blowing agents,
industry. Although there appear to be many nucleating agents, or reactive components.
benefits to implementing this technology, it does The microcellular foam-molding technology
require specialized equipment and a technician’s permits molders to reduce raw material
thorough understanding of the molding process. consumption while producing strong, lightweight
The following information is presented for products, extending the applications of foamed
technicians who really want to expand their polymers considerably.
technological horizons. If basic injection molding The main advantage of structural foam
technology is not well understood, then the molding is the potential weight savings, or
possibility of achieving success with this process alternatively the ability to increase stiffness without
would be diminished. increasing the weight of the component. The
Without giving specific machine parameters, MuCell® process allows foaming of virtually all
or detailed equipment descriptions, this chapter thermoplastic materials with a wall thickness as
will explain the basic technology behind low as 0.5 mm (0.020 in.) without the use of a
microcellular molding and what a technician CBA.
should know and could expect to find when it is Processes for manufacturing structural foam
introduced to an operation. parts were developed in the mid-1960s. With
The MuCell®microcellular foam process is a these processes, moldings were produced with a
proprietary manufacturing process for producing thickness of 4-20 mm with a fairly compact outer
microcellular foamed plastics. The microcellular skin and a closed-cell foam core. In terms of their
foam process uses supercritical fluids (SCFs), density (0.3-0.9 g/cm3), these thermoplastic
which comprise the same elements in both the structural foams are positioned somewhere

125
Society of Plastics Engineers

between solid plastics and lightweight plastic psi), the process has limitations with regard to
foams. Such plastics as PS, PE, PP, ABS, SAN, wall thickness, achievable flow length, and
PC, PA, and PPO are most commonly used for shaping of more geometrically complex parts.
structural foam moldings.
CBAs are substances that react under the
The form of the cell structure differs according effect of heat and release gases that trigger the
to the selected process engineering and the type of foaming process. Such blowing agent
plastic. One particularly interesting aspect for formulations contain accelerators (e.g., metal
practical applications is the possible weight oxides, which are also called kickers) that control
saving, making it possible to increase the stiffness the reaction rate for the decomposition of the
of the component without raising the weight. By blowing agent, and cell regulators, which
increasing the wall thickness by around 25%, for influence the cell structure. Ready-to-use plastic
example, the rigidity/flexural strength of an compounds that contain blowing agents or
equally heavy, compact plastic component can be blowing agent concentrates are readily available.
doubled. The increased stiffness, which results
from the thicker wall, increases the resistance Physical blowing agents for structural foam
against bending. If you have seen parts made out molding are typically inert gases (e.g., nitrogen)
of polystyrene and have an idea of how flexible dissolved in the plastic melt, or liquids that
they can be, then you should imagine a part made evaporate at low temperature. They can be used to
from polystyrene foam and envision how the expand such plastics as polycarbonate, which are
stiffness will increase. Compared with metal, otherwise sensitive to the decomposition products
structural foam has more than double the stiffness of chemical blowing agents.
of aluminum and more than five times that of steel,
With the gas counterpressure process, the
at the same weight.
“gas-tight” mold is filled with nitrogen or dry air
before the melt is injected. With a gas
FOAMING PROCESS
counterpressure of approximately 40 bar (580 psi),
The traditional foaming process and the expansion of the blowing gas during the injection
microcellular foam technology differ in the process is prevented, and a smooth surface with
following aspects: generally good appearance is obtained. Unlike the
• use of chemical or physical blowing agents standard structural foam-molding process, the
mold can be filled completely, and the foaming
• filling of the mold with or without gas occurs by enlarging the mold cavity area. This can
counterpressure be achieved through a movable core insert.
• process with or without a movable mold Potential advantages are:
cavity insert
• good surface characteristics
• use of a mold cooling system or combined
heating/cooling system • a significant density reduction of up to
With the traditional structural foam molding 0.3 g/cm3 in the core section
process, the thermoplastic melt, which contains
chemical blowing agents, is injected at a high • a uniform cell structure from the gate to the
velocity into the mold. The cavity is only partially end of the flow path
filled because the remaining area will fill up
• lower injection pressure requirements, and
through expansion of the blowing agent.
therefore lower required clamp tonnage,
Because chemical blowing agents typically enabling you to run a physically larger mold
produce foaming pressures of about 30 bar (435 in a smaller tonnage machine

126
®
 The MuCell® Process

Figure 1. The scanning electron microscope illustrate the uniform cell structure with the MuCell® process
(left) compared with the conventional foaming technology using CBAs (right).

FINE, HOMOGENEOUS CELL • homogenous melting of the plastic in the

STRUCTURE plasticizing section of the screw
The physical properties of foamed • precise metering of the supercritical fluid
components are influenced considerably by the via special injectors into the barrel
cell structure. • dispersion and dissolution of the
® supercritical fluid in the polymer melt in the
Using the patented MuCell process from
Trexel Inc., Woburn/USA, it is possible to screw mixing section
produce a particularly fine cell structure that is • formation of a single-phase, homogeneous
evenly distributed throughout the whole part. The solution
cell size is generally less than 100 µm depending
on the material, application, and process • cell nucleation starts when the gas escapes
conditions. The fine, evenly distributed the solution during the injection process,
microscopic cell structure is only visible under a which is affected by applying an
scanning electron microscope (SEM). Figure 1 appropriate pressure drop
illustrates the differences in cell structure • cells are expanded by diffusion of gas into
compared with a chemically expanded PP. Such bubbles
atmospheric gases as nitrogen (N2) or carbon
• processing conditions provide control of
dioxide (CO2) are used for the MuCell® process,
cell growth
and are turned into a supercritical state before
being mixed into the polymer melt. ADDITIONAL MACHINE
The supercritical state of the gas offers the EQUIPMENT
following advantages for the foaming process: The following machine configuration is
necessary for the MuCell® process (Figure 2):
• low compressibility, like a liquid, for
adding precise amounts of gas • a special screw with a plasticizing section
and a subsequent mixing section
• high diffusion rate of a gas for even
distribution and dissolving in the melt • a plasticizing cylinder with gas injectors
and air-cooled band heaters in the front
PROCESS STEPS section.
The most important steps in the MuCell® • a gas unit for delivery of the supercritical
microcellular foam process are: fluid

127
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• hydraulic and software modifications are

made to achieve and maintain the
homogeneous solution

• depending on part geometry; an

accumulator for fast injection may be
required
Injection molds with either a cold runner
system or valve-gated hot runner system can be
used for the process. Because of the relatively
short injection times, good mold venting is
important. Unlike conventional foaming Figure 2. Individual steps in the microcellular
processes, the MuCell® process can also be used foam process:
1 = plasticizing cylinder;
for products as thin as 0.5 mm (0.020 in.). There is
2 = gas line;
a nonlinear relationship between mechanical
3 = gas injectors;
properties and material density and thickness.
4 = gas pressure regulator;
Weight savings of up to 60% are achievable,
5 = air cooled heater bands.
depending on the particular applications and the
type of plastic used.
Warpage problems are also reduced because of
Through the use of supercritical fluids as the lower filling pressure and more even pressure
physical blowing agents, the viscosity of the melt distribution.
is reduced significantly. In extreme cases, the
injection pressure can be reduced to 50% using the PROCESS CAPABILITIES
same melt temperature. The attainable flow path/ OF MICROCELLULAR
wall thickness ratios can also be increased FOAM MOLDING
significantly, allowing processors to fill parts that
could not be filled previously or to reduce the The microcellular foam-molding technology
number of gates required. can reduce product costs, improve process ability,
reduce cycle times, and increase the performance
Through the improved flow and the internal of the machine.
hold pressure (via the gas pressure), the required
clamping force can be reduced up to 60%, Reduced Injection Pressures
and Clamp Tonnage
depending on the particular application. Because
the internal gas pressure also assumes the function The creation of a single-phase solution
of the hold pressure (i.e., no pack or hold time is between a very viscous polymer and an SCF
typically set on the machine) sink marks are significantly reduces the viscosity of the material
avoided, even at the end of the flow path. to be injected, making it easier to flow the
material. Figure 3 is a plot of the viscosity ratio
The cooling time can be shortened by
(i.e., polymer viscosity/single phase solution
lowering the melt temperature without any change
viscosity) versus SCF concentration.
in the material flow characteristics, even though
the thermal conductivity is somewhat sacrificed by The reduced viscosity allows for significantly
the foaming process. The important factors that lower injection pressures and clamp tonnage.
allow the cooling time to be reduced are that no Figure 4 compares the peak hydraulic injection
additional hot melt is transferred into the part pressures for a solid molding to that of the
during the hold phase and the endothermic microcellular foam molding process. The
foaming reaction (heat consuming reaction). MuCell® process demonstrates a 38% reduction in

128
®
 The MuCell® Process

.8

Viscosity Ratio
.6

.4

.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
SCF Concentration, %

Figure 3. Viscosity ratio versus SCF.

injection pressure in this instance (i.e., the same • the nucleation and growth of the cell is an
conditions as solid molding). endothermic reaction (heat-consuming
reaction)
The lower injection pressure requirement
obviously leads to reduced cavity pressures
• significantly less mass needs to be cooled
(Figure 5) resulting in lower clamp tonnage • the uniform distribution of cells allows for
requirements, lower molded in stresses and less improved dimensional stability for shorter
warpage. Combining these attributes with cycle times
elimination of hold pressure allows the molder to • decreased viscosity reduces shear heating
reduce the clamp tonnage by up to 80%. A 40% and thus cooling time can be reduced
reduction in clamp tonnage, however, is more Weight Reduction
typical (see application section).
This microcellular foam process is different
Cycle Time Improvements from all other foaming or gas assist technologies in
that it provides tremendous weight reductions in
It has been proven that it is possible to reduce cross-sections as thin as 0.5 mm (0.020 in.). The
cycle times by up to 50% (see applications ability to foam thin cross-sections is made possible
section). The decrease in cycle time is caused by because of the uniform, single-phase solution and
five factors: the resulting homogeneous nucleation. In addition,
the technology allows for all materials to be
• internal gas pressure allows for elimination foamed (see Table 1), including such high
of pack and hold time temperature materials as polyphenylsulfone

Solid
MuCell

Figure 4. Comparison of solid molding to MuCell® molding.

129
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Material Part Thickness (mm) Weight Reduction (%)

Polyphenylsulfone 5 50%
Polystyrene 1.5 30%
Acetal 1.5 15%
PET 5 30%
TPE 1.5 20%
PP (30% talc fill) 2.1 25%
HDPE 5 60%
PC/ABS 2.1 23%
Nylon 1.2 9%
Nylon (40% fill) 2 15%
PC 7.2 45%
Table 1. Demonstrating potential weight reductions of microcellular foam molding.

CONTROLLING WEIGHT PC/ABS, PP, filled PP, TPEs, polysulfone), only

REDUCTION AND CELL SIZE BY the PS study will be discussed. Microcellular
PROCESSING CONDITIONS structures were demonstrated in all materials, and
the effect of the processing conditions on the
The performance of the microcellular foam
weight reduction and cellular structure is similar
process depends on several factors, including
for all materials with this part shape.
mold design, material type, SCF type, the
concentration of the SCF injected into the melt, Polystyrene Material Case Study
and processing variables. We define performance Initial investigations into the effect of
as the ability to produce high weight reductions in processing variables on weight reduction and
thin parts and microcellular foam with uniform cellular structure began with more than 10
cell distribution. variables. Screening DOEs quickly revealed five
primary variables with some first-level
This section describes the effects of the
interactions:
processing conditions on weight reduction and
cellular structure. Although several materials • injection speed
studies have been performed (including ABS, PC, • melt temperature
• gas type
• mold temperature
• gas level in percent by weight
For the following case study gas type was
separated out and will be addressed later in this
chapter. Carbon dioxide was the gas of choice for
this experiment.
Experimental Equipment and Procedures
A simple center-gated, flat plaque mold was
installed in a 150-ton ENGEL injection molding
machine modified to produce microcellular foam.
Figure 5. Peak cavity pressure of a standard
injection process (0% gas added) versus running the Cellular size was determined by capturing the
MuCell® Process with different SCF contents structure on a SEM photomicrograph and averaging
and materials. the cellular diameter through a straight-line method.

130
®
 The MuCell® Process

Case Study Results

A two-level DOE with centerpoints was
performed with a general purpose polystyrene 11.0
MI material. Injection speed (5-400 mm/sec), melt
temperature (180-220ºC), CO2 percent (4-7%), and
mold temperature (20-80ºC) were evaluated for
their effect on weight reduction and cell size.

Figure 7. Effect of injection speed and mold

temperature on weight reduction. Higher mold
temperature improves the overall weight reduction
(thinner outer skin layer).

in melt temperature from 180 to 220ºC. The

increased melt temperature reduces the melt
strength of the polymer and thus allows for
greater cell growth. It also showed that increasing
Figure 6. Effect of injection speed and gas percent gas concentration reduces the size of the average
on weight reduction. Increased injection speed cell size for the lower melt temperature.
improves the overall weight reduction.
The cell size is reduced because of increased
Figures 6 and 7 show that the injection speed is nucleation with higher gas concentration. At
the factor that affects the weight reduction to the higher melt temperatures the inability to control
greatest extent. The weight of the part changes by cell growth dominates the final cell size. These
results were not unexpected. For these
up to 12% by changing the injection speed from 50
experiments, cell size is not significantly affected
mm/sec to 200 mm/sec. There are, however, minor by mold temperature or injection speed. Figure 8
interactions with melt temperature. The second shows photomicrographs of the PS cellular
most important factor is CO2 percent, as also seen structure under inappropriate processing
in Figure 6. Increasing CO2 flow rate from 0.25 to conditions (F) and appropriate conditions. It is
0.75 lbs/hour improves weight reduction. This seen that it is possible and easy to control the
figure also shows that the major influence of cellular structure and size.
injection speed is between 50 mm/sec and 200 CO2 Versus N2
mm/sec; a further increase to 400 mm/sec does not
reflect the same increase in weight reduction. It is well known that CO2 (carbon dioxide)
has different solubility parameters and diffusion
Figure 7 shows the influence of mold rates when compared to N2 (nitrogen).
temperature/injection speed on weight reduction.
In most materials, CO2 diffuses through the
This graph shows that there is also a major
polymer at a rate of almost 20% faster than N2,
influence from mold temperature.
and the solubility level of CO2 is much higher.
Melt temperature was not a significant factor For most SCF/polymer systems, it is possible to
in the overall weight reduction for this add up to 3.5 times more CO2 (by weight) than
experiment, but it showed a major influence on N2. Once again, the overall concentration is
cell size. The average response shows that the cell dependent upon system temperature, pressure,
size doubles from 41 to 85 µm, with an increase and solubility parameters. This leads to the

131
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• standard plastics (PP, HDPE, PS)

• engineered plastics (PC, PA, PC/ABS)
• high-temperature plastics (polysulfones,
polyetheremides)

• thermoplastic elastomers
We have discovered that this microcellular
foam process is controllable and very valuable to
the end user. In the following, we have reviewed
Figure 8. Polystyrene cellular structure under three applications where this technology is
inappropriate (left) and appropriate (right) successfully demonstrated.
processing conditions.
The white bar indicates 100 µm.
question: What is the performance difference in
microcellular foaming between CO2 and N2?
The preceeding experimental procedure was
repeated on polypropylene using various levels of
N2 and CO2 and characterizing the performance
based on cellular structure, weight reduction, and
viscosity of the polymer/SCF system. The
differences between N2 and CO2 are shown in
Figure 9. N2 tends to provide for better cell-size
control, and CO2 tends to provide a much larger Figure 10. Automotive mirror bracket produced
reduction in viscosity as measured by peak using the MuCell® technology.
Material: 35% glass filled Nylon.
hydraulic injection pressure. No differences in
weight reduction were seen during this experiment. Filled Nylon Mirror Bracket
It is even more interesting that these trends are also
See Figure 10 for a picture of an automotive
true in the real part applications tested so far.
mirror bracket that has been produced with the
Maximum microcellular foam process. This application
SCF Weight injection demonstrates both a reduced weight and a reduced
Cell size
type reduction pressure
cycle time. The bracket can be weight reduced by
reduction
up to 28%, and the cycle time was reduced 50%
N2 68 11.5 22% from 51 to 25 seconds.
CO2 95 11.6 64% Nylon 6/6 Cable Ties
Figure 9. Differences between N2 and CO2 on cell size, Figure 11 shows a picture of some
weight reduction, and peak injection pressure.
microcellularly foamed nylon cable ties. This
application represents an 8-10% savings on
APPLICATION EXAMPLES/ weight, and, more importantly, a 30% reduction in
REVIEW injection pressure and elimination of hold and
pack time. The clamp tonnage is reduced by more
The process has been used successfully for: than 30%. Figure 11 also shows the microstructure

132
®
 The MuCell® Process

Figure 13. Dimensional comparison between

MuCell® and conventional molding.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS
As in all foaming processes, the microcellular
Figure 11. Cable ties produced with MuCell® foam process does not usually produce a class A
technology and SEM pictures of achieved cell
structure. The white bar indicates 100 microns. surface (however, perfect surfaces have been
inside the cable tie demonstrating cell sizes of produced in thin-wall PP parts). The surface is a
approximately 20 µm. swirl pattern caused by the release and drag of
bubbles along the mold wall during injection.
Due to the long flow paths and relatively Techniques do exist to overcome this deficiency.
small wall thicknesses of the connectors TECOMELT is a process where high-
produced, major efforts are necessary to mold a
performance “skins” are inserted onto the mold
dimensional correct part. In this example, a
face, and polymer is injected onto the skin. The
connector (Figure 12) was molded with a 30%
result is a perfect surface one side, with high
glass-filled PBT and the peak cavity pressures
weight reductions, no sink marks, and fast cycle
were compared. Some dimensional checks were
also made on the part. Peak cavity pressure was times. In addition, the microcellular process
reduced by 57% from 1045 to 448 bar. In allows lower melt temperatures and injection
addition, more uniform shrink solved some pressures, which both allow for less damage to
dimensional problems with distances between the occur to the skin during injection.
connector pins. This better dimensional stability COMBIMELT is a coinjection technology,
can be achieved with weight savings between 4 where a special co-injection head is designed to
and 10%. In this case weight reduction is not the combine the solid nongas laden polymer with the
goal of the MuCell® Process. It is better
dimensional stability.

Figure 12. Data Com connector.

Figure 13 shows the dimensional differences

near the gate and at the end of the flow path. In
conventional molding no hold pressure can be
applied to compensate the volume change of the
material during cooling. When running the Figure 14. Conjected MuCell® part produced at
MuCell® Process, internal hold pressure is evenly ENGEL’s processing lab.
applied by the gas throughout the part.

133
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

solidified do not move; they enclose the foam core

layer. This enables the production of high quality
surfaces without any streaks, splay or sink marks.

CONCLUSIONS
Microcellular molding left its developmental
phase and has stepped further to a “standard”
special injection molding technique. We
encourage the technician to involve a machinery
manufacturer who is able to offer MuCell® know-
how from the beginning of a part’s developmental
stage (i.e., trials, mold design reviews) to a fully
automated, highly-sophisticated production cell.
Microcellular foam molding is now possible, and
it has the potential to decrease overall
Figure 15. Multilayer structural foam manufacturing costs dramatically through material
components can be produced with the coinjection reduction and cycle time savings, as well as
technique by injecting a core material that
contains a blowing agent into a previously overall quality improvement that results in less
injected outer skin component waste. In particular, it is now possible to reduce
the weight of parts significantly with extremely
gas-laden polymer. The materials are combined in thin wall sections. Parts with wall thicknesses of
such a way as to allow the solid material to be no more than 0.5 mm (0.022 in.) have successfully
deposited on the surface of the mold and the been foamed. The adding of gas also enhances the
foamed material deposited in the core. This flowability of the material and leads to more
process allows for a perfect surface on both sides uniform shrinkage and less warpage.
of the part and a foamed core (Figure 14).
More activity is expected in the future to
For this chapter, the machine must be explore all the capabilities provided by
equipped with two injection units and a special microcellular foam-molding technology to all
shut-off nozzle system for the time/volumetric fields of injection molding.
control of the melt flows. First, a defined amount Finally, it can be said that it is very apparent
of melt for the compact skin material is injected that the benefits are now too great to ignore.
into the cavity (Figure 15). Then, through the
same gate, but with the second injection unit, core ACKNOWLEDGMENT
material is injected. The foaming of the core Some content of this article has been provided
material already occurs during the filling phase. by Trexel, Inc.
The material enters the melted center of the David Pierick from Trexel has greatly
previously injected skin material and pushes it contributed to the content of this chapter.
towards the unfilled areas of the cavity. The outer *Mucell is a registered trademark of Trexel, Inc., Woburn,
layers of the skin material that have already MA, USA.

134
®
GAS ASSISTED
INJECTION MOLDING
STEVEN VANHOECK
®

INTRODUCTION current, methods of process control and

implementation will be addressed.
Gas assisted injection molding is a process
enhancement to conventional injection molding, PROCESS DEFINITION
designed and developed to remove or reduce
numerous problems that typically occur during Gas assisted injection molding is the process
conventional injection molding. Gas assisted of injecting an inert gas as the final injection stage
injection molding, or “gas assist” as it is commonly of the molding process, performing essentially
called, is simply a process modification to standard two functions: (1) ( a) completion of the resin fill
in the injection mold cavity following partial resin
injection molding, and should be considered an
fill or (b) evacuation of resin from a fully filled
option where the process benefits will afford
cavity, and (2) packing the part internally,
greater productivity through (1) expanded product
eliminating all or most of the injection molding
design options, (2) reduced cycle times, (3)
machine’s low pressure hold. This basically
reduction of molded-in stress, (4) reduced product
summarizes the entire function of the gas assist
weight, and (5) lower molding machine clamp
process, although process techniques and
tonnage and overall improved injection molding
variations will be address later, defining the best
performance. This section will address the means application methods for gas assist processing and
to achieve these benefits, as well as to describe the techniques for process optimization.
various means for implementation and
troubleshooting once in production. PROCESS METHODS
Gas assisted injection molding has been AND VARIATIONS
practiced to some level for almost 20 years, and There are two basic methods for injecting
there have been many substantial changes in nitrogen gas into the mold cavity following either
implementation of the technology. These a short-shot of resin or following a complete resin
variations range from gas injection through the tool fill: (1) injection via gas injection pins,
nozzle, through gas injectors, and from what was commonly called in article, and (2) through the
called volume control, to the current standard, nozzle. The primary focus of this discussion will
cavity pressure process control. Encompassing all be on injection through gas injection pins, as
phases of the technology would be outside the through the nozzle is an older and less efficient
scope of this chapter; therefore, only the latest, or processing technique.

135
Society of Plastics Engineers

Gas Injection Pins pressure introduced into the cavity will remain
throughout the cycle until sprue break.
Gas injection via gas injection pins is the
preferred method for gas assist processing since Gas Injection Pin Location Considerations
the development of reliable pins in 1995. The
advantages of gas injection pins over through-the- As noted earlier, the location of a gas injection
nozzle are many, including (1) internal cavity pin is as critical as the pin itself, if not more
pressure control, (2) lower gas injection pressures, important. Location of the gas injection pin
and (3) the ability to introduce gas into the cavity relative to resin gate(s) and flow channels is
in several areas with independent timing and critical to maintaining a consistent process. A few
pressures. The gas injection pin location(s) in the problem implementations and recommended
tool are as critical as the pins themselves, as will examples are shown in Figures 1-4.
be addressed in a later section.

Through the Nozzle

Gas injection through the nozzle was the early

means to inject gas into the mold. This method
was widely practiced, due to the simplicity of tool
build and process set up, but it has several negative
characteristics. Gas injection through the nozzle
requires a higher initial gas injection pressure, due
to the longer gas path and need for penetration of
the gas through the sprue and runner. This method Figure 1. Poor implementation: gas injectors
downstream from resin gate.
more importantly does not allow for cavity
pressure control of the gas once inside the tool
cavity. This is due to the need for a check valve in
the gas line, just prior to the location of attachment
of the gas line to the resin injection nozzle, which
prevents resin from entering the gas line. This
same check valve also does not allow gas to return
through the gas line. With no means for the gas to
be vented for pressure reduction, cavity pressure
Figure 2. Recommended implementation:
control cannot be achieved with through the gas injectors upstream from resin gate.
nozzle gas injection.

Injection of gas through the nozzle also

requires “sprue break” to vent the gas from the
cavity prior to opening the mold, causing
additional wear on the molding machine. Injection
of gas through the nozzle is only implemented
where no other means is possible for introduction
of the gas, or when the simplicity of center gating
and relatively simple gas injection penetration is
possible. Gas injection through the nozzle can also
create a tendency for penetration of the gas into
thinner areas of the molded part where it would be Figure 3. Poor implementation: gas injectors located
detrimental to the product because the highest gas in center of resin flow path.

136
®
 Gas Assisted Injection Molding

Figure 5. (a) Pin located in integral boss—plan view.

Figure 4. Recommended implementation: gas pin

located in pin well, avoiding direct resin flow path.

The examples of poor implementation and

solutions shown in Figures 1-4 are only four
examples of an infinite variety of gas injection pin
placement scenarios, but the principals remain the
same. Never locate a gas injection pin
Figure 5. (b) Pin located in integral boss—section.
“downstream” from a resin gate, because direct
impingement of resin on the pin will usually PARTIAL FILL VERSUS EVACUATION
cause plugging, as well as introduce shear from METHOD TECHNIQUES
the heat generated from the interruption of resin Partial Cavity Fill Methods
flow over the surface of the pin. These two The basic processing technique in the vast
characteristics actually enable each other, (i.e., majority of gas assisted injection molding
shear will increase the likelihood of plugging, and applications is to displace a short-shot of resin in
direct impingement will cause shear). the tool cavity and via flow/gas channels (and from
thicker sections of the molded product) to last-to-
Gas injectors are also commonly located in a
fill areas in the tool cavity. The “last to fill” areas in
“pin boss” integral to the molded product. The the cavity function as the reservoir to accept the
following diagram (Figure 5b) first shows a resin being displaced. The displaced sections in the
common condition where the pin has a tendency cavity, being thicker than the nominal product wall,
to plug, due to the flow of resin over the pin. (This and, more commonly, designed flow/gas channels,
condition is shown on the left side of the allow the injected gas to pack the molded product
diagram.) Note that the gas injector extends uniformly, allowing reduced cycle times and
deeper into the boss in this example, putting the reduced stress. Reduced stress eliminates or greatly
tip of the pin closer to the resin flow path, which reduces warp. The combination of these
will likely plug the pin. characteristics contributes to faster cycle times,
more uniform product, and reduced weight, and it
The right-hand side of the diagram in Figure greatly enhances design options.
5b shows the same basic configuration, with the Evacuation Methods
tip of the pin not extending as far into the boss as It is occasionally necessary to fill completely
is shown on the left side of the diagram. With the or fill and apply a short packing pressure to the
tip of the pin “retracted” into the boss, in effect in resin prior to the injection of gas. This condition
a lower pressure area of the tool, the potential for should be avoided, because it contributes to a
plugging of the pin is greatly reduced. more complicated tooling configuration with

137
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

additional operating control parameters. In and (2) internal packing of the part rather than
addition, resin consumption will increase. packing from the molding machine screw. For this
This technique is utilized most often when reason, a short-shot of resin in the cavity must be
product design does not take process capabilities balanced and repeatable to allow the gas to
into consideration, nor does it consider when part complete an even distribution of the resin from the
design dictates less than optimum processing. flow channels or heavy sections of the cavity.
Conditions most often contributing to this need are: Center Gated and Cold Runner Tools
1. gas/flow channels that extend in full diame- Center gated tools will normally have a gas
ter or cross-section to the very last to fill pin boss integral to the molded product similar to
sections of the tool cavity the one shown in Figure 5. On occasion, they will
be gas injected through the nozzle. A high level of
2. unpainted parts molded in a resin that are consideration must go into the product and tool
highly susceptible to the appearance of “hes- development to assure that the resin, whether in a
itation lines,” exhibited by a defect on the center gated tool or from a cold runner, will
appearance surface of the product where the distribute evenly so the gas may perform its two
resin flow “stalled” prior to the gas pressure basic functions efficiently. In a center gated tool, it
continuing the flow in the cavity is difficult and expensive to change gating after the
3. channels designed into the product that run tool has been built, so particular caution must be
parallel and in close proximity, resulting in exercised so that the short-fill of resin into the tool
competing internal pressures will leave the last to fill areas of the tool capable of
The fill and evacuate method must be enabled receiving the resin that will be evacuated from the
by closing off the eventual evacuation point from flow channels.
the tool cavity by means of a pin that is retracted It is somewhat simpler to modify a cold runner
just prior to gas injection. Note that there are many tool to change the balance of resin fill, but care
optional methods to implement the evacuation with must still be taken when determining the resin fill
this technique, some of which are proprietary. pattern relative to the gas injection point or points.
Cold runner tools may be modified or built to the
INJECTION MOLD CONSIDERATIONS standards shown in Figures 2, 4, or 5, or injected
Gas assist processing is successfully through the nozzle. Please note that with gas
performed on all configurations of tooling (i.e., injection through the nozzle on multiple cavity
single and multiple cavities, center gated tools, tools (or as shown in Figure 4), the short-shot of
cold runner tools and hot runner manifold tools). resin must partially fill each cavity equally! An
This section will address the elements specific to unbalanced fill of cavities will result in (1) some
each configuration, which need to be taken into cavities exactly as desired, (2) some cavities full
consideration for each of these conditions. It is with little or no gas penetration, and (3) some
extremely important to note while discussing cavities with insufficient resin, resulting in a gas
tooling considerations that the gas injection “blow-out.” Balancing the cavity fill from a cold
portion of the process usually cannot be modified runner tool is as simple as adjusting the gate sizes
to correct an “out of balance” resin fill. Gas to fill the cavities equally, verified by short-
penetration into a molded part is based solely on shooting the tool and weighing each part. Please
distribution and viscosity of the resin, not the gas. note, however, that in normal molding conditions,
Critical elements for successful implementation factors other than gate size can affect balance of
are resin fill pattern and consistency, and relation cavity fill. These factors include tool temperature,
of the resin gate to the gas injection points. As venting, resin viscosity, and even orientation of the
noted earlier, the gas provides two basic functions tool in the molding machine. Successful
in the process: (1) completion of resin distribution implementation of gas injected through the cold

138
®
 Gas Assisted Injection Molding

runner has been achieved on tools with eight line. Respotting frequency should also be reduced
cavities, and in limited circumstances, 16 cavities, with gas assist processing.
but this is not recommended as standard practice.
When attempting to balance and maintain Tooling Materials
uniform resin fill of 8 or 16 cavities, the in- It is often possible to use less robust mold
production process parameters become too materials with gas assist processing. This
narrow to meet efficient production standards. determination is highly dependent upon resin and
This method is possible to achieve, but it is production volumes, but aluminum is a potential
usually implemented in such noncritical option for some programs. For prototyping, epoxy
applications as consumer product handles. or other nonmetallic materials can often be
selected, as long as the gas assist techniques are
Hot Runner Manifold Tools
applied properly to reduce cavity pressures and
Hot runner manifold tools are frequently used machine clamp needs.
with gas injection, but the considerations for tool
build are different than they are with cold runners GAS ASSIST SYSTEMS
or center gated tools. Hot runner tools allow for AND CONTROLS
precise placement of resin gates, enabling
superior control of resin distribution, especially Gas assist systems are available in a wide
when gate valves are employed. It is now routine variety of configurations, consisting of pressure
to use sequential gating to control the progress of control and volume control systems, plus a wide
the resin in the cavity, and to control, with assortment of options for nitrogen supply. The
precision, resin distribution. Note that when using following section will address today’s most
a hot runner tool that it is often necessary to use common equipment configuration (i.e., pressure
valve gates to prevent gas from entering the control systems receiving nitrogen gas from
runner. As the gas travels in the tool cavity, it nitrogen generators or from nitrogen cylinders).
flows toward the lowest pressure area available.
Controllers
With a flow channel in close proximity to a gate
from a hot runner, it is necessary to utilize a valve The most flexible and efficient gas assist
gate to prevent the gas (and resin) from entering controller systems available as of this writing are
the runner. called “pressure control” systems. These systems
have evolved due to the results made possible by
It should be noted that with gas assist
controlling cavity pressures during the resin-fill
processing that it is often unnecessary to use a hot
completion stage, and during the pack and hold
runner mold. Flow channels built into a relatively
phase of the process.
thin wall product act as integral cold runners or
insulated runners, allowing for far greater than Typical controllers range from one to four
typical resin flow lengths. This is dependent, points of gas injection control, and have several
however, on the specific resin flow characteristics stages of pressure and time settings available,
and flow channel design and length. ranging from six to eight stages, plus a “delay”
setting (i.e., the time delay after resin injection
Mold Maintenance
and prior to the gas injection phase). An
Mold maintenance is normally reduced with additional control parameter available on the
the gas assist process. Because clamp tonnage is better controller systems is called pressure
reduced with gas assist processing, it is common “ramping,” where there is a selectable time for
to experience less maintenance to tools due to the transition from one pressure and time setting to
reduced cavity pressures. This characteristic the next. A typical page of an operator’s control
reduces wear on lifters and even on the parting screen would appear as shown in Figure 6.

139
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Pressure (in bar, or psi) Time (in seconds) Ramp (in seconds)

Delay ---- 1.00 ----

Stage 1 80 4.00 4.00

Stage 2 125 8.00 2.00

Stage 3 100 4.00 4.00

Stage 4 68 6.00 2.00

Stage 5 20 2.00 0

Figure 6. Typical gas assist operator’s controller screen.

The “typical” gas injection time and delay, time, and pressure settings, but the product
pressure profile in Figure 6 is presented as an may be slightly less than desired due to the
example of a routine process set up. Every tool characteristics described earlier. With the ramping
has its own process profile for the gas assist time being included within the overall timing
phase for each gas injection point, in the same sequence, pressure ramping can be set without the
way that the tool will have its own resin need to change individual pressure stage timing.
injection process profile. A process setting page This is normally accomplished with the ramp time
similar to Figure 6 will be available for each setting “getting its time” from the subsequent
controller valve/point of individually controlled pressure phase. In the preceding example,
gas injection point in the tool. Phase 1 shows a ramp time of four seconds.
Pressure ramping is normally provided as a These four seconds of time are part of the time
means to control cavity pressures precisely during setting for stage two. With this capability, you can
gas pressure transitions. This is a benefit for then change the ramp setting to suit the total
several reasons, but the most critical are to prevent process best without changing the overall gas
gas penetration into thinner or nongas sections of process cycle time.
the molded part during the cooling stage, and to Pressure ramping can be used to ramp
prevent resin from being drawn back toward the pressure settings up as well as down. The are a
gas injection point during decompression. As limited number of applications where the initial
discussed earlier, the gas first performs the pressure setting may be zero, and a two to six
function of completing distribution of resin. As the second of ramp time up to the second stage
resin in the tool cavity cools, it shrinks to a pressure setting (or between any two stages of
considerable degree. If a higher than necessary gas pressure). This is not a common setup, but is
pressure is imposed in the cavity while the resin is helpful where initial gas injection must be early in
cooling and during corresponding shrinkage, gas the gas sequence but gradually build pressure to
could penetrate into thinner areas, where it would allow for evacuation of a heavy mass of material.
be detrimental to the final product. Profiling the In this example, without ramping pressure up, an
gas pressure downward can prevent this initial medium to high gas injection pressure
penetration from taking place. would cause the gas bubble to rapidly penetrate
the heavy section, creating a small gas path while
In the preceding example, note that the overall
removing minimal resin from its path.
gas process profile time is 25 seconds, and does
not include the time elements for pressure Nitrogen Supply
ramping. The reason for this noncumulative time Nitrogen furnished to gas assist controllers is
is important. A process can be optimized with available from three basic sources: gas cylinders

140
®
 Gas Assisted Injection Molding

(bottles), nitrogen generators, and bulk liquid the gas storage pressure approximately 50%-75%
nitrogen supply systems. For many years the most higher than the process gas pressure.
common means of nitrogen supply was gas from
This needs to be elaborated upon for practical
cylinders, but this became impractical as gas
implementation. Note the preceding comment
assist processing grew to multiple installations. that a volume of gas is a volume of gas—pressure
Typical cylinders contain 8.5 m3 of nitrogen (300 is irrelevant. A process pressure however, may be
SCF) and are delivered at a pressure of 270 bar (4,000 psi), but the void created by the
approximately 170 bar. Nitrogen gas from bottles gas is relatively small. Although the pressure is
has a net cost of from $9.00 to $12.50 US per 8.5 high, the volume of gas is small. Recovery will be
m3 (300 cubic feet). Additional costs often not quick. In this scenario, it would not be necessary
taken into consideration by many molders are the to store gas at a pressure of 400-540 bar. On the
costs for storage of cylinders and changing the other hand, a gas process pressure of 68 bar (1000
cylinders during production, incoming freight and psi) with a void of 2 L would be an exceptional
demurrage for the cylinders while they are in the amount of gas, based upon the large resulting
molders plant, and safety concerns while handling void. This scenario would require a higher ratio of
2500-2800 psi bottles. These issues created the stored gas pressure to process pressure. This is in
demand for reliable nitrogen generating systems. order to prevent the storage pressure from
dropping below the required process pressure
Nitrogen generator membrane and compressor during the gas injection cycle. Keep in mind that
technology has developed substantially over the past the gas in the feed line or lines to the tool is also
few years, affording cost savings as much as 80% consumed during each molding cycle, and needs
lower than nitrogen gas from cylinders. Bulk liquid to be added to any calculations for gas
nitrogen storage systems are also more economical consumption.
than bottles, but usually entail a more complicated
storage and pressurization system, and seem to be SYSTEM INSTALLATION
better suited to lower pressure applications. AND CONNECTIONS
The nitrogen supply pressure to the gas assist Each individual equipment provider will have
controller does not need to be 500-680 bar as is its own preferred method for connection to the
commonly believed, but only high enough to injection molding machine, but the following
adequately furnish gas to the process without the details are most common in the industry. At this
supply pressure dropping below the process time there is no common industry standard for
pressure during the molding cycle. The interfacing the gas injection equipment with the
consumption of gas is based solely on volume molding machine, but simplicity and reliability
(i.e., 1 L of gas in a cube shape is the same has resulted in the following typical interface:
amount of gas whether at 10 bar or 500 bar—only The operational standards for the majority of
the size of the “cube” changes). When the gas is gas injection controllers are: (1) cycle start and
injected into the melt during production (2) cycle reset. Cycle reset is to establish the
processing, it is critical that the stored gas breakpoint between cycles and to reset the gas
pressure does not drop below that of the peak injection controller system for the next gas
process pressure. Recovery time for the stored gas injection sequence. Cycle start is to establish the
should not take considerable time. In fact, with set point to initiate the gas injection sequence.
the proper relative pressure of the stored gas, Both signals are sent from the molding machine
some production set ups may not require any as simple dry contacts to the gas controller, with
pressure recovery time between gas injection the gas controller reading the signal to initiate that
cycles. A general “rule of thumb” is to maintain signal’s function.

141
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Cycle Reset Most controller systems require additional

Cycle reset is commonly read from the signals necessary for safe system operation, (e.g.,
condition “clamp closed,” and is a continuous purge shield and operator safety gate). These
signal. As long as this signal is maintained, the gas signals only enable the gas injection process, and
injection controller will be enabled, awaiting the do not contribute to control of the process. These
start cycle signal, and is maintained throughout signals are usually dry contacts also, sent from the
the gas injection cycle. To enable the reset molding machine to the gas assist controller, and
function and to afford a safety factor, this signal is they are continuous signals.
continuous. If the signal is broken during the gas
Nitrogen Gas to Process Connections
injection cycle, the cycle ends, and the controller
is reset for the next process sequence. The gas assist process controller needs one gas
feed line to the mold for each gas injection point
Cycle Start
in the tool. It is important to note that the length of
Cycle start is another “dry signal” usually the gas line to the mold or nozzle is important in
initiated from “end of shot” for the resin injection the gas assist process for two reasons: (1) The gas
phase. Cycle start may also be initiated from start in the feed line to the tool is also consumed during
of the resin injection sequence, but this creates each molding cycle; the longer the gas line, the
additional process complexity because it is more gas will be consumed. (2) If the gas feed line
common to develop the overall gas assist molding to the tool is excessively long, the time for
process by tuning the resin injection phase, which pressure to the tool may also be longer than
could often require adjustment of the gas sequence expected, possibly complicating the gas injection
every time the resin injection phase is modified. process. As an example, a setup with a 10-foot gas
For this reason it is recommended that cycle start feed line to a tool may be used, and a month later
be initiated from the end of the resin injection at a different molding machine, a 25-foot feed line
sequence. Please note that the start signal does not could be utilized. This could necessitate a change
need to be a continuous signal; it is simply a the gas profile set up because delay time could be
“trigger” to initiate the delay and subsequent gas changed in the tool cavity with no change to the
injection pressure and time sequences. gas controller!
A variation on the cycle start signal method is
When utilizing gas injection through the
when utilizing sequential gating. With sequential
nozzle, only one gas injection valve/profile is
gating, it may be necessary to initiate one or more
necessary. Flexible high-pressure gas lines are in
of the gas injection points prior to completion of
common use, with thermoplastic insulation on the
the resin injection sequence. In this example, the
outside of the gas line. It is not recommended to
start signal may occur at the start of resin
use this type of gas line in close proximity to the
injection, with the gas injection delay setting
resin injection nozzle because high nozzle
being used to start the gas injection profile for
temperatures can damage the gas line. In this
each gas injection point during the resin fill. This
scenario, it is recommended that a short section of
set up is somewhat more complicated than a
high-pressure stainless steel gas line be connected
simple “end of shot” method, but with proper set
to the flexible gas line in the area before
up, this technique affords very creative
attachment of the line to the injection nozzle.
possibilities on hot manifold tools with sequential
gating. As previously mentioned, it is important to When injecting gas through gas injection pins,
consider valve gates when using sequential gating the gas lines will be connected directly to the
or hot runner tools. Valve gates will also enable a exterior of the mold. In this scenario, the flexible-
precise amount of resin to be delivered from the style gas lines may be directly connected to the
corresponding gate to accommodate the gas tool because no high temperature areas will be
injection details for that area in the injection mold. near the connection(s). Again, it is important to

142
®
 Gas Assisted Injection Molding

use the shortest gas lines possible because all of and enabling the gas injection sequence. The
the gas in the gas lines will be consumed during initial gas injection pressure may be anywhere
each gas injection cycle. from 21 bar (300 psi) to 270 bar (4000 psi), or
even higher; this initial recommendation should
PROCESS START UP be provided by your gas assist technology
New tool process start up is perhaps the most supplier. For the purpose of this general
subjective element of the entire gas assist process. recommendation on a thin wall part, let us start
As with every new or converted tool, process the process with a delay of 1 second and an initial
engineers use their experience on previous injection pressure of 68 bar (1000 psi). Start the
programs to predict the approximate control molding sequence with these parameters, with a
parameters for the new program. This same shot size reduction of 0.5%-1% of the full cavity
procedure is necessary with a gas assist tool, with shot size. After removing the part from the mold,
the added complexity of the gas injection you will notice one of three possible results. It
sequence. Every tool is different, and many tools will be necessary to cut the part in the areas of the
will run different when transferred to a similar but flow/gas channels for evaluation: (1) upon cutting
different molding machine. Explicit direction is
the part, you notice that the cavity is full and resin
not possible and is outside the scope of this
distribution is complete, but the flow channels are
chapter, but the following procedure is
not evacuated. Reduce the shot size on the next
recommended to get “90% there.”
shot. (2) the resin fill is not complete, and the gas
First, on any new or converted tool start up, “blew out” of the resin in the last-to-fill areas of
do not begin the start up with the gas injection the cavity. Increase the shot size slightly. (3) the
sequence enabled. Except for unusually large resin completed fill in the cavity, the gas
voided products, start the process with molding penetrated the flow/gas channels, and you have a
the product solid. This will enable you to perfect part. Examples (1) or (2) will be the result
determine exactly what you are working with, 99.9% of the time! There are many variables to be
with respect to gating, resin fill speeds, evaluation
addressed for examples (1) and (2), but these will
of gas injection point to resin gate, tool
be addressed in the troubleshooting section later
temperature settings, and process parameters for
in this chapter.
the resin being molded. Note that the majority of
process parameters for a successful gas assist On a very thick product (e.g., a tubular handle
program are with the resin injection details; the or very thick geometry product), reduce the resin
gas injection details should be thought of as the fill percentage following the initial full shot fill to
finalization of the process, not the core process. about halfway between what the full shot size was
Second, after evaluating the product with a and what you estimate the eventual actual
full cavity fill, estimate the intended void in the percentage of fill will be. (There is no need to
gas assist part. A thin-wall product will require a guess “close” to the actual percentage, because
cavity fill of approximately 95-98% or more for this will be likely impossible without lengthy
gas assist production. A heavier wall part (e.g., a hands-on experience in gas assist tool start up.)
tubular handle or a very thick geometry product) With the same resin injection parameters used for
may result in a resin fill percentage as low as the full cavity fill, set the shot size as noted
50%! After achieving the full cavity fill as earlier. With thick, tubular cross-section products,
described in the preceding section, and decrease the gas injection pressures necessary will be far
the shot size to get “near” where you might expect lower than with thin-wall products. It is now
the resulting cavity fill percentage to be. common to see products with 25-50 mm cross-
On a thin-wall part, this may be simply sections to be in production with gas injection
decreasing the shot size in very small increments pressures as low as17 bar (250 psi).

143
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Inject the resin as earlier and enable the gas gas assist process is to attain the (1) lowest part
injection sequence, but now with a heavier wall weight, (2) fastest cycle time, and (3) the lowest
product, delay time necessary could vary greatly gas-processing pressure. To go into lengthy detail
based upon the resin selection, specific part of process development for specific applications
geometry, and tool surface (i.e., polished, grained, would be outside the scope of this chapter, and
class A, or a nonappearance product). Start this would be literally impossible with all of the
sequence with 1-second delay, and with an initial variables of resin, part geometry, and molding
gas pressure of 68 bar (1000 psi). Remove the part machine variables. Various conditions and possible
from the tool and examine the results. In the same
remedies for observed conditions are summarized
manner as with a thin-wall part, the results may be
in the troubleshooting charts that follow.
a short-shot with the gas blowing out of the plastic
or a part that has been pressurized with the gas,
but is far too thick in the majority of the cavity. PROCESS TROUBLESHOOTING
Increase or reduce the shot size as necessary. Figures 7 and 8 represent acceptable flow
It is important to note at this point that the channel cross-section designs, as well as
objective of a successful, repeatable and efficient commonly observed problematic channel designs.

Problem Cause Solution

Mold temp. too low, causing resin Increase mold temperature

“freeze-off”

Resin not completing cavity fill—gas making Resin temp. too low Increase barrel or nozzle heat
penetration in channels per resin specifications

Gas pressure too low Increase gas injection pressure

Excessive delay in gas injection Reduce gas delay setting

Resin shot size too large Decrease shot size

Resin completing cavity fill, gas not Flow channels too large or too Decrease extent/length of flow
penetrating flow channels long—allowing premature resin fill channels or size (cross section)
in last to fill areas of cavity of flow channels

Resin not completing cavity fill, gas “blowing Resin shot size too small Increase shot size
out” of short shot Gas injecting too early Increase gas delay time

Flow channels too large and/or too Reduce flow channel length or
long, creating pressure trap cross-section
Resin fill cannot be completed, with or
without gas injection enabled Mold too cold Increase mold temperature

Resin too cold Increase melt temperature

Insufficient gas delay Increase gas delay time

Tool too hot Increase gas delay time

Gas penetrating nominal wall Flow channels too small relative to Increase flow channel cross-
nominal wall section

Resin too hot Decrease resin temperature

Table 1. Thin-wall product troubleshooting.

144
®
 Gas Assisted Injection Molding

parameters for actuating pins, which will first

block the point of resin evacuation.
Parallel channels within close proximity is
another complication. Parallel channels will
“compete” with respect to internal pressures, with
one channel almost always becoming dominant in
Figure 7. Preferred flow channel geometry. pressure, evacuating the resin in that channel and
forcing that resin into the lower pressure channel.
As a result, the lower pressure channel fills with
resin displaced from the dominant channel,
resulting in unbalanced and unequally evacuated
flow channels. This condition contributes to sink
marks, warp, long cycle times, and nonacceptable
processing conditions.
Figure 8. Problematic flow channel geometry.
These conditions are usually avoidable
In the Figure 8 examples, the following
because alternative methods for product design,
conditions will occur with each respective design:
tooling design, and resin selection are available to
Too shallow—gas will be more likely to employ efficient molding conditions. Numerous
penetrate the nominal wall because the pressure options are available when these conditions are
differential between the flow channel and nominal present, but such details are specific to each
wall will be too low to confine the gas. product design.
Too deep—this type of channel tends to cause
excess resin fill toward the end flow channel, and EMERGING PROCESS
causes difficulty in filling the nominal wall near DEVELOPMENTS
the start of channel. The result is gas trapping in Multitemperature Gas Injection
the tool, with gas penetrating the nominal wall
and not in the flow channel. Unnecessarily high Multi- or variable gas temperature processing
gas pressures are also experienced in attempt to is a patented technique (5,728,325) developed to
displace the oversized channel. assist production needs where resin flow length
capabilities or excessive cooling times may be
Too much ratio width × height—this cross- experienced with conventional gas assist
section will not be displaced by gas uniformly; processing. With this technique, auxiliary gas
the gas may tend to “wander,” creating variable temperature control is added to the gas assist
channel evacuation. Some of the channel is likely processing equipment, which can either heat the
to be solid in the thickest section, causing nitrogen gas prior to injection into the melt, chill
excessive cycle times and possible surface the nitrogen gas prior to injection, or, in some
defects. Repeatability will also be very difficult. limited cases, do a combination of both.
An occasional problem that occurs in thin- Heated gas
wall applications is that the intended function of
the gas is to displace long channels along the With high-viscosity resins and/or in thin-wall
edges of the molded product, to facilitate products where minimal flow channels are
mounting surfaces. These surfaces/flow channels permissible, resin can cool or “freeze-off”
tend to extend to the end-of-fill of the molded prematurely, inhibiting its continued flow to the
product. This condition requires a fill and last to fill areas in the tool cavity. Heated gas
evacuate method, with additional process functions as an aid to maintaining the resin

145
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Problem Cause Recommended Adjustment

Excess resin Decrease shot size

Inadequate gas delay time Increase gas delay time

Inadequate cross-section void
Too high initial gas pressure Reduce initial gas pressure or ramp
pressure

Improper tool orientation in molding Set too orientation to inject gas

Unbalanced or inconsistent void— machine upward rather than horizontally
void off-center of product Gas injection point off-center mass of Change gas injection to fill-and-
desired void displace method

Excess gas delay time after resin Reduce gas delay timing
injection

Tool temp. too low Increase tool temp.

Product shows surface defect at
location of end-of-fill, or short-shot Resin is overly susceptible to Sample alternate resins
resin portion of fill appearance problem when resin fill
“stalls”

Resin begins to cool prior to being Convert process to fill-and-displace

displaced or distributed by gas method

Examine extent and size of flow

channels relative to wall thickness
Inadequate differential between flow
and flow length—revise channel
channel and nominal wall
Gas penetrates outside channel in cross-section, length of channel, or
thick nominal wall product number of channels

Resin too hot to create adequate Increase gas delay time

resistance Reduce mold temperature

Table 2. Tubular and thick-wall product troubleshooting.

temperature internally in the flow channel, without Chilled Gas
changing such other processing parameters as
With the proliferation of gas assist processing
resin injection speed and tool temperature.
in general, many design options are possible for
The sequence of using a heated gas may be injection molded products with cross-sections that
modified in process by partially exhausting the gas were never before possible. Successful products
following the initial packing phase. The “first have been put into production with cross-sections
that are as large as 3-4 in. thick! (Please do not
phase” gas may alternatively be maintained during
interpret this as an allowance for designing parts
the entire cooling cycle. When accelerated cooling
of these dimensions…these are products with
is necessary, the heated gas can either be vented at
limited cross-sections that are a specific area in the
the same gas injection point from which the gas was molded product, not the entire part). With cross-
introduced, or a secondary injection point may be sections of this size, it is common to experience a
present in the tool to exhaust the heated gas, aided resulting wall thickness, after gas injection, of 0.5
by the introduction of an ambient temperature or in. or more. Although the internal gas pressure
chilled gas from the first injection point. maintains sufficient internal packing to produce a

146
®
 Gas Assisted Injection Molding

Problem Cause Recommended Adjustment

Resin in direct path of resin fill Relocate gas pin out of direct
pattern flow path of resin

Gas pin extends too far into flow Use shorter pin length or extend
Gas pins(s) plugging upon resin injection channels or gas pin boss depth of gas pin boss
Gas pin vents too large for intended Reduce gas pin vent size; add
resin viscosity additional, smaller vents if
necessary
Extend time of low pressure gas
hold
Resin not solidified adequately—
molten resin being drawn toward Add or increase ramp time to
Gas pin(s) plugging during gas venting pin during vent decompression stage

Reduce tool temperature

Excess resin at end-of-fill of flow Reduce resin shot size

channel

Injector in direct path of resin fill Relocate gas pin out of direct
flow path of resin
Gas pin/injector shows excessive wear
Gas pin material too soft for Convert to hardened steel
reinforced resin injection pin

Too little surface for resin to seal on Increase length of gas pin
pin surface

Increase gas delay time

Gas pin/injector not sealing in molded part Decrease too temperature

Resin too “fluid” around pin area Reduce gas injection pressure

Add undercut to base of pin

shaft (pat. pending)

Gas/pin injector causes surface appearance Impingement of gas on class A Revise pin to side-discharge
problem on class A surface opposite pin surface style

Table 3. Gas pin/injector troubleshooting.

mechanically sound part, and even though can be implemented by either utilizing the chilled
appearance considerations are maintained, gas as the initial gas injection phase, or by
cooling cycles are extremely long. A resulting injecting ambient temperature gas, reducing the
wall thickness of this magnitude, even though gas first-phase gas pressure and following the first-
injected, will experience a cooling time similar to phase gas with the introduction of the chilled gas.
a part of this thickness molded conventionally. The temperature of the chilled gas itself may not
significantly change the basic gas injected
The chilled gas option is a means to reduce processing control parameters; it simply aids, to a
the cooling cycle substantially, while maintaining substantial degree, the internal cooling of the
all other processing parameters. The chilled gas product and increases overall production yield.

147
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Problem Cause Recommended Adjustment

Leakage in connection to mold or

Excess gas consumption Locate and correct leak
pin assembly to tool
Gas supply pressure drops below process Inadequate gas pressure or volume Increase gas supply pressure or
pressure upon gas injection available to process storage vessel volume

Gas is leaking from product Increase shot size or revise

(“blow out”) resin distribution pattern

Tighten/seal gas pin assembly

Gas leaking from pin assembly
Gas supply pressure drops below process into tool
pressure during hold phase (this condition is
normally observed on the “system pressure Increase delay
supply” gauge) Reduce initial gas pressure
Gas leaking around pin, between
resin and pin Increase pin length
Use “undercut” at base of pin
Maintain uniform resin supply/
Changes in resin viscosity
regrind percentage

Correct tool temperature

Mold temperature fluctuation
control
Gas penetration into product varies over time
Examine and correct barrel/
Resin melt temperature variation
nozzle heat variation

Gas supply varies to gas assist Maintain consistent gas supply

process controller pressure and volume
Clean or replace gas pin

Relocate gas pin

Gas pin plugged
Revise gas pin design to
All process conditions constant, no gas in part eliminate cause of plugging

Test signals to controller and

Signal(s) to gas controller not being
correct missing signal
actuated
conditions

Table 4. Gas injection system and process troubleshooting.

Multifluid and Water Injection most common for the second-phase fluid to be
followed by a third sequence (i.e., nitrogen) to
Multifluid gas injection is a patent-pending
evacuate and dry the product internally.
technique where two fluids are used for
(1) completing fill of the resin in the tool cavity, and Water is also used as the first-phase fluid, but
(2) rapidly accelerating the cooling stage with the because water/moisture can cause splay or other
second fluid phase. For some applications, the first- surface defects in a molded part, it is critical to
phase fluid will be nitrogen, as is standard with provide enough flow and pressure to prevent the
conventional gas injection. The second phase is the water form turning to steam, or “gassing off,”
injection of a second fluid, a liquid (usually water) prior to packing. By utilizing the sequential fluid
for the purpose of reducing the cooling cycle. It is injection, the desired production characteristics

148
®
 Next Page Gas Assisted Injection Molding

are achieved during the first phase, accelerated of fluid injection, commonly two. Specialized
cooling is achieved during the second phase, and multifluid injectors are available that enable both
water evacuation is achieved during the third fluids to be injected from the same injection point.
phase, as is necessary to prevent problems during Multifluid gas injection can decrease cycle times
downline assembly and/or painting. up to 75%, where cycles as long as 3-4 minutes
The multifluid injection process is may be currently experienced.
implemented most efficiently with multiple points

149
®
 Previous Page

TROUBLESHOOTING
JON RATZLAFF

PREFACE possible alternatives and evaluate their outcome.

(This is basic problem solving; refer to the
This chapter is based on industry experience,
Problem Solving Skills chapter for more detail.)
and the purpose is to give an intuitive guide for the
Then, proceed with your changes, but remember
technician to resolve common faults in injection
that you are not done yet. You need to study how
molding. The guide gives possible solutions that
the solution will play out long term and ask if
consider both part quality and economics. The
there are risks involved. Finally, decide how you
objectives are to reduce the amount of time
will prevent this from happening again. Here is a
required to fix a fault, determine the best cycle
quick look at the process:
time, and produce the best quality part.
This guide covers the majority of common
• Appraise the situation.
faults, but it cannot cover all possible faults in the
Look at the big picture first and then
industry; however, it does provide logic on work into the details.
troubleshooting, which can help lead to solutions
Identify concerns and goals.
for faults not mentioned here. In using this guide,

Set priorities of product (safety,
the technician should always be fully trained in
equipment operations and use the best judgment economics, and quality).
in safety when making changes. The possible • Analyze the problem.
solutions may not apply to all cases and safety is
Identify possible root causes.
always first priority.

Assess risks (safety, quality and
MAKING DECISIONS economics).
It is sometimes difficult to decide how to
Evaluate causes and confirm.
resolve a problem when so many possible • Analyze the decisions.
variables exist. Remember to appraise the

Look at all alternative solutions.
situation by looking at the big picture of the
problem. How does the problem affect safety,
Make the changes.
quality, and overall economics? List things that • Analyze potential problems.
cause concern and what you are trying to

Assess long-term risks.
accomplish, and list them in order of importance.
Before making a decision, list and review all
Take preventive action.

151
Society of Plastics Engineers

SOLUTIONS Always choose solutions that give the best

Remember to try the solutions that give you economics first. Next to some solutions is an icon,
the quickest response first. In addition, some of the which represents the normal effect that the
fast response solutions may not be a fast solution solution has on the economics of the part. It is
for your plant or process. For instance, to clean a usually based on whether the productivity will
vent on the parting line should not take more than increase or decrease. It does not guarantee an
5-10 minutes in most cases. If the vents are around effect, but should be used in setting the priority of
slides and in cavities, however, then cleaning the which solutions to try first. Each solution tried
vents should be considered a long-term event and must be evaluated for its effects for each
you should allow for time and costs. You should individual process. There can be many other
always make decisions based on the length of time variables, which can counteract or act
it takes to make adjustments for the sake of cost synergistically with the solutions.
and troubleshooting efficiency. Icons
The solutions are categorized by the speed in +$ = Savings –$ = Costs
which they usually give a result. Remember, if the
$? = Initial cost but could reduce or increase
fault is difficult to remove, go through the entire operational costs. Needs economic review
checklist. Even the best troubleshooters can lose
track of all the possibilities for a solution. The PRIORITIES
logic is given with each solution. Make sure the
Safety
logic applies to your situation and there are no
safety risks. The technician should know the potential
hazards with all changes and understand the power
involved in injection molding! Only experienced
Results technicians with formal training on injection
These solutions should give the fastest molding equipment should make changes.
response time and can be tried during production Economics
(within reason). There are numerous solutions to many process
and part faults, yet the troubleshooter should
Results always look at how changes may affect economics
(e.g., the final cycle time).
These solutions should give a response during
production, but they take as much as 30 minutes to Quality Judgments
1 hour before the full effect is seen. Make small Quality parts can be judged on cosmetics
incremental adjustments in temperature (near alone if this is all that is required of the part; yet,
20°F) and watch for changes this does not cover most parts. Part cosmetics
cannot be used to judge part performance,
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design mechanical properties, or part life. Whenever a
process change is made and the part produced
demands some mechanical performance, the part
These adjustments usually require production
should be tested under normal part specifications
to stop (short or long term) and possibly long-term
and never judged solely on its cosmetics.
work to be done. This is usually the most costly
method and should be considered carefully before Resin Specifications
executing. Although some corrections require an Always start with a resin specification sheet
initial cost, there could be savings involved with with mold temperature, melt temperature, other
the changes. Review costs versus savings in all process conditions, and any equipment
situations. requirements. Before troubleshooting problems,

152
®
 Troubleshooting

always confirm that the current process is running Avoid running pressure control on filling the
within the resin process specification. mold; however, some older machines do not have
Part Specifications
velocity control. In this case use the highest
pressures without faults.
The troubleshooter should know all part
Note: In most cases, the faster the fill time the
specifications, which include visible, nonvisible,
better the part; yet, in some cases, too much speed
and mechanical properties, as well as other
can result in overstressed parts and thus the parts
performance requirements.
should always be tested for stress-related faults.
Response Time
There are some instances in which slow
Whenever making choices on which changes velocities will work better to prevent voids in
to try first, always choose the changes that give thick polyolefin parts or provide clarity in optical
quick responses (i.e., change velocity first before parts. If slow speeds are necessary to prevent flash
temperatures). This helps reduce troubleshooting or burns, it is strongly advised that you review the
time. venting and mold design. Contact your resin
Damaging Faults First supplier if you are not sure.
Remove damaging problems first (e.g., burns, To find the optimum speed for a specific mold
flash, and sticking parts) (Note: avoid bending look for the change in fill time versus injection
ejector pins). You may have to create a simple speed. At some point with increasing injection
fault(s) to resolve a complicated problem(s). speed, the machine will give diminishing returns
Then, solve the simple fault(s). on fill time reduction. Decreases on fill time are
usually less than 0.05 seconds, and they will not
Record Changes have a significant effect on cycle time. At this
During troubleshooting, keep track of changes, point, any injection speeds higher than this just
keep parts, and label them in sequence so you can consume energy and possibly cause other
recognize the effects and test performance if problems (e.g., warpage or flash). Always
necessary. You may also need to return to process remember to test parts to confirm properties after
conditions that gave the best parts. significant changes in fill time.
One Change at a Time Melt Temperature
Make only one change at a time and wait for Melt temperature is not set temperature.
the results after the next 5-10 parts and observe. Always confirm the melt temperature with a
With temperature changes, wait for temperatures to pyrometer and remember to preheat the probe
stabilize (on average, 10-20 minutes). This is the before inserting into the molten polymer. Use
difference between short- and long-term effects. extreme caution because there is a high risk of
severe burns when purging and handling molten
Always Retest
plastics.
After any significant change in the process,
Infrared guns can be used for surface
retest the part by its normal specifications of
temperature, but they will not give the true
performance before introducing production into
internal melt temperature. Without the emissivity
inventory!
settings calibrated with a pyrometer, they can give
Velocity Control false surface temperature, too.
Whenever possible run the process using Whenever you are considering changing melt
velocity to control the filling stages. This includes temperature, always consider (when possible)
staged velocity for avoiding flash or for such using the backpressure and/or screw speed to test
special needs as maintaining a consistent flow the idea first. This will allow you to return quickly
front speed across changing wall thickness. to the original set-up conditions if a change in

153
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

melt temperature does not solve the problem. • The screw is more restricted from going
Again, high screw speeds and backpressure back when higher backpressures are set,
increase melt temperature, whereas low screw thus making a more dense shot of material,
speeds and backpressure reduce melt temperature. and helps prevent air/moisture from
They can be used together or independently. If conveying into the melt.
attempting to reduce the melt temperature with Purge Barrel
lower screw speeds and backpressure, watch for
Always remember to purge the barrel after
excessive screw return times
fixing problems with contamination, wrong
Whenever degradation is apparent, always material, wet resin, etc. This will decrease the
consider temperature and time. Try to reduce amount of downtime and part scrap. Always keep
residence time along with the melt temperature. purge in small segments for safety in handling,
This includes leaving the machine idle (i.e., semi- easier recycle, and less storage space. Consider
automatic or break periods) for extended periods using a purge compound for shut down/start-up
at full heats. procedures to avoid resin degradation and
resulting black specks.
Packing (Holding) Pressure and
Time versus Cooling Time Proper Shut Down Procedures
In general, when the packing pressure is Do not purge a screw dry on shut down, but
increased, the packing time must also be leave almost completely forward (do not bottom
increased. This is compensating for the higher out screw). Caution: Proper procedures must be
cavity pressure that will escape out the gates if followed for start up to avoid breaking check rings
they have not completely solidified. To prevent and screws (allow for specific time to soak and
longer cycle times, however, always try to take melt all polymer). Never leave full shot due to
away time from the cooling cycle if time has been safety precautions (remelting a full shot can create
added to the packing cycle. In addition, watch the more black specks and create serious hazards to
screw return time so that it does not extend past life and equipment).
the cooling cycle. If black specks are not an issue, it is possible
to empty the screw and leave it retracted on
If you have a cavity pressure transducer
remelting material on start up. It is best to shut
located near the gate, one can determine the time it
down machine with purge material designed for
takes for the gate to freeze off fairly accurately.
shut down with the screw retracted. This will add
This relationship is very evident when charted and
cost, but it can save in overall reduction in scrap
helps a technician dial in the exact packing/hold
due to black specks.
time necessary to allow the gate to freeze off.
Cavity pressure transducers are an excellent tool Multiple-Cavity Tools
for troubleshooting and optimizing the cycle time. Do not run multiple-cavity tools with only
partial cavities filling unless one understands the
Backpressure
full economics and the possibility of severely
Backpressure is used to achieve the following: degrading the material and damaging the tool. For
• Put more mechanical work into the material, instance, in an eight-cavity tool, running seven of
thus raising the melt temperature (see melt the eight parts may recover the cost of producing
temperature). parts. Running the tool with seven or less cavities
means that the job breaks even or there is a loss.
• Put more mechanical work into the material, Either way, the company looses its ability to
thus making a more homogenous mix. This produce a profit. It is better to resolve the problem
is especially important when adding of why not all cavities are running, even if it
colorant. requires the tool to be removed for repair.

154
®
 Troubleshooting

Always do short shots on start up to confirm however, do not discount design / mechanical
that the cavities are filling similarly and are changes on current molds. Over time molds/
balanced. Use hot tip or manifold temperatures to machines wear and materials vary in
help balance the flow. Remember that with most specification; thus, the logic applies in both cases.
resins, the faster the fill, the more balanced the fill Go through the checklist and keep an open mind,
will be among all the cavities, and the less regardless the age of the tool.
sensitive to such imbalances in the flow path as
runners and manifolds. This helps to insure that Avoid Tunnel Vision
the parts from each cavity perform equally. Even the best of technicians can get tunnel
Troubleshooting on New Molds versus vision when trying to fix a problem. It is easy to
Current Molds get focused on what you “think” is the problem. If
New molds are usually more likely to need you are not making progress, go through the
design changes than molds already in use; checklist of items tried and not tried.

PROCESSING PROBLEMS
DROOL material is too hot and degrades.
Definition • Nozzle too hot and material viscosity too
Drool is molten polymer that continues to low.
flow out of the hot tips, gates, or sprue bushing • Improper nozzle/hot tip design for viscosity
during the ejection stage. This includes drool of polymer.
from the nozzle during sprue break.
Root Causes
• See cold slug.
• The main cause is that the melt pressure is • See stringing.
building in the barrel/manifold by polymer
expanding due to: (Drool from the barrel
DROOL SOLUTIONS
can be seen coming from the nozzle when Results
the carriage is retracted.)
• Reduce cushion / reduce the total amount of

large cushion under pressure. polymer to expand during ejection. Try to

material off-gassing. leave a minimum cushion of 1/4 inch to 1/2
inch. +$
wet resin that causes steam pressure to
build. • Reduce backpressure and/or screw rpm/
reduce melt temperature (increase
viscosity, reduce off-gassing). +$
• Reduce mold open time / less time for
Figure 1. material to drool. +$
Drool out of the sprue
bushing on the stationary • Increase screw decompression / allow room
side of the mold. for polymer to expand (Caution: Too much
decompression can increase degradation by
pulling air (oxygen) into the flow path of
the polymer and degrading it to cause black
specks. Also, too much decompression or

155
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

too fast decompression can cause splay or N O Z Z L E /T I P F R O Z E N

gate blush.)
Definition
• Increase cooling time / allow material in Polymer that blocks the flow in the nozzle or
nozzle to become more viscous –$ hot tip because it solidifies during the cooling
• Increase packing time / allow material in cycle or especially during an interruption in the
nozzle to become more viscous (Caution: cycle
Can lead to sprue sticking.) –$ Root Causes

Results • Main cause is the temperature setting is too

low for the nozzle or tip
• Lower nozzle/gate/hot drop/manifold
temperature (one or more) / increase • Melt temperature is too low
viscosity and/or reduce off-gassing. +$
• Mold or manifold temperature is too low for
• Lower melt temperature / increase viscosity hot tips
and/or reduce off-gassing. +$ • Improper nozzle or hot tip design (too small
• Run sprue break (Can add to cycle time and of an orifice)
watch for drool from nozzle. Make sure the • Poor heater control (e.g., bad thermocouple)
nozzle is seating properly with the sprue at the nozzle, hot drop, or manifold
bushing.) $
• Hot tips—too much surface contact when
hot drop expands
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design

Resin

• Check resin for moisture content (dry if

necessary) / remove off-gassing (steam). +$
Mechanical or Design

• Reposition heaters on hot tips. Adjust hot tip

location. $
• Consider using heater bands with more
surface area on tip, especially long nozzles.
• Use proper nozzle or tips.
Figure 2. Cross-section of reverse taper nozzle.

Tapered and/or sized properly (i.e., use
smaller orifice). (Caution: Reducing
nozzle orifice can result in higher costs N O Z Z L E /T I P F R O Z E N
by increasing required fill pressure and SOLUTIONS
create cosmetic issues.) Try reduced
taper nozzle, or reverse taper. See Results
material manufacturer recommendations. • Decrease screw decompression / prevent
Follow guidelines for sizing tip orifice to cooling of material. +$
“O” dimension of sprue bushing.
• Reduce cycle time (if possible) / lessens

Shut-off nozzles or valve gates. time for material to cool. +$

156
®
 Troubleshooting

• Increase backpressure / increase melt run the requested velocity. A velocity-controlled

temperature (caution: always check melt system tries to maintain a requested velocity, and
temperature and watch for excessive shear). –$ the pressure is a dependent factor. The pressure
• Run sprue break / prevent nozzle from restriction can be caused either by the equipment
losing heat into sprue brushing—can settings (fill pressure) or because the machine
increase cycle time (if sprue break is does not have enough pump capacity for the
already on, try turning off sprue break and particular mold and resin combination. Being
see if the quicker cycle time prevents pressure limited can cause part variations,
nozzle from freezing). –$ increase fill time, cause short shots, sinks, weld
lines, inconsistent shrinkage (warpage), and
Results dimensions, and make the process sensitive to
• Raise nozzle and/or hot tip temperature / environmental changes and to lot changes.
keep material molten. –$
Root Causes
• Raise melt temperature / keep material
molten. –$ • A common cause is that the hydraulic
injection pressure setting is too low.
• Raise mold temperature / keep material
molten. –$ • The machine may not have enough pump
pressure available for the mold, material,
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design and current process temperatures (mold and
melt temperatures).
Mechanical or Design
• Test machine for cause of pressure
• Check heater controls and/or limitations.
thermocouples for proper operation
because they are too cool due to a
Increase the pressure setting on the
malfunction. machine in small increments and watch for
fill time to decrease. Note: To avoid flash
• Insulate nozzle from the mold. +$ as this process takes place, you may need
• Use proper nozzle/tips. to adjust velocity and transfer settings as
velocity control begins to take over.
• No taper or taper sized properly (increase
orifice size). Follow guidelines for sizing
If fill time decreases, continue increasing
tip orifice to “O” dimension of sprue pressure until fill time does not change.
bushing). Then, set the pressure 10% higher to
• Shut-off nozzles/valve gates. provide a comfortable operating window
and yet prevent the tool from severe flash
• May need critical dimensions in steel if, for instance, a part sticks. If pressure is
corrected for hot drop clearance. already at maximum, reduce pressure by
10%. If fill time increases, then machine
SLOW CYCLE TIMES: injection velocity capacity is insufficient
PRESSURE LIMITED for the tool/material combination and
Definition current melt/mold temperature. You may
A pressure-controlled system restricts the try increasing the melt and/or mold
velocity based on the requested pressure limit. temperature and repeat the process, but
This limit in the machine restricts the injection you may find the process is very close to
velocity because the injection pressure setting/ the limits of the machine and may cause
limit is lower than the actual pressure required to inconsistent part production.

157
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

(Note: Always review velocity settings for optimum • Try increasing the size of the flow path from
velocity and watch for flash after each change). the nozzle to the gate, including the part
wall thickness / reduce pressure restrictions.
PRESSURE LIMITED • Check the machine for faulty pump or relief
SOLUTIONS valve settings for injection fill.
Results
• Increase the pressure setting on the machine
in small increments (5-10%) and watch for
fill time to decrease until it does not change.
Find the pressure required to fill the tool and
set 10% or 200-300 psi higher (this will
help avoid severe flash if a part sticks). +$

Results
• If fill time continues to decrease using the
mentioned procedure, but maximum Figure 3. Molding cycle.
pressure is reached, then lower pressure
10% and increase melt temperatures and/or SLOW CYCLE TIMES:
mold temperatures staying within the SCREW LIMITED
recommended ranges by the resin (S L O W P L A S T I C A T I N G )
manufacturer and start over. This will Definition
decrease viscosity and then you can find
This is when the screw takes longer to return
pressure limits. –$
than the cooling and part ejection time.
Root Causes
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
• The screw feed section is not conveying
material fast enough to recover a full shot
Resin
before the cure time stage is finished.
• Try a material with lower viscosity and/or • Shot size is too large for capacity of barrel.
higher shear response (higher flow
characteristics with higher injection • Resin inconsistencies.
speeds). Higher MI and MF resins are SCREW LIMITED
known to flow easier, but MI and MF do not
(SLOW P L A S T I C A T I N G )
describe high shear rate flow. Note: In most
cases, increasing the flow index or flow rate
SOLUTIONS
will decrease pressure, but it can decrease Results
mechanical properties. Check resin supplier
• Decrease backpressure: screw working too
for details.
hard—check resin supplier for
Mechanical or Design recommended ranges. +$

• If maximum melt and mold temperatures • Increase screw rpm makes screw return
are reached and pressure is at maximum, quicker (avoid excessive shear, watch for
then consider moving tool to a machine with degradation). +$
higher pressure/use machine with higher • Decrease screw speed / prevent screw from
volume capacity. slipping or building excessive shear and heats.

158
®
 Troubleshooting

• Check for bridging at the feed throat— Consider shut-off nozzles or tips so the screw
increase cooling on feed throat / prevent can begin to return sooner and not have to wait for
material melting and clogging the feed throat. the gates to solidify.
• Confirm hopper is supplying material STICKING: PART(S)
consistently and sufficiently.
Definition
Results At the ejection stage, the part(s) and/or the
• Decrease melt temperature to prevent sprue sticks in the cavity or sometimes the part
screw slippage. will stick on the core. This includes a part(s)
hesitating before ejection, which leads to part
• Increase melt temperature to reduce deformation or damage. Remember that if the
torque on screw motor (if possible monitor sprue sticks and does not separate from the tool, it
motor torque). will appear that the part is sticking. If you suspect
• Arrange the barrel temperatures with a the sprue is the cause see next section on Sprue.
reverse profile where the second heat zone Root Causes
(or zone at the beginning of the • Not enough or too much shrinkage (see
compression stage on the screw) is higher unstable dimensions).
by at least 20°F than any other zone /
provide more heat to soften material to feed • Damaged mold surface (burrs, machine tool
better into the compression zone. $? marks, poor surface conditions).

• Confirm hopper loader is working properly. • Damaged sprue bushings from knocking
out sprues from nozzle side.
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design • Improper mold / part design.
• Undercuts too deep for resin.
Resin
• Small draft or lack of draft (friction too
• Check resin for fines and pellet high).
inconsistency: fines can slow and even stop
feeding. Check with resin supplier.
• Overpacking the tool (especially with
amorphous materials).
Mechanical or Design
• Ejectors limited in size, number, or in
• Review screw and check nonreturn valve wrong position.
for wear: if screw rotates during injection
• Mold steel or polish is incompatible with
then check ring is slipping. If necessary
material/part release.
replace check ring. +$
• See Sprue sticking.
• Move mold to machine with larger shot
capacity. STICKING: PARTS SOLUTIONS
• Change screw design. Look at higher Results
compression ratios—more flights/per screw
diameter, and such special designs as a
• Decrease packing pressure / not enough
shrinkage for crystalline parts—overpacked
barrier screw versus general-purpose
amorphous parts. +$
designs. Also evaluate the screw depth in
the feeding zone and compare with pellet • Decrease cooling time for sticking on core/
dimensions. shrink less on core. +$

159
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Increase injection velocity/flow front is Results

cooling too rapidly and causing excessive • Decrease mold temperature/faster cooling—
cavity pressures in first part of fill. Check less shrinkage—stiffer parts. +$
for sprue sticking (see Sticking Sprue). +$
• Adjust mold temperature halves
• Use mold release, especially for start up/ independently to control sticking (i.e., a
temporary solution only (Can help in cooler mold would result in less shrinkage
determining if the part or the sprue is around core for crystalline materials). $?
sticking, spray release only on mold surface,
A side, to test if part is sticking. Consider See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
applying the mold release only to the
suspected area of sticking to confirm Resin
localized sticking. This helps save money
on reworking/repairing a localized section
• Try a resin with higher modulus (stiffness)
so it will not flex when ejected.
of the tool.)
• Try resin with less modulus for parts with
• Review ejector timing and confirm ejection deep undercuts.
takes place when part is free to fall.
• Add mold release to material or use material
• Adjust clamp breakaway speed/increase or with mold release (e.g., zinc stearate).
decrease clamp breakaway speed. Too fast can Caution: Mold release can cause plate-out
cause vacuum and too slow can allow part to and effect printability, especially with
break away from core and stick in the cavity. excessive heat. –$
Mechanical or Design
• Inspect for vacuum when part ejects—
Inspect air eject and increase air eject or • Check tool for insufficient cooling as in
change timing depending on which side is blocked water channels or improper
sticking. Note: Too much air and poor plumbing (consider bubblers or thermal
timing can blow part back into cavity/parts pins). / Cool part faster and increase
can pull a vacuum upon clamp open and stiffness (not soft from melt) before
ejection (see Mechanical). ejection.

• Increase packing pressure/stiffen part upon • Review draft (or lack thereof) on core and
core pins / Increase as recommended by
ejection (Caution: Overpacking amorphous
resin manufacturer. (Note: Always check
materials can lock a tool shut! Always try
with part designer to see if increased draft
reducing packing pressure first.) May need
causes other problems such as assembly
to increase packing time, too, because the
conflicts.)
gate(s) is not frozen at current packing time.
–$ • Review slides for proper movement; correct
as necessary.
• Increase cooling time for sticking in cavity/
force more shrinkage around core or form • Inspect for undercuts that are too big or in
stiffer part. Also, will help solidify parts. –$ the wrong place or mold/ sprue design /
review design for material.
• Decrease injection velocity / decrease • Inspect for burrs / or damage; polish off
maximum cavity pressure. –$ burrs or repair damage.
• Check for excessive or not enough • Inspect for vacuum / parts can pull a
shrinkage. (see Voids) vacuum upon ejection—install air eject or

160
®
 Troubleshooting

air poppets. Review for too much mirror
Sprue not sized properly.
polish / too high can cause the part to seal

Inadequate draft or lack of draft (friction
against the core and cavity and create a
vacuum especially for soft materials. too high).

• Consider mold coatings (see mfg.
Improper sprue puller.

recommendations) / reduce friction upon
Sprue bushing cross polished instead of
ejection / material is incompatible with draw polished.
mold steel.
• See part sticking.
• Review ejector design / not enough or need
larger diameter pins (more surface area
pushing) or in wrong place. Consider
STICKING SPRUE SOLUTIONS
stripper plate. Results
• Perform short shot analysis and check for • Use mold release for start up
flow restrictions that cause stalled flow and
too high of cavity pressures. Modify tool • Decrease packing pressure and or time/
with thicker walls or with flow channels. allow more shrinkage for crystalline
parts—overpacking amorphous parts. +$
SPRUE • Decrease cooling time / keep sprue hotter
(S T I C K I N G O R B R E A K I N G ) upon ejection if too cold. +$
Definition
• Reseat nozzle/look for flash between nozzle
At the ejection stage, the part(s) and/or the and sprue bushing. (Caution: This can be
sprue sticks in the cavity. The part breaks away extremely dangerous! See Mechanical!)
from the sprue and leaves the sprue in the sprue
bushing. • Inspect for flash between nozzle and sprue
bushing (see mechanical for solution).
Root Causes

• Not enough shrinkage (overpacking • Apply sprue break function on the molding
the sprue). machine / break sprue away from nozzle. –$

• Sprue too cold. • Decrease injection velocity/decrease

maximum cavity pressure. –$
• Sprue too hot and not solidified (too soft)
upon mold open/ejection the sprue will • Increase cooling time / allow sprue to
break off from part. solidify (consider a mechanical change by
decreasing sprue size for better economics)
• Damaged sprue bushing surface (burrs, (see Mechanical). –$
machine tool marks, poor surface
conditions, damage sprue bushings from • Check for part sticking (see Sticking Part).
knocking out sprues from nozzle side.
Results
• Sprue bushing and nozzle/injection unit are • Decrease melt, nozzle, mold temperature/
misaligned.
sprue too soft faster cooling = sprue
• Improper design. solidifies. +$

Nozzle orifice sized larger than sprue • Increase nozzle temperature / allow sprue
orifice. to stay soft and break away from nozzle. –$

161
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

See Resin, Mechanical, or Design follow shut down procedures for extended idle
time on the machine.
Resin Root Causes
• Add mold release to material or use material Sweating—Tool is running colder than the dew
with mold release (i.e., zinc stearate). point for the air. Water vapor condenses on tool
(Caution: Excessive heat or mold release surface. Water will cause rust on improperly treated
can cause plateout and effect printability.) tools and can drip into cavity upon ejection and
cause surface defects such as bubbles and splay.
Mechanical or Design
Note: Turn off mold cooling prior to shut down
• Check for adequate cooling around sprue
(5 to 10 shots) to prevent excessive sweating.
bushing/hot drop so the sprue can cool
sufficiently. Corrosion—Some materials can cause tool
wear (and extruder wear) and corrosion. If this is
• Inspect for flash between nozzle and sprue suspected, contact your material supplier
bushing and check alignment. Permanently immediately and check for special equipment
and immediately fix any nozzle seating requirements for the material. Some requirements
problems! High injection speeds can spray could include tool hardness and surface treatments
molten material and can cause serious for things such as glass filled polymers and
injury. corrosive off-gassing.
• Inspect for undercuts or burrs in sprue, draw
polish sprue. S W E A T I N G /C O R R O S I O N
OF TOOL SOLUTIONS
• Review draft/taper (or lack thereof) on
sprue—increase draft to 3-5°F. Results
• Increase diameter of sprue if sprue too cold. • Run shorter cooling times (if possible) /
Follow guidelines for sizing tip orifice to increase operating mold temperature higher
“O” dimension of sprue bushing. than dewpoint. +$

• Decrease diameter sprue if not solidifying. • Wipe down tool with soft, absorbent cloth at
regular intervals—short-term results; use
• Review sprue puller operation and design. depends on severity and reoccurrence. This
Consider a reverse taper sprue puller cost production time to wipe down tool.
(undercut in B half). –$(see Slow Results Solutions).

SWEATING/ Results
CORROSION OF TOOL • Insulate outside of mold. +$
Definition • Increase mold temperature higher than
Sweating is moisture in the air condensing on dewpoint. –$
a tool, which can cause part defects and tool
corrosion.
• Consider dehumidifying equipment (usually
not cost effective, but some plants have
Internal corrosion can come from some installed dehumidifying equipment with
materials, especially if they are over heated and significant savings)—cycle time losses due
left in the barrel and/or the manifold for long to hotter molds must outweigh
periods at full heat. Always purge material and dehumidifying equipment costs. $?

162
®
 Troubleshooting

See Resin, Mechanical, or Design (See negative pressure cooling system

manufacture on safety precautions and
Mechanical or Design limits before applying to mold.)
• Check for leaks in plumbing. • Surface treat tool for corrosion resistance.
• Check for leaks in mold cooling channels (Note: Some surface treatments can reduce
(damaged tool). If minute cracks exist, thermal conductivity and increase cycle
negative pressure (vacuum flow) cooling times). –$
systems can be used temporarily; however, • Build mold from corrosion resistant
tool should be fixed as soon as possible. materials—such as stainless steel.

PART DEFECTS—VISIBLE
B L A C K S P E C K S (D A R K Black specks can appear soon after significant
SPOTS) drops in melt temperature or when a material is
followed by a higher viscosity material. This is an
Definition
indication of former degradation and carbon build
Black specks appear at random throughout up. The system requires a thorough cleaning.
the part. Consider using a proper purge compound (see
Root Causes resin supplier) before tearing down equipment.
• Main cause is degradation of material, B L A C K S P E C K S (D A R K
through improper processing or improper
start up and/or shut down procedures.
SPOTS) SOLUTIONS
• Resin contamination. Results
• Poor regrind. • Decrease screw speed and/or backpressure/
lower melt temperature and stop
Note: Remember to purge material in the degradation. Always check melt
barrel and flow path after each change. Black temperatures to insure process is within
speck contamination can be difficult to remove recommended melt temperature. +$
without cleaning barrel, nozzles, and manifolds.
If black specks appear only during cycle Results
interruptions, clean entire flow path of material • Decrease stock temperature across the flow
from barrel to tips. path of the material (barrel to hot tips) and
purge / stop degradation. +$
• Reduce decompress and purge / reduce air
in nozzle /tips. +$
• Decrease velocity and purge / shear
Figure 4. degradation. –$
Black specks in a
natural PE part.
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design

Resin
• Remove regrind material/eliminate possible
cause of contaminate.

163
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Check material for contamination (check difference in color and/or gloss surrounding the
inside the material (pellets) and with the gate and in the direction of flow.
material (such as dirt or rust)—if found Note: Stress whitening is sometimes referred
change material and purge. to as “blush.” See stress whitening if you think the
• Check colorants or dyes for incompatibility. fault is caused by mechanical stresses.
• Review resin shut down procedures. Root Causes
(see Priorities: Purging).
• Small gates with high injection velocities
Mechanical or Design can cause the resin to melt fracture upon
• Review flow path of resin for stagnant areas exiting the gate.
in manifolds, tips, etc. / remove stagnant • Can be formed by polymer melt sprayed out
areas when possible. of the gate onto the mold surface because
• Pull manifold and clean for carbon deposits. injection velocity is too high.
• Machine. • Can be caused by off-gassing and

Pull screw and clean for carbon deposits.
microscopically trapping gas at the
mold surface.

Review screw design.
• High orientation of material from

Review residence time in the barrel. If it runner/gates.
is too high (see recommended time from
material supplier), decrease cycle time, • Wet resin or volatiles.
change to smaller barrel/machine, • See splay.
increase number of cavities.
• See cold slug.

Review screw wear. If high, replace
screw to reduce slippage. • See jetting (review defect under
magnification and confirm).

Review all heaters and thermocouples for
faults / overheating and degrading
material. Check to see if PID controls for
heaters are cycling on and off properly
and drawing the correct amperage,
thermocouples are properly seated
(barrel, manifold, and drops), heating
elements are the proper wattage, and if
any heater relays are stuck on, and the
temperature control modules, cards, or
software is functioning properly and is Figure 5. A gate blush from left to right.
calibrated. / Faulty equipment over
heating plastic.
• Review gate design / gate too small,
high shear. Figure 6.
Gate blush from left to
B L U S H /G A T E B L E M I S H /S M E A R right

Definition
Blush is a hazy, low gloss imperfection(s)
normally found near the gate, usually appears as a

164
®
 Troubleshooting

B L U S H /G A T E B L E M I S H /S M E A R • Reduce the land length on the gate / reduce

SOLUTIONS overall shear material experiences going
through the gate.
Results
• Increasing injection rate can sometimes B U B B L E S /B L I S T E R S
move blush into a nonvisible area. $ Definition

• Decrease decompress / reduce possible Bubbles are captured pockets of air/gas

degradation due to heat and exposure to air (see voids for vacuum pockets).
and reduce possibility of air in first part of In clear parts the bubbles are usually elongated
shot. $ in the direction of flow and can be found at random
in the part. They can be found near the surface with
• Decrease injection rate or profile the rate to a very thin skin of polymer, which can look like
slow then increase the rate to allow material
delamination or a blister. They can also form on the
to fill the area around the gate and avoid a
backside (from direction of flow) of any core pin or
blemish.?$
near the end of flow of a weld line. They can form
Results near the surface or in the middle of a part. They can
• Decrease melt temperature / resin is off- have a glossy, smooth texture on the inside surface.
gassing (only if melt temperature is They are easily confused with vacuum voids,
excessively high). +$ which are caused by material shrinking and
forming a pocket. All nontransparent parts should
• Increase melt temperature / gate shear too be cut open and inspected for internal bubbles and/
high. – $ or voids.
• Increase nozzle temperature / shear too
high. – $

See Resin, Mechanical, or Design

Resin
• Check for high moisture content (see
streaks/splay) / reduce off-gassing due to
water vapor. Figure 7. Bubble formed downstream of core pin.
Mechanical Or Design Note: void would be more toward corner of part.

• Remove sharp corners or burs near gate /

remove excessive shear.
• Check hot tips and valve-gates for sharp
edges or burrs and remove to avoid high
shear. Figure 8.
Cross-section—high
• Consider cold slug wells for sprue and/or moisture content in
for runners / all first material to collect in material.
cold wells upon injection.
• Increase sprue, runner and/or gate size /
reduce high shear. (Note: This can increase
overall cycle time).

165
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Root Cause • Increase packing pressure / dissolve or

During the extrusion or injection of material, squeeze air out. The bubbles should become
pockets of air are captured and deposited into the smaller as packing pressure is increased
cavity. Some probable causes are: (Note: Make sure packing time is long
enough so that gate freezes before packing
• Flow of material near weld line can capture is released.) –$
a pocket of air; also known as back fill or
race tracking. • Check if the screw bottomed out during
packing—if so, increase shot size / insure
• Low backpressure allows capture of air in shot size is large enough to pack out bubbles
barrel. and leave a cushion. –$
• Too much decompress pulls air deep into tip • Increase backpressure / remove air
or nozzle. entrapment. –$
• Severe off-gassing, (e.g., as steam from • Decrease injection speed / allow better
water) (see silver streaks). venting. –$
• No or very little packing pressure. • Try different staged velocity profiles to
• Screw slippage. change flow path.

• Wrong screw design, needs higher • See burning / gas traps.

compression screw.

• Shot size more than 80% of barrel capacity.

Figure 10. Flow front wraps around and

captures pocket of air and forms weld line.

Figure 9. Bubbles with burn trails.

Results
• Decrease melt temperature / off-gassing. +$
B U B B L E S /B L I S T E R S • Clean vents / remove gas traps from clogged
SOLUTIONS venting.
Results • Increase heat zone near compression stage
• Decrease decompress/avoid trapping gas in on screw / get better melting and
nozzle or tips. +$ compression of material. –$

• Increase / decrease injection speed / change • Increase melt/mold temperature / change

flow pattern of material. $? flow patterns. –$

166
®
 Troubleshooting

See Resin, Mechanical, or Design Root Causes

• Burns are captured pockets of air that

Mechanical or Design combust under high heats and fast
• Change flow pattern to alter air entrapment compression (dieseling) due to lack of
(e.g., gate location, flow channels, wall venting of clogged vents, improperly
thickness, etc.). designed vents, weld lines, or no vents at all.
• Increase and/or relocate venting / remove • The injection rate can be too fast for the
gas traps. vent design so compressed gases can not
• Check shot size to barrel capacity. If more escape fast enough.
than 80%, consider machine with larger • The clamp tonnage can be too high for the
shot capacity. mold and closes vents.
• Check for screw slippage / review screw • Melt temperature is too high and near
design or reverse profile.
ignition point of resin and/or causing
B U R N S /D I E S E L I N G /B L A C K excessive off-gassing.
SURFACE
Definition
Burns are normally black discolorations with a
rough surface, but can range in colors from black to
tan to white. They are normally found near end-of-
fill or weld line areas. They are very destructive to
the tool and should be resolved immediately. Burns
can be found in weld lines where air cannot escape.
Burns can be found near areas of poor venting.
Note: To verify venting is the problem before
cutting steel, clean all vents and/or reduce clamp
Figure 12. Burn at end-of-fill on large thin wall part.
tonnage. For localized testing, place a piece of
tape near area to vent (or vent in question) and run
only a few parts and look for improvements. B U R N S /D I E S E L I N G /B L A C K
Remove tape immediately afterward to prevent SURFACE SOLUTIONS
damaging the tool.
Results
• Clean vents / release trapped gas/air. (Note:
On some molds this may require lengthy
mold maintenance and may not be a fast
result.)
• Decrease clamp tonnage / compressing
steel and closing vents.
• Stage injection speed with slow speeds at
the end / allow gas to escape and/or change
flow pattern.
• Decrease injection rate / compressing air
Figure 11. Burn at end-of-fill for glass filled part. faster than it can escape through the vents. –$

167
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Reduce barrel residence time / remove time • Machine is not thoroughly purged from
material is exposed to heat. previous material or purging compound.
Results • Incompatible/incorrect purging compound
• Decrease melt temperature / prevent off- was used.
gassing and reduce overall temperature of • Material is not thoroughly mixed with blend
material (review backpressure and screw or additives.
rpm too). +$
• High shear or temperature degrades
material. High heat and shear can degrade
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design the original clarity to white, yellow, or
black.
Resin
• Hot tips too small or too hot can cause
Check for excessive off-gassing from items
cloudy streaking.
such as wet resin or degrading polymer. Review
venting design. • Defect in flow path of material or corners
Check for resin contamination / contaminate can cause excessive shear that degrades
degrades and off gases at resin melt temperature. material.

Mechanical or Design • Additive levels too high and can produce

excessive plate out on mold surface.
• Increase venting areas. (Avoid making vents
deeper, but increase area. This allows for • Wet resin.
better venting but avoids possible flash. See • If you suspect the haze is on the surface, see
resin supplier for venting specifications.) gloss, (Note: Review part under microscope
• Place new vents in area of the burns. for plate out or minute scratches in direction
of ejection. Watch tool for white plate-out.)
• Review plastic flow / change flow pattern to See Gloss.
avoid trapping gas by changing gate
location(s), flow channels, and/or changing • See streaking.
wall stock thickness.
CLOUDY OR HAZY SOLUTIONS
• Install vented ejector pins in close proximity
to the burn. Results
• Pull vacuum on the cavity. • Increase injection speed / provide better
shear mixing and reduce cold stresses. +$
• Use porous steel near area of burn. (Note:
May require high maintenance to keep steel
• Increase backpressure / provide better
mixing. Note: Always check melt
clean.)
temperature before and after proper mixing
CLOUDY OR HAZY is reached. $?
(C L E A R P A R T S O N L Y ) • Increase screw rotation speed. / provide
Definition better mixing. $?
Cloudy or haze of color throughout part or can • Decrease injection speed / reduce shear that
be in the direction of flow. Note: This is not is degrading color. –$
surface haze or lack of gloss.
Results
Root Causes
• Decrease melt temperature / prevent
• Contamination. material from degrading. +$

168
®
 Troubleshooting

• Decrease nozzle, manifold, or hot tip Root Causes

temperature / degrading resin by shear or • Material is not thoroughly mixed with color
heat. +$ as it enters cavity.
• Increase melt temperature for better • High shear or temperature and/or residence
mixing. –$ time degrades color. High heat/time can
• Increase nozzle, manifold, or hot tip degrade the original color from different
temperature / prevent degrading resin by shades to a completely different color (i.e.,
shear. –$ green to blue). Note: When color streaks in
several distinct flow paths, check hot tips.
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design Hot tips that are too small or too hot can
cause the same number of color streaks as
openings in the hot tips.
Resin
• Pigment carrier is not compatible with base
• Dry resin / remove moisture. material. Melt flow / index of pigment
• Check resin for contamination / purge carrier and base material should be nearly
machine and remove contamination. the same.
• Review level of additives / too much • Additives hoppers are operating
additive. inconsistently.
Mechanical or Design • See streaking.
• Remove burrs from hot tips, valve gates,
and sharp corners in the direct flow path of
the material to reduce excessive shear and
degradation.
• Use smaller gates / improve mixing.
• Use larger gates/tips / remove high shear
areas. Figure 13.
Color variations from
• Review different screw design /for better part to part and within
parts.
mixing.
• Try machine with screw with larger L/D.
• Use screw with mixing head or mixing
nonreturn valve.
• Polish the flow path of resin from nozzle to
gates / rough surface in flow path at high
speeds can degrade sensitive polymers. Figure 14. Purge mate-
rial showing effects of
high heats on color
COLOR DISTRIBUTION POOR (degradation on right.)
Definition
Alternating shades of color throughout part,
usually in the direction of flow or differing shades
from part to part.

169
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

COLOR DISTRIBUTION POOR Mechanical or Design

SOLUTIONS • Review different screw design for better
mixing.
Results
• Try machine with screw with higher L/D.
• Increase injection speed / provide better
mixing. +$ • Use screw with mixing head, nozzle, or
mixing nonreturn valve. (Caution: This can
• Increase backpressure / provide better increase overall operating pressures and
mixing. Note: Always check melt energy consumption.)
temperature before and after proper color
mixing is reached. $? • Use smaller gates /improve mixing.
• Increase screw speed / provide better • Use larger gates/tips / remove high shear
mixing. $? areas that degrade color.

• Decrease injection speed / reduce shear that • Review mold design for proper design of
is degrading color. –$ cooling to channels to provide the best,
consistent cooling.
Results
• Consider mixing nozzles as a last measure.
• Decrease melt temperature if color is Be aware that many mixing nozzles require
degrading. +$ high machine pressures and increase
• Decrease nozzle, manifold, or hot tip operating costs.
temperature / degrading resin by heat. +$
COLD SLUGS
• Increase melt temperature / increase mixing. Definition
–$
Cold slugs are solidified (but usually still soft)
• Increase nozzle, manifold, or hot tip material coming out of the nozzle or hot runners
temperature / degrading resin by shear. –$ that leave a “short, spaghetti-like” impression in
the surface of the part. It can cause a mechanical
• Change mold temperature. Increase mold weakness in the part, including weld lines, if
temperature to increase color richness material must split around it during flow. Can be
(darker) or decrease mold temperature to confused with drool. This is not considered a
decrease color richness (lighter). $? nonmelt (see nonmelts).

See Resin, Mechanical, or Design

Resin

• Check with color supplier for compatibility,

pigment choices, pigment size, and dye
solubility, and confirm the melt flow rate/
index is close.
• Increase color concentration to more
uniform color (Note: This can increase
costs and reduce mechanical properties.
Always check with color supplier for Figure 15. Cross-sectioned part with slug
correct let down ratios.) in glass-filled PPS.

170
®
 Troubleshooting

• Check clearance for hot drops. If clearance

is not correct, contact area is too small, the
hot drop heats up, and the mold base then
acts as a heat sink.
• Increase cold well slug length/depth.
(Note: For cold well slugs at the sprue,
confirm that the centerline of the cold slug
well is in alignment with the center line of
the sprue.
• May require cold slug wells in runner /
capture cold slugs in wells.
Figure 16. Cold slug at end of fill.
• Increase nozzle orifice diameter / prevent
cold slugs from developing in nozzle.
Root Causes
(Consider shut off nozzle or valves.)
• Material is too cold from low melt
temperature or cooling prematurely. • If using long nozzle tips, improve heating
by installing heater bands and
• Improper nozzle design. thermocouples (or increasing the heater
• Poor runner design (no or improperly band capacity)/ prevent the material from
designed cold slug wells). solidifying in nozzle.

• See drool (look for sprue or hot tip vestige). CRAZING, STRESS WHITENING
COLD SLUGS SOLUTIONS Definition
Crazing is formed primarily by residual
Results stress. It is comprised of minute cracks that
• Increase velocity / increase melt develop in the part after forming. They can be
temperature. +$ large and form immediately after molding, or
• Decrease decompress / prevent premature extremely small and take days to form, or a
cooling. +$ combination of each. The cracks can be so small
that they are not visible to the naked eye, but
• Increase backpressure / increase melt when formed in large amounts in a collected area,
temperature. $? they appear as a white stress mark on the parts
• Increase residence time by increasing screw (may appear as silver stress points on clear parts).
rpm/increase melt homogeneity. They are very sensitive to external forces, wetting
agents, swelling from chemical adsorption, and
Results chemical diffusion. They are very dependent on
Increase nozzle temperature. –$ resin type.
Increase hot runner / tip temperature. –$ Note: These are sometimes stress whitening,
referred to as “blush” in some markets.
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
Root Causes

Mechanical or Design • The main cause is stress, but stress can be

caused by:
• Check hot tips and manifold are working
properly.
Flow stresses (too fast or too cold).

171
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Shrink stresses (shrinkage too great for • Increase cooling time / decrease ejection
mold), inspect for voids (see voids) / temperature and allow part wall to become
shrinkage stresses. stiffer upon ejection. (see slow results:

Demolding stresses (see part sticking).
colder mold—more economical). –$

• Expansion stresses (molten internal pressure Results

pushing on solidified wall after ejection). • Decrease ejection temperature by
decreasing mold temperature/ stiffen part
• Part design (i.e., no radius with high walls before ejection (part dependent).
shrinkage). (Note: Remember, a colder mold will help
• Packing / density / crystallinity variations. cycle time, but it can increase cold flow
• Heat stress (short and long term). stresses—review part after each change)
(colder mold will make crystalline materials
• Chemical stress (long term). less crystalline and may flex easier). +$
• UV degradation (long term). • Check for balanced mold half-temperatures
• Physical forces. or uneven mold cooling / variations in
crystallinity throughout part.
• Increase mold and/or melt temperature /
decrease cold flow stresses. –$
• Increase ejection temperature by increasing
the mold temperature / make part more
flexible for ejection—see Short Term—
decrease cooling time—more economical
(part dependent). –$

See Resin, Mechanical, or Design

Resin
Figure 17. White stress from ejector pushing • Use material with stiffer modulus that will
on stuck part.
not give upon injection.
• Use softer material that will flex upon
CRAZING, STRESS WHITENING injection.
SOLUTIONS Note: In either case, make sure resin meets all
Results other mechanical properties specifications.
• Decrease cooling time / allow part to be Mechanical or Design
more flexible upon ejection (part • Remove sharp corners (no radius) or burrs
dependant). +$ that cause degradation.
• Decrease pack/hold pressure / overpacked • Review uneven shrinkage due to thick and
gate with residual stresses. +$ thin walls / consider smoothing out
• Increase injection fill pressure / pressure thickness differences.
limited thus velocity varies and causes • Review ejection stresses / part sticking and
differing stresses. ejection stresses part (see part sticking).
• Increase/decrease injection velocity / • Change part design to withstand demanding
induced stress—use staged velocities. $? demolding operations.

172
®
 Troubleshooting

DELAMINATION • Apply reverse heat profile / more uniform

melt temperature (can reduce overall melt
Definition
temperature).
Delamination is where a surface skin is
formed. It can be separated from the part and
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
cause mechanical weaknesses.
Root Cause Resin
• Main cause is incompatible or improperly • Check for contamination and purge / wrong
mixed materials. resin in feed or hopper (common problem
• Contamination. with machines that run polyethylene and
polypropylene).
• Nonuniform melt temperatures.
• Dry material / prevent off-gassing.
• Skin sticks to hot mold.
Mechanical or Design
• Wet material (see Bubbles/Blisters).
• Use press with larger shot capacity / better
• Gate specific: too high packing pressure. mixing.
Note: If the delamination is right at the
• Use screw designed for better mixing.
gate, consider reducing packing pressure.
When a part shrinks away from the gate or • Check mold cooling to prevent skin
sprue bushing, high packing pressures will sticking to mold / part is ejecting before it
sometimes force more material into the gap has completely solidified.
between the part and the mold cavity. This
forms a thin layer of polymer on the surface E J E C T O R M A R K S /H O L E S
of the part and can appear as delamination. Definition
Circular marks (or marks shapes like the pin)
• See cold flow.
that form as raised surfaces, sinks, impressions,
• See splay/silver streaks. changes in gloss, or holes on part surface where
• See bubbles. ejector pin(s) pushes on surface. Marks can form on
the same side or opposite side of the ejector pins.
DELAMINATION SOLUTIONS Root Causes

Results • Part is too soft upon ejection; can cause

• Increase screw speed / better mixing. $? impressions or even holes.

• Increase backpressure / better mixing. $? • Too much packing or packing on first stage
causes flash around pin head.
• Increase cooling time / allow part to cool
more and not stick to mold upon ejection. –$ • Too much force is required to eject part.
Part lacks draft (see Part sticking).
• Decrease packing pressure / reduce material
backfilling gap between part and mold.
• Ejector pin is wrong length:

Too short of pin—raised mark on
Results surface.
• Decrease mold temperature / stop material
from partially sticking to mold wall upon
Too long of pin—depression in part.
ejection. +? • Ejector pin is wrong diameter:
• Increase melt temperature / better mixing
Too small will cause flash and leave
and better melt uniformity. –$ mark of same shape of pin.

173
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

Too large and pin can overheat from Results

friction and lack of venting and cause • Decrease melt temperature / increase
sinks opposite of pin or changes in gloss. viscosity of resin. +$
• Ejector plate out of alignment causes pins to • Decrease mold temperature / cool resin
overheat and cause sinks opposite of pin. sooner and prevent flashing around pin
• Mold flexes upon injection, which opens the head. +$
gap around the pin.
• Not enough pins, pin surface, or wrong See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
location to eject part properly.
Mechanical or Design
• Check mold for proper cooling.
• Check ejector plate alignment / avoid pins
overheating.
Figure 18.
Ejectors deform soft • Check pin length and diameter / reduce
part. misalignment of pin with mold. surface and
increase pin ventilation.
• Check for damaged pins (bent).
• Check mold design for deflection /
strengthen mold base plate.
• Install larger diameter pins or more pins
(or blades) to increase overall ejection
Figure 19. surface area.
Ejectors—stress
whitening on • Place pins in strategic places to eject part
opposite side.
with evenly distributed force.
• Review part design for proper draft to
reduce required force to eject part.

E J E C T O R M A R K S /H O L E S GLOSS: LOW AND HIGH

SOLUTIONS Definition

Results Gloss is the amount of light reflected from the

surface of the part. It is rated on how much light is
• Decrease cooling time / change shrinkage to reflected at different angles and the degree of
allow part to release easier. +$ scatter. Parts with high gloss reflect the majority of
• Decrease packing pressure / reduce flash light with very low scatter. Low gloss is low
around ejector pin head and/or allow part to reflection at differing angles with large scatter.
eject with less force (overpacking). +$ Root Cause
• Remove packing on first stage / reduce flash Parts can have different levels of gloss due to
around ejector pin. several factors or a combination of factors:
• Increase cooling time / allow part to stiffen. • Cold melt/mold temperatures.
–$
• Mold surface finish is dull / uneven due to
• Decrease ejector speed. plate-out / off-gassing.

174
®
 Troubleshooting

• Part dragging (see part sticking) / look for • Increase packing pressure / mirrors mold
white powder on mold surface. surface. –$
• Melt temperature is too hot and causes Results
additive to bloom and coat part surface. • Clean (hand polish) mold and vents.
Can even coat mold to prevent good contact
with mold surface.
• Increase temperature (mold/melt) / polymer
conforms to mold surface better. –$
• Not enough packing to replicate mold
surface. See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
• Improper mold finish.
Resin
• See weld lines (gloss differs at weld lines).
Reduce level of additives if plate-out exists.
• See burns (light burns can appear as a Use material with slip agent to reduce dragging.
reduction in gloss or even an increase
Note: Too much slip can cause build up on mold
where material is overheated).
surface and reduce gloss over a period of time.
• See blush or splay for gloss changes near Mechanical or Design
gates only.
• Machine-polish the mold surface.
Note: Textured surfaces have an opposite
effect than do highly polished surfaces. For • Improve venting / to remove possible light
example, an increase in packing pressure will burns and gas traps and allow material to
increase gloss on a polished surface and reduce pack against mold surface.
the gloss on a textured surface. This is because the • Review draft / parts could be rubbing on
material will replicate the surface with more ejection (Note: Review part under
packing pressure, higher melt and mold microscope for minute scratches in
temperatures, or with faster injection speeds. direction of ejection. Watch tools for white
build up).

FLASH
FLASH ON 1ST STAGE
Figure 20. FLASH ON 2ND STAGE
Gloss with cold mold
versus hot mold (on Definition
right).
Flash is polymer that escapes the boundaries
of the mold, usually at parting lines, but it can be
found at seams for vents, pins, and movable
sections. Flash can occur in both stages of the
process, but the remedies can differ.
GLOSS SOLUTIONS First determine the stage of flash. To
determine what stage is causing the flash, turn the
Listed are solutions for increasing gloss—do
packing (second stage) pressure to zero. If flash
the opposite (where reasonable and applicable) to
occurs, then at least some flash is occurring on
reduce gloss.
first stage. If not, then all the flash is occurring on
Results second stage.
• Increase injection rate / polymer is hotter Root Causes
when is reaches mold surface. +$ • First-stage flash:
175
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Too much material pressed into mold • Decrease injection rate / reaches parting line
(shot size too large). too hot. –$

Viscosity of polymer is too low (thin). • Increase clamp tonnage / plastic pressure
higher than clamp (watch for burn / trap

Too high melt temperature.
gas). Note: Reducing clamp tonnage on a

Velocity is too high. small mold in a large platen can reduce flash

Material melt index/flow is too high. if the platen is warped (not visible to the
naked eye); however, it is not recommend
• Second Stage flash: that small molds be run on large platens.

Packing Pressure too high. Results
• Machine tonnage too low. • Decrease melt temperature / increase melt
• Mold or melt too hot. viscosity. +$

• Vents too deep.

• Decrease mold temperature / increase skin
thickness. +$
• Mold damaged or mold flexing (not enough
support).
• Increase melt temperature / resin viscosity
to high with too high fill pressure. –$
• Required polymer pressure is too high for
mold design (can lead to flash and short See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
shots within same part).
• If low pressure molding with foam, too Resin
much blowing agent or too much gas can • If foam molding, review amount of foaming
cause flash. for process and reduce if possible.
• Machine damage such as stretched tie bar or • Choose a resin with a lower melt index/flow
a warped platen. to increase the viscosity of the resin.
Mechanical or Design
• Repair damaged parting line / can check
with metal bluing or pressure tape.
• Review mold integrity and confirm mold is
assembled properly and is tight.
• Review mold support and confirm mold is
not deflecting on fill.
• Use multiple gates or sequential gating to
reduce overall maximum pressure required
to fill mold.
Figure 21. A typical flash at end-of-fill.
• Evaluate vent depth, ejector pin clearance,
FLASH SOLUTIONS slide shut-off, etc.
• Incorporate preload for core pins that are
Results shut off.
• Reduce shot size / packing on fill. +$ • Review machine tolerances for misaligned
• Decrease hold/packing pressure / too much or damaged tie bars, oversized platen for
cavity pressure. +$ mold, loose clamp, or distorted platens.

176
®
 Troubleshooting

• Consider mold relief ( 3/4 " of surface around FLOW LINES SOLUTIONS
cavities touches first when mold closes) to
place tonnage in critical areas. Results
• Increase injection rate / shear thin for better
FLOW LINES flow and mixing. +$
Definition
• Decrease injection rate / remove shear heat.
Lines that outline the flow path of the material –$
usually in direction from gate to end-of-fill. Lines
can be both parallel (side of flow) and Results
perpendicular (flow front) to the flow of polymer. • Increase melt/mold temperature / better
Area is usually lower in gloss and distinctly maps flow for high shear runner. –$
the flow path of the material.
• Increase melt temperature / better flow and
Root Causes melt uniformity. –$
• Main cause is melt or mold is too cold.
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
• Too slow flow rate in mold.
• Too high flow rate in runner or undersized Mechanical or Design
runners. High shear heat, small runner
• May require runner size increase to reduce
designs, and poor melt mixing result in
runner shear effects and restriction on fill
differing flows of polymer due to different
time.
temperature gradients. When the flow exits
the gate, hot material flows to the outside • Install mixing nozzle, mixing screw, or a
and cold flows toward the middle and melt flipper™ to provide more consistent
leaves flow lines. flow and melt homogeneity during
injection.
• Review flow path for sharp corners and
burrs and remove to prevent localized shear
heating.
Figure 22.
Flow lines from
mold and poor melt G R O O V E S /R I P P L E S
uniformity. Definition
Concentric rings or grooves that are parallel
to each other in the direction of flow.
Root Causes
Material is cooling too quickly and causes the
flow front to alternate in flowing and elongating
as melt is pushed forward. The elongated areas
look like depressions or grooves in the surface of
Figure 23. the part:
Flow lines from low
melt temperature. • Material is too cold.
• Tool is too cold.
• Injection velocity is too slow for the
thickness of the part.

177
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

J-H O O K S S O L U T I O N S
Results
Figure 24. • Increase injection rate / change mold filling
Rings parallel to pattern. +$
flow.
• Decrease injection rate / slow fill over
structures. –$
• Increase packing pressure and/or time / pack
fill over mold detail to mimic mold surface.
–$
G R O O V E S /R I P P L E S Results
SOLUTIONS • Increase melt/mold temperature / better
flow. –$
Results
• Remove pressure limitations / flow front See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
slowing down to maintain pressure setting
and cooling to quickly. +$
Mechanical or Design
• Increase injection speed / flow front cooling • Review mold detail and reduce size and
to quickly. –$
sharp edges where the flow can capture air.
Results • Increase radius / less abrupt change in flow.
• Increase mold / melt temperature / prevent
flow front from cooling too quickly. –$ • Change gate location / change mold filling
pattern.
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design JETTING
Definition
Mechanical or Design
Jetting is laminar flow that extrudes from the
• Review runner design / increase runner size gate as a strand in a random, snake-like fashion.
to prevent material cooling too rapidly. Material will form “spaghetti-like” formation and
• Reduce wall thickness to increase flow front can cause weak points because cold material does
velocity. not bond well. This is because the polymer strand
develops a skin of solidified polymer and can also
J-H O O K S capture air pockets. The surface can look like
Definition alternating changes of color or shade where strand
Flow lines that are shaped like a J or a U. formations touch the surface of the mold. Sectioning
a part can expose the severity of the jetting.
Prevalent in acrylic and polycarbonate, but can
be found in other resins; especially noticeable in Root Causes
clear resins. They look very similar to air hooks. Material does not form a uniform flow front at
Root Causes the beginning of the shot. This can be caused by:
As material flows over changing detail in tool, • Injection speed is too high and shoots
the flow front solidifies over structure and leaves material across cavity.
lines (see flow lines). • Injection speed is too low and material cools
• See splay/silver streaks / air hooks. too rapidly before it enters the gate.

178
®
 Troubleshooting

• Material is too cold and forms strand • Shorten gate land length / lessen land
entering the cavity. length to prevent the material forming and
extrusion.
• Wrong gate location (gate enters large
cavity—should point to wall or core).
SHORT SHOTS
• Improper sized gate(s) for desired (N O N F I L L S , U N D E R F I L L S )
injection speeds.
DEFINITION
A short shot is an incomplete fill of the tool
cavity.

ROOT CAUSES
• Not enough shot size to fill the cavity.
• Nonreturn valve is leaking.
• Material freezing prematurely and not
Figure 25. Short shot exposing jetting action.
reaching the end of the cavity.

JETTING SOLUTIONS • Flow paths can be too restrictive for

machine capacity and/or resin viscosity.
Results
• Can be caused by gas traps (look for
• Increasing injection rate can sometimes burning), which prevent the material from
remove jetting / reduce viscosity of completely filling the mold.
material for more uniform flow. +$
• Decrease injection rate / allow material to • See bubbles.
form flow front instead of projection of
string formations. –$
Results Figure 26.
Glass-filled PPS—Cor-
• Increase melt temperature to prevent ner of part underfilled
premature cooling and reduce material exposing glass fibers.
viscosity. –$
• Increase manifold temperature to prevent
premature cooling. –$

See Resin, Mechanical, or Design

Mechanical or Design Figure 27.

Flow fronts meet in area
• Increase gate size / slow down velocity of lacking venting and
cannot fill due to trapped
material through gate as it enters cavity. gas.
• Relocate gate to inject into wall or core /
form a flow front immediately after
entering the cavity.

179
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

SHORT SHOTS SOLUTIONS • Check nonreturn valve for leakage. (Look

for screw turning upon injection—if it does,
Results then the check ring is mostly likely leaking.)
• Increase injection speed / flow is freezing Note: Do not use packing pressure to fix an
prematurely. +$ extreme short shot to avoid overpacking or
• Decrease injection speed / filling cavity overstressing the part at the gates.
faster than gas can escape and causing gas
traps. +$
SINKS
Definition
• Remove time limitations / equipment
Depressions in the surface of the part
limitations.
Root Cause
• Increase shot size / increase the amount of
material shot into the mold. (This can be • Main cause—polymer shrinkage.
done by adjusting transfer point or point in • Usually caused by insufficient packing to
which the screw returns back.) overcome polymer shrinkage.
• Increase cushion / screw bottomed out and • Voids may be underneath surface of sink.
not enough packing.
• Part design flaws:
• Clean vents / remove air entrapment.

Thick sections—thick walls, bosses,
• Reduce clamp tonnage / reduce air corners, etc.
entrapment.

Thick walls perpendicular to thin
• Increase injection pressure / pressure sections, 60% of wall thickness is
limited. –$ recommended as maximum thickness.
• Increase packing pressure and/or time to See material supplier for best design.
completely fill part. –$ • Material flow rate is too low and will not
Results allow full pack because material solidifies
before packing pressure can be applied.
• Increase temperature (melt and or mold) /
freezing prematurely. –$ • Excessive heat causes more shrinkage/sinks
in crystalline parts.
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design

Mechanical Or Design
• Improve venting / air entrapment.
• Increase gate size and or runner/ freezing
premature or pressure limits.
• Check mold design (wall thickness) / mold /
machine limits.
• Consider relocating gate or increasing
number of gates to reduce require flow
length and pressure to fill cavity.
Figure 28. Sinks at end of fill due to underpacking.
• Design runners with cold slug traps / cold
slugs prevent full fill.

180
®
 Troubleshooting

• Decrease mold temperature / less shrinkage

and form thick skin on part (Note: Watch
for void formations). –$

See Resin, Mechanical, or Design

Mechanical or Design
• Check nonreturn valve for slippage / not
utilizing applied packing pressure. (Look
for screw turning upon injection—if it does,
then the check ring is mostly likely leaking;
Figure 29. Sinks due to oversized ribs on replace faulty nonreturn valve.
opposite side.
• Increase gate size / freezing prematurely.
SINKS SOLUTIONS • Review gate location, to be able to fill and
pack area before it solidifies.
Results • Review sprue size to make certain that flow
• Increase injection speed / freezing is not being restricted.
prematurely. +$
• Place cores in thick areas or reduce wall
• Increase injection pressure / pressure thickness / decrease overall shrinkage in
limited. +$ that particular location.
• Review wall thickness design. Material
• Remove time limitations on injection / should flow from thick to thin.
equipment limitations.
• Review part design and gate location where
• Increase shot size or cushion / not enough flow path goes from thin to thick. If thin
material. –$ part cools, it may not allow thick part to be
fully packed.
• Increase packing pressure / not enough
material applied to the cavity to counteract • See ejector marks for sinks occurring
for the shrinkage. –$ opposite of ejector pins.

• Increase hold time / gate not frozen off. –$ • Look for uneven cooling in mold / hot spot
causing excessive shrinkage.
• Increase cooling time / form thick skin on • Review sprue size to make certain that flow
part. (Note: On thick wall parts always wait is not being restricted.
for part to thoroughly cool before ejection.
Internal heat can soften outer walls and • Consider blowing agents or other types of
then cause excessive sinks when part cools microcellular molding methods.
internally.) –$ STREAKS:
Results B L A C K /B R O W N S T R E A K S
AND WHITE STREAKS
• Decrease melt temperature / less shrinkage.
Definition
+$
White/ brown /black streaks usually form
• Increase temperature (melt/mold) / freezing parallel to flow as well as radial from the gates.
prematurely. +$ The streaks are found on the surface and inside

181
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

the part. Faint white streaks sometimes form B R O W N /B L A C K S T R E A K S

before the brown/black streaks and can be seen SOLUTIONS
readily in clear polymers. Note: White streaks can
be confused with silver streaks, which primarily Results
form on the surface of the part in form of blisters • Reduce decompress / reduce air in nozzle /
(see silver streaks). They are caused by: tips. +$
Root Causes • Reduce backpressure / reduce melt
temperature and shear on material. +$
• Main cause is that material is degrading due
to excessive shear or heat. Look for: • Reduce screw speed / reduce melt
temperature and decrease residence time in

Excessive melt temperatures/settings. barrel.

Extreme injection velocities. • Reduce injection rate / reduce shear on
material. Check resin supply for

Long residence times. contamination. –$

Regrind that has several heat histories. Results

Sharp edges that dramatically increase • Reduce melt temperature / reduce
shear on the flow front degradation. Note: By operating on the high
limit of the melt temperature, the resin can
• Contamination from regrind. be extremely sensitive to the slightest shear,
(e.g., hot tips, sharp corners, etc.).
Note: At the first sign of black streaks, check
the actual melt temperature before making any • Reduce temperature of nozzle, manifold, or
adjustment. Excessive melt temperatures or melt hot tips / reduce possibility of shear.
temperatures on the high end of the recommended
melt range are the most probable cause of black See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
streaks. Streaks may appear periodically.
Resin
White streaks are usually the result of material
degradation, but not enough degradation to cause • Check material for contamination and remove
black streaks (see white/brown/black streaks). as necessary. Remember to purge system
before start up. Some contamination may be
just residual polymer from a former run that
Figure 30. degrades at current melt temperatures.
White and black streaks
from excessive • Remove regrind or reclaim / remove
degradation.
possible source of degraded material.
• Check material to see if it is dried at
excessive drying temperature or drying
time.
Mechanical or Design
Figure 31.
Severe degradation left • Review residence time in barrel / change to
by captured air, high fill
speeds, and excessive another machine if greater than
temperatures. recommended time and temperature for the
material.

182
®
 Troubleshooting

• Review flow path design for stagnant areas. • See delamination.

(This includes grooves in the screw to low • See bubbles/ blisters.
poor flow areas all the way to the gates,
especially in manifold systems.) Note: Silver streaks can be confused with
“white streaks.” Silver streaks are found primarily
• Review mold design for sharp edges and on the surface of the part, whereas white streaks
smooth / remove high shear/stress points in are found on the surface and internally.
direction of flow.
• Increase nozzle orifice size to reduce high
shear.
Figure 32.
• Review the gate dimensions for too great of Splay radiating out from
a restriction causing too great of shear. the sprue/gate.

• Verify thermocouples/ hot drops working

correctly. If a heater band quits working,
the bands on each side overheat to
compensate and then degrade the material. S I L V E R S T R E A K S /S P L A Y
SOLUTIONS
S P L A Y /S I L V E R S T R E A K S
Definition Results
Splay/silver streaks are mostly described as • Reduce decompress / remove excessive air
gas blisters that form streaks primarily on the in system. +$
surface and are parallel to flow from the gate. • Wipe down mold surface if sweating /
When excessive they can be confused with short-term results to remove moisture (see
delamination. They can appear very similar to sweating).
blisters. The definition of silver streaks can vary
throughout the industry, so observe defects under
• Increase backpressure / prevent screw from
capturing air. –$
magnification when possible. White streaks on
dark parts can appear to have a “silver” Results
appearance, but they may not have blisters. • Increase mold temperature / stop sweating.
(see black/brown and white streaks.) –$
Root Causes • Reduce melt temperature / reduce off-
The main cause is that the process is allowing gassing. +$
gas (air, steam from moisture, and/or off-gassing)
to get into the system and causing blisters along the See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
surface of the part that are elongated in the
direction of flow: Resin
• Wet resin. • Check hygroscopic material for moisture
• Mold sweating (see sweating). content—improve drying capacity. Confirm
material in hopper is dry and hopper is
• Mold cooling system leaking. sealed from outside air (closed system) /
• Material is off-gassing due to excessive remove moisture contamination.
temperatures. Mechanical or Design
• Excessive decompression. • Review mold for sweating (see sweating).
• See black/brown and white streaks. • Review mold for leaks.
183
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

GLASS FIBER STREAKS • Increase packing pressure and time /

squeeze more material to the surface and
Definition
mimic the mold surface. –$
Glass fiber rich surface, which is usually dull
and rough.
• Increase backpressure and/or screw speed /
increase melt temperature. Caution: Too
Root Causes much shear can reduce glass fiber length
The flow front freezes prematurely with the and will improve surface but can cause loss
protruding glass fiber at the surface. To remove the in mechanical properties.
surface defect, push more resin around glass fibers Results
to get a resin-rich surface. • Increase mold/ melt temperature / to improve
• Not enough packing pressure to insure a flow and obtain resin-rich surface. –$
resin rich surface.
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
• Melt or mold temperature too low to allow
resin to flow around glass fibers.
Resin
• If concentrated around a weld line—see • Use material with shorter or less glass
weld line. fibers. Note: Can reduce mechanical
• See short shot. strength.

• See gloss. • Use material with less glass content. Note:

Can reduce mechanical strength.

STRINGS / STRINGERS / WISPS

Figure 33.
DEFINITION: When small threads of
Dark areas are resin rich; polymer are pulled from the hot tip or sprue when
light areas are glass fibers parts are ejected. They can cause such surface
exposed on the surface.
defects as vestige or where a threadlike string
hangs from the part. They are a nuisance in
producing spider-like webbing on machine and
products.
Root Causes
Material is not solidified upon ejection and
Figure 34. polymer does not break away cleanly from the
Left plaque was molded
with a cold mold gate tip or sprue/nozzle. Molten material is
temperature exposing stretched from the gate tip or sprue/nozzle as part
glass fibers. ejects, which forms a thin strand of material.

GLASS FIBER STREAKS Figure 35.

SOLUTIONS String from nozzle side of
the sprue.
Results
• Increase injection rate / get material to the
mold surface quicker and hotter. +$

184
®
 Troubleshooting

STRINGS / WISPS SOLUTIONS • Shot size is too big for barrel capacity and
pellets at end of shot do not melt (residence
Results time is too short).
• Increase cooling time to allow material to • Wrong screw design (not enough
solidify in sprue. –$ compression).
Results
• Decrease hot tip, sprue temperature, nozzle NON-MELTS / WINDOWS
/ increase cooling rate. +$ SOLUTIONS
• Decrease melt temperature / increase Results
cooling rate. +$ • Increase backpressure / increase melt
• Decrease mold temperature / decrease temperature. –$
temperature at which parts eject. +$ • Increase screw speed / increase melt
• Increase melt temperature / reduce temperature. –$
viscosity of pool of material around hot tip. • Increase residence time / allow material to
+$ melt uniformly (let material heat soak). –$

See Resin, Mechanical, or Design Results

• Increase melt temperature to fully melt
Resin pellets. –$
• Check moisture content of resin / reduce
off-gassing and drool. See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
Mechanical or Design
Mechanical or Design
• Decrease hot tip or sprue size / allow
material to cool quicker. • Use machine with larger shot capacity.
• Increase clearance/contact area around hot • Use screw with higher compression zone or
tips to help tip cool off. (Note: This design specifically for resin. Barrier screws
modification is most effective when mold is help separate melt from pellets and are
at operating temperature.) usually an excellent fix for chronic nonmelt
problems.
• Confirm proper cooling around hot tips.
• Replace screw due to high wear.
NONMELTS, WINDOWS
Definition
WARPAGE / DEFORMATION
Nonmelts, windows, clear spots are unmelted Definition
pellets of resin. Warpage is distortion in part dimensions from
Root Causes
differential shrinkage
Not enough energy was applied to melt the Root Causes
resin pellets fully due to: • Shrinkage and stresses. Note: Always
• Melt temperature/barrel settings are too determine first whether warpage occurs
low. upon ejection, after the part cools, or after
the part experiences a second heat history.
• Not enough backpressure. Conditioning parts under a high heat but
• Cycle time is too short. below the melting temperature will relieve

185
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

stresses and will show the potential warpage

for the part.
• Flow orientation. For all parts, high-
Figure 36.
induced stresses can cause molecules to be Warp in direction of flow.
strained like a spring and will recoil or warp
relative to how much the material is allowed
to move.

Most plastics orient in the direction of flow
and will shrink more in the flow direction WARPAGE / DEFORMATION
than transverse. Materials are likely to form SOLUTIONS
more stresses the longer the flow length;
thus, it increases the likelihood for warpage Results
in the flow direction. • Change packing pressure.

Glass-filled materials tend to shrink/
Increase to improve.
warp more in the transverse direction
Cooling / mold contact.
due to the orientation of the glass, which
does not shrink. Part density / more material per volume
so less shrinkage.
• Inconsistent cooling. Semi-crystalline
materials primarily warp due to varying
Decrease to remove stress
crystallinity/shrinkage. Materials at hotter (i.e., overpacked gates).
cooling temperatures at longer periods of • Increase packing time / to allow gate freeze
time yield higher shrinkage, which yields off. –$
higher crystallinity. Uneven cooling will
contribute to warpage • Confirm cushion / packing may be
incomplete.
• Improper packing.
• Decrease / increase injection velocity /

Too high creates stresses from differing remove stress induced by shear flow. –$
densities (semi-crystalline) at gate versus
end-of-fill or in amorphous parts stresses • Increase cooling time / allow part to cool
are relieved when ejected from the tool. using mold as a fixture. –$
Thin parts are sensitive to overpacking. Results

Too low makes for poor cooling / poor • Increase melt temperature / remove stress. –$
contact with the mold surface. Thick
parts are sensitive to underpacking.
• Decrease melt temperature / reduce
temperature differential. +$
• Additives / colors can cause warpage by • Remove uneven mold cooling, insure both
varying densities supplier.
mold halves are operating at the same
• Part design does not compensate for cooling rate / differential mold cooling.
shrinkage of particular material because of
• Run the mold halves at different
the lack of ribbing, the walls are too thick,
temperatures / cause shrinkage in one
or the flow distance is too long.
direction to help eliminate overall warpage.
• Part ejection can warp because the part is Parts tend to warp toward hotter mold
sticking (see part sticking) and/or the part is halves (higher heat yields higher shrinkage
too soft (too hot) upon ejection. in semi-crystalline parts).

186
®
 Troubleshooting

• Crystalline. Determine which mold half the • Use cooling fixtures / postmolding.
warpage points to and run cooler / reduce Caution: If part sees second heat cycle it
shrinkage on that mold half. Caution: This may warp back.
can cause internal stresses and the part may
warp when exposed to a second heat history. WELD LINES, KNIT LINES
Definition
• Amorphous. Determine which mold half
the warpage points to and run hotter to A weld line is where two or more flow fronts
reduce stresses on that mold half. Caution: are joined and can usually be detected by a fine
This can cause internal stresses and part line (witness line) on the surface. In severe cases
may warp with second heat history. it can appear as a crack. Pigment-type and mixing
can make weld lines more visible, and they can
also appear as different levels of gloss. They can
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design form a mechanically weak spot due to trapped gas
and cold flow fronts that do not allow the material
Resin to join properly. This is especially true with glass-
• Choose resin with a narrower molecular filled compounds.
weight or higher flow (lower viscosity). Root Causes

• Remove color or additives. If warping • Main cause is the material is too cold to
stops, see color and/or material supplier for join together with the current packing
alternative color options. pressure properly.
• Flow around a boss or core.
• Remove regrind / remove contamination
that affects density or flow orientations. • Gas traps where flow fronts come together.
Mechanical or Design • Gate location / mold design.

• Review ejection design / ejector deforming • Improper flow rate of the material.
part. • Inconsistent melt temperature in runners
can cause two flow fronts and weld lines in
• Review part design in wall thickness / a part without cores or bosses.
uneven cooling and shrinkage.
• Add ribs and structural integrity to the
part design.
Figure 37.
Flow fronts wrap around
• Review cooling channels, locations, and a core and meet with
bubblers, and confirm that all is working little venting and make
properly (mold maintenance). Insure that weld visible.
water lines are connected properly.
• Review part design for sharp radius; reduce
sharp edges to reduce heat at specific
locations, shear stresses, and fiber
concentrations. Figure 38.
Flow front wraps around
• Add more gates / amorphous parts warp and captures pocket of
air and forms weld line.
more due to stresses (less for shrinkage) and
will warp less with less travel, so more gates
in long thin parts should reduce warpage.

187
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

WELD LINES SOLUTIONS Results

• Increase temperatures (mold/melt) / flow
Results fronts bond together easier. –$
• Increase injection rate / flow fronts reach
each other sooner and hotter. +$ See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
• Increase first stage pressure settings /
pressure limited and flow front slows down Mechanical or Design
at end of fill. • Add or increase venting near weld line /
allow gases to escape (place venting near
• Check for cushion / screw bottomed out—
weld line areas when possible).
no packing pressure
• Relocate gate(s) location / move location of
• Reduce excessive tonnage /air entrapment. weld line.
• Clean vents / gas trap inhibits flow fronts • Consecutive filling in multigated staged
from joining. process. This is a process where
• Increase packing pressure / press flow fronts microprocessor opens consecutive gates,
together. –$ one at a time, to keep one single flow front.

• Decrease injection rate if runners are • Review runner design / consider melt flipper.
undersized / prevent shear heating in • Consider using a texture on the mold to
runners and inconsistent melt temperatures make weld lines less visible (cosmetic
in materials as it exits gate. –$ solution only).

PART DEFECTS: NONVISIBLE / INTERNAL

BUBBLES IN COLORED PARTS • Material is degraded or additive package is
(SEE V I S I B L E : B U B B L E S /B L I S T E R S ) consumed.
• Underpacking engineering grade filled
B RITTLENESS , S TRESS C RACKS compounds.
Definition • Inadequate cooling in gate area / highly
crystallized material.
Part breaks with catastrophic failures under
normal testing conditions. Part cracks under • Part design:
normal operating conditions.
Part wall too thin.
Root Causes
Inadequate radius design (increase radius).

• Material has been molded with internal
Large undercuts on the part.
stresses. • Overdrying resin (e.g., nylon).
• Overpacking gate area in olefins; packed to • Using wrong mold release that interacts
an extreme density, which does not allow with material.
the part to flex. • See weld line.
• Material is too weak for application. • See crazing / stress whitening.

188
®
 Troubleshooting

• Try new lot of material / material is

contaminated.
Figure 39. Mechanical or Design
Overpacked gate causes
gate to split on low impact. • Increase radius on part / reduce focus of
stress at wall juncture.
• Increase part thickness / increase tensile
and impact strength.
• Increase cooling in gate area, through
design and/or volume of water.
Figure 40. • Wall thickness is too thick for material of
Engineering material choice (e.g., polycarbonate). See material
stressed due to high
shrinkage in thick supplier for specifications.
section.
DIMENSIONS UNSTABLE
(WEIGHT OR SHRINKAGE)
BRITTLENESS, STRESS Definition
CRACKS SOLUTIONS Parts are inconsistent in size (oversized/
undersized) or in weight from shot to shot or
Results cavity to cavity. Underweight can impart
• Reduce packing pressure with olefins. If mechanical weakness and overweight can
short shot appears, increase the shot size or increases costs and induces stress failures.
velocity / remove stresses from overpacked Root Causes
gate. +$ Parts are not filled or packed out
• Increase injection speed for filled materials properly due to:
/ increase density of materials. +$ • Inconsistent Shots:
• Increase packing pressure for filled
Machine is transferring on time or
materials / increase density of material. –$ hydraulic pressure.
Results
Too much cushion.
• Decrease mold temperature / cool gate area
Not enough backpressure.
off more to reduce crystallinity. +$

Shot is too small.
• Decrease melt temperature / degrading
Screw is starve fed.
material. +$

Screw return time varies highly and
See Resin, Mechanical, or Design returns inconsistent melt densities within
same shot size / wrong screw design or
heat profile. Confirm screw returns to the
Resin
proper place each cycle.
• Confirm mold release is compatible with

Feed throat is partially closed off /
material.
bridged.
• Remove regrind and test / regrind is bad or
Nonreturn valve is slipping due to wear
levels too high.
or obstruction and slips during injection
• Dry material properly. and/or pack.

189
®
Society of Plastics Engineers

• Machine is pressure limited. • Increase back pressure for more consistent

shots. –$
• Part stuck in multicavity tool.
• Excessive shrinkage due to high melt • Check for part sticking in multicavity tool
temperatures. (see part sticking).

• Gates too cold and are prematurely freezing Results

and not allowing full pack. • Look for inconsistent or exceptional long
• Mold is not at a consistent temperature / screw return times. Apply reverse heat
cooling deficiencies. profile / better feeding of material into
compression zone on the screw. +$
• Gates too small and are prematurely
freezing and not allowing full pack. • Reduce melt temperature / higher melt
temperatures lead to more shrinkage and
• Hot tips are partially clogged with great temperature differential when cooling
obstruction (e.g., metal or carbon). in the mold. This makes for more
• Hit tips are not sized equally due to wear or inconsistent shrinkage when molds have hot
damage. or cold spots. +$
• Multicavity tool is unbalanced due to the
design of runners or uneven heats in See Resin, Mechanical, or Design
manifold and prevents equal packing to
each cavity. Resin

• Regrind is inconsistent. • Remove regrind / remove possible

contamination.
• Material is too viscous for mold.
Mechanical or Design
• Such environmental changes as daily
temperatures of plant (cooling of part after • Confirm check valve is working properly
ejected), height of resin above feed throat (not leaking). When the screw shank (or
(how material feeds), temperature of resin back of screw drive) is visible, make sure
feed (how material feeds), and so on. the screw does not turn during injection.
Repair.
• Improper screw design not melting the
material properly or degrading the melt. • Check thermocouples for proper
connection. Look for excessive cycling in
DIMENSIONS UNSTABLE temperature in barrel or manifold.
SOLUTIONS
• Check screw design against resin.
Results • Run tool on larger capacity machine.
• Remove pressure limitations / machine is
more sensitive to variations when running • Check hot tips for damage or blockage.
pressure limited. +$ • Resize gates or hot tips / too small causes
• Reduce cushion if very large / large cushion inconsistent freezing or can cause excessive
are compressible and cause variation. +$ shear heat with high fill speeds.
• Transfer on screw position or cavity • Review runner / manifold for balanced flow.
pressure.
• Check machine controls for proper screw
• Check feed throat for restriction or bridging. return.

190
®
 Troubleshooting

VOIDS VOIDS SOLUTIONS

Definition
Results
Voids are “vacuum pockets” inside the part
caused by core material shrinking after walls have • Increase injection speed / gate freezing
already solidified. They are usually found in the prematurely. +$
thicker sections (i.e., thick walls, bosses, corners,
etc.) or the last place to cool and elongate in the • Increase injection pressure / pressure limited
direction of the most shrinkage. Voids are not air and slow flow allows gate to freeze off. +$
entrapment (see bubbles / blisters). All
nontransparent parts should be cut open and • Increase shot size or cushion / not enough
inspected for internal bubbles and/or voids when a material to overcome shrinkage.
process is first developed or changes are made to
the process. After cutting up parts, use a steel brush
• Remove time limitations / equipment
to remove any cuttings from surface. Cuttings can limitations prevent filling cavity properly.
fill small voids and mask their appearance.
• Increase hold pressure / not enough
Root Causes material for shrinkage. –$
• Main cause—polymer shrinkage.
• Increase hold time / gate not frozen off to
• Usually caused by insufficient packing prevent material from flowing back through
either by time or pressure.
gate. –$
• Part/ mold design flaws where material
cannot be packed in as part cools because • Decrease injection speed significantly for
gates freeze off. thicker-walled parts. –$
• See bubbles/blisters. Results
• See part design.
• Decrease melt temperature / less shrinkage
with lower melt. temperatures. Note: For
very thick parts, its usually best to open
gate dimensions and use lower melt
Figure 41. temperatures. +$
Voids in glass-filled
engineering resin.
• Increase temperature (melt/mold) / gates
freezing prematurely. –$

See Resin, Mechanical, or Design

• Increase gate size / gates freezing

Figure 42. prematurely. Note: Consider larger gates with
Voids form the thickest shut off nozzle or tips for better cycle times.
section and last place to
cool.
• Relocate gate to thicker section of part /
flow path to thicker section is freezing
before material can be packed in to thicker
sections.

191
®
Index (Volume 1)

Index terms Links Index terms Links

Box-Behnken 1-54
A brainstorming 1-38
absolute process control (APC) 1-131 branching 1-70
accuracy 1-14 1-122 brittle 1-74
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene 1-77 bubble graph 1-28
addition rule 1-29
additives 1-75 C
algebra 1-1 cam pins 1-11
algebraic equations 1-2 cavity pressure transducer 1-125
alpha error 1-34 celsius 1-4 1-95
alternating copolymer 1-71 central composite 1-54
analysis 1-137 chain branching 1-75
analysis of variance 1-50 chain length 1-69 1-73
analysis tools 1-138 chain length distribution 1-69
ANOVA 1-50 charts 1-137
antioxidants 1-75 1-76 charts and graphs 1-15
application suitability 1-79 chemical bond 1-67
area 1-9 chemical resistance 1-74
area under the curve 1-13 chemistry 1-67
automated surveillance 1-139 class factors 1-133
automatic alerts 1-136 closed loop 1-137
automation 1-141 coefficient of expansion 1-8
average chain length 1-74 cohesive 1-75
compounding 1-133
B computer-integrated manufacturing
barcode 1-132 (CIM) 1-131
barcoding 1-138 conditional probability 1-30
beta error 1-34 confidence interval 1-50
bias 1-22 contamination 1-41
binary systems 1-13 control criteria 1-135
blend 1-71 conversion factors 1-4
block copolymer 1-71 copolymer 1-71
blowing 1-75 corrective action 1-139
blowing agents 1-75 1-76 corrective actions 1-133
blow-molded 1-133 correlation 1-137

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 1-147
1-148
Index terms Links Index terms Links
correlation chart 1-140 DOE 1-44
correlation charts 1-138 donut chart 1-27
cosine 1-10 downstream equipment 1-137
Cpk 1-118 1-138 downtime causes 1-138
1-140 draft angle 1-10 1-11
cross-linking 1-68 dynamic system 1-141
crystalline domain 1-70
crystalline melting temperatures 1-95 E
crystalline regions 1-74 electronic paging 1-136
crystallinity 1-69 1-70 electrons 1-71
1-75 equations 1-3
cubic equations 1-50 equilibrate 1-48
cubic model 1-50 errors 1-46
cumulative relative frequency graphs 1-26 ethylene vinyl acetate 1-77
event 1-23
D experiment 1-23
data acquisition 1-132 experimental designs 1-43
data collection 1-22 1-47 experimental matrix 1-53
data collection and analysis 1-21 exponents 1-2
data display 1-22 expression 1-1
data summarization 1-22
decimal system 1-13 F
defining the problem 1-45 F test 1-50
deflection temperature under load factorial designs 1-48
(DTUL) 1-97 factorials 1-12
degradation 1-69 Fahrenheit 1-4 1-95
degree of crystallinity 1-74 failure analysis 1-81
density 1-74 failure modes effects analysis 1-40
dependent variables 1-46 false positives 1-31
design of experiment (DOE) 1-44 1-119 fillers 1-75 1-76
1-135
flame retardants 1-75 1-76
design space 1-47
flexible 1-74
designed experiments 1-43
flexural properties 1-93
deviation 1-136
FMEA 1-40
DFMEA 1-40
formulation 1-75
diagnostics 1-138
fractional factorials 1-53
differential equations 1-12
fractions 1-2
distribution chart 1-138 1-140
documentation 1-137

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 1-149
Index terms Links Index terms Links
G magnificent seven 1-33
general test standards 1-82 material standards 1-85
geometry 1-9 mathematics 1-1
glass transition 1-95 measurement 1-46
glass transition point 1-73 melt mass – flow rate (MFR) 1-97
glass transition temperature 1-72 melt rheology 1-98
gold standard 1-141 melt volume – flow rate (MVR) 1-97
melting point 1-73
H midrange analysis 1-140
heating 1-72 mixture experiments 1-48
histogram 1-24 1-25 molecular weight 1-69 1-70
horn pins 1-11 1-98
molecular weight distribution 1-69
I monitoring system 1-125 1-141
impact modifiers 1-75 1-76 multiplication rule 1-30
impact properties 1-94
independent variables 1-45 N
injection molding 1-133 negative effect 1-50
injection velocity 1-9 noncompliant product 1-140
inspection 1-119 1-121 nonsampling error 1-22
instrumentation grade number-averaged molecular weight 1-70
sensors/preamps 1-133 nylon 1-68
integration 1-12 1-13
interaction 1-48 O
intermolecular forces 1-73 on-the-job training 1-122
ISO 1-115 1-126 opacity 1-74
ISO 9000 1-126 order of operations 1-2 1-93
outcome 1-23
L
linear 1-50 P
linear equations 1-3 parameter monitoring 1-131
linear model 1-50 parameters plotting 1-138
lubricants 1-75 1-76 Pareto chart 1-39 1-139
parison control 1-135
M peripheral equipment 1-136
machine capability 1-133 PFMEA 1-40
machine network 1-137 pigments 1-75
machine performance 1-133 pigments and dyes 1-76
machine/tool combination 1-140 plasticizers 1-75 1-76

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

1-150
Index terms Links Index terms Links
plastics testing 1-79 product quality 1-137
polar polymers 1-75 productivity 1-43
polarity 1-69 1-71 protons 1-71
1-75
polyamide (nylon) 1-77 Q
polycarbonate 1-77 quadratic 1-50
polydispersity 1-70 quadratic equations 1-3
polyester (PET) 1-68 1-77 quadratic formula 1-3
polyethylene 1-68 1-77 quadratic model response 1-50
polymer 1-67 qualitative data 1-23
polymer degradation 1-73 quality 1-115
polymethyl-methacrylate 1-77 quality assurance 1-133 1-137
polyoxymethylene (acetal) 1-77 quality control documents 1-37
polypropylene 1-68 1-77 quality guidelines 1-137
polystyrene 1-68 1-78 quality program 1-137
polytetrafluoro ethylene 1-78 quality requirements 1-135
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 1-68 1-78 quality system 1-131 1-133
population 1-22 1-136 1-139
population standard deviation (σ) 1-24 1-141

positive effect 1-50 quantitative data 1-23

powers 1-2
R
precision 1-123
R chart 1-123 1-138
precision 1-14 1-46
1-139
1-122
radar chart 1-28
precontrol 1-131
random copolymer 1-71
preemptive 1-136
random variable 1-23
preemptive molding 1-141
randomization 1-47
preemptively 1-138
reciprocal 1-2
pressure 1-36
recycling 1-69
preventive maintenance 1-37 1-41
regrind 1-41
probability model 1-29
reject reasons 1-138
problem detection 1-141
reproducibility 1-46
process capability 1-117 1-118
response surface 1-48 1-53
process development 1-135
response values 1-47
process parameters 1-133
rheological properties 1-97
process setup sheets 1-37
rheology 1-71
process specific 1-133
roles and responsibilities 1-117
process specification limits 1-133
root cause 1-35
product attributes 1-137

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 1-151
Index terms Links Index terms Links
S statistical quality control methods 1-32
sample 1-22 statistics 1-22
sample mean 1-23 steel 1-8
sample median 1-24 strength 1-72 1-75
sample space 1-23 stress concentrator 1-42
sample standard deviation (s) 1-24 stress-strain 1-80
sample variance 1-24 subtraction rule 1-30
sampling 1-135 summations 1-11
sampling error 1-22 surface graph 1-28
scatter diagrams 1-39
scientific notation 1-6 T
semiquantitative method 1-46 Taguchi method 1-43
sensoring 1-131 tangent 1-10
shear stress (rate) 1-36 technician 1-137
shearing 1-72 tensile modulus 1-91
sigma 1-138 tensile properties 1-90
significant deviation 1-138 test specimen preparation 1-87
significant figures 1-7 test specimens 1-85
simple random sample 1-22 testing procedures 1-90
sine 1-10 thermal (cooling rate) 1-37
smart manufacturing 1-131 thermal expansion and shrinkage 1-7
smart manufacturing system (SMS) 1-131 thermal stabilizers 1-75 1-76
smart quality manufacturing system 1-141 thermoforming 1-133
smart quality system 1-132 thermoplastics 1-68
solving equations 1-1 thermosets 1-68
SPC 1-32 third-party verification 1-137
special addition rule 1-30 three-level factorial designs 1-52
special multiplication rule 1-30 timed-based measurements 1-135
specification limits 1-135 training 1-121
specimen conditioning 1-87 trend charts 1-138
stability 1-69 troubleshoot 1-44
statistical analysis 1-48 type I error 1-34
statistical calculations 1-139 type II error 1-34
statistical charts 1-137
statistical methods 1-131 1-135 U
1-137 uncontrollable variables 1-47
statistical model 1-49 unidentifiable variables 1-47
statistical process control 1-124 upper/lower specification limits 1-137
statistical quality control (SQC) 1-122 USL/LSL 1-139

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

1-152
Index terms Links Index terms Links
UV absorbers 1-75
UV stabilizers 1-76

V
variable 1-1 1-93
Venn diagram 1-29
viscosity 1-36 1-72
1-73
volatile 1-72
volatiles 1-73
volume 1-9

W
wedge blocks 1-11
weight-averaged molecular weight 1-70
Western Electric Rules 1-34
workmanship standards 1-120

X
X chart 1-123 1-138
1-139

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Index (Volume 2)

Index terms Links Index terms Links

conveyors 2-10
A cooling towers 2-74
AC circuits 2-50 couplings 2-66
AC generator 2-48 current 2-43
AC parallel circuit 2-53 current flows 2-45
AC series circuit 2-53
accident investigations 2-2 D
alternating current 2-46 DC generator 2-47
american pipe industry 2-65 DC series circuit 2-52
ANSI/SPI standards 2-7 diagram 2-91
application of lockout/tagout devices 2-12 diameter 2-67
arm and hand protection 2-17 dielectric constants of various
asynchronous motor 2-56 materials 2-50
atmospheric pressure 2-76 direct current 2-46
discharge 2-71
B discharge head 2-71
blowers 2-71 duct 2-71
brake horsepower 2-72
E
C ear protection 2-17
calenders and mills 2-9 eddies 2-63
capacitor 2-49 electric motors 2-57
cartridge heaters 2-58 electrical component 2-51
cartridge valves 2-102 electrical devices 2-54
centrifugal pump 2-71 electrical elements 2-48
clothing and protective gear 2-6 electrical print 2-91
commitment to safety 2-1 electrical safeguarding 2-4
compressor 2-71 electromagnetic relay 2-91
conduction 2-22 electromechanical 2-91
conductors 2-45 electromechanical relay 2-91
conduit 2-64 emissivity 2-27
control circuit 2-94 equivalent pipe length 2-67
control of hazardous energy equivalent resistance 2-52
(lockout/tagout) 2-10 extrusion machines 2-8
convection 2-22 eye protection 2-16

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 2-111
2-112
Index terms Links Index terms Links
F hydraulic oils 2-74
fiber braid 2-70 hydraulic print 2-91
fit 2-16
fittings 2-63 I
flow rate 2-63 injection forward speed and pressure 2-104
flowmeters 2-72 injection molding machines 2-7
fluid 2-62 inspection and maintenance 2-17
fluid dynamics 2-61
folding circuit 2-94 J
foot and leg protection 2-18 job safety analysis 2-2

fouling factors 2-29

K
G kinematic viscosity 2-63

gauge pressure 2-76

geometric dimensioning and
L
tolerancing 2-39 labels 2-13
ladder 2-91
H laminar 2-26
handling boxes, cartons, bagged laminar flow 2-62
materials, and drums 2-19 latching relay 2-96
hazard communication program 2-15 limit switches 2-91
head protection 2-15 lockout 2-11
health and physical hazard
determination 2-13 M
heat capacity 2-22 machine automation 2-99
heat exchange 2-21 machine safeguarding 2-4
heat exchangers 2-28 machinery safety 2-3
heat of fusion 2-22 machinery standards 2-6
heat transfer 2-21 magnetic field 2-45
heater band 2-57 manual lifting and handling 2-18
heaters 2-57 material safety data sheets 2-13
hose construction 2-70 material safety data sheets and labels 2-14
hoses 2-63 materials handling and housekeeping 2-18
housekeeping 2-19 mixing 2-64
how electricity flows 2-44 mold cooling 2-74
hydraulic diagram review 2-41 mold drawings review 2-40
hydraulic diagrams 2-40 momentum transport 2-61
hydraulic hose 2-70
hydraulic machinery 2-70

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 2-113
Index terms Links Index terms Links
N S
negative terminal 2-49 safe working procedures 2-5
neutrons 2-45 safety considerations for plastic
nonconductors 2-45 processes 2-7
Nusselt number 2-26 safety signs and controls 2-5
schedule number 2-65
O screw motor 2-103
OSHA hazard communication selection 2-16
standard 2-13 semiconductors 2-45 2-46
simple DC generator 2-47
P simple relay circuit 2-54
parallel circuit 2-52 solenoids 2-91
part drawing and mold drawing special conditions 2-12
reading 2-37
specific heat 2-22
part drawing review 2-39
squirrel cage rotor 2-55
personal safety protection 2-15
standard relays 2-93
pipes 2-63 ®
Swagelok tube fittings 2-67
positive displacement pumps 2-71
swept volume 2-71
power 2-72
powered industrial trucks 2-19 T
Prandtl number 2-26 tagout 2-11
pressure 2-65 technician’s role 2-1
principles of safeguarding 2-3 thermal conductivity 2-23
print reading 2-35 thermocouples 2-58
pump 2-71 thermodynamics 2-21
pump cavitation 2-72 time-delay relays 2-96
pump efficiency 2-72 torque load 2-56
transfer coefficient 2-24
R
transport of energy 2-61
radiation 2-23
transport of mass 2-61
relay logic 2-91
tubing 2-63
relays 2-91
turbulent 2-26
removal of locks and tags 2-12
turbulent flow 2-62
resistivity 2-45
resistor 2-48 V
respiratory protection 2-18 vacuum 2-76
Reynolds number 2-26 2-62 valves 2-67
rotameter 2-73 velocity distribution 2-64
viscosity 2-62

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

2-114
Index terms Links Index terms Links
viscosity index 2-76
viscous dissipation 2-30
voltage 2-50

W
weighed water tests 2-74
wire braid 2-70

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Index (Volume 4)

Index terms Links Index terms Links

central granulator 4-57
A central pumping systems 4-54
abrasion resistance 4-17 central vacuum conveying systems 4-41
AC 4-67 clamp 4-1
actuated water valves 4-32 clamp basics 4-62
adaptive autotuning 4-29 clamp force 4-3
additive feeders 4-49 clamp mechanism 4-1
analog timers 4-29 clamp precision 4-65
artificial intelligence 4-70 clamp tonnage 4-1
automated part removal 4-54 clamp unit 4-1 4-62
automatic mode 4-23 4-24 clamping force 4-1
autotuning 4-29 clamps 4-61
auxiliary equipment 4-35 closed loop 4-27
closed loop control 4-27
B closed-loop pressure control 4-33
back pressure profile 4-33 CNC control 4-71
backpressure 4-26 compared 4-61
ball screw 4-67 compression ratio 4-14
barrel 4-16 4-17 conveying 4-40
barrel liners 4-17 conveying equipment 4-35
barrier 4-13 cooling equipment sizing and
barrier-type screw 4-13 selection 4-50
basic operation of conveying systems 4-42 cooling towers induced draft versus
batch versus continuous weigh 4-49 forced draft 4-53
batch weigh blenders 4-49 cores 4-25
below-the-press 4-58 corrosion resistance 4-17
bending link 4-63 cushion position 4-25 4-26
benefits of automating 4-56 cutting chamber design 4-58
beside-the-press 4-58
blenders and additive feeders 4-48 D
burn marks 4-71 decompression 4-25 4-26
dedicated 4-30
C derivative 4-28
carriage 4-25 desiccant process 4-45
central chilling system 4-54 desiccant versus hot-air dryers 4-44

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 4-75
4-76
Index terms Links Index terms Links
die height 4-3 heat transfer fluids 4-52
discrete instruments 4-29 heater bands 4-26 4-32
drives 4-31 4-32 hold 4-33
dry air conveying 4-43 home position 4-23
dryer configurations 4-45 hydraulic 4-2
dryer features and options 4-48 hydraulic clamp characteristics 4-64
drying systems 4-44 hydromechanical 4-2
hygroscopic plastics 4-44
E
efficient granulator designed 4-57 I
ejector pins 4-25 IEC-61131-3 standard 4-30
electric actuation 4-68 importance of uniform granulate 4-57
electric clamping unit 4-2 improved economy 4-66
electrification 4-67 independent hydraulic systems 4-69
encoder 4-27 industrial computer-based operator
end-of-arm-tooling (EOAT) 4-57 station 4-30
energy savings 4-68 injection 4-17
EUROMAP 4-4 injection pressure 4-3
extruder run 4-17 injection rate 4-16
injection stage 4-24
F injection unit 4-11 4-25
FANUC 4-68 injection unit sizing 4-14
fill 4-33 insert loading 4-69
filtering of conveying systems 4-43 instruction list 4-30
five-point toggle 4-8 integral 4-28
flame retardants 4-16 inverters 4-32
four-point toggle 4-8
frame deflection compensation 4-63 K
function block diagram 4-30 knockout pattern 4-4
fuzzy logic 4-29
L
G limit switches 4-27
granulation equipment 4-57 linear drive robots 4-55
granulator types 4-57 linear potentiometers 4-27
gravimetric blending 4-49 load cell 4-70
loaders beside-the-press 4-42
H LSR 4-66
hand valves 4-29 LVDT 4-69
heat exchanger 4-68

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 4-77
Index terms Links Index terms Links
M pre-pullback 4-25
machine mounted dryers 4-45 pressure transducers 4-27
manual mode 4-24 process control 4-32 4-33
mechanical chillers overview 4-52 process heating and cooling 4-50
mechanical chillers compressor types 4-53 projected area 4-1
mechanical relays 4-32 proportional 4-28 4-31
melt system 4-72 proximity switches 4-27
mercury contactors 4-32 pullback 4-26
microprocessor-based controllers 4-29 pumps 4-31 4-32
mold 4-3
mold access 4-65 R
mold protection 4-6 4-65 railcar unloading 4-40
mold safety 4-4 ratio or proportional loading 4-43
mold size 4-65 recipe 4-30
multicomponent molding 4-66 recovery stage 4-25 4-33
regeneration cycle 4-45
N relay ladder logic 4-30
NATCO 4-68 relay panels 4-29
nonhygroscopic materials 4-44 relays 4-31 4-32
nonreturn valve 4-19 robot drive design 4-55
nozzle 4-20 4-26 runners 4-25
nozzle valve 4-25
S
O screw 4-11 4-12
oil systems 4-50 4-15
open-loop 4-27 screw flight 4-12
operator station 4-30 secondary operations 4-56
semi-automatic mode 4-24
P sequential function chart 4-31
pack 4-33 servo drives 4-67
pack and hold stage 4-25 servo valves 4-31 4-32
parallelism 4-7 setpoints 4-30
PC-based controls 4-71 set-up mode 4-23
plasticating rate 4-16 shotsize 4-25 4-26
platen 4-2 six-axis traverse robot 4-56
portable chillers 4-53 sizing 4-58
portable dryers 4-46 sizing a dryer and hopper 4-47
power factor 4-68 sizing and selection guidelines 4-49
power spikes 4-68 sled 4-25

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

4-78
Index terms Links Index terms Links
slide actuator 4-69 torque 4-67
sliding cores 4-69 trends in auxiliary controls 4-38
solenoid 4-31 trends in auxiliary equipment 4-35
solid-state relays 4-32 trends in blending 4-36
SPI 4-4 trends in drying 4-37
sprue 4-25 tuning constants 4-28
sprue pickers 4-56 two-stage injection 4-69
structure text 4-30
suckback 4-26 V
“super” abrasion resistance 4-17 valve 4-19 4-20
supervisory control 4-49 4-31
velocity profile 4-33
T vertical clamp machines 4-66
temperature control systems 4-50 volume-fill system 4-42
thermocouples 4-26
tiebar machine characteristics 4-64 W
tiebarless 4-1 4-61 water systems 4-51

tiebarless clamp applications 4-65 wet bulb 4-71

time-fill system 4-42 zero feed screw 4-13

toggle 4-1 zero metering screws 4-12

toggle clamp characteristics 4-64

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Index (Volume 5)

Index terms Links Index terms Links

configurable hot runners 5-131
A consumer interface 5-2
abrasive resins 5-118 continuous improvement 5-68
angel hair 5-207 coolant manifold 5-150
angle pin 5-194 coolant source 5-148
cooling 5-145 5-146
B cooling analysis 5-147
backing plate 5-123 cooling channels 5-146
baffle 5-46 5-201 cooling diagram 5-147
balanced manifold 5-111 cooling zones 5-151
balanced runners 5-87 core 5-193
balanced system 5-111 core pins 5-193
banana type of gates 5-104 core slide 5-194
bermer latch 5-184 corners 5-9
bill of materials 5-67 crystallinity 5-148
booster pump 5-149 cut list 5-74
bosses 5-9 cycle time reduction 5-115
broadband control 5-129 cylindrical seal valve gates 5-117
bubbler 5-45 5-202
burns 5-198 D
degradation 5-198
C detents 5-184
cam action molds 5-22 determining number of cavities/cores
cavity identification 5-71 per insert 5-48
cavity layout 5-58 developing cavity size 5-44
center support and alignment 5-141 dieseling 5-154
chisel gate 5-104 dimple area 5-119
clothes pins 5-184 discoloration 5-203
CNC machine 5-76 disk gate 5-103
cold clearance 5-136 double bumping 5-164
cold runner design process 5-85 draft 5-9 5-42
cold runner gate types 5-101 5-71
cold slug 5-86 draft angles 5-6
cold slug wells 5-94 draw 5-9
collapsible cores 5-10 5-187 drawing conventions 5-39

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 5-211
5-212
Index terms Links Index terms Links
E gibs 5-183
edge gate 5-98 5-103 GPM 5-148
EDM process 5-7 5-76 green grind 5-79
ejection of the part 5-54 guided ejector systems 5-169
ejector blades 5-166
ejector pin 5-193 H
ejector plate 5-202 harmonic 5-182
ejector rods 5-202 harmonic linkage 5-142
ejector sleeves 5-165 heat transfer pipes 5-202
ejector stroke length 5-163 heat treating 5-78
engraving or stamping of the mold or heel block 5-183
components 5-66 high-volume molds 5-16
establishing the mold cavity and core 5-42 horn pin 5-183
external space 5-3 hot runner 5-109
externally heated 5-111 hot runner leaks 5-135
hot runner mold 5-23
F hot runner technology 5-109
family mold 5-16 hot sprue 5-197
family stack hot runner 5-143 hot sprue bushing 5-61
fan gate 5-103
fillets 5-9 I
flash 5-191 5-192 industry standards and practices 5-40
flow lines 5-200 insert shapes and mounting methods 5-49
flow meter 5-150 interlocks 5-196
flow paths 5-5 internal space 5-3
flow rate 5-146 internally heated 5-111
fluidized bed 5-138
forming part detail 5-51 K
full round runners 5-62 knit lines 5-10 5-200
knock-out extensions 5-168
G
gate cooling 5-115 L
gate function 5-95 latches 5-181
gate seal 5-101 leader pin bushings 5-59
gate type and location 5-70 leader pins 5-59
gates 5-63 5-101 leakage prevention 5-135
5-199 lifters 5-182
gating method 5-113 locating ring 5-60
gears 5-182 long cross-section 5-39

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 5-213
Index terms Links Index terms Links
looping diagram 5-151 mold steel selection 5-77
lubrication techniques 5-171 mold steels and materials 5-46
mold surface finishes 5-43
M mold temperature control 5-44
manifold plate 5-123 mold temperature control system 5-70
material shrinkage 5-64 5-71 mold temperature controller 5-201
melt channel sizing 5-112 mold venting 5-153
melt flipper 5-59 mold wear 5-120
melt lines 5-200 molding machine 5-69
minimal cycle time 5-145 molding technicians 5-1
minimal wall sections 5-4 moving mold plate 5-26
miscellaneous mold feature multimaterial applications 5-139
requirements 5-72 multimaterial molding 5-139
mold base 5-25 5-57
5-75 N
mold base material 5-78 NC programs 5-76
mold building notes 5-72 nonfilling 5-192
mold categorization by volume 5-15 nonfills 5-206
mold cavity and core inserts 5-72 number of cavities 5-47
mold cavity side 5-43 number of cavities analysis 5-47
mold construction 5-73
mold core side 5-42 O
mold design 5-2 O rings 5-205
mold design and component offset stack hot runner 5-143
conventions 5-40 operating window 5-127 5-137
mold design checklist 5-69
mold design hole 5-9 P
mold design views 5-38 part design 5-1
mold filling analysis 5-62 part ejection 5-69 5-202
mold finish 5-71 part quality 5-145
mold guiding system 5-59 5-71 part shape 5-2
mold handling 5-72 parting line 5-41 5-69
mold interlocks 5-59 5-192
mold locators 5-60 parting line can be flat, stepped,
mold marking 5-71 contoured 5-42
mold materials 5-70 photo cells 5-184
mold plate sequencing 5-181 PID2 5-127
mold quotation 5-73 pin ejection 5-21
mold safety strap 5-66 pinpoint gate 5-99 5-102

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

5-214
Index terms Links Index terms Links
placement of the gate 5-63 software flow simulator 5-200
plastic part data 5-37 solid model 5-38
plate cooling 5-125 spoke gate 5-103
plate deflection 5-124 5-125 springs 5-181 5-184
pre-engineered component 5-40 sprue bushing 5-61 5-86
preload 5-137 5-195
pressure drop 5-147 sprue gate 5-102
preventive maintenance 5-205 sprue size 5-86
primary runner 5-62 sprue, runner and gates 5-69
profit 5-145 stack mold 5-21 5-141
prototype mold 5-15 stack mold carrier 5-144
stack molding 5-141
R stack platen 5-143
reciprocating core 5-185 standard alignment components 5-34
Reynolds numbers 5-146 standard cooling components 5-32
ribs 5-7 standard fasteners 5-32
robot removal 5-176 standard injection 5-29
rotary 5-186 stationary mold plate 5-26
rotating ratchet ring 5-186 steel safe 5-65
round runner 5-91 sticking 5-202
runner shapes 5-90 stop buttons 5-202
runner size 5-90 5-91 stop pins 5-168
runner systems 5-62 stress 5-201
runnerless molds 5-109 strip jump thread 5-10
stripper bars 5-173
S stripper bolts 5-173 5-176
safety 5-149 stripper mold 5-185
safety eyebolts 5-65 stripper plate 5-21 5-173
scissors 5-181 stripper plate ejection 5-173
seal-off land 5-192 stripper ring 5-173
sequential valve gating 5-116 stripper ring retainer 5-173
short cross-section 5-40 structural 5-2
short shots 5-206 submarine gate 5-102
shouldered pins 5-167 sucker pin bushings 5-176
shrinkage 5-148 sucker pins 5-176
shut off 5-9 surface enhancements 5-81
sinks 5-205 surface finishes 5-80
sizing runners 5-92
slaved power up 5-128

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 5-215
Index terms Links Index terms Links
T V
tab gate 5-102 vacuum system 5-199
taperlocks 5-196 valve gate technology 5-116
temperature control 5-127 vent depth 5-155
temperature controller 5-149 vent land 5-156
temperature differential 5-147 vent relief 5-156
texture 5-80 vent width 5-155
textured molds 5-7 venting 5-70 5-153
textured surfaces 5-7 5-199
thermal expansion 5-64 5-136 vents 5-63
thermal gating 5-115 view projection 5-39
thermocouple 5-151 void 5-205
thermodynamic 5-145 voltage proportioning 5-129
thinwall molding 5-117
thinwall parts 5-115 W
three-plate 5-20 wall section tolerance 5-5

thumb nail spring 5-168 wall sections 5-4

tie bar support 5-142 warpage 5-201

time proportioning 5-129 water lines 5-197

trapezoidal 5-91 wear plates 5-184

tunnel gate 5-99 5-102 weld lines 5-200

turbulent flow 5-151 wet heater bake-out 5-129

two-plate 5-19 wetted surface 5-146

two-plate pin ejection system 5-163

U
un-balanced runners 5-90
undercuts 5-11 5-202
unit mold 5-15 5-58
unscrewing molds 5-23

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Index (Volume 6)

Index terms Links Index terms Links

burn marks 6-60
A burns 6-167
abrasive fillers 6-51 bushings 6-52
accurate positioning 6-52
acetal 6-87 C
acetal copolymer 6-88 carbon dioxide (CO2) 6-127
acetal polymers 6-87 carbon fibers 6-77
acetal resins 6-87 catastrophe 6-60
adhesion 6-115 cavities 6-1 6-89
adjustments 6-152 cavity pressure 6-53 6-106
alarms 6-52 6-154
application examples/review 6-132 cavity pressure control 6-57
assembly injection molding technique 6-113 cavity pressure transfer 6-56
automatic lubrication 6-60 CBAs 6-126
cell structure 6-127
B center-gated cavities 6-7
back pressure 6-22 6-58 circular disk 6-10
back pressure segment 6-58 clamp pressure 6-52
backflow 6-57 clamp speed 6-52
backpressure 6-48 6-49 clamping force 6-93
6-50 6-154 clogging gates 6-50
balance within the mold 6-50 closed-loop 6-49
balancing 6-55 cloudy 6-168
barrel 6-1 cohesion 6-116
barrel fluid flow 6-4 coinjection 6-113
barrel-cavity fluid element mapping 6-9 coinjection or sandwich molding 6-5 6-123
best practices 6-108 cold slugs 6-170
best settings 6-53 color distribution 6-169
black specks 6-163 commodity materials 6-95
block cavities 6-56 comparison 6-95
bonding strength 6-115 conduction loss 6-3
brittleness 6-188 contour plots 6-105
bubbles 6-165 controllers 6-139
bubbles in colored parts 6-188 cooling media 6-21
bulk temperature 6-106 cooling time 6-154

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation. 6-199
6-200
Index terms Links Index terms Links
corroded thermocouple fitting 6-60 engineered plastics (PC, PA,
cosmetic defect 6-55 PC/ABS) 6-132
counters 6-51 engineering thermoplastics 6-95
crazing 6-56 6-171 environment control 6-59
cure time 6-21 equipment failure 6-60
cycle chart 6-54 erratic performance 6-58
cycle interruptions 6-61 evacuation 6-137
cycle setting 6-92 extensional flow 6-1
cycle time 6-22 6-93
cycle time improvements 6-129 F
cycle will be interrupted 6-52 faster cycles 6-49

cylinder temperatures 6-90 faults 6-151

fiber degradation 6-79
D fiber reinforcement additives 6-77
damaging faults 6-153 fill pressure 6-48
decompression 6-50 fill rate 6-55
decompression settings 6-92 fill segment 6-55 6-57
defect codes 6-44 fill time 6-50
degradation 6-154 filled materials 6-48
degradation of the polymer 6-58 filling procedure 6-1 6-24
degradation problems in runnerless first stage 6-21
systems 6-29 flammability 6-88
delamination 6-173 flash 6-175
desiccant 6-69 flow analysis 6-101
dieseling 6-167 flow channels 6-1
dimensions unstable 6-189 flow lines 6-177
discoloration 6-61 flow orientation 6-186
drag flow 6-1 flow-front speed 6-11
drool 6-58 6-155 foaming process 6-126
drooling 6-50 6-90 follow up pressures 6-55 6-57
dryer filters 6-60 formaldehyde fumes 6-88
fountain effect 6-5
E fountain flow 6-1
economics 6-152 freeze-off 6-57
edge-gated cavities 6-6 fundamental drying parameters 6-69
ejection problems 6-51
ejector marks 6-173 G
elements 6-103 gas level in percent by weight 6-130
gas type 6-130

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 6-201
Index terms Links Index terms Links
gate blemish 6-164 injection cylinder 6-58
gate vestige 6-48 6-57 injection high volume 6-58
gates 6-1 injection low volume 6-58
gates too small 6-57 injection molding 6-88
gating 6-90 injection molding equipment 6-88
geometric modeling 6-104 injection molding process 6-3
glass fiber streaks 6-184 injection pins 6-136
glass reinforcements 6-78 injection piston 6-58
glass-filled compounds 6-77 injection pressure 6-92
glass-filled materials 6-77 injection profile 6-22
glass-filled thermoplastic compounds 6-77 injection speed 6-21 6-92
gloss 6-174 6-130
grooves 6-177 injection speed profile 6-22
in-mold assembly (IMA) 6-124
H in-mold slide method 6-122
hazy 6-168 in-mold slide technique 6-120
heat-sensitive materials 6-81 in-press maintenance procedures 6-31
hesitation flows 6-9 interlocks 6-52
high operating temperatures 6-56
high pressure 6-52 J
high volume 6-55 jetting 6-2 6-178
high-density polyethylene 6-91 J-hooks 6-178
high-temperature plastics 6-132
history traces 6-106 K
hold pressure segment 6-57 kiss point 6-52 6-61

hold time 6-22

L
holding pressure 6-48
laminar flow 6-2
hot spots 6-61
laminar shear flows 6-2
humidity 6-59
leader pins 6-52
hydraulic limits 6-55
low pressure 6-52
hydraulic transfer 6-56
low pressure mold protection 6-52
hydrodynamic skin-core structure 6-1
lubricant 6-60
hygroscopic 6-68

M
I
machine technology 6-123
index plate method 6-120
maintenance on a mold 6-41 6-43
index plate process 6-120
maintenance procedures and
influence of solvents 6-56
frequency 6-43
infrared measuring device 6-47
maintenance work orders 6-45

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

6-202
Index terms Links Index terms Links
mass flow 6-70 molding conditions 6-91
material behavior 6-104 molding window 6-49
material combinations and molecular sieve 6-71
application examples 6-118 monitoring systems 6-53
material modeling 6-104 morphology 6-12
material safety data sheets 6-88 MSDS 6-88
maximum injection fill pressure 6-48 MuCell ®
6-125
melt temperature 6-22 6-91 multicolor injection molding 6-113
6-130 6-153 multimaterial applications 6-124
mesh 6-103 multimaterial injection molding 6-113
metallized glass fibers 6-77
microcellular foam molding 6-125 N
microcrack 6-117 needle probe 6-47
minimum pressure 6-52 new facilities 6-53
mold action systems 6-37 Newtonian behavior 6-2
mold bases 6-89 nickel plated carbon fibers 6-77
mold change 6-26 nitrogen (N2) 6-127
mold design 6-89 6-103 nonfills 6-179
mold ejector system 6-33 nonhygroscopic 6-67
mold flow 6-101 nonmelts 6-185
mold guiding system 6-33 non-Newtonian fluid 6-2
mold injection system 6-36 nonreturn valve 6-51 6-54
mold interlocking system 6-37 6-60 6-61
mold map 6-44 no-slip boundary condition 6-1
mold open forces 6-52 nozzle 6-1 6-89
mold parting line 6-32 6-136
mold plastic forming area 6-35 nozzle/tip frozen 6-156
mold pressure transducer(s) 6-53
mold protection 6-52 6-53 O
mold set up 6-17 off-gassing 6-165

mold shut down procedure 6-40 optimized flow rates 6-51

mold start-up procedure 6-41 optimized process 6-53

mold surface finish 6-89 optimizing 6-47

mold surface temperature 6-92 optimizing the molding process 6-47

mold temperature 6-22 6-130 optimum number of ejector strokes 6-51

mold temperature control system 6-40 overmolding 6-113

mold vents 6-34 overpacking 6-48 6-56

molded interconnect devices (mids) 6-124

molding area diagram 6-49

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 6-203
Index terms Links Index terms Links
P processing problems 6-155
packing pressure 6-48 6-57 processing shutdown 6-91
6-154 processing start up and shutdown 6-90
packing pressure segment 6-56 productivity tools 6-47
packing rate 6-56 6-57 programmed injection 6-24 6-55
part defects nonvisible 6-188 proper machine start up 6-27
part defects – visible 6-163 pullback 6-58
part dimensions 6-93 purging procedures 6-27
part weight 6-93 purging the machine 6-61
parting line sensing 6-56 PVC 6-58 6-88
parting line separation 6-24 pyrometer 6-47
PBT 6-61
peak cavity pressure 6-56 Q
plastic flow 6-1 quality 6-152
plasticating 6-158 quality control 6-93
plasticizing capacity 6-93
plug flow 6-3 R
polyoxymethylenes (POM) 6-87 reciprocating screw injection 6-88
position transfer 6-56 6-58 reciprocating screw injection molding 6-89
positive ejection 6-51 recommended screw rpm 6-58
postcrystallization 6-116 relieve stresses 6-56
prefill valve closed 6-52 6-61 residence time 6-58
preinjected 6-116 rheology 6-9
preprocessing 6-103 ripples 6-177
pressure 6-52 robotic devices 6-52
pressure limited 6-48 6-55 root causes 6-151
6-157 rotary table method 6-120
pressure-driven flow 6-1 rotary table process 6-120
pressures 6-48 rule of thumb 6-56
preventive maintenance 6-31 6-59 runner design 6-77 6-103
6-60 6-65 runnerless molds 6-28
preventive maintenance schedule 6-54 runners 6-1
probe 6-47 runners too small 6-57
process changes 6-59
process control 6-54 S
process simulations 6-101 safety 6-151
process to stabilize 6-53 sandwich injection molding 6-113
process variants and mold technology 6-120 screw 6-4
process variations 6-114 screw bounces 6-48

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

6-204
Index terms Links Index terms Links
screw delay timer 6-58 streamlines 6-8
screw injection 6-88 stress whitening 6-171
screw limited 6-158 stretching flow 6-6
screw motor torque 6-47 strings 6-184
screw run time 6-58 structural foam molding 6-125
screw speed 6-21 6-92 suckback 6-50 6-58
screw tip 6-61 summary chart 6-54
second stage 6-21 supercritical state 6-127
segmenting the molding process 6-55 surface layer 6-12
semi-crystalline 6-116 sweating 6-162
sensitivity analysis 6-103 6-107
serious cracks 6-56 T
setting up the process parameters 6-21 temperatures 6-47
shear flow 6-1 thermal expansion 6-61
shear layer 6-12 thermoplastic elastomers 6-132
shear sensitive 6-81 thermoplastics 6-87
shear sensitive materials 6-50 6-58 times 6-50
shift changes 6-62 tools 6-15
short shots 6-179 tracer 6-12
shot size 6-56 transfer by cavity pressure 6-23
shrinkage 6-48 transfer by hydraulic pressure 6-23
simulation 6-101 transfer by position 6-23
sink marks 6-57 transfer by time 6-23
sinks 6-180 transfer method 6-120 6-121
skin-core macroscopic structure 6-4 transfer override timer 6-56
slow cycle times 6-157 transfer point 6-48
solidification time 6-92 transferring on mold cavity pressure 6-55
solutions 6-152 transient flow 6-3
splay 6-183 Trexel Inc., Woburn/USA 6-127
sprue bushings 6-90 turbulent flow 6-2
sprue pickers 6-52 two stage machines 6-58
sprue sticking 6-161
sprue-gated cavities 6-9 U
stainless steel fibers 6-77 unbonded area 6-117

standard plastics (PP, HDPE, PS) 6-132 underfills 6-179

stationary skin 6-3 using a monitoring system 6-53

sticking part 6-159

stick-slip sequence 6-2
streak 6-60 6-181

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

 6-205
Index terms Links Index terms Links
V W
variability 6-48 6-49 wall thickness 6-107
6-58 warpage 6-185
variation 6-55 weight reduction 6-129
variations in the process 6-58 6-59 weld line strength 6-49
velocities 6-49 weld lines 6-187
velocity 6-50 Wenskus transform 6-51
velocity control 6-153 wicking 6-78
velocity field 6-3
velocity profile 6-1 6-55
vent 6-59
venting problems 6-50
vents 6-90
viscous heating 6-3
voids 6-191

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.