THERMOFORMING

About the Book

Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance describes the roll-fed
thermoforming process, including plastic materials, design of thermo-
formed products, thermoforming machines, trim presses, mold de-
sign, components of a mold system, mold layout and machine base
design, mold cost estimating, knife-like trim dies, and off-line punch
and die trimming.

About the Author

Improving
Process
Stanley Rosen received his Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical
engineering from the University of Buffalo. He then was employed as
Chief Engineer at Tronomatic Corp., where he designed and built
many types of thermoforming machinery, molds, dies, and large, heat-

Performance
assisted, die-cutting presses. This was during the dawn of thermo-
forming, where he met and worked with some of the pioneers of the
industry.
During his career rise, Stanley Rosen joined Container Corp. (a sub-
sidiary of Phillips Petroleum Corp.) to develop specific types of ma-
chinery, molds, and dies to process high-density polyethylene. Later,
he founded the Mold Systems and Hydrotrim Corporations (Valley
Cottage, New York), specializing in the design and building of thermo-
form tooling, sophisticated laboratory thermoforming machines, and
large hydraulic die cutters.
Rosen was elected Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Society
of Plastics Engineers Thermoforming Division, and has been hon-
ored as Thermoformer of the Year. Presently, he is consulting and
writing on topics related to thermoforming.
Stanley R. Rosen

Society of Society of
Manufacturing Rosen Manufacturing
Engineers
Engineers
www.sme.org www.sme.org
Plastics Molders
Plastics Molders & Manufacturers
& Manufacturers Association of SME
Association of SME
 Thermoforming:
Improving Process Performance

prepages.pmd 1 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

prepages.pmd 2 7/17/02, 9:51 AM
 Thermoforming:
Improving Process Performance

Stanley R. Rosen

Society of Plastics Molders

Manufacturing & Manufacturers
Engineers Association of SME

Dearborn, Michigan

prepages.pmd 3 7/30/02, 8:23 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Copyright © 2002 by the Society of Manufacturing Engineers

987654321

All rights reserved, including those of translation. This book, or parts

thereof, may not be reproduced by any means, including photocopying,
recording or microfilming, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing of the copyright owners.

No liability is assumed by the publisher with respect to use of informa-

tion contained herein. While every precaution has been taken in the
preparation of this book, the publisher assumes no responsibility for
errors or omissions. Publication of any data in this book does not consti-
tute a recommendation or endorsement of any patent, proprietary right,
or product that may be involved.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2002108065

International Standard Book Number: 0-87263-582-1

Additional copies may be obtained by contacting:

Society of Manufacturing Engineers
Customer Service
One SME Drive, P.O. Box 930
Dearborn, Michigan 48121
1-800-733-4763
www.sme.org

SME staff who participated in producing this book:

Philip Mitchell, Editor
Rosemary Csizmadia, Production Supervisor
Kathye Quirk, Graphic Designer/Cover Design
Frances Kania, Production Assistant
Jon Newberg, Production Editor
Printed in the United States of America

iv

prepages.pmd 4 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Dedication

To E. Bowman (Bo) Stratton, a thermoforming pioneer who

is honored for his efforts to build the industry.

prepages.pmd 5 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

vi

prepages.pmd 6 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Table of Contents

Preface ............................................................................ xi
Abbreviations .................................................................. xiii

1 The Roll-fed Thermoforming Process

Introduction .......................................................................... 1
Heating the Plastic ................................................................ 1
Thermoforming a Continuous Web....................................... 2
Machine Components ......................................................... 4
Vacuum-forming Process ..................................................... 5
Pressure-forming Process ...................................................... 6
Comparison of Processes ..................................................... 8
Trimming ............................................................................... 8
Part Handling ...................................................................... 13
Secondary Processes ......................................................... 16

2 Properties of Plastic Materials

Crystalline versus Amorphous Thermoplastics .................... 20
Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution ......... 25
Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers ............................ 26
Other Important Physical Properties .................................... 32
Flow Behavior of Polymers .................................................. 36
Melt Elasticity, Melt Strength, and Orientation ..................... 41
Choosing a Resin ............................................................... 45

vii

prepages.pmd 7 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

3 Design of Thermoformed Products

Part Design Guidelines ........................................................ 51
Trimming ............................................................................. 60
Embossing and Texturing .................................................... 61
Thin-wall Formed Parts ......................................................... 62
Summary ............................................................................ 66

4 Thermoforming Machines
Pioneer Developments ....................................................... 67
Skin Packaging .................................................................... 70
Roll-fed Thermoformers....................................................... 71
Oven Heat Sources ............................................................ 73
Thermoforming Presses ....................................................... 77
Prototype Parts and Machines ............................................ 80
Vacuum-forming Machines ................................................ 80
Trim Presses ......................................................................... 82
Cut-in-place Contact Heat Thermoformer ......................... 85
Trim-in-place Preheat Thermoformer .................................. 90
Rotary-drum Mold Thermoformer ....................................... 90
Working Together ................................................................ 93

5 Trim Presses
In-line Trim Press .................................................................. 96
Punch and Die Press ........................................................... 97
Manually Fed Trim Press ...................................................... 99
Safety................................................................................ 100
Knife-like Dies .................................................................... 101
Die Cutting ....................................................................... 101
Roller-die Cutting .............................................................. 104
On-line Trim Press .............................................................. 106
Conditions for Proper Die Cutting ..................................... 106
Striker Plate Material .......................................................... 108
Cause of Die Damage ..................................................... 110

viii

prepages.pmd 8 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Table of Contents

Off-line Trim Press .............................................................. 111

Scrap ................................................................................ 116
Trim Press Selection ........................................................... 117

6 Mold Design
Considerations.................................................................. 119
Mold Cavity Materials ....................................................... 129
Mold Shops ....................................................................... 133
Mold Cavity Design Criteria .............................................. 134
Heat Transfer in Metal Molds ............................................. 140
Clamping of Heated Web ................................................ 147
Thermoforming Foam ....................................................... 149
Contact-heat Thermoforming .......................................... 152
Conclusion ....................................................................... 154

7 Mold System Components

Mold Base Assembly Components .................................. 155
Vacuum-forming Seal-off Methods .................................. 164
Family-style Tooling ........................................................... 165
Design of Plugs and Assists ............................................... 167
Other Thermoforming Systems .......................................... 172
Quick-change Tooling ...................................................... 176
Estimating Initial Sheet Thickness for a Mold ..................... 176
Conclusion ....................................................................... 178

8 Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Thermoformed-part Shrinkage .......................................... 181
Pattern Shrinkage Allowance for an Aluminum Casting .... 182
Male Mold Layout ............................................................. 183
Fixed-mold-base Requirements ....................................... 188
Female Mold Layout ......................................................... 192
Venting of Cavities During Thermoforming ....................... 197
Mold Buildup Layout ......................................................... 205

ix

prepages.pmd 9 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Mold-base Design ............................................................ 206

Molds for Contact Heat .................................................... 213
Conclusion ....................................................................... 219

9 Mold Cost Estimating

Factors that Make Up Cost ............................................... 223
Variables that Affect Profit ................................................. 225
Most Often Asked Questions ............................................. 227
Mold Estimating Forms ..................................................... 228

10 Knife-like Trim Dies

Steel-rule Dies ................................................................... 239
Forged Dies ...................................................................... 247
Machined Tool-steel Dies.................................................. 248
Heat-assisted Die Cutting ................................................. 256
Trimming on Two Planes Using Knife-like Dies .................... 257
Trimming Above and Below the Sheet Line ...................... 259
Choosing a Knife-like Die .................................................. 261
Preliminary Layout of Knife-like Dies .................................. 262
Layout of a Steel-rule Die .................................................. 269
Die User and Die Builder Responsibilities ........................... 270

11 Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Cost Justification............................................................... 274
Punch and Die Design ...................................................... 276
Punch-and-die Tooling ..................................................... 283
Thermoforming Molds and
Trim-in-place Punch and Dies ..................................... 296
Layout of an Off-line Punch and Die ................................ 299
Conclusion ....................................................................... 314
Index ................................................................................. 319

prepages.pmd 10 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Preface

The thermoforming industry is naturally divided into two di-

visions utilizing either thin- or heavy-gage (thickness) plastic
sheet. The type of machinery required, the size of production
runs, and markets served are different for these two branches of
the industry.
Thin-gage thermoforming processes plastic sheet of approxi-
mately 0.005–0.100 in. (0.13–2.54 mm) thick, which is supplied in
roll form or, in special circumstances, extruded directly into the
thermoformer. Thin-gage production thermoforming machines can
not accept individual sheets and are fed from a continuous roll of
plastic sheet. This process is referred to as roll-fed thermoforming.
Sheet-fed thermoforming utilizes heavy-gage sheets cut into indi-
vidual units, because extrusion equipment limitations prevent the
sheets from being coiled into rolls as it is difficult to then unwind
the plastic sheet at the thermoformer.
Roll-fed thermoforming machines often form multi-cavity shots
at speeds of 3–20 cycles per minute. This process is useful for
production runs of 5,000 to multi-million individual parts, such
as packaging components, blister packs, and single-use food con-
tainers. Sheet-fed thermoforming equipment can form thin-gage
parts, but it results in low production rates and high labor con-
tent and makes this process uneconomical. Heavy-gage
thermoformers produce shots at a cycle speed measured in min-
utes, rather than in seconds. They are often used for work cover-
ing large plastic areas. These large formed parts are used for
scientific equipment enclosures, pick-up-bed truck liners, and

xi

prepages.pmd 11 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

other industrial products that require high physical strength and

durability.
The thermoforming process itself remains much the same for
thick or thin sheets, but the molds and trimming techniques can
differ. Roll-fed, thin-sheet, thermoforming molds must be tem-
perature-controlled in a sophisticated manner to achieve the high-
speed cycling required for efficiency. Sheet-fed molds tend to be
less efficiently cooled, perhaps because of smaller production runs
and the additional mold cost involved. The trimming of individual
thin-gage parts is processed in dies; heavy-gage parts are cut out
with routers and saws.
The design principles used for thermoformed parts and molds
can be equally applied to either roll or sheet forming. Both indus-
tries use vacuum- or pressure-forming techniques on both male
and female molds. Achieving nearly uniform wall thickness may
require the use of plugs or mechanical assists. Because of the di-
verse types of machines used, some thermoforming practices may
vary to take advantage of equipment capabilities.
Although most details of this text are about roll-fed thermo-
forming, the principles and some practices apply equally to sheet-
fed thermoforming. Physical laws governing heat transfer, mold
spacing, location of thick or thin part-wall thickness, mold build-
ing, and techniques are universal for any style of thermoforming.
For further information, contact the author:
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.plastimach.com

xii

prepages.pmd 12 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Abbreviations

A
ABS acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene
AISI American Iron and Steel Institute
APET amorphous polyethylene terephthalate
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

C
CAD computer-aided design
CAD/CAM computer-aided design/computer-aided manufac-
turing
CAE computer-aided engineering
CG center of gravity
CNC computer numerical control
CP center of pressure
CPET crystalline polyethylene terephthalate

D
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung

E
EDM electrical discharge machining
ESCR environmental stress-crack resistance
EVA ethylene-vinyl acetate
EVOH ethylene-vinyl alcohol

xiii

prepages.pmd 13 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

H
HDPE high-density polyethylene
HDT heat distortion temperature
HIPS high-impact polystyrene

I
ICP impact copolymer
ISO International Organization for Standardization

L
LDPE low-density polyethylene
LLDPE linear low-density polyethylene

M
MDPE medium-density polyethylene
MEK methyl ethyl ketone
MFR melt-flow rate
MVTR moisture vapor transmission rate
MW molecular weight
MWD molecular weight distribution

O
OEM original equipment manufacturer
OPS oriented polystyrene
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

P
PA polyamide (nylon)
PC polycarbonate
PE polyethylene
PEEK polyether-ether-ketone
PET polyethylene terephthalate (polyester)
PETG polyethylene terephthalate glycol
PP polypropylene

xiv

prepages.pmd 14 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Abbreviations

PS polystyrene
PSU polysulfone
PVA polyvinyl alcohol
PVAC polyvinyl acetate
PVC polyvinyl chloride

Q
QA quality assurance
QC quality control
QMC quick mold changing

R
RC Rockwell C
RCP random copolymer
RF radio frequency
RPET recycled polyethylene terephthalate
RPVC rigid polyvinyl chloride
rpm revolutions per minute

S
SAN styrene-acrylonitrile
SCR silicon-controlled rectifier
sec second (time)
SPPF solid-phase pressure forming
STAT sheet thinning analysis (for) thermoforming

T
TFE tetrafluoroethylene
Tg glass-transition temperature

U
UHMW-PE ultra-high molecular-weight polyethylene
UL Underwriters’ Laboratories
UV ultraviolet

xv

prepages.pmd 15 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Reference

Mitchell, Philip, ed. 1998. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers

Handbook, Fourth Edition, Volume 9: Material and Part Handling
in Manufacturing. Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engi-
neers.

xvi

prepages.pmd 16 7/17/02, 9:51 AM

 Chapter 1: The Roll-fed Thermoforming Process

11
The Roll-fed
Thermoforming Process

Introduction

Thermoforming is a term of recent origin, perhaps coming into

common use in the early 1980s. Before that time, sellers of
thermoformed plastic products referred to their industry as ei-
ther vacuum- or pressure-forming operations. It made sense to
combine the definitions of these processes since the only differ-
ence between the two is the degree of air pressure applied to form
heated plastic. Thermoformed product buyers do not care which
process is used as long as finished products are of high quality,
delivered on time, and sold at a fair price.

Heating the Plastic

The thermoforming process requires that a plastic sheet be

heated uniformly to a temperature that makes it soft enough to
process. The best temperature for thermoforming is often arrived
at empirically, since the true measurement of sheet temperature
can be difficult. If the sheet temperature rises above the upper
thermoforming limit, the plastic material may degrade or sag,
causing sheet thinning and a possible loss of properties (see Fig-
ure 1-1). When the sheet temperature is below its lower forming
limit, the material may cold form—inducing internal stresses that
later can precipitate part failure.

Ch01.PMD 1 7/17/02, 8:46 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 1-1. Sheet thinning and a possible loss of properties.

Mold design cannot compensate for thermoforming at an incor-

rect sheet temperature. A visit to a thermoforming shop will reveal
the ongoing struggle to maintain the correct forming temperature
range. Thermoformed plastic parts must start with a consistent,
uniform sheet temperature or production will yield a variable-
quality product.

Thermoforming a Continuous Web

Roll-fed thermoforming is a continuous process. When a sheet

from one roll is exhausted, the next roll web is attached to allow
continuous production. Rolls of plastic sheet vary in width from
10–60 in. (254–1,524 mm) with thickness ranging from 0.0075–
0.1000 in. (0.190–2.540 mm) or greater and weighing from 50–
2,000 lb (22.7–907 kg) wound on cardboard or metal cores (see
Figure 1-2).
When only one family of plastic resin is used for a large quan-
tity of products—for example cups and lids—an in-line extruder
can be installed to directly process the sheet continuously into

Ch01.PMD 2 7/17/02, 8:46 AM

 Chapter 1: The Roll-fed Thermoforming Process

Figure 1-2. Rolls of extruded plastic sheet being wound on cardboard or

metal cores (Mitchell 1998).

the thermoformer (see Figure 1-3). The roll-fed thermoforming

machine will accept a plastic web equally from rolls or an extruder.
Proponents of direct extrusion claim they achieve a more uniformly
heated sheet because the center core of the sheet’s cross-section
tends to remain hot when entering into the thermoformer oven.

Figure 1-3. An in-line extruder installed to directly process the sheet continu-
ously into the thermoformer (Mitchell 1998).

Ch01.PMD 3 7/17/02, 8:46 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Machine Components

The continuous roll-fed thermoforming system consists of the

following components:
• A roll stand that accepts and unwinds a plastic roll (see Fig-
ure 1-4) to serve the thermoforming machine. This device
generally has space for two rolls of plastic to reduce down-
time when the first roll is emptied.
• Ovens with radiant heating elements are capable of heating
a plastic web from one side or both sheet faces.
• An indexing chain system transports the plastic web off of
the roll stand, through the ovens and thermoforming press,
to a trim station and packing area. The length of the index
stroke is the same length as that of the mold, plus a clear-
ance factor. It is critical that the indexed web be consistent
and accurate from point to point so that the trim press die
can more easily locate the formed part precisely for accurate
trimming.
• Thermoforming presses that contain the mold are placed im-
mediately next to the oven exit so the heated sheet does not
have an opportunity to cool before being indexed into the mold
(see Figure 1-5). Most, but not all, U.S.-built thermoformers
have both an upper and lower moving platen in the press
section; and many presses have mechanical devices incorpo-
rated to operate mold ejectors. The forming press area has
piped utility outlets, which provide for vacuum and pressure
forming, mold temperature control of liquids, and part ejec-
tion air. Some projects may require vacuum and pressure used
in tandem to form plastic components.
• On-line trim presses are built on the machine frame and are
fed by the indexing system of the thermoformer to register a
whole shot relative to the die.
• Off-line trim presses are stationed to pick up the free web af-
ter exiting the thermoformer, and incorporate an independent
indexer to align one or more formed rows of parts to the die.
• Auxiliary devices may be present, such as stacking or collat-
ing systems to organize trimmed parts for packing and count-
ing once the parts exit the on-line trim press.

Ch01.PMD 4 7/17/02, 8:46 AM

 Chapter 1: The Roll-fed Thermoforming Process

Figure 1-4. A roll stand that can accept and unwind a plastic roll (Mitchell
1998).

The decision on which cutting system is selected for trimming

involves many factors—initial cost, delivery time, quality of cut
edge, available trimming equipment, and the skill of thermoform-
ing setup persons.

Vacuum-forming Process

Vacuum-forming tooling requires a mold connected to a vacuum

supply and a system to seal the edges of the mold securely against
heated plastic (see Figure 1-6). The seal-off system is necessary
for the vacuum to build up rapidly between the mold and heated
plastic without leakage. Vacuum leaks can cause trapped air be-
tween the mold and hot sheet to cool the plastic sufficiently and
prevent it from coming in contact with the mold surface. If the
hot plastic becomes chilled before it is fully thermoformed, it may

Ch01.PMD 5 7/17/02, 8:46 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 1-5. Thermoforming presses to contain the mold assembly (Mitchell

1998).

result in a component that is incompletely formed and of poor

quality. Unfortunately, a small or medium vacuum leak is diffi-
cult to detect and trace. It displays little evidence of its location. A
consequence may be a request to the mold maker to rework the
vacuum path to increase airflow. However, this modification may
not solve the problem. A properly designed seal-off method and
the intervention of a skilled thermoforming operator tends to
minimize this difficulty.

Pressure-forming Process

Pressure forming requires a pressure box to enclose the mold

and create a pressure-tight thermoforming area, which allows
thermoforming using pressures above 14.7 psi or one atmosphere
or 101 kPa (see Figure 1-7). There is no problem in detecting pres-
sure-forming leaks; pressurized air will advertise the leak with a
mighty roar.

Ch01.PMD 6 7/17/02, 8:46 AM

 Chapter 1: The Roll-fed Thermoforming Process

Figure 1-6. Tooling for vacuum forming (Mitchell 1998).

Figure 1-7. A pressure box to enclose the mold and create a pressure-tight
thermoforming area (Mitchell 1998).

Ch01.PMD 7 7/17/02, 8:46 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Comparison of Processes

Both vacuum- and pressure-forming tooling often require plugs

or assists to help pre-stretch heated plastic to achieve a uniform
part-wall thickness before activating the forming sequence. The
tool may need special devices to eject parts that tend to hang up
in a mold, such as cavities with undercuts. The mold-cavity de-
sign for a male or female cavity is exactly the same for pressure
and vacuum forming.
A uniformly heated sheet of most commonly specified resins
produces equally acceptable parts on a vacuum or pressure former.
Unfortunately, all sheets are not uniformly heated; nor is every
machine operator equal in skill and knowledge. The higher force
of pressure forming permits the temperature window to be wider
so that acceptable parts are produced more consistently over the
lower end of the thermoforming range. Overall scrap rate is re-
duced by a considerable factor, thereby increasing profitability.
Because pressure forming forces plastic into closer contact with
the mold, heat transfer from the plastic to the metal mold is more
efficient, thereby increasing cycle speed and resulting in more parts
produced per shift.
Roll-fed vacuum forming is appealing only for those short runs
that cannot amortize the purchase price of a pressure box and a
modern temperature-controlled mold.

Trimming

A continuous roll-fed thermoformer can produce a multi-cavity

shot for each machine cycle. Individual components must be
trimmed from the shot to provide a usable thermoformed prod-
uct. Thermoforming and trimming are equally important in the
manufacture of finished components and each process requires
its own high degree of technical knowledge and skill.
Two methods of trimming are employed to cut out roll-fed thermo-
formed plastic parts. The earliest cutting technique adapted for
thermoforming came from the paper industry, where knife-like,
steel-rule dies are used to cut out card boxes, printed material,
jigsaw puzzles, etc. (see Figure 1-8). When a high volume of thermo-

Ch01.PMD 8 7/17/02, 8:46 AM

 Chapter 1: The Roll-fed Thermoforming Process

Figure 1-8. The earliest cutting technique adapted for thermoforming is a

steel-rule die (Mitchell 1998).

formed parts is required, the most efficient trimming system is

the punch and die, a method taken from the metal stamping in-
dustry (see Figure 1-9). Equipment is available that can form and
trim components within the mold using several techniques.
Knife-like dies function in the same way that a pocketknife cut-
ting through wood acts when its sharp thin edge is forced into a
material of lesser hardness. The duller the cutting edge becomes,
the greater the force required and the resultant trim perimeter
quality suffers. Each plastic resin has specific trimming charac-
teristics—some soft-yet-tough or hard-but-brittle and some that

Figure 1-9. A punch and die is the most efficient trimming system when a high
volume of thermoformed parts is required.

Ch01.PMD 9 7/17/02, 8:46 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

are very abrasive to sharpened blades. Knife-like dies come in many

types of bevels, hardness levels, degrees of bendability, and levels
of thickness. These factors must be weighed when specifying these
dies.
A knife-like tool system consists of a die, striker plate (which the
die impinges on), and a buildup to support the die and striker plate
against deflecting under load (see Figure 1-10). The striker plate
surface can be softer or harder than the die, depending on the
skill and patience employed in setup of the trim press. The best
situation is one in which the die kisses but does not penetrate the
striker plate. A die allowed to penetrate into the striker plate can
dull on the first attempt at cutting if it is softer than the plate. If
a softer plate than the die is used, the knife edge can remain sharp,
but it creates a groove in the striker plate that eventually becomes
wider. The plastic then tends to bend and break in the groove
rather than cut through cleanly.

Punch and Die

Punch-and-die tooling includes some of the following components:

• Punch-and-die modules consist of the punch with a male con-
figuration that enters with a slight sidewall clearance into
the female die (see Figure 1-11). Because of the high cost of
constructing a multi-cavity die, only one or two rows are
trimmed with each stroke of the trim press.
• A die set specified with four posts and bushings is required
to guide the moving and stationary plates and align the punch-
and-die module components to each other.
• Pilots built on the punch help center the formed shots to the
punch and die module.
• Knockouts are included, where applicable, to push trimmed
parts free of the punch and into the die cavity.
• Spring-loaded stripper plates clamp the sheet to be trimmed
firmly against the die plate for a clean cut. After the part is
trimmed, the stripper plate removes the sheet skeleton from
the punches.
• Chutes stack the trimmed parts in uniform order for ease in
safely removing and packing them.

10

Ch01.PMD 10 7/17/02, 8:46 AM

Ch01.PMD
11
11

7/17/02, 8:46 AM
Figure 1-10. A buildup to support both the die and striker plates to prevent deflecting under a load.
Chapter 1: The Roll-fed Thermoforming Process
 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 1-11. A punch and die assembly. (Courtesy Ontario Die Ltd.)

Sheet Indexing

Accuracy for a plastic sheet that is indexed through a thermo-

forming machine affects the performance of the trimming operation.
Trimming on-line with the trim press mounted on the thermo-
forming machine frame requires that shots be consistently indexed
from the forming area to the trim press (see Figure 1-12). Small
errors of location can be corrected by building locating pilots into
the die. Knife-like dies can be designed to float in the direction of
index within a movement of 0.06–0.19 in. (1.5–4.8 mm) to accom-
modate more erratic indexing.

Resin Shrinkage and Trim Registration

More difficult registration problems can occur from selecting

an incorrect resin shrinkage coefficient for a large multi-cavity
part produced on an on-line thermoforming machine. The resin
shrinkage coefficient used for design of molds and dies applies

12

Ch01.PMD 12 7/17/02, 8:47 AM

 Chapter 1: The Roll-fed Thermoforming Process

Figure 1-12. Trimming on-line with the trim press mounted on the
thermoforming machine frame (Mitchell 1998).

only to cold sheets. Often the thermoformed sheet is quite hot on

exiting the mold and it may remain hot when it moves into the
die. The cold-shrinkage coefficient may be specified at, for example,
0.005 in./in. (0.005 mm/mm). Yet, on the on-line machine, true
shrinkage may be 0.002 in./in. (0.002 mm/mm) at the trim sta-
tion. Miscalculating true shrinkage by 0.003 in./in. (0.003 mm/
mm) over a 30-in. (762-mm) part width dimension would multiply
to be an error of 0.090 in. (2.29 mm). There is no way to correct
errors of this scale unless the mold cavity is designed to be mov-
able or a new die is constructed. Fortunately, this type of error
is not common on punch and dies installed on self-indexing off-
line trim presses that pick up the shot a minute or two after
being formed. By this time, the sheet is usually fully cooled (see
Figure 1-13).

Part Handling

Most thermoformed parts are shipped in neat stacks rather

than in a jumble of loose pieces. Stacking requires a method to
allow parts to easily de-nest one from the other and not jam to-
gether during shipping. The part fabricator is interested in speci-
fying a minimum stack-height allowance between each part so
the maximum number of components can be placed in the ship-
ping container.

13

Ch01.PMD 13 7/17/02, 8:47 AM

Ch01.PMD
14
14
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 1-13. Off-line self-indexing trim press in tandem with a thermoformer (Mitchell 1998).

7/17/02, 8:47 AM
 Chapter 1: The Roll-fed Thermoforming Process

The geometry of the parts, draft angle, wall thickness, and type
of resin govern de-nesting characteristics, as does skillfully de-
signed, thermoformed de-nesting lugs. A designer can lay out these
conditions on paper, but actually stacking finished products formed
on a prototype thermoforming machine to the height being shipped
makes the final judgment.
On-line thermoformers are able to index cut thermoformed parts
out of the trim press because weakened nicks or tabs connect them
to the shot (see Figure 1-14). These tabs allow parts to remain in
the shot until a light force removes them during packing. Cut
parts can be stacked manually after exiting the die press or by an
in-line stacking station that automatically strips and loads fin-
ished parts into chutes and counts them.
Off-line trim presses, with punch-and-die tooling, trim formed
parts out of the web. These parts move through the back of the
die and out to a chute where packing takes place.

Figure 1-14. Holding trimmed parts in a web using “nicks,” when being
indexed out of the steel-rule press.

15

Ch01.PMD 15 7/17/02, 8:47 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Secondary Processes

Additional secondary processes that can be run on an on-line

thermoformer (see Figure 1-15) are as follows:
• Certain thermoformed products are designed with cardboard
or plastic sheet backing permanently laminated by adhesive or
heat sealing. Many of these common products—such as cos-
metic packages and insect traps—need the added strength
provided by the backing for the thermoformed container. These
specialty products can be completely fabricated on an on-line
thermoformer. The trimming and backing board are cemented
or heat-sealed and trimmed simultaneously in the trim press
using a variation of the knife-like die.
• Hot-stamping equipment can be mounted as an optional sta-
tion on an on-line thermoformer to decorate formed compo-
nents. The tool designer may have to develop anvils to back
up plastic thermoforms while they are being processed at the
hot-stamp station.
The on-line thermoforming system requires tooling for both
routine and specialty processes. A designer should think through
the complete production process and foresee all tooling needs. Ex-
perience indicates that thermoformed parts’ scheduling becomes
chaotic as delivery deadlines near. A “quick and dirty” production
mentality may take hold if all production tools are not provided in
time to start operations.

Reference

Mitchell, Philip, ed. 1998. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers

Handbook, Fourth Edition, Volume 8: Plastic Part Manufactur-
ing. Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

16

Ch01.PMD 16 7/17/02, 8:47 AM

Ch01.PMD
17
17
Figure 1-15. Additional secondary processes that can be processed on an on-line thermoformer (Mitchell 1998).

7/17/02, 8:47 AM
Chapter 1: The Roll-fed Thermoforming Process
Ch01.PMD 18 7/17/02, 8:47 AM
 2
Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

Properties of
Plastic Materials

Phillip Jacoby, Ph.D., co-author

BP Polymers
The types of plastic resins used in thermoforming are known
as thermoplastics, and all thermoplastics share certain common
characteristics. Thermoplastics will soften when heated, and at
some elevated temperature they turn into viscous fluids, much
like thick molasses. This allows them to be pumped through a
thin die using an extruder to make a thermoformable sheet.
If the structure of a molten plastic is magnified by more than a
million-fold, it would consist of long thin chains highly entangled
with one another and in rapid motion, almost like a bucket of
worms. Each of these chains is a single polymer molecule. If a
force or pressure is applied to the melt, such as rotating an ex-
truder screw or moving a plunger, the polymer molecules slide
past one another and the fluid undergoes flow. The higher the
temperature, the more rapidly the molecules move, and the easier
it is to make fluid flow. The fluid thins and drops in viscosity. Vis-
cosity of the polymer melt also depends on how flexible the chains
are, and how entangled they are with one another. Further mag-
nification of the structure of each chain shows that it consists of a
large number of identical units or links joined together. These
units are the monomers from which a polymer is formed. The word
polymer is a combination of the words poly, meaning many, and
mer, meaning a unit. A typical polymer chain may be thousands of
monomer units in length and is formed in a process called poly-
merization.

19

Ch02.pmd 19 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

There is another class of polymers known as thermosets, which

cannot be used in thermoforming. In these materials, the poly-
mer chains are linked together, or cross-linked to form a giant
network, much like chicken wire (see Figure 2-1). These cross-
links prevent chains from sliding past one another, and thus a
thermoset polymer will not form a melt that can be pumped
through an extruder. Examples of a cross-linked polymer are the
rubber in an automobile tire and hard, brittle materials like phe-
nolic resins used for knobs or handles on cookware.

Figure 2-1. Thermosetting plastics form a three-dimensional random net-

work with rigid bonds. (Courtesy BP Polymers)

For certain thermoplastics it is possible to have chains that con-

tain long branches or even an occasional link to another chain.
An example of two different types of branched polyethylene mol-
ecules is illustrated in Figure 2-2. As long as the number of these
links is not too high, these materials will form a melt that can be
extruded into sheets and thermoformed. This branched structure
often leads to a melt with greater strength and rigidity (high melt
strength). This allows the sheet to better resist gravity when it is
heated, and therefore undergo less sag in the thermoforming oven.
This feature can be especially important for improving process-
ing of crystalline thermoplastics.

Crystalline versus Amorphous Thermoplastics

Solid materials generally occur in one of two forms, either crys-

talline or amorphous.

20

Ch02.pmd 20 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

Figure 2-2. Two different types of branched polyethylene molecules. (Cour-

tesy BP Polymers)

Crystalline Material

In a crystalline substance, such as ice, molecules are arranged

in a very regular pattern. This ordered arrangement sometimes
produces the beautiful geometric crystals of minerals like quartz,
or the delicate six-pointed structure of a snowflake. When a crys-
talline substance is heated, it eventually reaches a temperature
where the molecules are moving too rapidly to be held in the crys-
tal, and melting occurs. At this melting point, it rapidly goes from
a rigid solid to a fluid melt, and the transition occurs over a very
narrow temperature range.
In many materials where the molecules are large and bulky, or
chain-like in structure, it is often not possible for molecules to
arrange themselves into a regular crystalline structure when the
liquid or melt is cooled. In the solid state of these materials, mol-
ecules are arranged in a disordered or random fashion, and this
material is said to be in the amorphous or glassy state. Appear-
ance of the molecules can be likened to a bowl of cooked spaghetti
(see Figure 2-3).

21

Ch02.pmd 21 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 2-3. The appearance of the amorphous plastic molecules can be

likened to a bowl of cooked spaghetti. (Courtesy BP Polymers)

Amorphous Material

Amorphous plastics are often transparent. Typical examples

include crystal polystyrene, polymethyl methacrylate (Acrylic™),
and polycarbonate (Lexan™). It should be noted that the term
crystal, which is associated with amorphous polystyrene, refers to
the crystal-clear appearance of the plastic, and not crystallinity.
Ordinary silica glass is an example of an inorganic amorphous
polymer.
When a glassy material (amorphous) is heated, it gradually be-
gins to soften as molecules gain more and more mobility. How-
ever, unlike a crystalline material, there is not an abrupt change
from a rigid solid to a fluid melt. If a glass rod or tube is held over
a flame, it eventually becomes soft enough to bend or blow into a
bottle, but unless it is overheated, it will not appear to melt. The
temperature where large-scale motion of molecules becomes pos-
sible, and significant softening of the material occurs, is known as
the glass-transition temperature. When an amorphous plastic sheet
is heated above its glass-transition temperature in the oven of a

22

Ch02.pmd 22 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

thermoformer, it begins to gradually soften and has almost a

leather-like appearance over a broad temperature range. This
broad softening range gives it a wide processing window to be
formed into a final part, without excessive sag in the oven. The
abrupt melting of a crystalline plastic leads to a much narrower
temperature window over which thermoforming can occur.

Semicrystalline Plastics

Many types of thermoplastics can crystallize when they cool

from the melt (see Figure 2-4). However, because of their entangled
chain structure, they cannot achieve the perfect ordering possible
for small-molecule materials. When crystallization does occur in
polymers, the chains generally line up parallel to one another and
fold over to form thin crystals known as lamellae. In the melt,
these crystals often start growing at the surface of small foreign
particles known as nuclei. The crystals grow by fanning out in all

Figure 2-4. Semicrystalline plastics, such as polyethylene or polypropylene,

are translucent or opaque. (Courtesy BP Polymers)

23

Ch02.pmd 23 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

directions to form spherical bodies called spherulites. The folds

and entanglement between lamella have a disordered or amor-
phous-like structure, so that the final solidified polymer is only
semicrystalline. Semicrystalline plastics, such as polyethylene or
polypropylene, are usually translucent or opaque, since the crys-
tals or spherulites scatter the passage of light through the plastic.

Crystallinity

The degree or percent of crystallinity depends on the regular-

ity of the polymer chain, and how much opportunity chains have
to crystallize before they are frozen in place as the melt cools below
the glass-transition temperature. Slow cooling of the melt favors
more complete crystallization and a higher level of crystallinity. A
rapidly quenched part or sheet will generally have lower crystal-
linity and better clarity than a slowly cooled material. A high con-
centration of nuclei also favors higher crystallinity because there
are more sites for crystals to form on, and nucleating agents are
often added to polymers for this reason. However, nucleated plas-
tics, generally have much improved clarity because they contain
smaller spherulites that interfere less with light passing through
the polymer.
The simplest example of a semicrystalline polymer is polyeth-
ylene (PE). Under ideal conditions, crystallinity levels as high as
80% can be achieved, provided there are not defects in the chain
structure. In polyethylene crystals, chains are closer together than
they are in amorphous regions. This causes crystalline PE to have
a higher density than amorphous PE. A polyethylene with a high
level of crystallinity typically has a solid-state density of about
0.95–0.96 grams per cubic centimeter (g/cc), and is known as high-
density polyethylene (HDPE).
One way to lower the density or crystallinity of polyethylene is
to mix in other co-monomers, such as butene-1 or hexene-1, with
the ethylene during polymerization. When these other monomers
are inserted along the growing chain, they produce short branches
that do not easily fit within the crystal structure. This causes the
crystals to be less perfect and less abundant—leading to a lower

24

Ch02.pmd 24 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

level of crystallinity and a lower density. When the density of the

polyethylene is in the range of 0.90–0.92, it is referred to as low-
density polyethylene (LDPE). As density (crystallinity) goes down,
the polymer becomes softer and more pliable, and the melting
point also decreases. Another way to make LDPE is to polymerize
the ethylene in a high-pressure reactor where many long branches
are produced along the chain. These branches interfere in the same
manner with the development of crystals, although the viscous
(flow) behavior of this long-chain branched PE is different from
that of the short-chain branched PE. The short-chain branched
material is referred to as linear LDPE (or LLDPE) to distinguish
it from its long-chain branched counterpart.

Molecular Weight and Molecular Weight Distribution

The molecular weight of a polymer molecule is a measure of

how large the molecule becomes. For example, an ethylene mol-
ecule (C2H4) has an atomic weight of 28 (each carbon is 12 and
each hydrogen is 1). If 1,000 ethylene molecules are joined to-
gether, the polyethylene molecule formed has a molecular weight
of 28,000. Polymerization produces a range of different molecu-
lar-weight polymer molecules, so an average molecular weight
must be used to describe a molecule. As the average molecular
weight of a polymer increases, dramatic changes occur to both
melt- and solid-state behavior of the material. A high-molecular-
weight polymer has more resistance to flow and is therefore more
difficult to extrude into sheet. The toughness or impact strength
of a polymer also goes up as molecular weight increases.
Molecular-weight distribution (MWD) also has an effect on physi-
cal properties. In this case, MWD refers to the relative amount of
very small and very large molecules that make up the plastic. If
most of the polymer molecules are similar in size, the polymer
has a narrow molecular-weight distribution. On the other hand,
if there are large numbers of very small and very large molecules,
the polymer has a broad MWD. It is possible for two different
samples of a given polymer to have the same average molecular
weight, but very different molecular-weight distributions.

25

Ch02.pmd 25 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Mechanical Properties of Solid Polymers

This section will discuss the mechanical properties of solid poly-

mers, which include stiffness, modulus, orientation, heat distor-
tion temperature, and toughness.

Stiffness

A critical property for most thermoformed parts is stiffness or

rigidity. A common measure of stiffness is the flexural modulus,
which is determined by a three-point bending test on a rectangu-
lar beam (see Figure 2-5). The force required to bend or deflect
the beam—what we normally think of as the stiffness—depends
on the inherent modulus of elasticity of the material and the beam
dimensions. Thickness has a very dramatic effect on stiffness, since
it appears as a cubic term in the deflection equation (see Equa-
tion 2-1).
Maximum deflection can be found by performing a three-point
flexure test for modulus measurement:
PL3
Md = (2-1)
4 Ebd3
where:
Md = maximum deflection, in. (cm)
P = applied force, lbf (N)
L = test length, in. (cm)
E = modulus of elasticity for sample, psi (kPa)
b = width of sample, in. (cm)
d3 = thickness of sample, in.3 (cm3)
For example:
If a beam 0.100 in. (2.54 mm) thick requires a force of 50 lb
(222 N) to deflect it by 0.005 in. (0.13 mm) at its midpoint,
a beam of the same material that is only 10% thicker (0.110
in. or 2.79 mm) requires a bending force of about 65 lb (289
N)—an increase of 30% to produce that same 0.005 in. (0.13
mm) bend. As a general reference, the percentage increase

26

Ch02.pmd 26 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

Figure 2-5. A three-point bending test on a rectangular beam (Mitchell 1998).

in bending force will be about three times the percentage

increase in thickness. This is why having a uniform wall
thickness in the formed part is so critical to its performance.

Modulus

The modulus is a property of the polymer and its processing his-

tory. For amorphous polymers, the modulus is directly related to
the stiffness of the polymer backbone chain. Very flexible polymers,
such as polyethylene, have a low modulus, while polymers with
more rigid backbones, such as polystyrene and polycarbonate, have
a much higher modulus. For semicrystalline polymers, the modu-
lus of the crystalline regions is higher than that of the amorphous
regions, especially at temperatures above the glass-transition tem-
perature of the amorphous phase. The modulus of a semicrystal-
line polymer will therefore increase as the level of crystallinity
increases. In the case of polyethylene, high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) is a stiffer material than low-density polyethylene (LDPE).
If a nucleating agent is added to a semicrystalline polymer like
polypropylene, the final part also has a higher level of crystallin-
ity and a high modulus.

27

Ch02.pmd 27 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Orientation

Polymer molecules orient in the direction of applied stress when

a polymer is processed by extruding it into a sheet or forming it
into a final part. If molecules in a beam are oriented parallel to
the long direction of the beam, that beam has a higher modulus
than one where there is no preferred orientation of molecules, or
where molecules are oriented perpendicular to beam direction.
When high levels of orientation occur in the extruded sheet, the
sheet tends to distort and shrink when it is reheated in the oven.
This is because molecules tend to go back to their unoriented ar-
rangement once they are free to move. If the sheet is thermoformed
at fairly cold temperatures, the orientation imparted to molecules
in the forming process sets when the part cools in the mold. This
results in a final part with greater stiffness and rigidity. For this
reason, parts that are made via solid-phase pressure forming
(SPPF) are more rigid than those made via the melt-forming pro-
cess. However, as with the oriented sheet, these highly oriented
SPPF parts are more prone to warp and distort if they are re-
heated (for example, during microwave heating of food) to tem-
peratures close to that of the forming temperature.
The modulus of all plastics decreases as the temperature is
raised. This effect influences both final properties of the thermo-
formed part and processing conditions needed to make these parts.
Change of modulus with temperature is quite different for a crys-
talline versus an amorphous material. This difference is illustrated
in Figure 2-6 for polypropylene versus polystyrene.
The glass-transition temperature of polypropylene occurs at
about 32° F (0° C). Since polypropylene is a highly crystalline
material, and glass transition is a property of the amorphous re-
gion, the drop in modulus at this temperature is relatively small.
The major drop in the modulus of polypropylene occurs when the
melting point is reached (325° F or 163° C) and the crystal phase
disappears. The suddenness of this melting transition is the reason
why sheet temperature is so critical for successfully thermoforming
polypropylene. If the sheet temperature is too low, the sheet will
be too rigid to form and if the sheet temperature exceeds the melt-
ing point, the sheet may not have enough rigidity to support its
own weight. It sags excessively in the thermoforming oven. It

28

Ch02.pmd 28 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

Figure 2-6. Change of modulus with temperature. (Courtesy BP Polymers)

should be noted that although the modulus change in polypropy-

lene at the glass-transition temperature is relatively small, this
temperature causes a large change in toughness.
For an amorphous material such as polystyrene, a major drop
of modulus occurs at the glass-transition temperature. Due to
entanglements between the molecules, a polystyrene sheet heated
above its glass-transition temperature still has reasonable stiff-
ness and behaves like a leathery or rubbery material. At this point
it is soft enough to thermoform, but not so soft that it sags exces-
sively. At higher temperatures, the molecules move rapidly and
the polymer begins to behave like a viscous melt. The length of this
rubbery plateau region depends on the molecular weight of the
polymer. The plateau is broader at a higher molecular weight.
Existence of this rubbery plateau means that an amorphous poly-
mer generally is thermoformed over a broader temperature re-
gion when compared to a crystalline material.

29

Ch02.pmd 29 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Heat-distortion Temperature

The heat-distortion temperature (HDT) is a measure of the tem-

perature that a material can withstand while retaining a reason-
able level of stiffness. This is also measured using the three-point
bend test, as for flexural modulus. However, here the force is kept
constant and the temperature is gradually increased until the beam
deflects by 0.100 in. (2.54 mm) at its midpoint (see Figure 2-5).
Typical HDT values are reported at two different values of flex-
ible stress, 66 psi and 264 psi (455 kPa and 1,820 kPa).
From a material standpoint, the HDT value is affected by many
of the same factors that influence the modulus. For amorphous
polymers, the HDT value is generally close to the glass-transition
temperature, and both values increase as the polymer backbone
becomes more rigid. For semicrystalline polymers, the HDT lies
between the glass-transition temperature of the amorphous phase
and the melting point of the crystalline phase. As crystallinity in-
creases, the HDT also increases. When a semicrystalline material
is reinforced with a hard filler such as fiberglass or talc, the HDT
can be increased significantly and may lie very close to the melt-
ing point.
In terms of processing conditions, increasing the orientation of
a part will generally reduce its performance at elevated tempera-
tures, since the part will tend to warp and distort as noted previ-
ously. The reported HDT values are obtained on injection mold
specimens, and this data cannot be used in general to provide
guidance on orientation effects.

Toughness

For many applications, a thermoformed part must have suffi-

cient toughness and ductility to withstand high-speed impact or
large-scale bending deformation. For rigid food packaging, the
container should not break when dropped. If the package is ex-
posed to refrigerator or freezer temperatures, the impact proper-
ties may be even more critical, since many plastics become more
brittle at low temperatures. For amorphous materials, the impact

30

Ch02.pmd 30 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

behavior ranges from very brittle for crystal polystyrene, to very

tough and ductile for polycarbonate. The impact strength of poly-
styrene can be dramatically improved by blending a rubber in with
the polymer. The rubber-modified version of polystyrene is known
as high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) and typically contains 7–10%
of a polybutadiene rubber dissolved in the styrene monomer be-
fore it is polymerized. This rubber lowers the stiffness of the poly-
styrene and causes it to become opaque.
Among crystalline polymers, toughness generally increases as
the level of crystallinity decreases. This leads to a trade-off be-
tween the stiffness and impact strength of the material. Polypro-
pylene (PP) is noteworthy in that it becomes very brittle at low
temperatures (below 32° F or 0° C), due to the fact that the glass-
transition temperature of the amorphous phase is very close to
32° F (0° C). The toughness below Tg can be improved by using
polypropylene impact copolymer (ICP), which contains small rub-
ber particles consisting of an ethylene-propylene copolymer, dis-
persed throughout the matrix in the homopolymer phase. These
ICPs are usually made by having two reactors in series with one
another at the polypropylene production plant. PP homopolymer
is made in the first reactor, and the ethylene-propylene rubber is
made in the second. Rubber can also be blended with PP homopoly-
mer in a separate compounding operation.
The dispersed rubber particles have a much lower Tg than the
matrix (often as low as –58° F or –50° C) and they act to absorb
energy during an impact event. Increasing the level of rubber will
increase the toughness of the resin, but will also reduce its stiff-
ness. As is the case with HIPS, addition of rubber to PP causes
the resin to become more opaque.
Another way to increase the toughness of polymers is by in-
creasing their molecular weight (or lowering the melt flow rate).
Longer molecules participate in more entanglements, thereby in-
creasing the integrity of the entangled polymer network. In semi-
crystalline materials, the molecules that connect small crystals to
one another are often the weak link in the structure, and the num-
ber of tie molecules increases with increasing molecular weight.
From a processing standpoint, increasing the molecular weight of
the polymer causes it to become more viscous in the molten state,

31

Ch02.pmd 31 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

and therefore more difficult to extrude into sheets or inject into

parts molds. A trade-off therefore exists between processability and
toughness with regard to the molecular weight of the material.
Another factor that can effect toughness is the orientation
present in the test specimen. Some brittle polymers, such as crys-
tal polystyrene, become much tougher when oriented. This fea-
ture is used in making thermoformed parts from an oriented
polystyrene sheet (OPS). Here, the extruded PS sheet is first passed
over a series of heated rollers, with the downstream rollers turn-
ing at higher speed. This causes the sheet to orient in the ma-
chine direction. The sheet then goes into a heated oven known as
a tenter frame, where the edges of the sheet are gripped by a se-
ries of metal clips attached to moving chains. Rails that carry the
chains diverge, causing the sheet to be stretched in a cross or trans-
verse direction. The final sheet, which is biaxially oriented (ori-
ented in two directions), is thermoformed, producing very tough,
oriented parts.

Other Important Physical Properties

In addition to mechanical properties, important physical and

appearance properties can determine the choice of materials for a
given application. Examples of physical and appearance proper-
ties include barrier capabilities, clarity, gloss, creep, stress and
fatigue resistance, and long-term degradation.

Barrier
For food packaging, the freshness and shelf life of a product
often are determined by how effective packaging is as a moisture
or oxygen barrier. These properties are measured by oxygen per-
meability and by the moisture vapor transmission rate (MVTR).
Some materials, such as polypropylene, are excellent moisture
barriers (low MVTR), but are not very good oxygen (O2) barriers.
The O2 permeability of a PP container can be improved consider-
ably by coextruding a multilayer sheet containing a barrier layer
of a low O2 permeability material such as ethylene-vinyl alcohol
(EVOH).

32

Ch02.pmd 32 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

Clarity

If high clarity or transparency is required, it is important that

the sheet contain only a single homogeneous polymer phase, with-
out any particles of a second phase that can scatter light. Amor-
phous polymers, such as polystyrene, are quite clear. However,
when dispersed rubber particles are present such as in HIPS, the
material is opaque. Crystalline polymers, such as PP, range from
translucent to relatively clear depending on the size of the spheru-
lites. As noted earlier, addition of a nucleating agent to the PP
greatly reduces spherulite size, thereby improving clarity. If a low
level of ethylene is copolymerized with propylene to make a ran-
dom copolymer (RCP), crystallinity is reduced and clarity im-
proves. However, the drawback to this approach is that the RCP
also has a reduced modulus, heat-distortion temperature (HDT),
and melting point relative to the homopolymer PP.
The effect of crystallinity on clarity and other end-use proper-
ties is seen dramatically in polyethylene terephthalate (PET). Since
PET crystallizes more slowly than other semicrystalline materi-
als, such as PP and HDPE, it is possible to produce an extruded
PET sheet that is completely amorphous. If a cold mold is used, it
is possible to maintain the amorphous state throughout the form-
ing process to produce a clear amorphous polyethylene tereph-
thalate (APET) part. If a hot mold is used and there is sufficient
residence time in the mold, the polymer will crystallize (CPET),
forming an opaque part. Due to the high melting point of crystal-
line PET, the CPET parts have excellent high-temperature stabil-
ity and can be used for applications such as ovenable dinner trays.
CPET parts also are microwavable.

Gloss

High surface gloss is a requirement for many products, espe-

cially where the product is printed. Gloss is affected by both com-
position of the polymer and processing conditions. For a part
surface to exhibit high gloss, the surface must be as smooth as
possible. Any surface roughness leads to light scattering, thereby

33

Ch02.pmd 33 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

reducing surface gloss. Because of this scattering, many factors

that influence clarity also influence gloss.
Amorphous materials can achieve a high gloss level. If dispersed
rubber particles are present, such as in high-impact polystyrene
(HIPS), surface gloss is reduced. HIPS generally contains smaller
rubber particles and thus higher gloss levels are possible. Acry-
lonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), which also contains dispersed
rubber particles, gives very high gloss since the rubber particles
are much smaller than the wavelength of light, and therefore scat-
ter little light.
For semicrystalline polymers, the spherulite structure can lead
to surface irregularities that scatter light and reduce gloss. Since
nucleation reduces spherulite size, it also improves surface gloss.
Processing changes also can be used to reduce spherulite size and
improve gloss. If cold-polishing rolls are used to quench the mol-
ten sheet, the sheet surface will contain smaller spherulites and
have improved gloss.
It is possible to produce a glossy part from a nonglossy material
such as HIPS by coextruding a skin layer of crystal polystyrene.
In a similar manner, a nucleated PP skin can be coextruded over a
non-nucleated core layer to improve surface gloss.

Long-term Properties

In certain applications, a thermoformed part may be exposed to

a hostile or aggressive environment for extended periods of time,
or forced to withstand high and/or varying levels of stress and de-
formation. It is important to know how the material will respond
to this type of situation, and to predict its useful service life.
In the case of mechanical stress, especially at elevated tempera-
tures, the creep properties of the polymer must be known. Creep
refers to the slow change in dimensions that occurs as a function
of time when the plastic is exposed to a constant force or stress.
For some plastics, exposure to certain environmental agents
that normally have no adverse effect on a stress-free part can cause
catastrophic failure when the agents contact a part under me-
chanical stress. This property, known as environmental stress-crack

34

Ch02.pmd 34 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

resistance (ESCR), is exhibited by polystyrene when the environ-

ment agent is a grease or oil, such as butter or margarine. In the
case of high-density polyethylene, exposure to detergent solutions
also can lead to stress-crack failure. This type of failure can even
occur in the absence of external mechanical stress if the exposed
part contains a high level of internal stress or orientation caused
by the forming process. This is a critical concern for detergent
bottles made from HDPE.
Another type of long-term property is fatigue resistance. Sud-
den catastrophic failure can occur to a part subjected to many
loading cycles, such as a container hinge. Polypropylene is known
to exhibit a living-hinge property, which makes it very resistant to
this type of failure, provided the hinge is pre-bent soon after the
part is formed.
Many polymers undergo long-term degradation of their prop-
erties when they are exposed to agents such as heat, light, radia-
tion, oxygen, ozone, and certain chemicals. Unlike ESCR, this type
of aging does not require a simultaneous stress on the part. Anti-
oxidants and other stabilizers are typically added to many poly-
mers to minimize oxidative and thermal degradation that can occur
during melt processing and end-use, for example, spin baskets in
washers and dryers. Since high levels of regrind from the ground-
up skeleton sheet are often used to make thin-gage thermoformed
parts, the drop in viscosity (rise in MFR) due to the degradation
of polypropylene can be a major concern because it leads to in-
creased sag.
It also is not uncommon to observe that, when certain plastics
are left out in the sun for extended periods of time, they become
brittle and eventually lose most of their mechanical strength. This
degradation occurs because solar radiation causes polymer chains
to split, thereby reducing molecular weight. Sunlight also can cause
the chains to cross-link, thereby reducing ductility. Ultraviolet (UV)
radiation generally is most damaging. In many cases, ultraviolet
stabilizers can be incorporated in the plastic to minimize these deg-
radation reactions. Adding certain pigments to the plastic, such as
carbon black or TiO2 (white), also can screen out UV rays.
In plastics used for medical applications, parts often need to be
sterilized, and nuclear radiation is often used to accomplish this.

35

Ch02.pmd 35 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

These nuclear rays (such as cobalt 60 radiation) usually cause the

same type of degradation produced by UV radiation, and similar
types of stabilizers have been used effectively to protect the plastic.
Table 2-1 shows a comparison of thermoforming sheet properties.

Flow Behavior of Polymers

The first step in producing a thermoformed part is the produc-

tion of an extruded sheet. The extruder melts and mixes the poly-
mer so that a uniform sheet can be extruded from the die. There
are many factors that must be considered in terms of controlling
and optimizing the flow of the polymer in this process.
The heat used to melt the polymer in the extruder is supplied
by both electrical heaters that surround the barrel and friction
caused by shearing the polymer between the barrel and screw.
This mechanical energy often exceeds that supplied by the elec-
trical heaters. The work required to pump polymer through the
extruder is determined by its viscosity, which is a measure of the
force required to make it flow. Virtually all fluids exhibit some
resistance to flow that must be overcome by force or pressure. It
is a common experience that thick fluid with a high viscosity, such
as oil or molasses, is more difficult to pump through a tube when
compared to a low-viscosity fluid like water.
One way to measure viscosity is to apply pressure to the fluid
in a tube and measure the flow rate this produces. For simple
fluids, such as water, flow rate out of the tube doubles if pressure
is doubled. The viscosity of fluid is proportional to the ratio of
pressure to the flow rate, and this ratio remains constant with
changes in either pressure or flow rate. Liquids that obey this
relationship are referred to as Newtonian. Temperature also af-
fects viscosity, and most fluids become thinner and less viscous
when the temperature rises.
For polymers, the situation is more complicated due to the en-
tangled nature of the molecules. A standard way of measuring
the viscosity of a polymer is the melt-flow rate (MFR) test (see
Figure 2-7).

36

Ch02.pmd 36 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

Ch02.pmd
Table 2-1. Comparison of thermoforming sheet properties (Courtesy KAMA Corp.)
Test OPS HIPS HDPE PP APET/RPET PETG RPVC
Maximum tensile 8,000–12,000 4,000–6,000 4,000–6,000 4,000–6,000 6,000–8,000 6,000–8,000 6,000–8,000
strength, (55–83) (28–41) (28–41) (28–41) (41–55) (41–55) (41–55)
psi (MPa)
Maximum flexural 420,000– 325,000– 200,000– 200,000– 250,000– 200,000– 350,000–
modulus, 475,000 375,000 300,000 300,000 350,000 300,000 400,000

37
psi (MPa) (2,896-3,275) (2,241–2,585) (1,379–2,068) (1,379–2,068) (1,724–2,413) (1,379–2,068) (2,413–2,758)
Maximum 3–50 30–50 200–400 100–400 100–300 200–400 30–200
elongation, %
Maximum tear 1.1–1.5 1.5–2.5 2.0–3.0 2.0–3.0 1.5–2.5 2.0–3.0 1.5–2.5
strength, lb/in. (193–263) (263–437) (263–525) (263–525) (263–437) (263–525) (263–437)
(N/m)

37
Maximum folding F G G E G–E E Good
endurance
Minimum water 0.04–0.1 0.04–0.1 0–0.01 0–0.005 0.5–1.0 0.3–0.8 0–0.005
absorption,
% in 24 hr.
Minimum water 7.0–10.0 7.0–10.0 0.25–0.35 0.65–0.75 2.0–4.0 3.0–5.0 4–6
vapor transmission
Gas transmission
Carbon dioxide 900 900 580 500–800 — — 100–300

7/17/02, 8:51 AM
Hydrogen — — — 1,700 — — —
Nitrogen — — 42 40–48 — — —
Oxygen 350 350 185 150–240 5–15 20–30 35–190
Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials
Ch02.pmd
Table 2-1. (continued)
Test OPS HIPS HDPE PP APET/RPET PETG RPVC
Maximum chemical resistance
Strong acids G G E E G G G
Strong alkalies E E E E G G G
Grease and oils G G G–E G E E G
Organic solvents E–P E–P G–E G–E E E G

38
Water E E E E E E E
Maximum sunlight F F F–G F G–E G–E G
Thermoforming conditions
Upper limit, ° F (° C) 330 (166) 330 (166) 360 (182) 360 (182) 320 (160) 320 (160) 300 (149)
Normal limit, ° F (° C) 290 (143) 295 (146) 295 (146) 310 (154) 300 (149) 300 (149) 245 (118)
Lower limit, ° F (° C) 270 (132) 260 (127) 260 (127) 260 (127) 250 (121) 250 (121) 200 (93)

38
Set temp., ° F (° C) 170 (77) 165 (74) 170 (77) 165 (74) 155 (68) 150 (66) 150 (66)
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Minimum shrinkage 0.004–0.006 0.004–0.006 0.015–0.020 0.010–0.018 0.002–0.004 0.003–0.005 0.004–0.006

in the mold, in./in.
(mm/mm)
Upper temperature 175 (79) 165 (74) 225 (107) 240 (116) 155 (68) 150 (66) 145 (63)
limit (max.), ° F (° C)
Lower temperature 0 (–18) –20 (–29) –150 (–101) 0 (–18) 0 (–18) –20 (–29) –20 (–29)
limit (min.), ° F (° C)
Maximum clarity E P P G G–E G–E F–G
Maximum light 90–92 10–50 10–30 50–80 85–92 85–92 60–80

7/17/02, 8:51 AM
transmission, %
APET = amorphous polyethylene terephthalate HDPE = high-density polyethylene HIPS = high-impact polystyrene
OPS = oriented polystyrene sheet PETG = polyethylene terephthalate glycol PP = polypropylene
RPET = recycled polyethylene terephthalate RPVC = rigid polyvinyl chloride
E = excellent F = fair G = good P = poor
 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

Figure 2-7. Melt-flow rate (MFR) test (Bryce 1998).

Extrusion

In Figure 2-7, the polymer pellets are melted in a heated barrel

and a weighted plunger is used to force melt out of a die at the
bottom of a barrel. The melt-flow rate (MFR) represents the num-
ber of grams of polymer that extrudes from the die during a 10-
minute time period using a standard weight (for example 4.761 lb
or 2.16 kg as specified by ASTM D1238) on the plunger. The higher
the viscosity of the polymer, the lower the MFR.
For most polymers, viscosity does not remain constant as the
pressure or extrusion rate changes. For example, if the weight on
the polymer is doubled, pressure doubles, but flow rate usually goes
up by more than a factor of two. In other words, as extrusion rate
increases, viscosity decreases. In this case, the ratio of pressure to

39

Ch02.pmd 39 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

flow rate is not constant. This type of flow behavior is called non-
Newtonian. This also is referred to as shear-thinning behavior.
Shear rate is the term used for influencing viscosity. A fluid is
sheared when it moves past a stationary surface, such as the wall
of a die or the barrel of an extruder. Shear rate is related to how
rapidly this movement occurs. Shear rate increases as the flow
rate of fluid through the die increases, or if size of the die hole (or
die gap in a flex-lip die) decreases. The shear-thinning behavior of
polymers means that viscosity decreases as shear-rate increases.
This shear-thinning behavior has important practical implications
involving such things as pressure build-up in the die. If two resins
have the same MFR (which is measured at low shear rate), but one
material shear thins to a greater extent, the more shear-sensitive
resin is less viscous at a high shear rate. During extrusion, this less
viscous resin will exhibit a lower die pressure at a given extrusion
output rate, or extrude at higher rates at a given pressure.
Figure 2-8 shows flow behavior of three different polypropy-
lene resins, two of which have the same MFR but different shear
sensitivities (B and C), and one that has a higher MFR (A). The
more shear-sensitive material (B) has a lower viscosity at high
shear rates. Shear rates in this higher range are seen in the ex-
truder, and lower viscosity means the more shear-sensitive mate-
rial extrudes more easily, allowing higher output rates and/or lower

Figure 2-8. Flow behavior of three different polypropylene resins. (Courtesy

BP Polymers)

40

Ch02.pmd 40 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

pressures. At low shear rates, this material is more viscous; it has

higher melt strength and exhibits less sag. The high-MFR resin
(A) shows the most sag during thermoforming. The shear sensi-
tivity of a polymer is often controlled by its molecular-weight dis-
tribution. The greater shear sensitivity of resin B is due to the
fact that it has broader molecular-weight distribution when com-
pared to resin C.
Shear thinning is due to the entangled nature of the polymer
melting. As shear rate increases, long polymer strands line up in
the direction of flow and disentangle from one another. These ori-
ented, disentangled polymer chains offer less resistance to flow,
causing the fluid to have a lower melt viscosity.
Increasing the melt temperature reduces the viscosity of poly-
mers, but this temperature sensitivity differs for different polymer
types. In general, polymers with stiffer backbone chains (higher
glass-transition temperatures) show a greater drop in viscosity
with temperature compared to more flexible materials. For ex-
ample, a 50° F (28° C) change in melt temperature for a typical
propropylene will cause melt viscosity at low shear rates to drop
about 15%.

Melt Elasticity, Melt Strength, and Orientation

The long-chain nature of polymers causes molten material to be-

have in some respects like an elastic solid when it is subject to exter-
nal forces. This means that if a molten polymer is subjected to a
sudden stretching force, it tends to snap back when this force is
released. If the force is applied slowly over a longer period of time,
the polymer flows like a viscous liquid. This type of behavior is
easily seen with Silly Putty™, which is a silicone polymer. When a
ball of Silly Putty is dropped onto a hard surface, it bounces like a
rubber ball (elastic). When this same ball of Silly Putty is placed on
a surface for a long period of time, it gradually flows into a puddle
under the influence of gravity (viscous). For this reason, polymers
often are referred to as being visco-elastic, since they have both
viscous and elastic properties. This has important consequences in
both sheet extrusion and thermoforming operations, and can also
affect the final properties of the thermoformed part.

41

Ch02.pmd 41 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

When melt is forced through the die, the molecular chains are
forced to disentangle and align in the flow direction. After the melt
exits the die, the chains try to go back to a more random, entangled
arrangement. In some ways, this is like stretching a rubber band
and then allowing it to spring back. The springback of the melt
causes the bead of molten material at the die lip exit to thicken;
this is referred to as die swell. It is easy to measure the extent of
die swell by running a melt-flow-rate test on the polymer and
quenching the molten strand in water as it exits the die so that
the weight of the strand does not cause it to draw down. The thick-
ness of the solid strand will be significantly larger than the die
opening. The degree of die swell depends on the processing condi-
tions used (shear rate and temperature) and the molecular weight
distribution of the polymer. Higher shear rates cause die swell to
increase. Broader molecular weight distributions and higher mo-
lecular weights also cause an increase in die swell. Die swell de-
creases with increasing temperature.
If the shear rate or molecular weight gets very high, or melt
temperature gets very low, the extrudate not only swells, but also
may distort or even fracture. This is referred to as melt fracture,
and the extrudate may exhibit either regular or irregular thick-
ness changes (see Figure 2-9). When this occurs during sheet ex-
trusion, the surface of the sheet may take on an undesirable surface
texture like that of an orange peel. To correct this problem, either
shear rate or melt viscosity of the polymer must be lowered. Re-
ducing the extruder rpm (output) or increasing die gap can lower
shear rate. Raising melt temperature or going to a higher melt-
flow-rate material can reduce the melt viscosity of the polymer.
When the extruded sheet is reheated in the oven before being
formed, its temperature must be raised to the point where it is
soft enough for forming to occur. For amorphous materials, this
requires a temperature above the glass-transition temperature,
while for crystalline polymers, the sheet temperature must often
equal or exceed the melting point of the polymer. For amorphous
materials, the softening process occurs gradually as the glass-tran-
sition temperature is exceeded. The sheet goes through a broad
transition where it has an almost rubber-like or leather-like tex-
ture. This is ideal for thermoforming, since the sheet is soft enough

42

Ch02.pmd 42 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

Figure 2-9. Extrudate may exhibit either regular or irregular thickness changes
due to melt fracture. (Courtesy BP Polymers)

to be forced into the mold using reasonable pressures, but is not

yet a fluid melt, which would sag in the oven under its own weight.
For crystalline polymers, such as polypropylene or polyethyl-
ene, transition from a solid sheet to a fluid melt is much more
abrupt and can occur within a span of just a few degrees when the
melting point is reached. Sheet sag is therefore a major concern
for crystalline materials and melt strength is very important. Melt
strength basically refers to the degree to which the molten sheet
resists thinning down under the influence of gravity when it is in
an unsupported state. The melt strength increases as the molecu-
lar weight of the polymer increases. For polypropylene, very low
MFR or even fractional MFR materials have been used when high
melt strength is required. One drawback of these materials is a
reduction in extrusion output occurring at a very high molecular
weight and an increasing incidence of melt fracture.

43

Ch02.pmd 43 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Melt strength also can be increased by a change in molecular

architecture through introduction of long chain branches. This
type of branching often occurs in polyethylene during extrusion,
so use of high levels of PE regrinds generally results in an in-
crease in melt strength. For polypropylene, on the other hand,
extrusion generally leads to a reduction in molecular weight (rise
in MFR) without formation of branches, and this causes reduced
melt strength when high levels of regrind are used.
When the molten sheet exits the die and contacts the polishing
roll stack, takeoff speed is adjusted to the desired final sheet thick-
ness. Increasing the takeoff speed of the rolls causes the sheet to
become thinner, and also increases tension on the molten sheet.
This tension causes the molecules to orient in the machine direc-
tion. When the sheet contacts the polishing roll, it begins to cool
and solidify. Some of this orientation is frozen in since molecules
are no longer free to move around.
When the sheet is heated back up in the oven prior to thermo-
forming, molecules regain their freedom of motion, and this causes
the sheet to shrink and distort. High or nonuniform levels of ma-
chine direction orientation are undesirable, since they lead to large
dimensional changes in the sheet. One exception to this state-
ment is the situation of oriented polystyrene sheet (OPS), where
biaxial orientation (in both the machine and transverse directions)
is deliberately induced before the extruded sheet passes into the
reheat oven. This orientation leads to final thermoformed parts
that are less brittle than when unoriented polystyrene (PS) sheet
is used.
One final place where orientation is induced is the forming pro-
cess itself. If the sheet is in the melt state during forming, some
relation of this orientation may occur before the part solidifies.
For some materials, such as polypropylene (PP), which has poor
melt strength, the sheet may be formed in solid state through the
use of very high pressures. This results in high levels of stress
and orientation in the final part, and limits high-temperature use
of the part (for example, as a container for microwave heating of
foods) due to distortion that occurs during reheat. One interest-
ing product benefit associated with solid-state forming of PP is
the high level of clarity achieved in the final parts. This is due to
the fact that the drawing, which occurs when the solid sheet is

44

Ch02.pmd 44 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

formed, destroys the spherulitic structure responsible for light

scattering.

Choosing a Resin

Several choices of plastic usually are available once the physi-

cal characteristics of the resin needed for a particular thermo-
formed component are determined. An economic comparison can
be made among them, as shown in Table 2-2.
The modulus of elasticity governs the rigidity of similar geo-
metric shapes as illustrated in data on the line labeled “Equal
performance thickness” in Table 2-2. When this factor is applied
in conjunction with yield, an economic determination can be made.
The final cost per 1,000 trays, assuming 20% return on web scrap,
indicates the cost differences of using various resins.
From Table 2-2, the final cost of the clear sheet per 1,000 trays
is as follows: PVC = $36.03; APET = $35.28; RPET = $28.26;
and OPS = $24.35. The obvious choice should be OPS if cost is
the only consideration. However, OPS is more economically pro-
cessed on a special type of thermoformer rather than the more
available radiant heat equipment found in most plants. RPET is
cost-attractive, but being a recycled material it may not always be
readily available. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is a very popular clear
resin, but it can cause an environmental problem when discarded
at solid-waste disposal sites. APET is often substituted for PVC,
but some thermoforming operators claim to have problems trim-
ming it with knife-like dies. The end user may have experienced
some of these as well as other disadvantages that guide decision
making.
The least expensive opaque sheet is polystyrene foam (used for
egg cartons, etc.), which has a yield 5–15 times greater than its
other competitors, but has very poor physical properties. The foam
rolls are bulky and skeleton scrap shot must be recycled inter-
nally as the scrap has no commercial value and cannot be dis-
posed of at a solid waste dump.
The thermoformability of a resin (ease of processing) is not solely
based on its inherent physical properties, but also on external fac-
tors. Major influences are the design features and efficiency of

45

Ch02.pmd 45 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

Ch02.pmd
Table 2-2. 1999 Economic comparison of resins (Courtesy KAMA Corp.)
Polymer Description PVC APET RPET HIPS HDPE PP OPS PETG
Extruded sheet, $/lb ($/kg) 0.77 (0.35) 0.83 (0.38) 0.67 (0.30) 0.70 (0.32) 0.75 (0.34) 0.85 (0.39) 0.76 (0.34) 1.30 (0.59)
Specific gravity 1.37 1.33 1.33 1.05 0.965 0.9 1.05 1.28
Yield, in.2/lb (cm2/kg) 2,020 2,081 2,081 2,636 2,868 3,076 2,636 2,163
at 10 mil (0.0254 mm) (28,280) (29,134) (29,134) (36,904) (40,152) (43,064) (36,904) (30,282)
Equal gage yield index, % 100.0 103.0 103.0 130.5 142.0 152.2 130.5 107.0

46
Cost/1,000 in.2 (6,450 cm2) 0.3811 0.3988 0.3219 0.2655 0.2615 0.2764 0.2883 0.6012
rice Index, %
Equal Gage PPrice
PVC 100 105 84 70 67 73 76 158
APET 96 100 81 67 66 69 72 151
RPET 118 124 100 82 81 86 90 187

46
HIPS 144 150 121 100 98 104 109 226
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

HDPE 146 153 123 102 100 106 110 230

PP 138 144 116 96 95 100 104 218
OPS 132 138 112 92 91 96 100 209
PETG 63 66 54 44 43 46 48 100
erformance
Equal Rigidity PPerformance
Equal performance thickness, mils (µm) 10 (254) 9.5 (241) 9.5 (241) 10.6 (269) 14.0 (356)13.3 (338) 9.2 (234) 10 (254)
Area per tray, in.2 (cm2) 80 (516) 80 (516) 80 (516) 80 (516) 80 (516) 80 (516) 80 (516) 80 (516)
Weight—lb (kg) per 1,000 trays 39.60 36.52 36.52 32.17 39.05 34.60 27.92 36.99

7/17/02, 8:51 AM
(17.9) (16.6) (16.6) (14.6) (17.7) (15.7) (12.7) (16.8)
Sheet cost per 1,000 trays 30.49 30.31 24.47 22.52 29.28 29.41 21 .22 48.09
Sheet cost per 1,000 trays 36.59 36.37 29.36 27.02 35.14 35.29 25.46 57.71
plus 20% web by weight
Ch02.pmd
Table 2-2. (continued)
Polymer Description PVC APET RPET HIPS HDPE PP OPS PETG
erformance (cont.)
Equal Rigidity PPerformance
Web scrap value, $/lb ($/kg) 0.07 0.15 0.15 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.20 0.15
(0.03) (0.07) (0.07) (0.09) (0.07) (0.05) (0.09) (0.07)
Final cost per 1,000 trays assuming 36.03 35.28 28.26 25.73 33.97 34.60 24.35 56.60

47
Return on web scrap
Equal PPerformance rice Index, %
erformance PPrice
PVC 100 98 78 71 94 96 68 157
APET 102 100 80 73 96 98 69 160
RPET 127 125 100 91 120 122 86 200

47
HIPS 140 137 110 100 132 134 95 220
HDPE 106 104 83 76 100 102 72 167
PP 104 102 82 74 98 100 70 164
OPS 148 145 116 106 140 142 100 232
PETG 64 62 50 45 60 61 43 100
Prices are for relative comparison only and are subject to change without notice. Thermoforming application rigidity index per
Maurice Palmer Associates, Ltd.
APET = amorphous polyethylene terephthalate HDPE = high-density polyethylene HIPS = high-impact polystyrene
OPS = oriented polystyrene sheet PETG = polyethylene terephthalate glycol PP = polypropylene

7/17/02, 8:51 AM
PVC = polyvinyl chloride RPET = recycled polyethylene terephthalate
Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials
 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

thermoforming machines and the tooling used for production, plus

the skill of operating technicians. Some resins require specialized
tooling and equipment to achieve the highest economic efficiency.
However, many of these plastics also can be processed on general-
use machines at the cost of lowered productivity and quality.
Many older thermoforming machines can produce credible com-
ponents at a lower production rate when processing high-impact
polystyrene (HIPS) and PVC resins. These forgiving plastics are
able to take a great deal of abuse from inexperienced machine
operators and still thermoform saleable products. The same parts
when run on modern equipment under the guidance of an experi-
enced technician may show an increase in high-quality output by
a factor of 100–500%.
Specialized thermoforming machines often are recommended
for processing oriented polystyrene sheet (OPS) and foam poly-
styrene sheets. OPS sheet, which contains troublesome locked-
in internal stresses that are released during oven heating, can
make thermoforming difficult. This material is best processed
on contact-heat pressure formers. Foam polystyrene has a very
low density and therefore can cool much more rapidly in the mold
than solid sheet styrene. It can be cycled at much faster rates than
standard thermoforming machines can cycle. Machines specifi-
cally designed for high-speed thermoforming are built with low-
weight platens. Careful control of acceleration and deceleration
of the molds is exercised to process foam polystyrene.
Polypropylene requires machinery with very careful heating and
thermal control of the sheet because of the narrow temperature
range under which it can be thermoformed. As with all olefin res-
ins, final part shrinkage may take up to 24 hours, which makes
die-design shrinkage difficult to predict accurately. Builders of
trim-in-place thermoformers claim an advantage in producing
uniformly trimmed polypropylene parts because forming and trim-
ming take place simultaneously.
Trimming of various plastics ranges from relatively easy (such
as HIPS) to those plastics that may require special handling (ole-
fins and the PET family). The choice of trimming, either using
inexpensive knife-like dies or punch and dies, can strongly influ-
ence selection of resins because of the great difference in die costs.
Knife-like die life can be prematurely shortened by abrasive or

48

Ch02.pmd 48 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

 Chapter 2: Properties of Plastic Materials

brittle plastics, which allow partial cutting and then crack away
suddenly, causing the knife edge to pound into the striker plate.
The thermoforming technician, armed with knowledge of plas-
tic materials and machinery peculiarities, often can rise above
adversity and produce superior parts even with inferior equip-
ment. The thermoforming industry should educate and retain
these unusual and dedicated individuals because high-tech ma-
chinery and tooling alone cannot provide an answer for every form-
ing problem.

References

Bryce, Douglas, ed. 1998. Plastic Injection Molding…Mold De-

sign and Construction Fundamentals. Dearborn, MI: Society of
Manufacturing Engineers.
Mitchell, Philip, ed. 1998. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers
Handbook, Fourth Edition, Volume 8: Plastic Part Manufactur-
ing. Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

49

Ch02.pmd 49 7/17/02, 8:51 AM

Ch02.pmd 50 7/17/02, 8:51 AM
 3
Chapter 3: Design of Thermoformed Products

Design of
Thermoformed Products

Thermoformed parts are designed primarily by the customer,

package or product designer, and occasionally by the tool designer.
Component design can match the needs of the customer and
thermoformer if configured as a functional product adaptable
for thermoforming. Plastic product customers and designers
must be aware of the limitations of forming techniques to avoid
production problems. There are few part-design guidelines, but
each design may require a tradeoff of features that should be
agreed to by all parties.

Part Design Guidelines

Formed-part geometry helps determine the uniformity of wall

thickness, corner strengths, ability to stack, and structural stiff-
ness. It also can be the source of thermoforming flaws—such as
holes, webbing, lack of clarity, or surface imperfections. If a prod-
uct design were to call for a cubic shape (like dice) with sharp
corners, without corner radii and zero draft, the result is predict-
able (see Figure 3-1). This part could contain holes, very thin walls,
webbing, and severe sidewall thinning, because hot plastic mate-
rial builds up on square corners instead of flowing uniformly over
the mold. The edge at which sidewalls intersect near the mold
top could induce webbing caused by the excessive heated plastic
accumulating along the edge with insufficient mold surface avail-
able to absorb the excess material. Webbing is unsightly and is a

51

Ch03.pmd 51 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 3-1. Sharp-cornered rectangular part with zero draft produces defec-
tive thermoformed parts.

significant weak point in part structure that prevents stacking

the completed parts (see Figure 3-2).

Modification

Modifications made to the cubical thermoformed part shown in

Figure 3-3 can make it practical to thermoform. However, it still
may not fully satisfy a customer requirement to tightly contain
the packaged insert. Radii in all corners and the draft angle pre-
clude a secure fit to the insert but are necessary for the thermo-

52

Ch03.pmd 52 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Chapter 3: Design of Thermoformed Products

Figure 3-2. Methods to reduce webbing. (Courtesy GN Plastics Co., Ltd.)

forming process. A possible solution is further modification of the

package design by introducing interior ribs and depressing the top
surface panel as shown in Figure 3-4.

Determining Proper Design Features

There are answers to questions like how large a radius the plastic
should have or what the minimum angle of draft should be. The

53

Ch03.pmd 53 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 3-3. A modified, thermoformed part with sufficient radius and draft
angle may fit loosely to the packaged components.

unsophisticated customer may specify dice-like formed parts. Of-

ten, the salesman who takes the order may be reluctant to ask for
design revisions needed to assist in thermoforming. The tool de-
signer should advise on these fundamental product-design defi-
ciencies and advocate part revisions before starting work on a mold.

54

Ch03.pmd 54 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Chapter 3: Design of Thermoformed Products

Figure 3-4. Further modification of the package design by introducing inte-

rior ribs and depressing the top surface panel provide a snug fit to the prod-
uct. (Courtesy GN Co., Ltd.)

Draft Angle and Radii

Providing sufficient draft angle controls some basic thermo-

forming parameters. Stripping parts from a male mold built with
minimal draft can be difficult because hot plastic cools then shrinks
and grips the cavity. Most parts with proper draft are easily re-
moved from the mold by directing low air pressure between mold
and plastic shot. At the other extreme, a large draft angle would
self-strip parts without any assistance from air ejection.
Radii at all intersecting planes have a pleasing aesthetic purpose
as well as being a functional necessity. The radius when presented

55

Ch03.pmd 55 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

to heated plastic allows it to flow smoothly (essential for uniform

wall thickness) and reduces fracture due to stress concentration
at the intersection of the planes. A minimum radius of 0.19 in.
(4.8 mm) is a good starting point, and increasing the radius is
preferable to reducing it.

Uniform Wall Thickness

Consistent wall thickness reduces the weight of plastic required

for a component. It is one of the most important objectives to be
achieved when thermoforming. Many elements influence wall
thickness, but after excluding most of them, it can be demonstrated
that the greater the draft angle, the more uniform the wall.

Stack Height Variables

The draft angle, component wall thickness, and any undercut

projections govern stack height, which is the clearance between
the flanges of two stacked parts (see Figure 3-5). The greater the
draft angle, the closer together two parts can be stacked, result-
ing in a lower shipping cost. Increasing wall thickness for a given
draft angle requires more separation between stacked parts. Ex-
perience indicates an initial design using a 5° draft angle should
be adequate for most parts, although lesser angles are in common
use. A smaller draft angle always requires tradeoffs with other
thermoforming parameters.

Rib Stiffeners

Rib stiffeners or texturing transforms a floppy flat-plane surface

into a rigid structure able to take greater side and compression
loading. A thinner sidewall can be specified if the product design
permits—a layered surface or ribbed structure can provide the same
rigidity as a thicker-wall, flat-plane surface. However, clear plas-
tics, such as polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or oriented polystyrene sheet
(OPS), sometimes are specified to provide maximum visibility into
a package, and ribbing or layering may be an obstacle to clarity.

56

Ch03.pmd 56 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

Ch03.pmd
57
57

7/17/02, 8:53 AM
Figure 3-5. Undercuts provide clearance between the flanges of two stacked parts. (Courtesy GN Plastics Co., Ltd.)
Chapter 3: Design of Thermoformed Products
 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Where food is eaten directly from a container with a spoon, pack-

age users prefer contoured, continuous surfaces without ribbing
inside the package. Ribs are recommended if the goal is to secure
a product firmly in place and add more protection against rough
handling.

Mold Texture

Mold surface texture can range from shiny smooth to leather-

like, with many variations in between. It is essential to rapidly
evacuate any entrapped air between the formed sheet and the
cavity to prevent the sheet from cooling below its forming tem-
perature. The rougher the mold surface texture, the more rapidly
entrapped air can be vented to the atmosphere. Plastic resins such
as polyethylene and polypropylene require an uneven mold sur-
face to allow entrapped air to vent through the hills and valleys
inherent in rough texture. Highly polished molds can require more
vacuum holes or slot vents because entrapped air cannot travel
very far along a smooth surface. Molds can be shot or sandblasted
to help provide air passageways with the degree of roughness re-
quired for the type of plastic to be thermoformed.
Vent holes and slots may be inadvertently reproduced on the
plastic surface of finished parts and may be found objectionable.
A sandblasted cavity may exhibit a hazy surface on transparent
plastic, which could result in loss of clarity. The diameter and
number of vent holes, and width for evacuation slots, must be
carefully matched to the product design, type of plastic being
formed, and volume of air being vented in a specific time period.
Experiments should be conducted on sample molds to produce a
surface finish acceptable to the customer.

Undercuts

Undercuts, as shown in Figure 3-5, are reverse-draft segments

designed to retain a loose component temporarily, such as a lid on
a cup. An undercut can provide a means of stacking thermoformed
units so they will have a slight clearance between their sidewalls,

58

Ch03.pmd 58 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Chapter 3: Design of Thermoformed Products

preventing parts from jamming and sticking when they are dis-
pensed. A plastic coffee cup lid is a very sophisticated example. Its
outer and inner undercuts serve to snap into place on the cup.
They also permit lids to be stacked quite high and yet be easily
separated when dispensed.
The depth of undercut to design into the mold requires thought
and testing. The finished result must be not too tight or too loose,
but just right, which the designer will find is often a very subjec-
tive opinion. Undercuts can be designed so deep that they could
require the mold to articulate to allow stripping the cavity—or
the undercuts can be shallow enough to allow the part to contract
away from a female mold wall and self-eject.
®
Teflon coating on the mold makes stripping parts from a cav-
ity easier by creating a slippery surface. Another technique is to
use the front-and-rear sheet clamps on the mold base to eject
shots. Undercut cavities that are difficult to strip may require
mechanical knockout devices built into the mold system. A good
starting point for an undercut segment would be 0.030-in. (0.76-
mm) maximum depth below the cavity surface. If practical, the
segment should be discontinuous to allow for easy removal.

Inserts

The tool designer should study the loose insert that is to be

snapped into an undercut part to achieve just the right fit. Card-
board inserts expand and shrink due to humidity, and the mul-
tiple-cavity steel rule used to trim out cardboard inserts has a
tolerance of ±0.010 in. (±0.25 mm). Thermoformed inserts formed
against a mold side not facing the mating side of the correspond-
ing part could have varying wall thickness, causing a dissimilar
fit from part to part. These differences should be analyzed and
errors reduced or otherwise compensated for before continuing
design work.
Thermoformed sample parts, which are formed in the same man-
ner as future production parts, should receive written approval from
the customer to avoid costly misunderstandings caused by loose or
tight fits. Because of the many variables to consider, conservative
mold design dictates leaving extra metal to be machined away if
the initial fit proves too tight.

59

Ch03.pmd 59 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Trimming

Trimming out thermoformed parts from the shot is nearly al-

ways necessary, whether the formed shot contains single or mul-
tiple cavities. The tool designer must make thermoformed product
decisions based on the trimming process to be employed and tol-
erances specified. Cut-in-place tooling offers the ability to hold
the tightest tolerances of trim edge relative to thermoformed part
geometry. For many reasons, this type of thermoforming process
may not be available or suitable, so other trim methods should be
considered.
On-line trimming using a knife-like die on a thermoformer with
the die press situated on the machine frame requires the most gen-
erous trim-edge-to-formed-part tolerances.
The following variables in the use of knife-like dies should be
considered when studying customer part specifications (see Table
3-1). The registration error from part-to-part could be as much as
0.030 in. (0.76 mm) for general industrial, knife-like, on-line die
trimming. Careful control of variables can reduce the difference
to 0.015 in. (0.38 mm). Tighter tolerances can be achieved by test
running some production-trimmed sheets and building a new die
to correct any inequalities observed in the trimmed parts.

Table 3-1. Variables to consider when using knife-like dies

Specification Variable

Die building tolerance ±0.015 in. (±0.381 mm)

Machine consistency of index: ±0.030 in. (±0.762 mm)
old style equipment
Servo drive index equipment: ±0.005 in. (±0.13 mm)
modern machines
Ability to predict mold shrinkage ±0.002 in./in.
of hot parts indexed into trim station (±0.002 mm/mm)
Clearance to prevent knife from 0.015 in. (±0.381 mm)
touching the plastic part and
causing scuffing

60

Ch03.pmd 60 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Chapter 3: Design of Thermoformed Products

Off-line trimming occurs when the trim press is detached from

the thermoformer and a punch and die are employed to trim the
plastic web, which has cooled and shrunk to final size. This pro-
cess cuts only one or two rows of parts at a time from the shot,
making it easier to align these rows to a die. Tolerances of the cut
edge relative to the formed cavity can be controlled more accu-
rately on off-line trim presses.
The trimming method used for a thermoformed component is a
factor that must be decided by the part designer, end-product user,
and thermoforming production management. The decision on the
trim process to be employed can not be based solely on tolerance
requirements. It should include decisions on die budgets, tool de-
livery, scheduling, and quantities to be produced. Part-trim toler-
ances are often loosened to suit a lower die cost and a more rapid
delivery schedule when all facts are fully analyzed.

Embossing and Texturing

Depending on the required result, several techniques are op-

tions for embossing and texturing plastic parts. Plastic sheet can
be embossed during the extrusion process to simulate leather and
wood grain. Other decorative finishes are available and the mold
itself need not be textured. This technique is usually specified for
parts that will not severely distort the decorative finish by elon-
gating the pattern during thermoforming.
Molds can be chemically etched to provide a textured surface to
a plastic thermoformed part formed from an unadorned plastic
sheet. Photoengraved logos and lettering may be mounted as metal
inserts in or on mold cavities. Mechanical engraving of the mold
cavity produces deeper impressions than chemical etching, but at
higher dollar cost.
Aluminum cast molds can be supplied with various decorative
surfaces of fairly deep and complex designs. To do so, a pattern
maker constructs a pattern with the necessary detail and mold
shrinkage. Aluminum cavities are then cast in fine sand at found-
ries that specialize in thermoforming molds. This procedure can
produce high-quality cavities at very low cost.

61

Ch03.pmd 61 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Either pre- or post-decorating can enhance or print informa-

tion on thermoformed parts. Rolls of blank plastic can be pre-
laminated to color-printed-cover film, or the bare sheet can be
decorated by laminating a film directly at the thermoforming
machine. High-quality graphics directly printed on formed con-
tainers while using multi-color printing presses provide identifi-
cation and advertising logos. This process takes place after the
containers are trimmed. Containers are automatically fed to these
machines, printed at high speed, and stacked for shipment.

Thin-wall Formed Parts

Roll-fed, thin-wall thermoformed products are quite varied and

are used by many industries in a large variety of forms, such as
medical packaging, food containers, blisters, tray packaging, foam
packaging, and continuous formed parts.

Medical Packaging

Medical packaging used to protect sterile products is thermo-

formed and handled with special care in clean rooms built into
the thermoforming factory. These clean rooms carefully filter in-
coming air and employees are uniformed and gloved with loose
hair covered. The plastic materials are of the highest purity and
quality. Tooling and machinery for medical components must be
thoroughly inspected and cleaned so no loose plastic particulates
or lubricants migrate into packaging. The greatest source of con-
tamination often comes at the trimming operation, where dull
or worn dies can cause fine angel hair or slivers of plastic to ad-
here to static-electrically charged packaging.

Food Containers

Food containers must be kept clean and free of foreign matter.

The volume of thermoformed lids, cups, plates, and food recep-
tacles required is so large that these thermoforming plants use

62

Ch03.pmd 62 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Chapter 3: Design of Thermoformed Products

the latest automated equipment for production. It is not unusual

to see production rates of up to 2,000-cups-per-minute per ma-
chine. Most cups manufactured in the United States are further
processed by equipment that rolls the lips of the cups under their
flanges at speeds exceeding 600 cups per minute to provide a
smooth, safe surface for the mouth (see Figure 3-6).

Blisters

Blisters are custom-formed for individual products where stan-

dard rectangular or round shapes are not suitable. Thermoforming
small quantities of blisters may often involve utilizing low-cost
thermally inefficient molds and manually handled steel-rule dies
so that tooling expenditure is minimized.
Clear-plastic blisters, after being filled with items to be pack-
aged, are often heat-sealed to cardboard to complete the package.

Figure 3-6. Cup rim rolling machines roll the lips of the cups under their
flanges at high speed and provide a smooth, safe surface for the mouth.
(Courtesy Future Mold Corp.)

63

Ch03.pmd 63 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

The clamshell is a complete package whose contents can be re-

moved and the package reused to store the remaining items. When
the product is encased in a clear clamshell blister, it can be viewed
from both sides, providing a marketing benefit. This type of pack-
age may be thermoformed with an integral hinge-and-snap lock-
ing arrangement, or it can be fabricated in two pieces and
snap-locked together. When a product has a high value, as in the
case of electronic or expensive consumer goods, the package—con-
sisting of a PVC blister and cover—can be radio frequency (RF)
heat-sealed. This style of package discourages pilferage because
the sealed area must be opened with scissors.

Tray Packaging

Tray packaging allows a variety of consumer or industrial prod-

ucts to be displayed individually or in multi-pack trays in con-
forming custom cavities. Elaborate cosmetic packaging is marketed
and stored in attractively colored or flocked thermoformed trays.
The packages may be decorated with hot-stamped decorative logos,
information, or advertising. The molds require design ingenuity
to snugly nest loosely toleranced glass and plastic bottles. When
packages are thermoformed from cotton-hair flocking bonded to
a plastic sheet, the flocked face should not be thermoformed against
the mold surface to avoid flattening the fur-like texture.

Foam Packaging

Foam packaging of low-cost polystyrene or more expensive poly-

ethylene may be used to provide shock protection for fragile prod-
ucts. The molds consist of two matched halves which, when they
are closed, contain clearance equal to the wall thickness of the
finished product (see Figure 3-7). Foam molds require large draft
angles and radii to prevent rupturing sidewalls during forming.
Generally, vacuum or pressure forming does not play much of a
role in the forming process because closing mold halves mechani-
cally force the hot plastic sheet into the cavities.

64

Ch03.pmd 64 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Chapter 3: Design of Thermoformed Products

Figure 3-7. Multi-cavity egg carton foam styrene molds consist of two matched
halves which, when they are closed, contain clearance equal to wall thick-
ness of the finished product. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co., LLC)

Continuous Formed Parts

Continuous forming of a web without trimming individual shots

is specified for industrial dunnage, wastewater facility components,
and products poured as liquids (jelly, butter, etc.) into thermoforming
cavities and heat-sealed to a lid. Usually, a slitter is mounted onto
the exit end of the thermoformer to remove excess edge trim. The
web can then be wound on a large-diameter shipping core or guil-
lotine cut to handy lengths for shipment. The mold often is de-
signed to provide a seamless transition from shot to shot.

65

Ch03.pmd 65 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Summary

The designers of thermoformed components should have knowl-

edge of the mechanics of the thermoforming process and its tool-
ing. Maximum sidewall draft and generous radii tend to eliminate
a bevy of problems at the shop level. Maintaining reasonable trim
tolerances with respect to the formed-part segment and keeping
within the constraints of the equipment provide the lowest part
cost.

66

Ch03.pmd 66 7/17/02, 8:53 AM

 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

4
Thermoforming Machines

Pioneer Developments

The two main thermoforming processes are vacuum forming,

which includes skin packaging, and pressure forming.

Vacuum Forming

E. Bowman (Bo) Stratton, pictured in Figure 4-1, was the late

pioneer in commercial vacuum-forming machinery that helped
develop and promote thermoforming. During World War II, he
was involved with the materials development section of the U.S.
Army Map Service and worked on methods to quickly produce
three-dimensional sector maps rather than the usual flat repre-
sentations. Stratton and his teammates heated printed plastic and
vacuum formed it on a raised relief map mold. He envisioned that
this process would be modified to produce advertising displays,
packaging, and food containers.
Early in the 1950s, Stratton’s company, AutoVac, continued to
perfect the vacuum-forming process while constructing machin-
ery and molds for the industry. Stratton traveled throughout North
America talking to diverse business and technical groups and
assisting novices in developing new applications for products of the
infant vacuum-forming industry. Early vacuum-forming machin-
ery firms of that period included Atlas, later named Zed Industries,

67

Ch04.pmd 67 7/17/02, 8:55 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 4-1. E. Bowman (Bo) Stratton, the late pioneer in commercial vacuum-
forming machinery. (Courtesy PlastiMach Corp.)

Comet Industries, Tronomatic Corporation, and Vacform Corpo-

ration. These machinery and mold builders received feedback from
customers and quickly developed many of the vacuum-forming
techniques still used today.

Pressure Forming

Pressure forming was introduced in the early 1950s to process

oriented polystyrene (OPS). However, OPS proved to be unwork-

68

Ch04.pmd 68 7/30/02, 8:48 AM

 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

able in the then available vacuum-forming machines, because it

required near-perfect sheet temperature control and high form-
ing pressures. The Plax Corporation built machinery that auto-
matically fed precut, preprinted, OPS blanks to a pressure former
to make clear container lids. In the mid-1950s, Gaylord Brown
designed an all-purpose, roll-fed, pressure-forming machine with
a radiant oven to make plastic containers. The machine had all
the elements of modern equipment.
In the mid-1950s, Robert Butzko introduced contact heat to
pressure forming by using a temperature-controlled metal plate
to transfer heat to the plastic sheet (see Figure 4-2). The machine
was similar to the Plax Corporation process, with the additional
feature of using a wrap-around, knife-like die to trim in place.
This development indexed a web of plastic through a press, which
formed and trimmed multiple cavities on one station and did not
require precut blanks. The technique is still used today to form
clear OPS food containers, salad trays, and bakery packaging at

Figure 4-2. Contact-heat pressure former. (Courtesy Thermtrol Corporation)

69

Ch04.pmd 69 7/30/02, 8:48 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

high speeds in improved versions of the original Butzko design.

Some of the materials that can be processed on this equipment
are OPS, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), high-impact polystyrene, and
polypropylene.

Skin Packaging

Skin packaging is a form of vacuum forming in which a product

is substituted for a mold (see Figure 4-3). This process requires a
porous, preprinted card to which a heat-sensitive adhesive coat-

Figure 4-3. Skin packaging is a form of vacuum forming in which a product

is substituted for a mold. (Courtesy Starview Packaging Machinery, Inc.)

70

Ch04.pmd 70 7/17/02, 8:56 AM

 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

ing has been applied. Products to be packaged are loaded face-up

on the card. The card-and-product combination is combined with
a hot-plastic web and vacuum formed (skin packaged) directly to
the card. During the heating process, the adhesive becomes acti-
vated and hot plastic is drawn by vacuum against the porous sub-
strate of the tacky card. When cool, it is cut apart by a knife-like
die. Some products have geometry unsuited for skin packaging
and finished packages may contain webs, thin spots, and other
defects. The cost of the package is very low and users often are
reluctant to switch to the more elegant heat-sealed blister pack-
age, which requires a mold cost for each product.
Skin packaging is generally considered a packaging operation
best performed at the location where the product is manufactured.
No molds or thermoforming skills are required.

Roll-fed Thermoformers

Modern roll-fed thermoforming equipment capable of either

vacuum or pressure forming consists of an index device driving
a plastic web through several processing segments. The web is
indexed through a multi-stage oven, a thermoforming press
containing molds, and optional stations, which may include a
trim press, part stacker, guillotine shear, or scrap grinder (see
Figure 4-4).

Indexing

Indexing the web through the machine usually, but not always,
requires both edges of the sheet to be impaled onto a spike-like
chain that then transports the web through the thermoforming
machine (see Figure 4-5). The chain index drive can be a mechani-
cal device (rack and gear) or, for increased accuracy, an electrical
servomotor drive (see Figure 4-6). Index accuracy is of great im-
portance on all in-line form-and-trim machines where good regis-
tration of the formed part to the cut edge is essential.

71

Ch04.pmd 71 7/17/02, 8:56 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 4-4. In a modern thermoformer, the web is indexed through a multi-

stage oven to the thermoforming press. (Courtesy Brown Machine Co., LLC)

Figure 4-5. Indexing the web through the machine requires both edges of
the sheet to be impaled onto a spike-like chain that then transports the web
through the thermoforming machine (Mitchell 1998).

72

Ch04.pmd 72 7/17/02, 8:56 AM

 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

Figure 4-6. Indexing-chain electrical servomotor drive (Mitchell 1998).

Oven Heat Sources

The time required for heating the web is zero because ovens
preheat the plastic web to forming temperature while the previ-
ous shot is being thermoformed in the mold. A mold extracts heat
from the thermoformed plastic and discharges heat to cooling liq-
uids circulating through the mold. Overall, machine cycle time is
based on the cooling efficiency of the mold, plus index motion tim-
ing between stations. Thermoforming ovens are equipped with
instrument-controlled heating elements, usually with two or more
index stations and with upper and lower banks of heating ele-
ments. When the machine is stopped for any reason, the ovens
are removed from the web because residual heat may cause the
plastic web to melt or burn. Oven removal can be accomplished
manually or automatically, either by swinging open the top and
bottom oven sections or by moving the entire oven assembly out
parallel to the web (see Figure 4-7).
There are many types of heating sources available to provide
controlled heat for the oven. Some of them are:
• Tubular heating elements, which can be designed to go across
or parallel to the indexing web of plastic. These elements can

73

Ch04.pmd 73 7/17/02, 8:56 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 4-7. Oven opening can be accomplished manually or automatically

(Mitchell 1998).

be bent to shape, if needed, and watt density can be varied to

suit requirements for uniform web temperature.
• Radiant heating panels of various designs, which are attempts
to provide an efficient black-body energy emitter (see Figure
4-8). Some of these units use an emitter 1 in. (25.4 mm) wide
bundled into an assembled panel, with many panels making
up an oven section. Similar assemblies are specified using
quartz or ceramic glass panels.
• Ceramic heating elements, which are relatively small indi-
vidual units mounted in a pattern that can be controlled in
zones (see Figure 4-9). This system allows very close tem-
perature control of any given area of plastic web. However,
the availability of too many individual control adjustments
can cause confusion to machinery setup personnel, as the
ovens take 15–30 minutes to reach thermal equilibrium con-
ditions for a steady state of consistent sheet temperature.
Computer control of oven heat for each mold is useful when
temperature adjustments are known and can be stored in
the computer memory after settings have been established
by the initial production run.

74

Ch04.pmd 74 7/17/02, 8:56 AM

 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

Figure 4-8. Radiant heating panels. (Courtesy Watlow Electric Manufactur-

ing Co.)

75

Ch04.pmd 75 7/17/02, 8:56 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 4-9. (a) Ceramic heating element (b) ceramic heating panel. (Cour-
tesy Infrared International)

76

Ch04.pmd 76 7/17/02, 8:57 AM

 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

• Catalytic gas heaters, which derive their thermal energy from

the reaction of oxygen (from air) and natural gas to a hot
platinum catalyst built into a panel. These panels never burn
the gas, but the reaction, which is flameless, produces heat,
carbon-dioxide gas, and moisture vapor. Manufacturers claim
uniform temperature and more economical operations than
those systems using electrical energy.
Heat loss inside the oven to metal chains and indexing rails
could cause the edges of the plastic shot to be lower in tempera-
ture than the rest of the plastic web. Side-rail heaters installed
above indexing rails increase the temperature of sheet edges so
the entire shot can be heated uniformly. As the sheet indexes out
of the oven through the opening in the oven enclosure, the open
space may cause the leading edge of hot sheet to cool down. The
oven exit may require additional heater banks to replace heat loss
caused by this opening.

Thermoforming Presses

Thermoforming presses are designed to allow the mold to be

mounted on either the upper or lower platen with vacuum- and
pressure-forming utilities available nearby. The maximum retract-
to-extend stroke of press platens averages 6–8 in. (152.4–203.2
mm), plus a tool buildup space on each platen. On some machines,
the shut height of the top platen may be mechanically adjustable
over a short range, which allows the mold halves to close tightly
together for pressure forming. When this feature is not available,
tooling can be shimmed to the correct shut height.

Lockup Force

Pressure-forming requires that the press have sufficient lockup

force to resist the internal opening force of the forming pressure.
This force lockup can be calculated by:

F = AP (4-1)

77

Ch04.pmd 77 7/17/02, 8:57 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

where:
F = force to resist tool opening, lb (N)
A = area of mold, in.2 (cm2)
P = pressure-forming air pressure, psi (Pa)
Presses are rated for a maximum mold area at a specific maxi-
mum forming pressure, or in tons of lockup force. If pressure or
mold area is exceeded, the force of the internal mold opening vents
the excess forming air to the atmosphere.

Toggles

Many presses utilize toggle mechanisms to quickly close and

lock platens for forming (see Figure 4-10). The closer together
that the toggle links are extended into a straight line, the greater
their locking force. If pins and bushings of the toggles are worn,
locking force can be seriously diminished as toggles bend away
from a straight line under pressure-forming load. Maximum weight
per platen of a tool may be restricted in a toggle press. This can
occur as the angle between links and force of the driver (cylinders
or electric motors) determine lifting force at the maximum re-
tracted position. Presses may require a balance cylinder to coun-

Figure 4-10. Many presses utilize a toggle mechanism driven by a servomo-

tor to quickly close and lock the platens for forming (Mitchell 1998).

78

Ch04.pmd 78 7/17/02, 8:57 AM

 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

terweight the rated tool weight. Platen toggles driven by air are
inherently variable speed devices due to the geometry of linkage
design and the inability to continuously vary the speed of the cyl-
inder rod while operating. Hydraulic cylinders can operate at con-
stant velocity, but air is a gas, which is compressible and can not
be as easily controlled as a liquid. Servomotor activators directed
by a programmable processor allow the platen to operate at a vari-
able accelerating or decelerating velocity, which results in a con-
trolled stroke throughout its length. Controlled velocity during
platen closing while the plug distributes plastic within a cavity is
an important variable for obtaining a uniform wall thickness in
the formed part. Servomotor speed control of the platen closing
also prevents impact damage to the mold when locking tooling.

Control Systems

Process-control systems supplied with modern thermoformers

are most often computer controlled with a visual panel display.
Many early model thermoforming machines built before 1980 were
designed with electric timers and relays hard-wired together to
operate the forming cycle. The basic forming cycle steps remain
much the same on both types of control systems.
The basic thermoforming cycle is:
1. Index the heated plastic web into the thermoforming-press
mold area.
2. Close platens and choose which platen is to be extended first.
3. Vent atmospheric air out of the cavity, sometimes using a
partial vacuum as platens are closing. This vacuum may be
necessary to remove the air out of the cavity as the plug trav-
els within the cavity.
4. Vacuum or pressure forming occurs after platens are locked.
5. Exhaust pressure-forming air from closed mold before retract-
ing platens.
6. Open platens, choosing which platen is to be retracted first.
7. Eject formed shot mechanically or with blow-off air pressure.
8. Platens stay open to clear tooling while indexing formed shot
out of the press.
9. Recycle.

79

Ch04.pmd 79 7/17/02, 8:57 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Prototype Parts and Machines

Thermoformed prototype parts should be produced before build-

ing a multi-cavity tool because they assist the customer and tool
designer in achieving joint objectives. Often the customer pro-
vides a product drawing or a proposed part as a starting point for
tool design. The part design, when thermoformed as a prototype,
can be immediately approved, disapproved or, more likely, modi-
fied to increase its usefulness. This is a case where one prototype
part is worth a thousand product drawings, requiring the rework
of only one cavity rather than a multi-cavity production mold.
Prototype thermoforming machines, as shown in Figure 4-11,
should have the same process capabilities as a production ma-
chine or resultant parts may not be of the same quality. Thermo-
forming techniques used to make sample parts should mirror the
production process. Tooling components that control the unifor-
mity of wall thickness, such as plugs or assists, may require modi-
fication of their geometry during the sample-making process to
produce the desired properties. Modified dimensions then can be
updated by the tool designer on finished production-mold draw-
ings and used for final tool design.
Some prototype forming machines in use do not have pressure-
forming capability, so their output may not correlate directly to
the pressure-formed parts’ final detail. Vacuum-formed prototypes
made nearly the same as production pressure-formed parts can
be a disaster if supplied to the customer with a promise that the
production parts will be much better quality. This is not to say
that a highly skilled vacuum-forming prototype maker cannot
produce high-quality uniform sample parts. However, pressure
forming is more forgiving for less-qualified operators. Some mod-
ern well-equipped thermoforming shops consign their antique
(junk) vacuum-forming equipment to the sample-making depart-
ment, where many prototypes do not come up to standard.

Vacuum-forming Machines

Vacuum-forming roll-fed machines are built and sold for limited

volume work and, often, are provided with the most rudimentary

80

Ch04.pmd 80 7/17/02, 8:57 AM

 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

Figure 4-11. Prototype thermoforming machine. (Courtesy PlastiMach Cor-

poration)

81

Ch04.pmd 81 7/30/02, 9:11 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

molds (see Figure 4-12). This type of equipment is relatively inex-

pensive and does not require sophisticated controls, dead-accu-
rate indexing, or high-tonnage pressure-forming presses. The
production rate of vacuum forming can be 150% slower than pres-
sure forming. Pressure forming drives the heated plastic into more
intimate and efficient contact with the cavity than vacuum form-
ing. The heat is then transmitted from the cavity to the mold
base, where it is carried away by temperature-controlled liquids.
Since the quantity of vacuum-formed parts is often small, mold
heat transfer can be simpler and less costly than that in a corre-
sponding pressure-forming tool. The completed vacuum-formed
shots are guillotine cut and trimmed off-line manually at greater
cost than a continuous in-line trimming process. The ovens sup-
plied with this machinery often are less sophisticated in design
and may require a great degree of skill to maintain a uniform
heating pattern on the plastic web.

Trim Presses

There are two types of trim presses: on-line and off-line.

On-line Press

An on-line trim press built on a thermoforming machine base

cuts formed parts using a knife-like die then indexes the shot to
an optional, in-line automatic-stacking press or guillotine shear.
The trimmed parts are lightly held in the shot by nicks for subse-
quent manual or automatic stripping (see Figure 4-13). This trim
press can also accommodate a punch and die set, if provision is
made for removal of trimmed loose parts from the press area. When
two trim stations are necessary to complete the finished product,
the first-stage trim can be accomplished on the on-line trim press
and the completed trim on an off-line trim press. This type of on-
line equipment is most useful for short production runs of 500–
10,000 shots because the knife-like dies provide trimming at no
extra labor cost. Additional auxiliary operations, such as cement-
ing or heat sealing of a backing cardboard, can be accommodated

82

Ch04.pmd 82 7/17/02, 8:57 AM

Ch04.pmd
83
83

7/17/02, 8:57 AM
Figure 4-12. Vacuum-forming roll-fed machine. (Courtesy Starview Packaging Machinery, Inc.)
Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines
Ch04.pmd
84
84
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

7/17/02, 8:58 AM
Figure 4-13. In-line thermoforming, trim, and packing machine. (Courtesy Brown Machine Co., LLC)
 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

on this machine. Cost of the equipment is in the medium range.

These machines are the workhorses of the custom thermoforming
industry and many in-plant thermoforming operations.

Off-line Press

An off-line trim press, run in tandem with a thermoformer, usu-

ally trims parts with a punch and die, but some knife-like die-
cutting machines are available for this purpose (see Figure 4-14).
All off-line trim presses have their own integral indexing systems
to operate free of the thermoformer’s index system. A horizontal
trim press with a punch and die trims parts so that they stack
naturally, moving out in the horizontal direction where they are
easily counted and packed for shipment. These horizontal trim
presses are so named because their power stroke moves in this
direction. Vertical trim presses direct their power stroke perpen-
dicular to the floor and use both knife-like dies and punches and
dies. Both types of trim presses can be used in tandem with an on-
line thermoformer for progressive trimming of parts requiring
two dies. An off-line trimming system operated with punch and
die requires the largest investment, including the additional am-
ortization expense of the trim press.

Cut-in-place Contact Heat Thermoformer

The cut-in-place, contact-heat thermoformer is the only style

of thermoformer that heats plastic by thermal conduction rather
than radiant or convection heat transfer (see Figure 4-15). The
cut-in-place thermoformer contains a heated plate with its tem-
perature closely controlled and set at the softening point of the
plastic. Attached to the hot plate is a hardened-steel blow plate.
The blow plate is ground true and parallel with small drilled holes,
0.020 in. (0.51 mm) in diameter, connected by a manifold to the
thermoforming air valves. When the press closes on the web of
plastic, air is introduced through the mold, forcing the cold plas-
tic into close contact with the heated blow plate (see Figure 4-16).
On the face of the plastic touching the hot plate, entrapped air is

85

Ch04.pmd 85 7/17/02, 8:58 AM

Ch04.pmd
86
86
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

7/17/02, 8:58 AM
Figure 4-14. An off-line trim press run in tandem with a thermoformer (Mitchell 1998).
 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

Figure 4-15. The cut-in-place, contact-heat thermoformer press. (Courtesy

GN Plastics Co., Ltd.)

vented through tiny holes in the blow plate. The process is re-
versed after the plastic is thoroughly heated and forming pres-
sure air is directed to the plastic through the blow plate holes.
This forces the plastic to take the shape of the mold. When the

87

Ch04.pmd 87 7/17/02, 8:58 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 4-16. Contact heat thermoforming process (Mitchell 1998).

88

Ch04.pmd 88 7/17/02, 8:58 AM

 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

plastic is cooled in the mold, further closing of the press platen

trims the finished part when it meets the knife-like die that en-
circles the mold. Finished multiple parts are held in place in the
web by designing slight imperfections in the cut edge so that cut
formed parts are indexed out of the press as a single shot. When
the web is clear of the press, it is bent 90° over a roll. Trim imper-
fections break, freeing finished parts, which are directed to a stack-
ing device. The web is then wound on a mandrel for recycling.
This type of cut-in-place thermoforming uses the most exact
method to heat the plastic since the large heavy mass of the heated
plate maintains a uniform temperature. Oriented polystyrene
sheet (OPS), which is difficult to thermoform, can be heated to a
consistent specified forming temperature, thus easing production
and quality problems. Trimming is very accurate and does not
require a separate trim press because the inexpensive knife-like
die is wrapped around the perimeter of the mold. Disadvantages
of this technique should also be recognized:
• Only female molds are adaptable to the process since the mold
cannot extend above the die.
• Parts that have heavy undercuts may be difficult to eject,
since the whole shot with its formed, trimmed components
loosely held to the web must be indexed out as a unit.
• The process does not lend itself to use of auxiliaries, such as
plugs, to uniformly distribute material.
• The plastic web is usually heated from one side only, limiting
the practical thickness of plastic web that is to be processed
rapidly. The maximum practical sheet thickness is 0.040–
0.060 in. (1.02–1.52 mm), since in this process the time to
heat the plastic is additive to the overall cycle, although aux-
iliary preheating ovens help reduce the cycle.
• Some clear plastic sheets other than oriented polystyrene may
not be formed water-glass clear, since the contact-heated plate
imprints a slight haze on the face of the sheet.
A very large industry flourishes using contact cut-in-place
thermoforming to produce food and takeout containers, since the
equipment and these molds are inexpensive and the production
technique is easy to master.

89

Ch04.pmd 89 7/17/02, 8:58 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Trim-in-place Preheat Thermoformer

The trim-in-place preheat thermoformer is the most common

machine to be found outside of North America and it produces
parts with the greatest accuracy of trim relative to thermoformed
area (see Figure 4-17). The oven and index arrangement is simi-
lar to other roll-fed machines, but tooling and the forming press
are markedly different. The punch and dies are combined with
the mold into one tool, so that thermoformed parts are trimmed
free from the web in the press section and ejected out as indi-
vidual parts. The latest machines allow the lower platen of the
press in the open position to rotate to an angle of approximately
30–45° at the end of the trim cycle. The cut parts are then moved
out of the die section into collating chutes for packing. The lower
platen then rotates to the operating position to recycle the ma-
chine. This type of mechanism requires dies and punches of high-
est precision and quality.

Rotary-drum Mold Thermoformer

Hot-sheet extrusion onto a rotary-drum mold thermoformer is

a continuous, rather than intermittent, thermoforming process.
It is quite different from previously mentioned equipment. There
is no need to reheat the sheet when using this equipment because
the extruder continually presents hot plastic to a rotary drum
mold (see Figure 4-18). The heated sheet is moving along to syn-
chronize with the rotating mold cavities. The sheet is thermo-
formed as the drum revolves and a fresh series of empty cavities
is made available to the extruded plastic. As the drum rotates, the
mold cools the thermoformed parts and the finished line of parts
moves out of the machine to be trimmed on standard off-line
presses. Not all types of parts can be produced, but it is a very
efficient process for suitable items, such as lids and shallow, fe-
male-thermoformed parts. The mold cost is greater than for a stan-
dard tool since cooling water, vacuum, and air must be piped into
a rotating drum and distributed to the molds.

90

Ch04.pmd 90 7/17/02, 8:58 AM

Ch04.pmd
91
91

7/17/02, 8:58 AM
Figure 4-17. The trim-in-place preheat thermoformer (Mitchell 1998).
Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines
 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 4-18. The extruder continually presents hot plastic to a rotary drum
mold. (Courtesy International Thermoforming Systems)

92

Ch04.pmd 92 7/17/02, 8:59 AM

 Chapter 4: Thermoforming Machines

Working Together

The thermoforming engineer should try to remain in constant

contact with the machine operators of various types of thermo-
forming machines to be informed of any serious production prob-
lems. Many glitches that hinder production are not properly
communicated up the corporate ladder to an engineer who has
the ability to solve these problems. By venturing into the produc-
tion area, management interacts more informally with machine
operators. An engineer demonstrates an interest in being part of
the team just by visiting the production floor. This encourages
suggestions vital for improvement of molds, dies, and equipment.

Reference

Mitchell, Philip, ed. 1998. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers

Handbook, Fourth Edition, Volume 9: Material and Part Handling
in Manufacturing. Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engi-
neers.

Pioneering Founders of Thermoforming Machinery Firms

Atlas: later named Zed Industries: Vandallia, Ohio. David Zelnick

AutoVac Corporation: Bridgeport, Connecticut. E. Bowman (Bo)
Stratton and his partner, engineer Robert Butzko
Brown Machinery Corporation: Beaverton, Michigan. Gaylord
Brown
Comet Industries: Chicago, Illinois. The Kostur family
Plax Corporation: Bloomfield, Connecticut
Thermtrol Corporation: Bridgeport, Connecticut. Robert Butzko
Tronomatic Corporation: New York. Joseph Swick
Vacform Corporation: Long Island, New York. Sanford Zimmerman

93

Ch04.pmd 93 7/17/02, 8:59 AM

Ch04.pmd 94 7/17/02, 8:59 AM
 5
Chapter 5: Trim Presses

Trim Presses

Individual thermoformed parts can not be used until they are

cut from the plastic web with trim equipment and dies. Early on,
the thermoforming industry adapted trimming machinery from the
printing, metal, and leather industries.
Printers and cardboard box makers rely on steel-rule dies be-
cause they are low cost, accurate, and can be delivered rapidly. A
highly developed network of steel-rule cutting machinery, tech-
niques, and local die sources existed prior to the invention of
thermoforming. Sheet metal fabrication requiring a punch and
die is a sophisticated art that has flourished since the industrial
revolution. Shoe and leather goods manufacturers used long-life,
knife-like forged dies in swing-arm mechanical and hydraulic-
clicker presses 100 years prior to the advent of thermoforming
(see Figure 5-1).
Early thermoforming production engineers often had previous
experience in established industries and transplanted the existing
trim arts to thermoforming. Unfortunately, paper, cardboard,
leather, and metal materials are flat, and the existing trimming
machines often did not have the necessary clearance to allow entry
of thermoformed parts, which have much higher profiles. Eventu-
ally, machinery was modified and then specifically designed to pro-
cess a thermoformed web. Early applications for thermoforming
included the packaging of consumer products requiring clear blis-
ters and cardboard-box thermoformed inserts. The quantities of
these components purchased in the beginning were small: 1,000–
50,000 parts requiring low-cost molds and inexpensive steel-rule
dies. These orders were thermoformed and the shots were cut off

95

Ch05.pmd 95 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 5-1. Swing-arm clicker manual die cutter. (Courtesy L.G. Freeman Co.)

the web. Then, the shots were manually die-cut into individual
parts in clicker-type or hydraulic die cutters.

In-line Trim Press

Modern machinery for in-line, knife-like die cutting of thermo-

formed products should have the following characteristics:
• A large bed size capable of handling a complete individual
thermoformed shot, because the whole unit is trimmed at
one time.

96

Ch05.pmd 96 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Chapter 5: Trim Presses

• Sufficient tonnage to trim multi-cavity dies at a force of 100–

300 lb/in. (17.5–52.6 N/mm), of die length, with the higher-
end figure used for curved dies.
• A provision for the cutting platen stroke to be controlled so
that the sharp edge of the knife-like die is not dulled by cut-
ting through the plastic and digging into the striker plate.
• The press platens or tooling buildup should not have any mean-
ingful deflection under the trimming load. If substantial de-
flection takes place under the load, a die would be unable to
cut through the plastic because any additional force would
increase the amount of deflection and prevent trimming.
• The knife-like die cutting requires flat, straight, and smooth
platens; and
• Safety and common sense dictate that all presses are poten-
tial accident hot spots, so suitable guards, electrical fail-safe
controls, and employee safe-operation procedures should be
taught, monitored, and enforced.

Punch and Die Press

An off-line punch-and-die press for thermoforming should pos-

sess the following features:
• The press-bed area should be as wide as the maximum shot
width and, since only one or two rows are trimmed at one time,
it should be long enough to properly support the die set.
• The cycle speed of the press must accommodate the output
of the thermoformer. For example, if a mold is designed with
either two or eight rows of cavities per shot and thermoforms
shots at 12 cycles per minute, the trim-press speed to cut out
all the parts formed by the thermoformer can be illustrated
with the following:
2 trim rows × 12 thermoforming cycles/min
= 24 trim strokes/min
8 trim rows × 12 thermoforming cycles/min
= 96 trim strokes/min

97

Ch05.pmd 97 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

The trim press must be equipped with a variable-speed drive or

an intermittent clutch to handle the great variation in speed
needed to coordinate with thermoformer output.
The amount of force required to trim plastic using a punch and
die is less than that required for a knife-like die. The force re-
quired is dependent on punch and die clearance, length of die pe-
rimeter, spring force built into the stripper plate, plastic thickness,
and shear strength of the plastic. Press tonnage of 20–40 tons
(178–356 kN) is common and dependent on flywheel speed and
angle of crank to the moving platen at the moment of cutting.
Adjustable-stroke presses are a necessity because a shallow part
will not require as much press opening space as a deeper part and
it can be run at a higher cyclic rate. The higher strokes per minute
thus made available for trimming a shallow part may avoid the
need to provide additional rows of dies to keep pace with thermo-
former output.
Deeper parts need additional clearance while being indexed
into the die area, and the press crank stroke can be manually re-
adjusted to compensate for the difference in part height. The
greater the press opening, the more limited is the allowable stroke
rate of the press due to vibration and high acceleration force
induced into the moving platen.
The platen exit opening dictates the maximum part length that
can be trimmed. Most presses have an exit opening at least 12 in.
(304.8 mm) wide with somewhat larger openings available on other
model machines.
Press indexing systems are synchronized to the press stroke. Web
movement into the die can commence once the press opens suffi-
ciently to clear the part. The indexing web pusher must be timed to
retract fully out of the die as it closes or it can cause damage to the
tool. If the time interval of the forward index cycle is not sufficient,
the web may accelerate at too rapid a rate and plastic parts being
indexed can be damaged. This problem of high web acceleration
occurs when the cyclic rate is too rapid for the index distance and
high pusher forces build up. Reducing the thermoformer output
cycle might be the only way to end this troublesome condition.

98

Ch05.pmd 98 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Chapter 5: Trim Presses

Manually Fed Trim Press

Manually fed trim presses can process individual shots that have
been previously guillotine cut from a roll-fed thermoformer (see
Figure 5-2). Manual handling of shots is the most expensive
method of trimming and production is very slow, 1–3 shots per
minute. Roll-fed thermoformers form 6–20 shots per minute and
the only human intervention needed is to supply rolls of plastic
and check finished-part quality. The thermoformer produces in-
dividual shots more quickly than they can be manually trimmed
due to this inequality in process time. This surplus of shots builds
up and requires valuable floor space for storage. Shots may be-
come dusty and dirty while awaiting trimming.

Figure 5-2. Guillotine shear trims shots at end of thermoforming line (Mitchell
1998).

99

Ch05.pmd 99 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Some of the reasons for manually trimming shots rather than

using the more efficient on-line trim system are:
• Machine operators often may not have the skills to quickly
set up a short-run, on-line, automatic trim press. The scrap
rate and downtime in this case often is too costly to tie up an
on-line thermoformer for a short run.
• The on-line thermoformer may be equipped with an index
mechanism that is unable to achieve the accuracy of index re-
quired for a specific job. The die shrinkage coefficient for a
still-hot shot indexing between a thermoformer and a trim
press station may not be correctly calculated for an accurate
register to the die. On the other hand, an individual shot left
to stand until cold and stable can be calculated and a die built
to operate properly in a manually fed die cutter.
• An on-line trim press can be used to cut out certain cavity
areas that are not in the same plane as the trim perimeter of
the finished part. The partially trimmed shot then can be
guillotined and the outer perimeter can be die cut using a
manual trim press.
• A multiple-cavity shot may be more efficiently processed as a
whole unit and trimmed after the cavities are filled with prod-
uct and sealed. Examples may be seen in food or medical pack-
aging, such as individual jam packages or sterile single-dose
tablets—both of which are packed, heat sealed, and trimmed.
• An untrimmed multiple-cavity shot offers ease of handling
as a single unit for labor-intensive, secondary operations, such
as post silk screening, printing, hot stamping, or radio fre-
quency (RF) heat sealing and then final manual trimming.
Manual trim presses of varying hydraulic or mechanical designs
can be seen in operation at many thermoforming plants. The ease
of feeding and removing trimmed shot to and from the die deter-
mines the relative efficiency of the trim process.

Safety

Manual punch-and-die trimming requires that the die is mounted

in a power press semi-permanently and a formed cavity or cavities

100

Ch05.pmd 100 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Chapter 5: Trim Presses

are manually placed in the die. When the press cuts the parts
free, the trimmed parts fall through the die into chutes or a con-
tainer, and the scrap skeleton is removed for recycling. This pro-
cess requires safeguards as the operator’s hands are often close to
the die area.

Knife-like Dies

Multi-cavity, knife-like dies can be mounted on a drawer or

shuttle table, which is automatically or manually retracted and
extended into the trim press with the formed shot placed in the
die (see Figure 5-3). After trimming takes place, the drawer ex-
tends out of the press and the shot. The trimmed parts remain
lightly attached to the shot and are manually removed as a single
unit for later packing.

Die Cutting

Two classes of manual trim presses are available for knife-like

die cutting, which use either a soft anvil or hard anvil for the
trimming process.

Figure 5-3. Multi-cavity, knife-like dies can be mounted on a drawer or shuttle

table (Mitchell 1998).

101

Ch05.pmd 101 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Soft Anvil Striker Plate

One type of press allows the knife-like die to cut against a soft
anvil (composite rubber or plastic). When the sharp edge cuts
through the plastic, it penetrates the anvil a short distance, leav-
ing a small cut groove in the anvil (see Figure 5-4). The die can
not cut continuously in the same spot on a soft anvil because the
knife-scored groove will widen, causing an unacceptable trimmed

Figure 5-4. When the sharp edge cuts through the plastic, it penetrates the
anvil a short distance, leaving a small cut groove.

102

Ch05.pmd 102 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Chapter 5: Trim Presses

part. The soft anvil or die must constantly be manually moved to

avoid cutting in the same spot. The knife tends to remain sharp
since it is harder than the anvil and dulls very slowly.

Hard Anvil Striker Plate

The best trimmed edge produced by using knife-like dies re-

sults from a kiss cut in which the knife touches, but does not score,
a metal striker plate or hard anvil. The trim press that produces
this type of cut must have a defined stroke or a hydraulic-pres-
sure control system that can be set for just the right cutting force.
The finest knife-like die setup on the perfect press platen will not
cut 100% of the shot until it is made ready. Make-ready is a sys-
tem of shimming out low points on the die or reducing high points
of the die and resharpening the affected blade. This is work for
the most patient soul in the shop and takes time and skill, but it
produces clean-cut parts and extends die life immeasurably.

Heat Assist

When a kiss-cut trim system is available, a heat-assisted trim

system may be employed since plastic loses its shear strength
precipitously when heated. The striker plate is attached to a tem-
perature-controlled hot plate, which is heated to just below the point
at which heated plastic will stick to the anvil plate. The trim press
is closed under low pressure until the knife-like die is bearing
against the plastic, which impinges on the heated striker plate
only at the knife contact line. After a short, timed heating period,
pressure is increased and the die cuts cleanly through the part. It
is not practical to attempt to drive heat up the thin knife-like die
to achieve similar results to those obtained using a hot striker
plate.
Heat-trimmed parts offer several advantages when compared
to cold impact-cut parts. The press tonnage to trim a shot can be
considerably reduced so that trim-die cavities can be increased in
number. A heat-trimmed edge is smooth and square since the
trimmed edge is not partially fractured, but is cut cleanly through.

103

Ch05.pmd 103 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Most of the angel-hair particulate produced by impact cutting is

avoided, minimizing these unsightly contaminants. Thick,
thermoformed parts are often heat trimmed to prevent internal
stress buildup caused by cold cutting. Such stresses may later in-
duce breaks and fractures in finished parts.

Roller-die Cutting

Roller-die cutting machines provide for mounting the die knife-

up on a machine bed with the movable striker plate in open posi-
tion and the shot placed in the die. The striker plate is closed
lightly on the die and then a large-diameter roller traverses the
back of the plate, producing cutting pressure along the knife line.
If the die is placed so none of its cutting edge is parallel to the axis
of the moving roller, the roller arc becomes tangent to only a single
knife point of contact at a time. This machine system offers an
inexpensive method of producing heavy cutting pressure without
using a costly, massive press. One type of inexpensive die cutter
uses two rollers to produce sufficient pressure to trim a plastic
sheet (see Figure 5-5).
The resultant roller-press cut edge may be of low quality be-
cause there is a force component in the direction of roller travel
that may shift the shot relative to the die slightly during trim-
ming. Some roller-die cutters move the pressure roller back and
forth across the die, producing an unsatisfactory double-cut edge
on the finished part.
Sometimes the roller-press dies are not made ready and a loose
piece of 0.188-in. (4.78-mm) thick relatively soft polypropylene sheet
is placed manually on top of the die. The sheet is removed after
trimming and reused for the next cut. Since the loose polypropy-
lene sheet is never replaced in its original position, a fresh face is
presented to the die for each cut until the sheet becomes worn
with use.
Computer-directed trimming of industrial parts is an extensively
used technique in the heavy-gage, sheet-fed thermoforming in-
dustry. The most common computer-directed trimmer is a five-
axis router, which uses a high-speed cutter to cut a narrow groove
through the part wall, converting the router path into chips. Simi-

104

Ch05.pmd 104 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Chapter 5: Trim Presses

Figure 5-5. One type of inexpensive manual die cutter uses two rollers to
produce sufficient pressure to trim a plastic sheet. (Courtesy Starview Pack-
aging Machinery, Inc.)

lar computer-directed cutting with ultra-high pressure (50,000

psi [345 MPa]) waterjets or laser devices has been developed for
trimming heavy-gage thermoformed parts. None of these systems
has proven practical for cutting multi-cavity, sheet-fed, thin-gage
parts because they are unable to trim parts as rapidly as a thermo-
former produces them. Both systems generate particles that must
be manually removed from the finished trimmed parts before they
can be used.
Slitting the excess-width web sections directly off a roll-fed
thermoformer is specified for specialized applications. Products
that require thermoforming an endless web are trimmed to a given
width by slitting. Slitting takes place as the web leaves the thermo-
former and can be accomplished by razors or rotary knives. A com-
bination of slitting and guillotine cutting the shot can produce a
finished component without resorting to an outer-perimeter die.

105

Ch05.pmd 105 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

On-line Trim Press

On-line, knife-like, die-cutting presses built on a thermoformer

frame generally contain both upper and lower moving platens (see
Figure 5-6). Most thermoformed parts are formed by projecting
up from the sheet line to take advantage of the upper-trim platen,
with its larger clearance stroke of 4–8 in. (101.6–203.2 mm). Some
parts are thermoformed projecting down to allow cementing or
sealing a card to the sheet-line face. This technique completes the
formed cavity and then the die cuts the composite shot. The lower
platen motion has a shorter stroke of 1–4 in. (25.4–101.6 mm)
than that of the upper platen. The opening clearance of both plat-
ens allows trimming parts, which combines both upward and
downward projections from the trim line, and indexes through
press and die.
On-line presses are often designed so that the upper-platen
stroke is actuated by a toggle linkage and the lower-platen move-
ment by direct hydraulic action or a combination of toggles and
hydraulic force. This system of platen movement is helpful in pi-
loting cavities to true position for trimming.
When a formed shot completes its index out from the mold area
to the open trim press, the trimming cycle is activated. Upper toggles
are fully extended to move the platen and die down to the sheet
line where locator pilots in the die engage formed cavities relative
to the die. After the top toggles are locked, the lower platen extends,
gently nudging the sagging plastic web tightly into the die locator
pilots and then building up the necessary hydraulic force to trim
the shot. Indexing of the web may be quite accurate and consistent,
but pilot locators in the die provide final displacement of the formed
cavities to precisely trim a large multi-cavity shot.

Conditions for Proper Die Cutting

Most trim presses and their die buildups contain too many vari-
ables for the operator to control, which affect the exact shut-height
dimension for kiss cutting when using a knife-like die. Kiss cutting
on the trim press can be accomplished by careful die make-ready

106

Ch05.pmd 106 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

Ch05.pmd
107
107

7/30/02, 8:49 AM
Figure 5-6. On-line, knife-like, die-cutting presses built on a thermoformer frame generally contain both upper and
lower moving platens. (Courtesy Brown Machine Co., LLC)
Chapter 5: Trim Presses
 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

and using minimum hydraulic pressure to trim the shot. Proper

die cutting can not be achieved by use of brute force, because ini-
tial closing of the press and die may dull the sharp edge of the
knife and thereafter the die will crush, not cut, through plastic.
When the knife loses its keen edge, a shiny flat spot appears on its
cutting edge and this flat area will crush through the plastic, leav-
ing a trail of hairy particles (angel hair). The contaminant clings
to the trimmed component due to static electricity generated on
the web and it can be difficult to dislodge from the component.
The end user may reject these unsightly parts so it is best to mini-
mize angel hair by using proper trim set-up procedures.
Make-ready of a knife-like die requires the die and its buildups
be made parallel to each other. Once this is done, all components
should be locked into alignment. Die buildup consists of many
flat plates that over years of use can become burred and battered.
Often, flawed plates must be reconditioned or replaced if kiss cut-
ting is to be achieved.

Striker Plate Material

The skill and ability of machinery setup technicians determine

the choice of a plate cutting-face material for the striker. An im-
properly made-ready die survives longer if the engineer chooses a
soft striker plate. However, trimmed-edge quality declines as pro-
duction continues. When a proper make-ready is completed, the
master sheet (the sheet of paper that the make ready is attached)
and die can be stored and used directly for the next production
run.
Materials employed for the striker plate include:
• Aluminum—7075 alloy is one of the hardest commercial alu-
minum sheets and does not wear down a die, but its surface
scores quickly and deep grooves result. The cut-edge quality
deteriorates rapidly as the day progresses. Its estimated life
is 2–8 hours.
• Stainless steel—300 series chrome-nickel soon becomes work-
hardened by the die’s cutting action. The die can be dam-
aged if improperly forced into the plate, but this material

108

Ch05.pmd 108 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Chapter 5: Trim Presses

may be a good intermediate choice if the die is carefully made

ready. Its estimated life is 5–30 days.
• Hardened high-carbon steel striker plates are generally sev-
eral hardness points harder than the knife-like die and this
plate has a hardness of 45–55 on the Rockwell-C scale. The
material is flexible, but not hard enough to become brittle
and crack under load. It is a very good choice for the highest-
quality trimmed edge with a long life: 3–24 months when
dies are made ready properly.
The thickness of a striker plate is generally between 16–12 gage
(0.059–0.105 in. [1.50–2.66 mm]) as the plate must not distort
readily, but should be thin enough to react to underlying make-
ready shims.
The following is an example of a make-ready procedure for a
knife-like die in an on-line trim press:
1. Reduce hydraulic press cutting pressure to the minimum level
that will allow actuation of the lower platen.
2. Prepare a heavy Kraft paper sheet to the exact size of the
platen and mark the outgoing edge as front. Tape the paper
facing the front to the face of the striker plate, allow the press
and die to close, and strike the paper, leaving a cut impres-
sion on what is now the master sheet. Usually 75% of the die
will either cut or mark the paper. Remove the master sheet
and striker plate; use a pencil to complete the cut impression
of cavities that are incomplete.
3. Obtain 0.002-in. thick × 0.250-in. wide (0.05-mm × 6.35-mm)
stainless make-ready shim tapes with adhesive backing from
a die-maker supply house. Study the die impression on the
master and apply one layer of shim tape only on the very
light or penciled-in die impressions. Trim the shim tape so it
never extends closer than 0.250 in. (6.35 mm) to a neighbor-
ing heavy die impression. The objective is to build up the shim
pack so it never disturbs an existing cut section. Avoid install-
ing loose shims; they may shift and disrupt the process.
4. Place the master sheet on the lower buildup in the same ori-
entation marked “front” as the die. Install the striker plate
on top of the master sheet and replace the mounting screws.

109

Ch05.pmd 109 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

5. Tape a clean Kraft paper cut to the exact size of the striker
plate on top. Mark it No. 1 front on the appropriate edge. Die
cut the No. 1 sheet and compare the results to the master
sheet under the striker plate. If the die impression still is not
uniform, add one thickness of shim to the master sheet on
any faint cuts, including those on the top of earlier shims.
When building upon an earlier shim, cut the length shorter
by 0.250 in. (6.35 mm) from each end so the shimming is
feathered and not abrupt at its edges.
6. Save sheet No. 1. Then, cut sheet No. 2 and continue the
process until the die impression becomes uniform. Save all
the trial-cutting Kraft sheets to keep a record of progress
and as a guide to avoid disturbing sections that were previ-
ously cutting. If previously cutting segments stop cutting,
remove the last shims placed on the adjoining segments and
start the process anew.
7. When satisfied that make-ready is complete, insert a flat sheet
of the same plastic to be thermoformed and attempt to trim
it at low pressure. If it appears to be a uniform impression,
raise the hydraulic pressure until the die cuts through. Lock
the hydraulic pressure regulator at that point and shim-up
areas of the impression that may not have cut through. Judg-
ment and experience will indicate when the die impression is
uniform and when additional hydraulic pressure is needed
to cut through a plastic sheet without dulling the die.

Cause of Die Damage

Damage to the knife blade shows up as flat shiny areas or curled

knife-edges, which can be felt with a fingernail. The flats on the
knife can be sharpened with a stone; curled edges sometimes can
be hammered out. If the damage is too severe, a spare die can be
substituted until a die maker can effect repairs. The spare die
should also be made ready before attempting production.
After die cutting has commenced, the knife eventually dulls due
to the abrasive nature of the plastic or from impact against the
die anvil. At that point, hydraulic pressure may have to be raised
slightly to compensate for the worn die and allow it to continue to

110

Ch05.pmd 110 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

 Chapter 5: Trim Presses

cut. Some plastics are notorious for causing short die life. For ex-
ample, thick PVC sections cut partially through and then frac-
ture, allowing the knife to impact the anvil. This can be recognized
by listening to the hydraulic trim pressure building up. Then, a
loud crack is heard as the PVC fractures and a ping indicates the
die is striking the anvil. Heat trimming may reduce this problem
when sufficient heating time is allotted to heat the trim line be-
fore activating hydraulic pressure.

Off-line Trim Press

Off-line punch-and-die trim presses accept output of a

thermoformer after the formed web has left the indexing chain
and the web is picked up and re-indexed by the off-line trim press.
Re-indexing is necessary because only one or two rows of a shot
can be trimmed at one time and the shot could contain many more
rows of parts. Fortunately, the elapsed travel time from the
thermoformer to the trim press allows the web to shrink to its
ambient state with most types of thermoformed plastics, so hand-
book shrinkage values may be applied to the die design.
Trim presses that direct their power stroke horizontally are
described as horizontal trim presses (see Figure 5-7). They have
the advantage of directing the cut and nested parts in the hori-
zontal plane, which assists packing finished parts. The skeleton
scrap web is cut off with each stroke of the die. Then, the scrap
falls into a granulator or is removed by conveyor belts for recy-
cling. Vertical off-line trim presses have some mechanical and pro-
cess advantages that make them useful—often in conjunction with
in-line trim presses (see Figure 5-8).
When punch-and-die trim quality starts deteriorating, a tem-
porary repair in place can avoid removing the heavy die and stop-
ping production. On some of these tools, the fairly soft die section
can be comfortably reached from outside the press. Peening (de-
forming) the die edge to decrease die clearance in the defective
area is something to be attempted. The much harder punch
broaches the peened area of the die cavity when the press is closed.
It shaves excessive metal and maintains tighter clearance.

111

Ch05.pmd 111 7/17/02, 9:00 AM

Ch05.pmd
112
112
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

7/17/02, 9:01 AM
Figure 5-7. Trim presses that direct their power stroke horizontally are described as horizontal trim presses. (Courtesy
Brown Machine Co., LLC)
Ch05.pmd
113
113

7/17/02, 9:01 AM
Figure 5-8. Vertical trim presses have some mechanical and process advantages that make them useful—often in
conjunction with in-line trim presses. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co., LLC)
Chapter 5: Trim Presses
 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Planning at the mold design level is necessary to provide suffi-

cient trim-press indexing and guidance clearance into the punch
and die. Pentagon-shaped pusher lugs are mounted so that an in-
dexing pusher can move the section of the shot to be trimmed into
the die (see Figure 5-9). Pilots built into the punch assist in the
final registration of formed parts relative to the die. Press index-
ing accuracy should be a consistent ±0.032 in. (±0.81 mm) for
pilots to centralize the cavities. The mold design should incorpo-
rate space for index guide bars that direct the moving web into
the die and prevent side-to-side displacement of the shot.
The die designer often is responsible for auxiliary devices needed
for a successful horizontal trim press operation. Such devices may
include:
• A web-indexing cam, usually mounted to the trim press crank-
shaft, provides the timing sequence for a specific index stroke
on some press models. Accelerating and decelerating the web-
indexing stroke provides a smooth start and stop of the web.
The cam may be of a cycloid shape or have a similar curve to
produce this motion.
• Knockouts are often necessary to push the trimmed part past
the die lands (area of the die cavity that has minimum die
clearance). This facilitates stacking parts as they pass through
the die exit. Most trim presses are designed with an integral
knockout platform to actuate the die knockout components
at the proper time.
• Product chutes are needed to keep products in neat rows for
easy packing once they clear the die. Chutes are often made
of polished stainless steel to reduce friction as trimmed parts
are pushed along out of the die. The stainless material is easy
to keep clean, very strong, and resists corrosion.
• Spare punch and die modules may be needed to continue pro-
duction in case of serious tool damage. Punches and dies go
through a long manufacturing cycle including machining,
heat treating, and grinding. Procurement of special tool steels
to manufacture emergency spares can be expensive and time
consuming. When the original punches and dies are ordered,
additional spares can be run through regular die-shop pro-
duction at the same time, reducing cost and delivery time.

114

Ch05.pmd 114 7/17/02, 9:01 AM

Ch05.pmd
115
115

7/17/02, 9:01 AM
Figure 5-9. Pentagon-shaped pusher lugs are mounted so that an indexing pusher can move the section of the shot to
be trimmed into the die.
Chapter 5: Trim Presses
 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Die makers often produce spares for their own purposes when
building the die to avoid problems that may later occur dur-
ing grinding or heat treatment. The user can not rely on the
die shop’s limited supply being made available because these
extra spares may be used up to complete the die.
Web guides and index pushers can be designed and built during
the design stage to match the needs of the specific parts being
trimmed. Most trim presses come equipped with a general set of
movable sheet guides, which can be adjusted for each die. Setting
up these adjustable components is cumbersome and they often
loosen and move during production. Permanently fixed compo-
nents are preferred at the production level.

Scrap

High-speed trimming of plastic produces occasional scrap com-

ponents. These components, as well as the skeleton scrap web,
must be prepared for recycling. On-line thermoformers may have
scrap winders that wind the scrap web on a mandrel, which is
removed manually on a regular schedule. Alternately, guillotine
shears mounted at the end of on-line thermoformers may cut the
skeletons up into individual shots, which are collected manually
or by conveyor system for granulating.
Off-line horizontal-trim-press dies have built-in web cutoff
blades that trim the scrap skeleton with each press stroke, after
which it drops down by gravity. Many off-line trim presses are
built to accept a granulator below the die. Scrap falls only a short
distance and is immediately ground into small particles. Scrapped
or damaged thermoformed components often are too bulky or
packed too densely to pass into the throat of an in-line granulator
and are handled offsite by larger and more powerful granulating
equipment. When feeding a continuous web into a granulator di-
rectly from an on-line thermoformer, provisions should be made
to restrain web movement to prevent the web from being dragged
into the grinder and upsetting index accuracy.

116

Ch05.pmd 116 7/17/02, 9:01 AM

 Chapter 5: Trim Presses

Trim Press Selection

The different trim systems described in this chapter serve vari-

ous production situations and often more than one trim system
can be substituted for another. Usually, the choice of trimming
comes down to an economic decision based on initial die cost, la-
bor burden, skill level of technicians, and available trim machin-
ery. Sometimes, trimmed product specifications are so exact that
only one trim process can be employed to achieve a given result
and economics must take a back seat.
Engineering should follow up on the results of selecting a spe-
cific trim system to guide thinking for future projects and judge
the efficacy of each process. Production employees may be able to
offer advice that may reduce cost, increase production, or they
may advise that the project was a nightmare producing an inordi-
nate amount of scrap. Usually, the truth lies between the extremes
of machinery technology and the skill level of operators and their
supervisors. The engineer is charged with getting the job done
and keeping a balance between tool technology, existing trim equip-
ment, and the abilities of tooling users.

Reference

Mitchell, Philip, ed. 1998. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers

Handbook, Fourth Edition, Volume 9: Material and Part Handling
in Manufacturing. Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engi-
neers.

117

Ch05.pmd 117 7/17/02, 9:01 AM

Ch05.pmd 118 7/17/02, 9:01 AM
 6
Chapter 6: Mold Design

Mold Design

Considerations

The mold design process requires defining the mold objective,

choosing the proper plastic resin, finding the critical wall thick-
ness, determining if the fit is too tight or loose, testing for
thermoformed part clarity, deciding if hinges are used, how the
mold will be engraved, how many cavities are needed per shot,
and the height of the thermoformed product.

Defining the Mold Objectives

The design of a thermoforming mold that produces the best

product for the customer at the least cost depends on the designer
obtaining as much information as possible at the project start.
Models, drawings, and prototypes provide a good beginning if avail-
able, but they should not end the search for facts. A customer
may ask the mold designer to develop a thermoformed package to
fit within a given space. He or she may supply an assortment of
products for placing into the package and ask the designer to de-
velop a package to fit within a given space. This provides the op-
portunity to develop the part with proper thermoforming- and
trim-design parameters, with the designer working out the de-
tails with the customer. Direct conversation with the mold pur-
chaser may unearth facts that bear directly on the final design,

119

Ch06.pmd 119 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

but were not covered by drawings or a salesperson’s memory of

initial sales conferences.
Part details should be reviewed with the mold purchaser to as-
certain which elements are most crucial and which have second-
ary importance. Mold information is only part of what should be
discussed with the buyer before mold design work can begin. It is
important to investigate every area of the project that may or
may not be directly the responsibility of the mold designer. The
designer’s initial blunt questioning will be forgiven once the tool
begins production on time, within budget, and with no bitter af-
tertaste.

Choosing the Proper Plastic Resin

Price should not be the deciding factor in selecting a thermo-

forming plastic. The ideal resin with proper strength, clarity, or
cushioning properties may first appear too expensive on a pound
basis and, therefore, may not be considered an option. An expen-
sive resin may meet price criteria if its greater strength allows
reduced wall thickness or modification of its structure to stiffen
the thermoformed part.
Chemical compatibility with the product being packaged should
be investigated. Most plastic resins have varying degrees of po-
rosity to atmospheric gases that eventually permeate through
package walls and may degrade a food product.
Chemical additives mixed with plastic resins to enhance the
physical properties of the resin may migrate out of the sheet and
damage package contents. Government regulations may direct use
of specific resins for foods and medical products due to possible
chemical contamination of package contents.
High temperature can cause thermoformed packages to distort.
For example, medical products may require steam autoclaving dur-
ing further processing. Solid foods may be hot-filled into a thermo-
formed package; the plastic resin chosen should have a sufficiently
high heat-distortion point to prevent deformation during filling.
The initial resin specified determines the mold and die shrinkage
coefficient. A late change in material can cause a variation in fin-
ished package size that requires new mold cavities and dies.

120

Ch06.pmd 120 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

Critical Wall Thickness

Thermoform processing, unlike injection molding, cannot as-

sure uniform wall thickness throughout a part. However, if mini-
mum wall thickness is specified in specific areas of the part, the
designer can choose the mold and thermoforming technique needed
to achieve this result. Thoughtful mold design is a major priority.
It should have the goal of creating approximate uniform wall thick-
ness throughout a thermoformed product.
Product design of the formed part should be in harmony with
the process used to assist flow of plastic uniformly over the mold
surface. The draft angle of the walls and all radii should be suf-
ficiently generous to help produce the minimum specified wall
thickness.
Heated plastics move more freely on a hot mold than on a cooler
one, but the maximum production rate often is based on using a
low-temperature mold. When the mold temperature is too high
for an effective plastic flow to achieve minimum wall thickness,
the required extended cooling time can result in uneconomical
production.
The starting sheet thickness for a minimum thermoformed wall
must be determined in advance of production so that plastic sheet
rolls can be extruded in time to maintain the production sched-
ule. Prototype mold testing is imperative to determine the opti-
mum plastic sheet thickness used in production.

Is the Fit Too Tight or Too Loose?

Many thermoformed parts are designed to fit or lock on exist-

ing units. Lids for drink cups and locking salad trays are typical
thermoformed parts subject to judgment calls on tightness-of-fit.
Since tightness is subjective, correct fit can create demands for
modifying completed molds before the true cause of deviation is
investigated. Often the difference may be due to variances in mat-
ing parts. Matching components, such as foam coffee cups, may
vary in diameter. Cardboard assembly elements can shrink or ex-
pand depending on relative humidity. Consequently, thermoformed
or injection molded units to be mated may not be to specified size.

121

Ch06.pmd 121 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

It is important that the designer initially be given a number of

mating parts so a random sample of prototype thermoformed com-
ponents can be tested. Approved thermoformed package samples
should be marked, dated, and initialed by the customer, and stored
by the designer. Any future disagreements can be negotiated us-
ing initialed samples as the basis for discussion.
When designing mating fits for thermoformed parts, it is always
best that surfaces in contact be formed directly against the mold
(see Figure 6-1). When this procedure is followed, wall thickness
will not be a factor in dimensioning the final fit. Wall thickness in
the fit area can fluctuate due to variations in sheet-heating pat-
tern, shifts in mold temperature, or a change in starting thick-
ness of the plastic web. A modification of a mold cavity as small as
0.001–0.002 in. (0.03–0.05 mm) on a coffee cup lid can cause the
dreaded words too loose or too tight to be uttered.

Part Clarity

Part specifications may request water-glass-clear thermoformed

parts to allow potential purchasers to view merchandise in the
packages, but thermoforming can cause loss of sheet opacity. When

Figure 6-1. Consistent fits of mating parts surfaces are achieved by forming
directly on a mold face.

122

Ch06.pmd 122 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

clear plastic sheet is specified, the designer should attempt to

minimize any reduction in clarity caused by the mold. A designer
should pay attention to mold surface finish, placement of vent
holes, and how and where to stiffen package structure without
distorting the view through the package.
Thermoformed plastic needs vent holes or slots to quickly evacu-
ate air trapped between a heated thermoforming sheet and the
mold surface. Drilled vent holes may be reproduced on the fin-
ished, formed plastic surface, but often are objectionable to the
customer (see Figure 6-2). Package-stiffener ribs and decorating

Figure 6-2. Careful placement of vent holes avoids marking a clear panel.
(Courtesy G.N. Plastic Co., Ltd.)

123

Ch06.pmd 123 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

trim can hide these holes, or vent slots can be located at changes
of mold section. When the only vent holes are on the perimeter of
a thermoformed panel, the surface finish of the mold determines
efficient evacuation of entrapped air. A rough surface finish di-
rects more airflow through passages in the hills and valleys of the
surface to the vent holes, but decreases package clarity. The
designer’s dilemma is to either move the holes into the visible
area or provide a rough surface finish that reduces clarity.
Large panels of unstiffened, thermoformed plastic in a flat plane
become limp and distorted, no matter how much additional plas-
tic is added to the starting sheet thickness. Redesigning a large
panel with a series of layers stiffens the structure yet still allows
some package visibility without increasing wall thickness.
Trapping air between the mold and the plastic is a thermoform-
ing technique sometimes used to achieve clarity on a flat thermo-
formed panel (see Figure 6-3). The designer creates a mold without
vent holes on the panel mold surface so that the hot plastic does
not contact the mold surface as it floats on a layer of entrapped
air. Since the heated panel never comes in direct contact with the

Figure 6-3. Thermoforming a clear panel surface by trapping air between

the sheet and cavity.

124

Ch06.pmd 124 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

mold, it cools more slowly and remains hot after it is stripped

from the mold. As it indexes out of the mold, the heated panel
may distort as it cools in the air.

Hinges

A thermoformed package consisting of two halves with a formed

hinge in between may be reused to store such products as fasten-
ers and fresh spices. The buyer may wish a soft hinge for opening
or closing instead of a stiffer hinge to prevent the package from
requiring both hands to keep it from spilling its contents. A hinge
can have a softer action if double V-shaped (W) grooves are speci-
fied rather than a formed radius groove (see Figure 6-4). When
heated plastic is thermoformed down into a W-shaped hinge groove,
wall thickness tends to thin out, decreasing the tendency of the
package to remain open, whereas a higher-stiffness (radius or “V”)
hinge acts as an opening force. Additionally, a W-shaped hinge
prevents the rear locking area of the package from springing open.
The main disadvantages of a double-V hinge are that it takes
up additional room on the mold (uses more plastic) and may not
have the same aesthetic clean look when the package is closed.
The buyer should be made aware of hinge options before the de-
sign is frozen; later mold alteration may be difficult.

Engraving

Engraving molds with lettering or graphic designs requires both

buyer and seller to understand how the final product will appear.
The sharpest quality of engraving on a plastic component is ac-
complished when the engraved face is thermoformed against the
mold. When the engraved face must be viewed through a thick-
ness of opaque plastic, its sharply defined features may become
rounded or unclear. If the plastic is of a clear material and the
engraved face is plainly seen looking through the wall thickness,
the results can be acceptable.
Engraved portions of a mold are cut to read as they appear or
are engraved as mirror images of written text (see Figure 6-5).

125

Ch06.pmd 125 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 6-4. Radius, “V,” and “W” package hinges.

126

Ch06.pmd 126 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

Figure 6-5. Engraving can read right or as a mirror image.

The engraving can be read in the cavity directly, but will appear
as a mirror image when viewed from the mold side of a thermo-
formed part. Engraving is legible when viewed through a clear
wall thickness face; the opposite is true of mirror image engrav-
ing. Raised, engraved-cavity lettering forms female inscriptions
in the plastic facing the mold surface; sunken engraving appears
raised on the plastic face.
Engraving details should be carefully discussed and final agree-
ment should be spelled out in written form. It is customary for
the buyer to supply the mold designer with copy, logos, typeface,
and graphic designs. Spelling and punctuation of the copy should
be checked before delivery.

Number of Cavities per Shot

The mold customer specifies the type of thermoforming ma-

chine to be used for production and the number of cavities per
shot expected. Machinery manufacturers or the customer can pro-
vide mold-mounting dimensions, maximum mold size, and other
data required to fit the mold to the machine. Arrangement of cavi-
ties in the shot is part of the layout procedure, which is discussed
later.
It is important to make every attempt to satisfy buyer expecta-
tions regarding the number of cavities required, since this quan-
tity is the basis of the mold buyer’s quote to the end user. Many
mold buyers push the limits of credibility about the number of
cavities to be placed in a given mold area. However, if the designer
prepares a study layout indicating practical cavity placement, the
buyer should carefully consider this information before proceed-
ing with mold design to avoid future thermoforming problems.

127

Ch06.pmd 127 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Height of Product

Clearance between the thermoformed cavity and the maximum

opening cited by equipment specifications could cause a problem
to which a joint solution should be reached with the customer.
Machinery manufacturers specify the maximum open and shut
heights of their presses. Shut height is equal to adding together
the upper- and lower-mold assembly height dimensions. When the
press is open, the space to the sheet line equals the maximum
clearance for the formed web to pass. If a maximum-height shot
of formed parts is rigid enough not to sag along the sheet line, the
maximum press-clearance dimension can be relied upon.
An incoming sheet heated to thermoforming temperature ex-
pands in width and sags down. The degree of sag is based on the
type of resin specified and the width of sheet. If the hot sheet sags
and touches a male mold or the plug assists mounted on the lower
platen, this contact may become an obstacle to proper thermo-
forming. The heated sheet can become chilled by contact with the
tool and unsightly drag marks may show up on finished parts.
This condition of the hot web touching mold components located
on the extended lower-platen mold occurs with in-line thermo-
forming and die-cutting machines because the top trim platen
usually has a longer stroke than the lower platen. Therefore, parts
are thermoformed while projecting upwards to clear the upper-
platen tooling. Once the decision to form parts upwards is made,
the plugs or male molds must be mounted on the lower platen.
Some thermoforming machines contain auxiliary sag bands—
narrow, thin, endless steel bands similar to a bandsaw that move
with the hot web through the process and then cool as they re-
turn to the oven (see Figure 6-6). Sag bands reduce web drooping
by narrowing the unsupported length of the web. Clearance for
band passage through the mold area should be provided in the
mold layout. Machinery not equipped with sag bands may reduce
sag by shortening the web width or by using a resin that has greater
hot strength or modulus and, therefore, less deflection.

128

Ch06.pmd 128 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

Figure 6-6. Heated sheet sagging onto lower tooling can be reduced by
using a sag band.

Mold Cavity Materials

Unlike injection, rotational, blow, or foam-bead molds, all of

which require two mold halves, thermoforming—with the excep-
tion of twin sheet and foam sheet—needs only one mold half; the
sheet thickness face becomes the back surface. Injection molds
are made of heat-treated steel. They may require complex heavy
machining and many added costly mechanical components to func-
tion properly. Simple thermoforming molds can be made of alumi-
num-filled epoxies, or from stock or cast aluminum. These are
relatively easy to machine and can be fabricated quickly and inex-
pensively. Economic factors helped promote initial interest in
thermoforming. Unfortunately, labeling it a “poor man’s injec-
tion molding process” proved to be a burden for the thermoforming
industry as it matured.
The first multi-cavity thermoforming molds were fabricated of
castings of liquid epoxy resins or aluminum because these tech-
niques were in common use in the 1950s before computer-directed
machine tools were available. Both casting techniques require a
usable model or carved wooden pattern as a starting point for the
procedure. The wooden pattern maker’s tradition of adapting to

129

Ch06.pmd 129 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

new ideas provided excellent guidance for early thermoforming

mold builders.

Aluminum-filled Epoxy Cavities

Aluminum-filled epoxy cavities are often selected for in-house

mold making because they are easy to fabricate or can be bought
from a vendor and then mounted to a mold base. Aluminum-filled
epoxy is composed of two liquid components of plastic that are
mixed just before a mold is poured. The mold is then air cured
until it becomes rigid in 12–24 hours. Many epoxy formulas re-
quire an additional oven cure to assure the molds become suffi-
ciently resistant to high thermoforming heat. Fully cured epoxy
cavities machine easily, maintain a suitable surface finish, and
have little shrinkage. However, aluminum-filled epoxy possesses
poor heat transfer characteristics when compared to solid alumi-
num, so that its maximum cyclical thermoforming speed varies
between two and five shots per minute, depending on mold thick-
ness. This slow speed was not an impediment to early model
thermoforming machines because they were not capable of oper-
ating at higher rates of production.

Model or Pattern for Casting

Before a cast mold can be fabricated, a model or pattern must

be suitably prepared by a pattern maker. The finished pattern for
an epoxy casting is enlarged to compensate only for plastic sheet
shrinkage. Aluminum castings have shrinkage of 0.013 in./in.
(0.013 mm/mm). The specified plastic shrinkage must be added.
For example, total shrinkage for high-impact polystyrene (HIPS)
on an aluminum casting would be:
0.013 in./in. (0.013 mm/mm) aluminum + 0.005 in./in.
(0.005 mm/mm) plastic = 0.018 in./in. (0.018 mm/mm)
The model or pattern should reflect this increase in size. A pat-
tern maker adds suitable radii, draft angles, and fillets to com-
plete the pattern.

130

Ch06.pmd 130 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

A multi-cavity mold using aluminum-filled epoxy castings can

be manufactured using only one single prepared model or pat-
tern. This is done by thermoforming many thin plastic shots us-
ing the pattern as a mold. These throwaway, formed shots are
used as individual patterns for the final multi-cavity mold. If this
technique is employed, it is best to specify double sheet shrinkage
to calculate pattern dimensions because plastic shots used as a
pattern shrink in addition to the finished thermoformed product.
It is important that the model or pattern have a smooth finish
without any undercut faces, which cause problems in stripping
finished throwaway shots. Wooden patterns intended for direct
thermofoming of shots to be used for an epoxy casting do not re-
ceive paint or varnish coatings because such coatings soften and
adhere to throwaway thermoformed shots. Aluminum casting pat-
terns are finished and coated in the traditional manner to pre-
vent moisture being absorbed from foundry sand. The best wooden
patterns display minimum wood grain and are made of poplar,
maple, fabricated plastic, or aluminum stock.
Epoxy tends to cement itself to whatever it touches, so release
agents are applied liberally to throwaway plastic shots to facili-
tate removal of finished epoxy cavities. When the two components
of epoxy are mixed, exothermic heat is generated which, if the
temperature is allowed to become too high, distorts thermoformed
throwaway shots and deforms the finished epoxy molds. A low
exotherm specification is ideal when choosing an epoxy formula-
tion, unless other means of extracting heat can be employed. When
fastening epoxy cavities to a mold plate, it is prudent to use a
commercial, threaded-metal insert to accept the screw because
epoxy threads strip easily.
Producing epoxy castings requires an in-house group that is ex-
perienced in handling epoxy and patterns. Epoxy cavities are used
for quick delivery and low-cost tooling. The thermoforming rates
of production with epoxy castings are less than one-quarter of that
for similar metal molds due to their lower heat conductivity.

Aluminum-cast Cavities

Aluminum-cast castings are best poured in fine sand at found-

ries that specialize in thermoform castings. The pattern supplied

131

Ch06.pmd 131 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

to the foundry should be mounted on a match plate of the size

specified by the foundry. Today, not many foundries handle un-
mounted patterns as they strive for mechanization to simplify their
jobs. Fine sand is recommended for mold cavities to avoid poros-
ity, which may appear as surface blemishes in finished aluminum
castings. Many molds are cross-drilled for water cooling and cast-
ing porosity; this may cause water leakage during use and disrupt
the thermoforming process.
The specialized mold foundry tends to provide castings with
relatively clean surfaces, thereby reducing mold-finishing labor.
The cost of hand finishing the surface of a mold can easily be
greater than the price of the castings, so high-quality castings are
a worthwhile investment. There are casting techniques that use
plaster or lost-wax-process investment materials other than sand
to produce excellent surface finishes, but these castings often are
porous just below the subsurface. Trapped gases retained in cast
metal cause this porosity. Other casting mediums less permeable
than sand tend to reduce the escape of gases. When these types of
cast cavities are polished, porous blemishes may be exposed and
ruin the cavity.
To produce aluminum castings requires a high-quality mold
foundry and a pattern maker who is familiar with molds. An in-
house tool group or an outside vendor can assemble finished cavi-
ties into a completed tool.

Machined Cavities

Machined mold cavities provide the most accurate method of

reproducing multi-cavity molds directly. High labor input made
early aluminum cavities expensive because they were fabricated
by manual tools and required complex machining setups. Modern
computer-assisted machine tools allow an original computer de-
sign program to be modified for tool shop use in directly manufac-
turing a cavity. Once the machining program for the cavity is
available, one prototype or 100 production cavities can be pro-
duced with great accuracy and at minimum cost.
A summary of the advantages and disadvantages of various mold
cavities used for thermoforming is given in Table 6-1. Cavities are

132

Ch06.pmd 132 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

Table 6-1. Comparison of thermoforming cavity materials

Epoxy Aluminum Machined
Cavity Type Casting Casting Aluminum
Accuracy Acceptable Acceptable Highest
Heat transferability Lowest Medium Highest
Overall cost Lowest Medium Highest
Delivery time Fastest Medium Slowest
Availability of vendors Lowest Medium Highest
Cost of surface finishing Lowest Highest Medium

the heart of the mold, but the completed tool requires many other
components, such as a water-cooled mold base, pressure box, mold
assists, or plugs. The question of how deeply a thermoforming
mold buyer wishes to be involved in mold manufacture requires
an analysis of his or her overall business plan. In-house mold shops
can be an asset for every thermoforming operation.
Machined cavities require expensive computer-assisted machine
tools, programmers, tool designers, and toolmakers to build com-
plete tools in-house. Outside mold makers often cooperate with
an in-house tool group to supply portions of a mold as a joint project
as long as they have a fair opportunity to bid on other molds.

Mold Shops

A Grade 1 in-house mold shop complements a thermoforming

operation where all molds are purchased from outside vendors. It
requires a minimal tool facility. This shop should be capable of
repairing minor mold problems, modifying plugs and mold assists,
and completely assembling and disassembling molds. The shop
equipment would include simple hand tools and some common
machine shop equipment operated by a skilled mechanic or ma-
chinist.
A Grade 2 in-house mold shop mounts purchased cavities to a
mold plate. It should be able to produce epoxy molds, auxiliary

133

Ch06.pmd 133 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

plugs, and assists. This operation needs a knowledgeable shop

supervisor, machinists, and manual machine tools.
A Grade 3 in-house mold shop builds complete molds. It re-
quires mold designers, tooling programmers, and toolmakers, plus
a complete computer-assisted machine shop. The financial invest-
ment is similar to that required to open a commercial mold shop.
An experienced manager is key to its success.

Mold Cavity Design Criteria

The thermoformed components, manufacturing, and material

choices allow engineering to proceed with selection of optimum cri-
teria for mold cavity design. Roll-fed thermoforming uses two
thermoforming methods requiring either male or female mold cavi-
ties—except when forming twin or foam sheets, which require two-
piece matched molds. Sheet-fed molds, which produce heavy-gage
products and have a cycle timed in minutes rather than seconds,
may incorporate techniques not used for roll-fed thermoforming.
The thermoformed product specifications influence the choice
between the less expensive male cavity and the more costly fe-
male cavity.

Male Mold Cavities

The cost of machining, venting, finishing, engraving and mount-

ing a multi-cavity male mold is approximately 50% less than that
for a comparable female mold. The male cavity is completely open
on all its faces for any manufacturing operations that may be re-
quired. This remains true for both cast and machined molds (see
Figure 6-7). Completed male cavities can be fastened to a mold
plate or to a water-cooled mold base. If less than 2 in. (50.8 mm)
high, they can be efficiently temperature controlled. Female molds
require mold makers to work in a hole, with easy access mainly
from the open face. In addition, the outside mold perimeter must
be machined to size so all cavities nest together when assembled.
Venting a male cavity often does not require drilling many
vacuum holes; it may need only slot venting at its base. A very

134

Ch06.pmd 134 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

Figure 6-7. Male mold cavity indicating the natural distribution of plastic
wall thickness (Mitchell 1998).

important advantage of the male cavity is its ability to be easily

shifted to accommodate any die registration inaccuracy that ap-
pears in production. Female molds require machining of the abut-
ting cavity walls to move them closer together, or enlarging the
complete mold if cavities are to be separated (see Figure 6-8).

Figure 6-8. Female mold cavity indicating the natural distribution of plastic
wall thickness (Mitchell 1998).

135

Ch06.pmd 135 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Female Mold Cavities

Female molds are often used where the thermoformed parts

have a depth to minimum mold opening dimension ratio greater
than one—for example, soft drink cups. When an undercut is part
of the product design, a female mold allows the plastic undercut
portion to shrink away from the cavity—not contract and tighten
its grip as on the male mold—permitting easier part removal.
Layout of female molds permits closer center-to-center mounting
of cavities than on a male configuration, increasing the number of
parts per shot. Engraving and texturing of female cavities pro-
duces sharp, crisp reproduction of the outside face of thermoformed
parts. With a male cavity, the engravings lose some detail due to
mold wall thickness.

Wall Thickness Distribution in Cavities

Natural distribution of a thermoformed sheet provides thicker

walls in portions of thermoformed parts that are 180° opposite on
male and female cavities. A male part is thicker at its top face and
a female cavity is thinnest at its greatest depth unless auxiliary
sheet-distribution devices are employed to uniformly distribute
wall thickness. When hot plastic sheet impinges on the first cav-
ity surfaces it touches, the plastic walls tend to chill and remain
thicker. It will not stretch and slip as readily as non-contacting
material, which is hotter and tends to thin out when stretched.
Male molds without auxiliary assists naturally tend to produce
parts that are thicker at the cavity top and thin out as the sidewalls
approach the flange areas. Wall thickness can be more uniformly
distributed by using assists mounted in the pressure box or to the
platen opposite the mold (see Figure 6-7). These assists contact
the web as the top surface of the male cavity extends to the sheet
line. They redistribute the plastic wall as if it continues to travel
up through the opening created by the assist. Assists discourage
formation of webs, which appear wherever there is excess hot plas-
tic, especially in corners of rectangular male molds.
Female molds naturally form parts with thin bottoms at the
maximum depth of the cavity because thicker top flange areas are

136

Ch06.pmd 136 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

restrained and sidewalls thin out toward the bottom of the parts
(see Figure 6-8). Redistribution of female-cavity wall thickness
requires use of a plug mounted on the platen opposite the female
cavity. Chapter 8 describes plug geometry and the most efficient
working temperature for a plug.

Maintaining Correct Mold Temperature

Heat transferred from the plastic web to the mold must be ex-
tracted from every shot to maintain the mold at prime tempera-
ture for thermoforming. The optimum mold temperature for each
plastic resin varies widely from 60° F (16° C) for commodity plas-
tics, such as high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) and polyvinyl chlo-
ride (PVC), to 300° F (149° C) for polysulfones. Various heat control
systems can satisfy this wide variation in optimum temperature
requirements for molds.

Air Cooling of Molds

Air-cooling of the sheet was first used when low production rates
of one to two cycles per minute were typical of early-model, roll-
fed thermoformers. These early forming machines were equipped
with fans and optional fogging-type water-spray guns, which
worked efficiently at the beginning of the day, but as the mold
gradually heated up, production slowed proportionately.

Water Cooling of Molds

As molds became more sophisticated and were designed with

internal water-cooling passages, city water was circulated through
them. City water in most areas is expensive and its temperature
varies—cool in the winter and warm in the summer. The mold
heat-transfer rate is dependent on the season.
Water temperature controllers for molds maintain a given wa-
ter temperature by heating or cooling fluid pumped to the mold
(see Figure 6-9). The water temperature is raised by electrical

137

Ch06.pmd 137 7/17/02, 9:02 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

heating elements and cooled as it circulates through a heat ex-

changer. The heat exchanger uses low-temperature cooling fluids
controlled by a temperature-modulating valve that monitors the
mold temperature output. This cooling liquid consists of a glycol
and water mixture circulated by refrigerating chillers or flowing
from rooftop evaporative coolers. Water temperature controllers
have a temperature range of approximately 60–250° F (16–121°
C); oil temperature controllers can operate to a maximum of 600° F
(316° C).
If there is a leak in a water temperature control system at a
temperature above 212° F (100° C), the pressurized, heated water

Figure 6-9. Mold water temperature controller. (Courtesy Advantage Engi-

neering, Inc.)

138

Ch06.pmd 138 7/30/02, 8:53 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

flashes into steam that can injure nearby employees. Hot oil leaks
remain liquid, but may cling to the skin and cause serious burns
to anyone unfortunate to be in the vicinity. Therefore, many mold
designers who require temperatures above 250° F (121° C) prefer
to embed electrical heating elements into molds or plugs, with
temperature sensed by thermocouples connected to temperature
controllers.

Electrically Heated Molds

Whenever specifying heating elements for molds, the lowest

voltage available should be used to reduce the danger of acciden-
tal electric shock. The standard voltages commercially in use for
heating elements are 120, 230, and 460 volts, with 120 volt the
least dangerous. A mold may require high wattage to bring it up
to working temperature quickly. A single-phase, 120-volt high-
amperage source may not be available. Therefore, a higher volt-
age may be required. Although any commercial voltage can cause
bodily injuries, the lowest voltage offers a better chance of surviv-
ing accidental shock. Professionals aware of electrical safety pro-
cedures and local codes should design and wire all connections to
tooling.

Refrigerated Cooling Fluid

To increase productivity, direct circulation of refrigerated cool-

ing fluid to a mold is sometimes undertaken, but this may cause
unforeseen ancillary problems. The chiller unit has a set range
from below freezing to approximately 60° F (16° C) with no means
of heating the process fluid. If the chiller unit is set with output
at a low temperature for a specific machine cyclic speed, any change
in pace could upset the mold heat balance. If the thermoforming
mold temperature is set too low and removes heat too quickly
from a polyolefin plastic (and other resins), formed parts may be-
come warped by the next morning. Forming below optimum tem-
perature can alter wall distribution in a mold cavity and can lock
in thermoforming stresses—causing breakage of parts when they

139

Ch06.pmd 139 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

are put to use. A chiller should provide low-temperature water to

a temperature controller (see Figure 6-9).

Water Mineral Deposit Buildup

Process fluid must be kept clean of impurities and any hard

water used should be treated to prevent mineral deposit buildups
on mold cooling passages. These passages should be cleaned peri-
odically by circulating acidic compounds to dissolve deposits; even
thin coating buildups will decrease cooling efficiency. Severe build-
ups can reduce the area of fluid passages and restrict flow into
cavity locations so that formed parts are not properly cooled.

Heat Transfer in Metal Molds

Heat transfer through metal mold components follows natural

laws. All heat input comes from the plastic web, which transfers
heat directly to the cavities after the web is thermoformed. Circu-
lated fluids then extract heat from the mold (see Figure 6-10).

Figure 6-10. Heat transfer through the mold assembly.

140

Ch06.pmd 140 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

Heat input must travel the most direct path from cavity to cool-
ing fluid. This heat path is interrupted every time an interface
boundary must be bridged, such as at the juncture where two plates
fasten together. Heat transfers quite efficiently if two plates be-
ing joined are flat, parallel, and fastened properly so that most of
their surfaces are in intimate contact. Poor heat transmission takes
place when there are air gaps between interfaces, such as when a
0.125 in.-thick (3.18-mm) mold plate is attached to a 2-in. (50.8-
mm) thick temperature-controlled plate. Since thinner plates are
always slightly warped, they can never be in overall contact with
the heavier plate.

Choice of Mold Metal

Aluminum is the metal of choice for thermoforming mold plates

and cavities because it is lightweight, readily available, machines
easily, and has high heat conductivity. The coefficients of thermal
conductivity for various metals are ranked in Table 6-2, with higher
numbers being more efficient.
Aluminum has nearly five times the heat transmission efficiency
of steel, but roughly half that of copper. Silver has twice the con-
ductivity of aluminum. Cost and weight considerations eliminate
copper, silver, and gold, except for special inserts in cavities. Steel
is rust prone, heavy, and a poor heat conductor. Thermoforming
does not tend to cause wear to aluminum molds, as is often the
case with steel used in injection molds.

Table 6-2. Coefficients of thermal conductivity

Heat Conductivity
Metal Coefficient ((k
k)
Steel 25
Aluminum 120
Gold 170
Copper 220
Silver 240

141

Ch06.pmd 141 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

High Mold Temperatures

Several plastic resins require the mold to be preheated above

the 250° F (121° C) range of water-temperature-control units.
These molds can be brought to operating temperature by using
electrical heating elements. As soon as thermoforming commences,
heat transferred from the hot plastic web often maintains the mold
in the optimum temperature range. If the mold temperature falls
below the set temperature for any reason, the electrical tempera-
ture control instrument automatically switches on the heating
elements. When electrically heated molds are used, heat-insulat-
ing materials should be mounted to radiating, heat-conducting
surfaces not in contact with the plastic web. Thermoforming press
platens may require protection from heated molds because hot
molds may cause the platens to expand. This expansion can cause
jamming of a moving platen. Water cooling of the mold-mounting
plate may become necessary.
An estimate of the wattage required to heat the mold cavities
and mold base can be calculated by:

WS∆T
E= (6-1)
3.412t
where:
E = energy required to heat a mold, watts (J)
W = weight of total mold less the pressure box, lb (kg)
S = specific heat of aluminum = 0.24
∆T = temperature change = T1 (maximum mold temperature
° F [° C]) – 68° F (20° C)
t = time in hours required to heat mold from 68° F (20° C)
to optimum operating temperature
3.412 = k, a constant that converts BTU/hr (heat) into elec-
trical energy in watts
for example:
W = mold weight = 200 lb
T1 = maximum mold temperature = 288° F
⌬T = 288° F – 68° F = 220° F
t = 1 hour

142

Ch06.pmd 142 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

WS∆T
E=
3.412t
200 × 0.24 × 220
E= = 3,095 watts
3.412 × 1
Since heating is used only for start up and occasionally afterward,
a 20% safety margin should suffice.
Safety margin = 20% × 3,095 = 619 watts
Calculating heat loss due to conduction through insulation to
the press can be complex; an estimate of 33% heat loss can be
used where the mold is properly insulated.
Heat loss = 33% × 3,095 = 1,021 watts
Total energy required = 3,095 + 619 + 1,021 = 4,735 watts
Note: If the heat-up time were reduced to 0.25 hr (15 min), the
energy required would be:
3,095
= 12,380 watts
0.25
It would be redundant to add a safety margin and a heat loss
factor to the 15-min heat-up requirements because more than 2.5
times as much energy has been provided when compared to the
60-min heat-up time. Aluminum melts at 940° F (504° C). It is not
unknown for an insulated, electrically heated aluminum mold
block to melt if the temperature controller is malfunctioning or
incorrectly set. Care should be used during heating.

Liquid Flow Velocity

Flow velocity through a liquid coolant line is very important

because a laminar flow (slow-moving stream) is far less heat-trans-
fer efficient than a turbulent (swift, wild stream) flow (see Figure
6-11).
The flow parameter used to judge whether flow is laminar or
turbulent is called the Reynolds number. Some elements that com-
prise the Reynolds number (N) are fluid velocity, density, viscos-
ity, and channel area. The numeric value of this ratio determines

143

Ch06.pmd 143 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 6-11. Laminar flow vs. turbulent flow (Bryce 1998).

the type of flow. When N is below 2,000, flow is laminar; between

2,000–4,000, it can be either. Efficient conductivity from mold to
fluid requires a turbulent flow with a minimum Reynolds num-
ber of 4,000 N. A practical flow rate can be obtained by utilizing
data from Table 6-3.

Table 6-3. Flow rates (Mitchell 1998)

Minimum coolant rates for ((N
NR) = 4,000 turbulent flow at 50° F (10° C)
Coolant Line Flow Rate
Inside Diameter
Diameter,, in. (mm) gal/min (L/min)
0.34 (8.6) 0.6 (2.3)
0.44 (11.2) 0.8 (3.0)
0.59 (15.0) 1.0 (3.8)

144

Ch06.pmd 144 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

Distributing Cooling Fluid

Process water on large molds is supplied to a distribution mani-

fold to which supply and return lines are connected (see Figure 6-
12). From the manifold, various zones of the mold receive fluid
through throttle (variable orifice area) control valves, which can
be used to help balance the flow evenly to various mold areas.
The supply inlet and return outlet port-pipe size determine the
maximum number of mold service ports that can be accommo-
dated and still maintain turbulent flow, as determined by:

Pm = S/Mt (6-2)
where:
Pm = maximum number of service ports available for each mold
S = supply inlet pipe inside diameter area, in.2 (mm2)
Mt = total mold service ports × inside diameter area

Figure 6-12. Fluid distribution manifold.

145

Ch06.pmd 145 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

A fluid path through a mold base can be designed as a series or

in parallel and contain a single or multiple loops (see Figure 6-
13). For deep molds, flood cooling is used for outside walls of fe-
male cavities placed down into a hole. Care should be exercised
when flood cooling a mold so that a high Reynolds Number is
maintained for maximum heat removal.
A mold base cooled by means of a series path has the fluid path
in a continuous loop from the supply inlet port until it leaves
through the exit port. Cavities closest to the supply inlet tend to
run cooler than other cavities. If the distribution channels and
ports are made sufficiently large and the fluid-flow rate is high,
the differential in series flow temperature through the mold can
provide fairly uniform cooling.
A parallel flow-path configuration has its multiple cooling chan-
nels connected internally in the mold base to an inlet and outlet
feeder channel. Each cooling channel has a built-in flow restrictor
(see Figure 6-13). The restrictor reduces the area in each cooling
channel so that the sum of all available open flow areas equals the
area of the supply inlet. This device allows fluid flow to be evenly
distributed in each channel and the flow remains turbulent. The
main difficulty with a parallel path is that the restrictor reduces
the flow area radically at its location so that any particles or chemi-
cal buildup may change the uniform heat balance at nearby cav-
ity locations and slow down production. The channels can be

Figure 6-13. Liquid cooling paths for mold temperature control (Mitchell
1998).

146

Ch06.pmd 146 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

opened and flushed during maintenance intervals to return heat

transfer capability to its original efficiency.

Clamping of Heated Web

Clamping the heated web to control uniform distribution of part

walls over the projected area of the mold is necessary on roll-fed
thermoformers. The web, when indexed over the mold, is held
and carried by chains along its edges, but is free across its width
in the rear and front of the mold. If thermoforming is activated
under these conditions, two problems become apparent. As the
mold pushes up into the web, rear cavities drag additional hot
plastic sheeting from the adjoining oven, causing webs to form on
those cavities. The front mold cavities simultaneously pull on pre-
viously formed shot, which may be still quite hot, causing the cavi-
ties to elongate; that is, round parts can become permanently
distorted (elliptical). Front and rear sheet clamps are therefore
built into the mold base to prevent these difficulties by isolating
the hot sheet’s projected mold area (see Figure 6-14). If difficult
thermoforming conditions warrant, a four-sided mold clamp may
be specified. Such conditions include placing a deep cavity close to
the chain edge or processing biaxial-oriented polystyrene (OPS)
sheet that can cause the sheet to pull out of the chains due to the
plastic’s high internal stresses.
Air cylinders that push the clamp forward act as air springs
because they are not valve activated, but are supplied continually
with regulated air pressure to extend and clamp the plastic sheet
as the opposite platen closes on the clamp. Clamps also serve the
dual function of assisting ejection of completed shot from the mold
when platens are opened after forming.
It is beneficial on some molds to isolate each cavity from the
other to prevent one cavity from stealing material from its neigh-
bors—resulting in non-uniform wall thickness from part to part.
This method of processing is called trapped-sheet thermoforming.
This process uses an air-cylinder-loaded plate or an auxiliary press
action to clamp the sheet around each cavity before the plugs con-
tact the web. If the cavities have sufficient separation from each
other and a four-cavity prototype mold is tested and approved, it

147

Ch06.pmd 147 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 6-14. Front and rear clamps. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co., LLC)

may not be necessary to use the trapped-sheet method of forming

to prevent sheet stealing.

Part-ejection Methods
Knockouts and ejection methods are essential for many types
of cavities to remove finished thermoformed products. The sim-
plest method used to eject formed parts from a cavity is to release
low-pressure air (3–10 psi [21–69 kPa]) back through cavity vent
holes or slots while the platens are opening. Front and rear clamps
can act to grip the sheet during this process to help lift the shot as
the air pressure strips each cavity from the mold. This procedure
functions well if there are no severe undercuts and proper draft
angles for the wall are provided. Teflon™ coating the mold cavi-
ties to reduce friction and adhesion may provide just enough re-
lease on difficult cavities to effect part ejection. Teflon provides
slippery surfaces, but it also adds an additional barrier to heat
transfer and can slow production. Baked-on Teflon coating is dif-

148

Ch06.pmd 148 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

ficult to remove from metal if cavity modification later becomes

necessary. It is best first to test air ejection on the bare cavity of a
prototype mold before Teflon coating a production mold.

Mechanical Knockouts

Mechanical knockouts are of two types: an ejector plate or knock-

out pins actuated by a built-in forming press mechanism or driven
by air cylinders controlled by an air valve (see Figure 6-15).
An ejector plate is in continual contact with the heated sheet
and may require liquid cooling. However, knockout pins are rela-
tively small and are cooled by their contact with the mold. Knock-
out pins may leave a visible mark on the completed shot, so pin
locations should be chosen to blend into the product design. Where
mold undercuts are required, the mold may be split at the parting
line, which may run through the undercut location to provide as-
sistance in part ejection (see Figure 6-16).

Thermoforming Foam

Forming plastic foam on sheet-fed thermoforming equipment

requires different mold parameters than those for use with solid-
plastic-sheet materials. Foam sheet has a very low density when

Figure 6-15. Ejector plate.

149

Ch06.pmd 149 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

Ch06.pmd
150
150
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 6-16. Locating the mold parting line at the base of the undercut helps strip the thermoformed part.

7/17/02, 9:03 AM
 Chapter 6: Mold Design

compared to solid sheet, so its ability to remain heated to proper

forming temperature is extremely limited. Processing foam through
a thermoforming machine must be very rapid, averaging 20–30
cycles per minute. These materials have limited surface strength.
Consequently, they tend to split or break when stressed and forced
into deep cavities without generous draft or radii. It is common to
specify 5–15° draft with a minimum of 0.50 in. (12.7 mm) radius
and to limit the depth of draw ratio (depth of draw/minimum top
opening dimension) to less than 0.75.
Foam plastic is formed in molds that have a male half and a
conforming female portion with a specified clearance between the
closed halves (see Figure 6-17). The clearance need not be uni-
form throughout the mold since internal entrapped gas blows up
the foam plastic to fill the clearance space between the male and
female mold segments. The greater the clearance is, the softer
the wall (good for cushioning). Reducing wall clearance increases
density, thus strengthening the area.
Pressure forming is rarely used with foam, but vacuum form-
ing is sometimes used in very small areas where mold detail (en-
graving) is required. Forming foam is a mechanical process of the
male mold segment pushing heated plastic into the female cavity.
The mold should be properly vented to avoid trapping air in cav-
ity pockets, which causes the finished part to be distorted. Not

Figure 6-17. Cross-section of foam mold.

151

Ch06.pmd 151 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

much can be done to improve the physical strength or appearance

of a foam part except to change geometric parameters, which are
draft angle, depth, or radii.
Polystyrene foam is specified for its good heat insulating and
cushioning qualities and for where it offers a low-weight, less-ex-
pensive alternative to solid sheet for throwaway food containers.
Polyolefin foams are more expensive, but are sturdier materials
that find uses in consumer and industrial products.

Contact-heat Thermoforming

Contact-heat thermoforming molds are always female in con-

figuration and the process does not allow use of a plug to assist
the uniform distribution of wall thickness. This process is favored
for use on oriented polystyrene (OPS), but other plastics can be
thermoformed with ease. The mold is mounted to the top moving
press platen and located inside and below the edge of a knife-like
die (see Figure 6-18). The die can be the steel-rule type, but is

Figure 6-18. A mold mounted to a top moving press platen.

152

Ch06.pmd 152 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Chapter 6: Mold Design

preferably a forged or machined tool-steel die, which provides in-

creased knife life. When the formed plastic component calls for a
minimum flange, the wall of the die near its knife-edge can serve
as part of the mold sidewall. Since this forming process requires
that the finished plastic part be cut in place and held to the web
by weak, partially cut bridging nicks, mold undercuts may cause
these tabs to break during ejection. The formed part can be cleanly
stripped from the cavities as the mold is opened if the finished
plastic components have a sufficiently wide flange to place a se-
ries of spring-loaded devices near the undercut.

Mold Temperature Control

Temperature control of contact-heat female molds is most of-

ten provided by directly fastening them to an aluminum base plate
that contains circulating fluid channels. When the mold is deeper
than 2 in. (50.8 mm), heat transfer from the mouth of the mold to
its base may become inefficient and the process can slow and be-
come uneconomical. Liquid flow circulating up from the mold base
through channels in the mold cavity may be necessary to provide
proper mold temperature control of deep molds.

Accuracy of Mold Buildup

It is critical to maintain proper thickness and flatness control

of all dies and plates used to fabricate a contact-heat mold. Dies
are designed to cut part way through the sheet thickness when
they are closed on the plastic to initiate the process. This initial
contact with the sheet allows the die to seal off the mold, thereby
heating entrapped plastic and building pressure in the female mold
cavity. Final trimming takes place when the secondary stroke of
the press extends further to cut through the remaining sheet thick-
ness. If a multi-cavity mold-and-die assembly is not flat and par-
allel, it may cut completely through the sheet at various points
rather than part way. Cutting completely through the sheet dur-
ing heating or forming results in material trapped inside the mold
being improperly heated and not formed. The cutting stroke of
the press acting on an inaccurate die may result in incomplete

153

Ch06.pmd 153 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

trimming of formed parts, which may not allow clean stripping

from the web.
Setup personnel may adjust a contact-heat tool for small accu-
racy errors when it is being fitted into its press. Even small accuracy
discrepancies can cause laborious stoning or shimming, which is
time consuming and costly. Careful inspection before storage of
the tool may avoid delay when the mold is next installed in the
machine.

Conclusion

Before proceeding with design of the mold, it is best to choose

among competing options and form a priority list of factors that
shape mold design. Almost all these factors should be weighed
against one another. Usually, the available time for mold comple-
tion is preset and is always too short. Tool price requires constant
vigilance to choose the most effective design and fabrication tech-
nique. Long-term delivery of purchased materials and mold com-
ponents can be arranged as soon as the need becomes apparent.
Prototype sample parts of the highest quality are essential to pro-
ceed with confidence in design of a production mold. The designer
should not take such ownership in his creation that he closes his
ears and mind to useful suggestions or modifications. A design is
only an idea presented on paper. An eraser or computer mouse
can update the design to avoid expensive rework in the mold shop.
On the other hand, the design should not be judged or changed by
every breeze blowing through the office.

References

Bryce, Douglas. 1998. Plastic Injection Molding…Mold Design and

Construction Fundamentals. Volume III: Fundamentals of Injec-
tion Molding series. Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing En-
gineers.
Mitchell, Philip, ed. 1998. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers
Handbook, Fourth Edition, Volume 8: Plastic Part Manufactur-
ing. Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

154

Ch06.pmd 154 7/17/02, 9:03 AM

 7
Chapter 7: Mold System Components

Mold System Components

The mold-base assembly is essentially the same whether oper-

ating with pressure or vacuum forming, or using male or female
cavities. A pressure box is a required component in pressure form-
ing. When vacuum forming, a vacuum seal-off box is used to seal
the mold. Plugs, assists, and other auxiliary techniques distrib-
ute the wall thickness more uniformly over the body of the thermo-
formed parts using either process. Family-style tooling, which
allows a variety of cavities to be run on a single mold assembly,
and other options, may reduce tooling costs.

Mold Base Assembly Components

The parts for a mold base assembly are the base, cavities, sheet
clamps, and pressure box components.

Mold Bases

Mold bases are temperature-controlled plates to which the cavi-

ties transmit heat they receive from the hot plastic web. The base
contains a port to vent the mold cavities. The port also can intro-
duce a vacuum during the forming process (see Figure 7-1).

155

Ch07.pmd 155 7/17/02, 9:04 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 7-1. Mold base assembly.

156

Ch07.pmd 156 7/17/02, 9:04 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

Cavities

Cavities can be fastened to a mold plate and this completed

assembly can be mounted as a single unit to the mold base. Dif-
ferent cavity assemblies using the same size mold plate can be
installed on a mold base of equal dimensions. Alternatively, cavi-
ties can be fastened directly to the temperature-controlled mold
base for more efficient heat transfer. This style of mold base can
only serve other cavities that have a similar footprint. When pres-
sure forming, the mold is enclosed by a pressure box, which is
mounted on the opposite moving platen and is later filled with com-
pressed air after the tool halves are closed. When vacuum forming,
the earth’s atmospheric pressure acts on the heated sheet as a
vacuum is drawn on the opposite side of the web. A seal-off box
prevents any vacuum leakage. The spacers and mold mounting plate
serve the same function, locating tooling halves at the sheet line
for vacuum forming as well as pressure forming (see Figure 7-1).
Air cylinders or gas springs power sheet clamps (front and rear)
and act with nearly uniform force during thermoforming. The
clamps are fully extended in their normal operating position. When
the platens close, the clamps retract away from the platens re-
acting against them. The clamps extend when the platens open,
helping eject the finished part.

Sheet Clamps

Sheet clamps are attached to the mold base when male cavities
are being thermoformed. During the thermoforming cycle, the
pressure- or vacuum-seal-off box extends first to the sheet line.
As the mold base extends toward the box, the clamps entrap the
sheet to ensure consistent forming conditions.
Female cavity thermoforming calls for the female mold assem-
bly to extend first to the sheet line. Then the pressure- or vacuum-
seal-off box, with its plugs, follows to seal the web. Sheet clamps
function best for female cavities when attached to the pressure
box. They securely grip the sheet before the plugs start to enter
the cavities, prevent distorting any completed, partially heated
parts, and avoid drawing surplus sheet from the oven.

157

Ch07.pmd 157 7/17/02, 9:04 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Pressure Boxes

Pressure boxes are designed to contain internal air pressures

of at least two times the maximum plant airline pressure. The
box should include a safety valve set for approximately 50 psi (345
kPa) and a conforming groove to coincide with front and rear mold-
base sheet clamps. A silicone rubber-sealing gasket runs completely
around the perimeter of the box opening to seal the pressure-form-
ing air within the box (see Figure 7-2).
The silicone rubber seal is contained by friction in a snugly
fitted groove. The seal is occasionally held in place with silicone
rubber cement, but this type of adhesive requires several hours to
cure and can cause excessive production downtime if it needs re-
placement during a run. The cross-section of the seal can be round
(as an O-ring), rectangular with relief grooves in each rectangu-
lar face, or an “A” cord (see Figure 7-3). The cord ends are skived
to prevent air leakage at the end joints (see Figure 7-4).
The height of pressure-box walls varies depending on whether
the matching cavity is male or female (see Figures 7-5 and 7-6).
The pressure-box depth should be equivalent to the male cavity
height plus a 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) minimum clearance under the baffle
plate. The female mold needs only a minimal pressure box clear-
ance of 0.50 in. (12.7 mm) above the sheet to be formed, plus space

Figure 7-2. Pressure box assembly.

158

Ch07.pmd 158 7/17/02, 9:04 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

Figure 7-3. Typical pressure-box seals. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co., LLC)

for any male projections that are above the female cavity. The
pressure-box internal air volume often can be greater than the
combined volume of all the air cylinders used to run a thermo-
forming machine. The depth of the walls should be kept to a mini-
mum. Reducing the volume of an existing pressure box through
use of non-flaking material to fill unused space can reduce the
pressurized air required for each cycle.
The female-mold pressure box consists of a thick plate with a
machined pocket conforming to the mold area and deep enough
to clear mold projections. Male-mold pressure-box walls are made

159

Ch07.pmd 159 7/17/02, 9:04 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 7-4. Seal-joint ends are skived to prevent pressure-box leaks.

Figure 7-5. Clearance from the top of the male cavity to the assist plate.

of metal bars and securely fastened to a metal base plate. The

walls are further secured by dowel or roll pins. Welding is not
recommended because of the danger of incomplete fusion at criti-
cal junctions. All bolted metal joints can be sealed with silicone
rubber cement to prevent air leakage.
A baffle should be provided at the pressure-forming entrance
port to prevent the jet of air from impinging directly on the hot
sheet, which can freeze and mark the plastic in that area. When
the air jet is directed at the baffle, the air stream is split and moves

160

Ch07.pmd 160 7/17/02, 9:04 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

Figure 7-6. Female cavity plug and the pressure box.

harmlessly at right angles from the inlet port. A large baffle plate
can also serve as a platform to mount either assists or plugs
aligned to the cavity centerlines.

Spacers

Spacers are attached to the back of the pressure box to adjust

the varying depth of the pressure box to the relatively inflexible
shut-height of the forming press. The spacers are constructed of
rectangular-shaped bars approximately 1 in. (25.4 mm) thick and
are set 8–12 in. (203.2–304.8 mm) apart for a uniform distribution
of press locking pressure on the pressure box. This construction
allows an open area for air and electrical lines to be installed to
the pressure box.

Mounting Platen

The pressure-box mounting plate is bolted to the top face of

the spacers and contains mounting holes, which attach the whole

161

Ch07.pmd 161 7/17/02, 9:04 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

assembly to the forming-press platens. Many press platens con-

tain keyways located on their X and Y centerlines to line up the
pressure-box assembly to the corresponding mold assembly
mounted on the opposing platen. The pressure-box mounting plate
can be designed with similar keyways to which keys can be per-
manently fastened for rapid and accurate tooling setup.

Clamp Bars

Platen clamp bars are necessary to secure the complete assem-

bly to the press platen on machines with open-grillwork platens,
which are designed to reduce platen weight yet retain structural
stiffness. Other types of press platens are fabricated from solid plates
that have bolt-mounting holes and do not require clamp bars.

Adjustable-length Mold Bases and Pressure Boxes

For a given web width, adjustable-length mold bases and ad-

justable-length pressure boxes can be specified and reused with
different length mold assemblies. Adjustable-length tooling cost
can be distributed among many individual projects.
Adjustable mold bases have a main section of fixed length with
loose segments of 1 in. (25.4 mm) increments, up to a collective
additional buildup length of 7–8 in. (177.8–203.2 mm) (see Figure
7-7). All loose segments can be bolted together to the main section
and are provided with liquid-temperature-control passages. The
adjustable mold base requires cavities to be mounted on a mold
plate; this assembly is then fastened to the adjustable mold base.
The back sheet clamp is permanently mounted to the mold base
and the front clamp assembly is attached flush to the front end of
the last base segment. Theoretically, any number of loose segments
can be added to an adjustable mold base, but a large number of
segments become impractical to manage in the real world of pro-
duction.
If the customer can accept 15–25% reduced thermal efficiency,
the width of the mold plate can be extended to overhang up to
1 in. (25.4 mm) on each adjustable mold base to provide additional

162

Ch07.pmd 162 7/17/02, 9:04 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

Figure 7-7. Adjustable-length mold base.

versatility for this component. Adjustable, multi-segment mold

bases are never as thermally efficient as a single, monolithic base
and require additional time to set up. The loose segments of ma-
chined aluminum tend to become nicked and damaged during
handling. In addition, the correct length fasteners are often mis-
laid and may delay machine setup.
Adjustable-length pressure boxes are in common use at custom
thermoforming shops that handle a large variety of small-volume
jobs (see Figure 7-8). The loose front side panel of the adjustable-
length box can be positioned in a machined slot from the longest
to the shortest adjustable design length. The three fixed sides are
permanently attached to the top pressure-box plate and the front
panel is bolted into the desired position to complete the box. Care
must be exercised in designing adjustable-length pressure boxes
to provide maximum safety to operators. On the shop floor, tool
assembly safety becomes the responsibility of often-untrained in-
stallers who may not fully understand proper assembly details.

163

Ch07.pmd 163 7/17/02, 9:04 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 7-8. Adjustable-length pressure box. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co., LLC)

Vacuum-forming Seal-off Methods

Pressure boxes are built to withstand high internal pressures

and often are too costly a production tool for low-volume, uncom-
plicated thermoformed parts. In that case, vacuum forming is the
natural alternative, using a simple vacuum seal-off box. Any mold
assembly designed for pressure forming can be used for vacuum
forming. Vacuum forming requires only a tight vacuum seal on
each of the four edges of the mold plate and a means of mounting
thermoforming plugs and assists.
An adjustable vacuum-seal-off box vented to the atmosphere
and built of light aluminum sidewalls is practical for various length
molds (see Figure 7-9). Seal-off boxes are suitable for roll-fed
thermoforming machines where the sheet is held in the front and
back by air clamps. The seal-off box is mounted to the platen op-
posite the mold, which provides a complete perimeter seal to the
mold plate.
Vacuum forming is not well suited to cavities requiring sharp
detail or uniform undercuts. It tends to generate more imperfectly
formed shots due to its low inherent forming pressure and can be
a slower process than pressure forming because part cooling is less
efficient. These deficiencies must be measured against tooling cost
savings when thermoforming small-volume production jobs.

164

Ch07.pmd 164 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

Figure 7-9. Adjustable-length vacuum-forming seal-off box.

Family-style Tooling

A group of thermoformed products having the same exterior

dimensions allows interchangeable individual cavities to share a
common master mold, pressure box, and trim dies for products
with different depths or styling. Cavities having the same outer
configuration may be designed into a family tool protocol, even
though cavity interior layouts may vary from one to another. Vary-
ing food trays are made with the same tooling systems, using in-
terchangeable cavities with a variety of separate compartments.
A family of female cavities may require completely different plug
geometries to achieve a uniform wall thickness for each varying
product in the tool family. Male family cavities may need separate
assists for each individual product. This versatility of mix-and-
match products within one mold requires creative ingenuity to
design plugs and assists that are simple to install on the produc-
tion floor. The family’s trim tooling can use the same perimeter
dies, but may require individual locating pilots for each of the
products.

165

Ch07.pmd 165 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Other types of family tools may be specified when the customer

is willing to accept a less-efficient cavity layout for the ability to
incorporate a group of associated parts of different shapes that may
be required to fill an order. For example, a master mold might in-
clude a set of cavities for producing drinking cups varying in diam-
eter from 2.25–3.50 in. (57.2–88.9 mm). One master mold base and
die could be used to produce cups with six different diameters.
Knowledge of potential quantities of different cup sizes to be pro-
duced is the basis for grouping related cavities to make the best
use of the available mold area. If 60% of the product is in the
2.25–2.63 in. (57.2–66.8 mm) range, then the mold base area is
designed to interchange cavities within this group. The other odd-
sized cavities share the space remaining. The trim dies required
for this family mold mandate that each mold cavity lane, front to
back in the direction of index, be of the same diameter and style
to avoid mixing product types. Economical use of the sheet area
precludes too wide a variation in die diameter of interchangeable
inserts. A difference in area of 2.25–2.63 in. diameter (57.2–66.8
mm) for cups produces 52% additional waste when compared to
building a separate mold for each diameter of cup.
Family-style tooling has other trade-offs. It reduces initial in-
vestment cost; however, it raises the piece price for resultant
thermoformed parts, such as cups, in several ways, including:
• Sheet area is wasted when the smallest cups are run in an
area designed for larger cups.
• The sheet thickness specified to form a family of drinking cups
requires that the largest and smallest cups be thermoformed
from the same web thickness. The resultant smaller-diameter
cups are overweight (more expensive) to accommodate the larg-
est diameter cups in the same web.
• The ratio of sizes required for any given production order
might not be in harmony with the ratio designed into the
tooling. This situation could cause an overrun of one or more
cup sizes to produce the required quantity for one size on
order. Also, spoilage of some thermoformed parts in one lane
of cavities can cause an imbalance in production quantities,
which will cause a further excess of unwanted products. It is
highly unlikely that an odd batch of cups could be sold. There-
fore, they would be reground into recyclable scrap.

166

Ch07.pmd 166 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

• Handling and collating variously sized parts trimmed from a

web can increase labor costs and other expenses at the ma-
chine take-off point. If any process spoilage has occurred,
completed parts may require hand sorting to balance out
quantities for delivery.

Design of Plugs and Assists

A plug or an assist is a mechanical aid for distributing hot plas-

tic before the vacuum- or pressure-forming valves have been acti-
vated. Mechanical forces that stretch the plastic web enhance or
inhibit slippage of plastic as it is displaced. Prominent factors in-
clude the geometry of a mold plug or mold assist, and heat loss
from sheet to plug or assist. Secondary factors may include the
coefficient of friction or the size of the radius in contact areas
between a moving plug or assist and the plastic web. Some formed
parts have both male and female segments, so a combination of a
plug and an assist may be required.

Plug Geometry

The geometry of plugs and assists can be developed using com-

puter software available from a number of sources. Alternatively,
these items can be designed by rule-of-thumb criteria and refined
in prototypes. It is imperative that the plug modification be done
during the sampling phase since a multi-cavity production mold
could require remachining many plugs and/or assists, which could
tie up a production thermoformer indefinitely (see Figures 7-10,
7-11, and 7-12).

Plug Design

When designing a plug, the initial sizing should contain suffi-

cient extra material to allow slowly machining away the shape as
dictated by thermoforming sampling. Preliminary plug length
should extend to within 0.12–0.19 in. (3.0–4.8 mm) clearance of

167

Ch07.pmd 167 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 7-10. Initial plug design parameters.

the bottom of the plastic in the mold. The sides of a plug need not
follow the draft angle of the cavity but can be straight and paral-
lel to each other. A clearance of 0.09–0.12 in. (2.3–3.0 mm) per
side of the formed part at the minimum mold dimension should
provide a good starting point for a plug cross-section.
Determining the plug-tip radius size requires some trial and
error and can be best developed while sampling prototype parts.
If the radius is too small, hot plastic material will not roll easily
off the tip to help build up component sidewalls. Specifying too
large a tip radius can prevent sufficient plastic from flowing to
the area where the cavity base joins the sidewalls. A starting tip
radius of 0.25 in. (6.4 mm), depending on the cavity area, depth of
draw, and geometric shape of the finished part, may be specified,
but a larger radius may become necessary.

Assists

Assists are devices used to uniformly distribute hot sheet along

the sidewalls and flanges of male molds (see Figure 7-11). They
are mounted on the inside of pressure boxes, allowing for 0.06 in.

168

Ch07.pmd 168 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

Figure 7-11. Types of male mold assists.

169

Ch07.pmd 169 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 7-12. Multiple-cavity female mold plug and finished plastic part.

(1.5 mm) clearance above the flange sheet thickness after form-
ing. Sidewall clearance can be 0.03–0.09 in. (0.8–2.3 mm) per side
for a ring assist after allowing for sheet thickness, and 0.125–
0.750 in. (3.18–19.05 mm) clearance for a simple assist.

Heat Loss to Plug

Heat loss from sheet to plug or assist causes plastic to cool at

all points in contact with the moving plug or assist. This cooling
often prevents the plastic flow from producing a uniform wall
thickness. Heat transfer during this process can be minimized
either by raising the temperature of the plug or assist or by speci-
fying an insulated plug or assist material. The surface tempera-
ture of the plug or assist should be brought close to that of the
heated web so that very little heat loss takes place.
Raising the temperature of a metal plug by means of an electrical
heating element requires close monitoring by a sensing thermo-
couple, located close to the tip and controlled by a temperature-

170

Ch07.pmd 170 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

regulating instrument. If the plug temperature rises above that

of the sheet, it will burn through. If it is too cold, the plastic will
chill. Certain types of plastics present a very narrow heat-window
range in which the plug will operate; perhaps a maximum of 7–
10° F (4–6° C) for polypropylene, with a much broader range for
polystyrene, high-density polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride
(PVC). If a plug is overheated, it may become fouled with molten
plastic. Teflon™ coating can reduce cleanup time. Teflon may also
lower the coefficient of friction, allowing the sheet to slide more
easily over a plug.
An electrically heated plug is essential for prototype thermofo-
rming because the process is so inherently slow that even a plug
fabricated of insulating material will not retain sufficient heat to
maintain a stable forming temperature. High-speed thermoform-
ing cycling allows acceptable production to proceed after 10 or so
scrap shots build up sufficient surface heat on an insulated plug.

Insulated Plugs

Insulated plugs have been fabricated of epoxy, wood covered

with felt, or syntactic composite foam, which contains mini-glass-
balloon air cells in a low-conductivity matrix. Syntactic foam is a
fairly expensive raw material, but its use tends to avoid pitfalls
found with other insulating materials. Wood may dry out and split
from the heat; felt can leave residual fibers in food or medical
packaging; and epoxy takes a long time to reach proper operating
temperature. Insulated plugs work well but must be reheated by
running scrap shots every time a production machine is shut down.
Electrically heated metal plugs for use on multi-cavity molds
are very efficient, but add to tooling costs and complications that
must be balanced against the plastic waste incurred when using
insulated plugs.

Assist Materials

Although assists function more efficiently if made of insulated

material, aluminum is generally specified because of its greater

171

Ch07.pmd 171 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

strength and durability. Occasionally, an operator closes the plat-

ens and tooling on a cold plastic sheet. This can damage the light
construction of the assist if it is not fabricated of metal. Normally,
the assist is brought up to operating temperature by its contact
with the hot web and the first few shots are scrapped until the
proper assist temperature is maintained. All assist contact edges
should be radiused and polished to allow plastic to flow freely along
the cavity sides.

Other Thermoforming Systems

There are other processes used to thermoform some products

such as contact heat and foam thermoforming, trapped sheet form-
ing, coining, and creasing. Specialized methods are used to pro-
duce vents in hot food containers, drinking straw openings, and
screw-type lids.

Contact Heat and Foam Thermoforming

Plugs and assists cannot be used in some circumstances. For

instance, foam molds or contact-heat pressure-forming tooling do
not offer any means of utilizing plugs or assists. Generous radii,
sidewall draft, and heavier sheet thickness can control wall thick-
ness in these types of molds.

Trapped Sheet Forming

Trapped-sheet forming of female molds offers the feature of

isolating each cavity by clamping the outer perimeter before the
plug is activated. It is claimed that, when using this technique,
material is not stolen by nearby plugs as they enter the cavities.
European-style, trim-in-place thermoform tooling incorporates the
trapped-sheet technique as part of the process. Many U.S.-built
thermoforming machines may require the trapped-sheet feature
to be built into each mold using auxiliary air cylinders to activate
the trapped-sheet plate. The merit of using this process is based

172

Ch07.pmd 172 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

on the quantity of parts to be produced to amortize the added

costs compared to additional sheet weight needed when cavities
require more separation or when sheet thickness is increased to
produce an equivalent product.

Coining

Coining is the mechanical compression of plastic that causes it

to flow under pressure between the mold and a heavy, spring-loaded
coining tool mounted in the pressure box. This process is used for
critical thickness areas, such as flange portions of containers to
be sealed with metal lids, or to emboss decorative detail into por-
tions of a part. Displacing plastic when the sheet is still hot re-
quires far less pressure than when it is at room temperature.
Occasionally, coining is used to maintain a uniform flange required
for radio-frequency heat sealing. The sheet also can be coined by
means of auxiliary cylinders transmitting pressure through a plate
to flange-sizing inserts before plugs touch the sheet. Coining may
require calculating press lockup force to prevent the press from
opening and venting its air pressure. This calculation involves
establishing lockup force minus both the opening force of pres-
sure forming and the force of coining springs or air cylinders.
The maximum allowable coining force during thermoforming
is found by:

FC = (FL – FO) E (7-1)

where:
FC = maximum allowable coining force, lbf (kN)
FL = machine manufacturer’s thermoforming press lockup force
specification, lbf (kN)
2 2
FO = area of pressure box, in. (m ) × forming air pressure, psi
(kPa), = opening force, lbf (kN)
E = estimated percentage available for coining due to friction
and other losses = 80%
Therefore:

FC = (FL– FO) 80%

173

Ch07.pmd 173 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

For example:
FL = 40,000 lbf (178 kN) lockup force
FO = 25 × 20 = 500 in.2 (0.3 m2) × 50 psi (345 kPa)
500 × 50 = 25,000 lbf (111 kN)
FC = (40,000 – 25,000 lbf [178 – 111 kN]) 80% = 12,000 lbf (53
kN)

Creasing (Mechanical Forging)

Creasing plastic by mechanical force in a thermoforming mold

is used to create hinges in polystyrene foam (see Figure 7-13) and
certain polypropylene parts (see Figure 7-14). The foam cross-sec-
tion is thinned and made dense in the hinge area by squeezing its
cross-section so it then becomes ductile and performs its hinge
function without cracking. Direct thermoforming of polypropy-
lene produces a standard hinge acceptable for most packaging
functions. Mechanically forging the hinge creates a long-lasting
product in which the hinges lay flat when opened.

Venting

Fabricating vent holes for hot food containers can be as simple

as fixing a sharp needle into the mold to pierce the plastic as it is

Figure 7-13. Polystyrene foam crease for hinge.

174

Ch07.pmd 174 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

Figure 7-14. Forging a living hinge in polypropylene.

thermoformed. More elaborate vent designs may require shearing

an opening using inserts built into each half of the mold. Either
method ensures no plastic material breaks into loose fragments,
which can accumulate on the mold and contaminate an incoming
plastic sheet.

Drinking Straws

Drinking straw openings and tear tabs for sipping beverages

out of lidded cups are partially cut through the plastic. These par-
tially trimmed apertures are produced while thermoforming by a
knife-like die striking a hardened anvil in the opposite half of the
mold. It is important to control the force of the punch striking the
anvil to prevent rapid dulling of the knife and to assure the depth
of trim is sufficient to open the aperture easily.
It may not be practical to make-ready (shim) each anvil in a
multi-cavity mold, so each anvil may be loaded either with Belle-
ville spring washers or a nitrogen gas spring to provide suitable
resistive force.

175

Ch07.pmd 175 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Screw-type Lids

Bottle-cap unthreading of screw-type enclosures can be built

into multi-cavity thermoforming molds. The cavity is set in a bush-
ing and a gear is fixed to each cavity. All the cavities in a row
engage a rack driven by a cylinder or electrical stepping motor,
which rotates the mold a fixed number of degrees. The driver is
synchronized with the forming cycle so the cavity unscrews be-
fore the shot is ejected from the mold.

Quick-change Tooling

Quick-change tooling-accessory devices speed tooling setup (see

Figure 7-15). A thermoforming-press platen plate is machined to
contain prelocated bushings. These bushings can be unlocked or
latched to receive the self-aligning, locking knobs located on the
pressure box and mold base. This system allows for tool prepara-
tion to be completed in an area away from the thermoforming ma-
chine, affording the machine more productive running time. The
system predetermines accurate alignment of both halves of the tool,
shortening setup time. Water-cooling, forming pressure, and vacuum
supply hoses are quickly and easily attached to the mold if large-
size, quick-disconnect fittings are used. Oversize quick-disconnect
fittings are recommended because they do not reduce air or liquid
flow. These measures can reduce mold changeover time from half
a day to less than one hour in some cases.

Estimating Initial Sheet Thickness for a Mold

The specified minimum wall thickness of the finished part af-

fects the starting thickness of the sheet and its cost—a major ele-
ment in the price of the part. One approach to estimating the
starting sheet thickness is:

tt × Ac
t= (7-2)
Ap

176

Ch07.pmd 176 7/17/02, 9:05 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

Figure 7-15. Quick-change tooling accessories. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co.,
LLC)

where:
t = estimated sheet thickness required for thermoforming, in.
(mm)
tt = theoretical desired thermoformed wall thickness, in. (mm)
Ac = all of the cavity sidewalls’ area + base area, in.2 (m2)
2 2
Ap = heated projected sheet area available to cavity, in. (m )
Estimate a given sheet thickness from the specified minimum
wall thickness as if it were possible to thermoform a uniform wall
thickness.
Wall thickness could be calculated assuming an even distribu-
tion covering the walls and base of a mold and by its projected
sheet area above the cavity. For example, what is the starting sheet

177

Ch07.pmd 177 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

thickness of a rectangular cavity, which is 2 in. wide × 2 in. long

(50.8 × 50.8 mm) and 1.5 in. (38.1 mm) deep, excluding radius
and draft angles, and with a theoretical thermoformed wall thick-
ness of 0.007 in. (0.18 mm)?
Ap = 3 × 3 in. (76.2 × 76.2 mm) center-to-center between
cavities = 9 in.2 (0.006 m2)

Ac = (2 × 1.5)(4 sides) + (2 × 2)(bottom) = 16 in.2 (0.01 m2)

0.007 × 16
t= = 0.012 in. (0.31 mm) sheet thickness
9
This calculation can be helpful in estimating the maximum and
minimum expected wall thickness of the part. The maximum wall
thickness appears on the flange of a female mold or at the top
portion of the male cavity and is approximately starting-sheet
thickness. The minimum thickness, depending on the efficiency
of the plug or assist, may be 25–40% of the theoretical wall thick-
ness. When calculated for the above example, the minimum wall
thickness is 0.003–0.005 in. (0.08–0.13 mm). These differences in
minimum wall thickness can be narrowed by designing efficient
plugs or assists. For the male mold, increasing the mold center-
to-center distance reduces starting sheet thickness (t) by increas-
ing the heated projected area (Ap). Female molds generally utilize
only the plastic sheet, which is directly above the cavity opening.
Increasing or decreasing the center-to-center distance may have
little effect on the wall thickness within a female mold.

Conclusion

Mold design innovation is driven by industry demands for more

complex product structures and the need to simplify the steps
needed to produce the final product. When the designer visual-
izes a new tooling concept and puts the thought on paper (or CAD
program), the resulting idea should be tested physically on a pro-
totype mold. When the sample mold is demonstrated, the designer
should carefully study every detail of the trial and not act on sec-

178

Ch07.pmd 178 7/30/02, 10:48 AM

 Chapter 7: Mold System Components

ondhand descriptions. There is much to be learned from the fail-

ure as well as the success of new procedures, and modification of
an initial concept is more the rule than the exception.

179

Ch07.pmd 179 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

Ch07.pmd 180 7/17/02, 9:06 AM
 8
Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Mold Layout and

Mold Base Design

This chapter will discuss mold layout/design, part shrinkage,

pattern shrink allowance, male and female mold layout, venting
of cavities, mold buildup layout, mold base design, and contact
heat mold layout. Mold design can begin after the information
discussed in Chapters 6 and 7 has been provided to the designer.

Thermoformed-part Shrinkage

Many factors influence the sizing of a mold to correct for

thermoformed-part shrinkage. These conditions, which the mold
maker does not control, occur during thermoforming. They in-
clude the mold shrinkage coefficients, the type of resin used, main-
taining a stable mold temperature, and any differential shrinkage
in the direction of extrusion versus the width of the web.

Mold Shrinkage Coefficients

Most roll-fed thermoforming machines are operated at high

speed so that formed parts do not cool completely during their
residence time in the mold. Some plastic resins may require 24
hours to shrink to a stable size.
Molds that do not maintain a stable temperature can change
the thermal shrinkage rate by a factor of up to 20% when certain
resins are thermoformed.

181

Ch08.pmd 181 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Sheet orientation during the extrusion process often produces

a sheet with greater shrinkage in the direction of extrusion than
across the web width due to roll windup tension. The shrinkage
coefficients listed in Table 8-1 are a median figure, which can be
used as a starting point for most molds. Very accurate sizing of a
mold may require prototyping parts on a sample-making thermo-
former using the same extruded stock as the production run.

Table 8-1. Plastic shrinkage coefficient

Mold LLength
ength
Shrinkage Coefficient ((S
S)*
Plastic Resins Unfilled in./in. (mm/mm)
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 0.004–0.005
High-impact styrene 0.005–0.006
Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) 0.007
Polypropylene 0.017
High-density polyethylene 0.022 in direction of
extrusion 0.017 across web
* Same coefficient can be used for either inch or metric system

For example: a cavity 10 in. (254 mm) long is to be increased in

length to provide allowance for high-impact styrene shrinkage:

CL = PL + (PL × S) (8-1)
where:
CL = cavity length, in. (mm)
PL = part length, in. (mm)
S = shrinkage coefficient (from Table 8-1)
CL = 10 in. + (10 × 0.006 in.) or 254 mm + (254 mm × 0.006 mm)
CL = 10.06 in. (255.5 mm)

Pattern Shrinkage Allowance for an Aluminum Casting

The casting process requires making an impression of the pat-

tern in sand at the foundry. A professional pattern maker builds

182

Ch08.pmd 182 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

the pattern larger by the amount of combined shrinkage that oc-

curs when molten aluminum solidifies and thermoformed plastic
cools.
When the cavity pattern is fabricated, the part drawing dimen-
sions should include these shrink factors. For example, a high-
impact styrene part pattern to be cast in aluminum has a shrinkage
factor as follows:
Aluminum shrinkage = 0.013 in./in. (0.013 mm/mm)
Styrene shrinkage coefficient = 0.006 (from Table 8-1)
Combined shrinkage = 0.013 + 0.006 = 0.019 in./in. (0.019 mm/
mm)
A 10-in. (254-mm) finished-plastic dimension on the pattern will
require adding the shrinkage factor to the pattern dimension:
10 in. + (10 × 0.019) = 10.19 in. or 254 mm + (254 × 0.019) =
258.8 mm)

Male Mold Layout

After deciding to build a male mold to produce a thermoformed

component on a specific forming machine, the number of cavities
can be computed. The machine model chosen determines the maxi-
mum mold area and allowable part height.
Some of the details that govern the center-to-center distance of
the cavities are analyzed as follows.
Studying the geometry of the male cavity is a required prelimi-
nary for the layout process. Factors to be considered are the draft
angle and maximum height of the cavity, as well as whether it has
a symmetrical footprint.
Calculating the center-to-center cavity dimensions provides
information related to the maximum number of male cavities.
Figure 8-1 shows where the data is obtained and Equation 8-2
shows how to calculate the layout dimensions.

D=A+B

B = [L – 2(F × tan E)]

183

Ch08.pmd 183 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 8-1. Calculating the center-to-center distance between male cavities’

D dimension (Mitchell 1998).

D = A + [L – 2 (F × tan E)] (8-2)

where:
D = center-to-center of cavities (A + B), in. (mm)
A = base dimension of the cavity, in. (mm)
B = separation of cavities measured at the base of cavity, in. (mm)
L = F for small draft angles less than 5°
or
L = F × 0.75 for draft angles greater than 5° (maximum angle
used is 10° for this calculation)
F = cavity height, in. (mm)
E = draft angle of cavity, °

184

Ch08.pmd 184 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

For example:
A = 3 in. (76.2 mm)
E = 5°
F = 2 in. (50.8 mm)
L = 0.75F (when E = 5° or greater) = 0.75 × 2 = 1.5 in. (38 mm)
D = A + [L – 2(F × tan E)]
= 3 + [0.75 (2) –2(2 × 0.088)] = 4.15 in. (105.4 mm) center-
to-center of cavities
Other considerations for center-to-center location of cavities
may include:
• Symmetrical cavities, including round parts, are best placed
in straight in-line rows as shown in Figure 8-2. Although the
most economical sheet layout for round parts is an equilat-
eral triangle arrangement, thermoforming presses and in-
dex devices are not suited for handling this type of layout.
• Polygons should be nested to make the best use of the mold
area (see Figure 8-3).
• Alternating high- and low-profile mold sections helps to dis-
tribute the wall thickness more uniformly among the cavi-
ties (see Figure 8-4).

Figure 8-2. Symmetrical male cavity layout.

185

Ch08.pmd 185 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 8-3. Polygon male cavity layout.

• The specified part flange width required for the finished,

trimmed components may be greater than the calculated value
of B/2 (see Figure 8-1). The flange width specifications would
then control the layout rather than the dimension B/2.

Figure 8-4. Alternating high- and low-profile male cavity sections (Mitchell
1998).

Trim Die Mold Clearance

Trim-die minimum cut-to-cut physical requirements should be

considered at this point in the design layout study.

Steel Rule Die Allowance

Steel-rule-die knife blades are held in a high-quality laminated

wooden die board by friction only and sufficient wood must be in
place for the die to maintain its structural integrity. Die makers

186

Ch08.pmd 186 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

recommend 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) minimum of wood between blades

for straight sections and somewhat less for round configurations.
Some formed components can be located so that a single common
knife serves to separate two adjacent parts. Under these condi-
tions, there is no skeleton scrap web to help transport trimmed
parts out of the machine for packing. Parts with a common cut
are attached by narrow bridges (nicks) of uncut plastic at several
points in such a manner that the connection between the attached
parts is strong enough to transport, yet weak enough to separate
at the packing station.

Forged Die Allowance

Forged high dies are individual knife-like dies with wall thick-
nesses of 0.12–0.25 in. (3.0–6.4 mm), depending on the height and
die shape. The die walls can be modified to reduce their thickness
for closer center-to-center cavity placement because two abutting
die walls tend to support each other. A fairly safe cut-to-cut mini-
mum dimension is 0.32 in. (8.1 mm).

Punch and Die Allowance

Center-to-center minimum-die-wall widths for the punch and

die depend on several factors. Round dies are weakest at their
points of tangency so that small-diameter dies may require less
separation, 0.19 in. (4.8 mm), and larger dies may require 0.50 in.
(12.7 mm). The minimum width of straight-wall rectangular dies
depends on the length of the wall and die thickness. Long, unsup-
ported sidewalls deflect sideways under load more easily than
shorter lengths, thus increasing die clearance and disturbing die-
trimming action. A straight die wall of 6 in. (152.4 mm) length
may require a wall width of 0.50 in. (12.7 mm). Longer die walls
can require widths up to 0.75 in. (19.1 mm) or more to stiffen the
cross-sectional area.
Multi-row punch and dies are used when thermoforming out-
put would overwhelm a single-row die being trimmed at maxi-
mum speed on an off-line trim press. The layout in the index
direction of cavity rows should be an even multiple of the number

187

Ch08.pmd 187 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

of trim rows so the die always trims product from a single shot. If
a multi-row die straddles the last row of one shot and the front
row of the incoming shot, the thermoformer index stroke must be
perfect, or the trim cut will be out of registry. For example, eight
rows in one shot requires four trim strokes trimming two die rows
per press stroke, which is the correct layout. Nine rows in one
shot requires 4-1/2 trim strokes trimming two die rows per press
stroke, straddling two shots, which may cause registry error.

Indexing Pusher Lug Allowance

Indexing pusher lugs are used to advance one-or-more formed

rows into the cutting area of the punch and die by the trim press
indexer (see Chapter 5, Figure 5-9). These lugs are placed away
from the flange trim perimeter to avoid marking the finished prod-
uct and located so as to decrease the web waste area. Lugs are
often formed on the opposite face of the web from the thermo-
formed part and placed so they do not interfere with the web guide
bars. Once the formed web leaves the thermoformer, it is free of
the thermoformer chain index until it is picked up by the off-line
trim-press indexing system. The formed sheet is guided into proper
cross-web position by a series of guide bars that can be placed in
contact with the sidewalls of the formed parts. Usually two or
more of these guides are necessary to locate and support the web
and space should be allotted for these guides, which are approxi-
mately 0.50 in. (12.7 mm) wide (see Figure 8-5).

Fixed-Mold-Base Requirements

Fixed-mold-base space requirements are the same for narrow

or wide molds. The most economical use of plastic is to design for
maximum mold width and length (see Figure 8-6).

Machine Chain Width and Index Length

The thermoforming machine manufacturer specifies the maxi-

mum inside chain width, which is the starting point for layout of

188

Ch08.pmd 188 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Figure 8-5. Indexing pusher lugs register the web with respect to the die.

the maximum-width mold. The minimum specified width dimen-

sion between chains can be surprisingly large, and a small-width
mold may require an oversize mold base to fill available space.
Uncooled, excess sheet-edge overhanging the mold can cause wrin-
kling of the web and other thermoforming problems if a smaller-
than-recommended, minimum-mold-width base is used.
Thermoforming machine operators often attempt to reduce
sheet sag by setting the chain rails to diverge from back to front
so that the entrance chain-width dimension is smaller than the
exit distance. This divergence can be up to 1 in. (25.4 mm) over-
all, so when designing the maximum-width mold, this factor should
be considered. Minimum side clearance of 0.12 in. (3.0 mm) per
sheet edge is recommended between the index chain and mold
base to avoid rubbing contact.

189

Ch08.pmd 189 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 8-6. Fixed-mold-base space requirements.

To calculate the minimum web width after selecting the mold-

width dimensions:

Ww = mb + Cc (8-3)
where:
Ww = minimum web width, in. (mm)
mb = mold base width, in. (mm)
Cc = chain side clearance and chain grip minimum = 0.875 in.
per side (22.23 mm/side) = 1.75 in. (44.5 mm) total
For example:
mb = 25 in. (635 mm)

190

Ch08.pmd 190 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Cc = 1.75 in. (44.5 mm)

Ww = 25 + 1.75 = 26.75 in. (679.5 mm)
The sheet web may not track true on the chain, so the chain
grip includes a ±0.25-in. (±6.4-mm) web tracking error. If the
chain grip clearance is increased by a large amount, the sheet
edge may become entangled in the chain assembly, causing an in-
dexing stoppage of the thermoformer. Some thermoforming ma-
chines are not capable of properly controlling the tracking of the
web through the machine and may require a broader edge allow-
ance than 1.75 in. (44.5 mm).
The in-line thermoforming machine manufacturer specifies the
web’s maximum index length. This can become a very critical di-
mension. Forming press to trim press separation is often an exact
increment of index length, and some machines do not have leeway
beyond the maximum index length to accommodate this little bit
extra, which is sometimes needed. The web index length can be set
up so that the most economical use of the web would be for the rear
clamp to index to the front clamp position on the mold base.

Pressure Box

The pressure-box seal-off area on the mold often cannot be uti-

lized as part of the thermoforming area because of distortion
caused by pressure-box silicone rubber seals. Inside the seal-off
area is the usable mold area—the space allotted for layout of the
cavities.
The layout of the edge distance of the first cavities inside the
usable mold space is the first step in mold design. A male mold
should maintain a minimum allowance of B/2 + 0.25 in. (6.4 mm)
distance from the cavity edge (see Figure 8-1 for “B” location) to
inside the pressure-box inside wall (see Figure 8-6). A low-profile
(less than 1.00-in. [25.4-mm]) male cavity that requires an assist
needs a minimum of a 0.38 in. (9.7 mm) clearance from the pres-
sure-box inside wall.
Male molds that are 2.50 in. (63.5 mm) or more in height may
require a four-sided sheet clamp to prevent the hot web from be-
ing torn from the chain as the male mold enters the web. A four-
sided clamp requires an additional minimum of 0.32 in. (8.1 mm)

191

Ch08.pmd 191 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

per chain side of space on the mold layout. Its open-box structure
is comparatively weak because its sides are joined at the corners
by very-small-diameter fasteners. An alternative method to avoid
using the four-sided sheet clamp is to increase the cavity-edge
distance sufficiently to provide additional hot-plastic web width,
which acts like a rubber band, reducing the chain-stripping force.
Female cavities that require a plug and do not use the trapped-
sheet method of thermoforming may need a four-sided sheet clamp
attached to the pressure box. A plug can act in a manner similar
to a tall male mold to pull the web free from the chain. If the
female cavity is shallow or does not require a plug, it can be lo-
cated as close as is practical to the mold edge.

Female Mold Layout

A female mold cavity may be mounted on either the upper or

lower moving platens of a thermoforming press, depending on
conditions. Open-and-shut maximum travel of both platens may
not be equal, so that a deep-formed component may clear the mold
assembly on only one side of the sheet face.
It is usually advantageous to mount the female cavity on the
top forming-press platen to satisfy most thermoforming functions.
A hot plastic sheet sags due to the force of gravity and its surface
area increases. The lower platen plugs take advantage of this ef-
fect and distribute available plastic uniformly to the female cavi-
ties (see Figure 8-7). In-line-thermoforming trim presses are often
designed so that the deepest parts clear the upper trim-press
platen, which facilitates locating female cavities on the top form-
ing-press platen and male cavities on the lower platen.
Off-line trim-press dies can favor the finished thermoformed-
part profile that is presented toward either a flat or female cavity
punch for piloting or indexing (see Figures 8-8 and 8-9). The trim-
press assembly can be manually shifted to accommodate this pre-
ferred direction. But this relocation can cause the human part
packer to work between the thermoforming machine and the trim
press. This position may be inconvenient and uncomfortable to
the packer and make it difficult to freely access the flow of mate-
rials. A choice must be made among these competing factors to

192

Ch08.pmd 192 7/30/02, 8:59 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Figure 8-7. Action of a plug entering a female mold distributes excess sheet
sag (Mitchell 1998).

Figure 8-8. When using a flat punch, the packer is clear of the machinery
(Mitchell 1998).

193

Ch08.pmd 193 7/17/02, 9:06 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 8-9. When using a female piloted punch, the packer is positioned
between the machinery. (Courtesy Brown Machine, LLC)

prioritize the platen-mounting location of female cavities on the

thermoformer.

Arrangement

Female multi-cavity molds can be machined directly into a single

aluminum mold block if this is the preferred fabricating choice. It
is the most efficient mold heat-transfer method (see Figure 8-10).

Figure 8-10. Female cavity machined directly into a mold block with integral
cooling.

194

Ch08.pmd 194 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Complex multi-cavity shapes often are more economical to cast or

machine as individual loose cavities. This is also the case with
cavities later interchanged in a family mold.
Loose, individual female cavities with square or rectangular
outer perimeters can be mounted in an open box-like multicavity
mold, the walls of which align with the pressure box and clamps.
A V-groove is machined into the front and rear walls to receive
the sheet clamps. The cavity vent space of 0.015 in. (0.38 mm)
should be maintained around each cavity perimeter to allow en-
trapped air between cavities to be vented (see Figure 8-11). Cool-
ing relatively shallow cavities (2 in. [50.8 mm] or less) can be
accomplished by mounting the box containing the cavities on a
temperature-controlled mold base in the same manner as a male
mold. Deeper (greater than 2 in. [50.8 mm]) molds may require
individual water-cooling circuits to each cavity.
Deep round-perimeter cavities can be placed in holes bored into
solid aluminum cavity mold blocks, sealed with O-rings at the
open ends, and flood cooled by water passages drilled into the block
(see Figure 8-12).

Undercuts

Cavities with undercuts are most often formed in female molds

because the plastic cools and shrinks away from the cavity walls,
assisting the release of product from the undercut mold segment.

Figure 8-11. Individual female cavities mounted in a mold box with a vent
gap around the perimeter.

195

Ch08.pmd 195 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 8-12. Cooling annulus for a deep female mold.

If the undercut section is more than 0.03 in. (0.8 mm) deep and is
continuous around the cavity, it may prove difficult to strip the
part undamaged without mechanical assistance. This determina-
tion should be made during the sampling stage because it is too
complex to improvise a knockout on a completed production mold.
If the undercut can be interrupted for 50% of its length, it may
prove much easier to eject from the mold.
If the undercut is located near the upper portion of a female
cavity, it is best to split the mold so that separation of the top half
(knockout plate) is just below the undercut (see Chapter 6, Fig-
ure 6-16). A knockout plate, activated by air cylinders or a me-
chanical mechanism, should eject the part at the same instant the
platen retracts away from the sheet line. The knockout plate may
require water cooling as it is in direct contact with the hot sheet
for long periods of the forming cycle. Cavity spacing center-to-
center should take into consideration the area needed for water-
cooling passages in the knockout plate.
A knockout pin through the base of the mold may more easily
eject undercuts located near the base of a female cavity (see Chap-
ter 6, Figure 6-15). The larger the head area of the knockout, the
greater is its effective stripping action. The head also can be de-
signed as an integral part of the mold aesthetics. If the head is

196

Ch08.pmd 196 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

relatively small compared to the force needed, it may punch through

the plastic wall or wrinkle or distort the finished component. The
knockout pin is cooled by contact with the main mold body.

Venting of Cavities During Thermoforming

Both pressure and vacuum forming have the same design crite-
ria to provide exits for air trapped between hot plastic and cavity
walls. The greatest volume of air is initially evacuated as the hot
sheet stretches and advances rapidly toward the walls, displacing
the air in the cavity. This initial action requires sufficient cavity
vent area, consisting of small holes or slots and a system of air
channels, to funnel air toward the exhaust valve port. Finally, the
expanded sheet may entrap pockets of air against the cavity wall,
which then can be vented to an exit by escaping through hills and
valleys created by a roughened mold-surface finish.
If the plastic freezes and can no longer easily stretch due to
slow evacuation of entrapped air, the resulting formed part may
not correctly conform to the detailed contours of the cavity. A fe-
male cavity must have sufficient vent area to rapidly exhaust air
from the cavity when a plug mechanically stretches the sheet just
before vacuum or pressure forming commences. If internal cavity
air pressure is not quickly vented, the advancing plug increases
pressure between the hot sheet and cavity wall. Pressure buildup
may burst the sheet, thereby ruining the shot. A method of de-
creasing cavity air pressure as the plug enters the cavity is to intro-
duce a partial vacuum of 5–8 in. Hg (127–203.2 mm Hg) of mercury
(approximately 0.25 atmosphere) to help exhaust excess pressure.
This technique requires a machine operator with considerable ex-
perience and skill. If the vacuum is applied too soon or with exces-
sive strength, the sheet will be thermoformed by the vacuum, losing
the distributive advantage of the plug. The resulting part may be
formed with very thin lower walls and bottom surface.

Venting Methods

Techniques to allow air to escape from the mold include the use
of vent holes, slot vents, or channel vents.

197

Ch08.pmd 197 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Drilling vent holes always leaves telltale marks at their open-

ings on the mold side of the formed plastic, with the smallest drill
size producing the least noticeable blemish. The minimum practi-
cal drill size is a #76 (0.02 in. [0.5 mm] diameter), which in un-
skilled hands can be very difficult to master using a standard drill
press. A typical vent hole of 0.02 in. (0.5 mm) diameter is drilled
three diameters deep (0.06 in. [1.5 mm]) and a mating, but larger,
back-drilled hole completes the vent (see Figure 8-13).

Vent Holes

Vent holes up to 0.06 in. (1.5 mm) diameter can be used on

thicker opaque plastics hidden in among textured mold finishes.
Care must be exercised in selecting a drill diameter for a specific
resin (see Table 8-2). Some resins become so weakened when
heated that they form icicles when pressure formed over larger-
diameter vent holes.

Figure 8-13. Back drill to vent hole. (Courtesy G.N. Plastics Co., Ltd.)

198

Ch08.pmd 198 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Table 8-2. Recommended drill sizes for venting

Suggested Drill Size Plastic Resin
Smallest diameter High-density polyethylene (HDPE)
0.02 in. (0.5 mm) Polypropylene (PP)
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
Clear polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Oriented polystyrene (OPS)
Medium diameter High-impact polystyrene (HIPS)
0.02–0.035 in. Acrylonitrile butadiene-styrene (ABS)
(0.50–0.89 mm)
Largest diameter Styrene and polyethylene foams and
0.035–0.06 in. flocked high-impact polystyrene
(0.89–1.5 mm)
Note: A 0.06-in. (1.5-mm) diameter hole has an area equal to nine 0.02-in.
(0.5-mm) diameter vent holes, which suggests using the maximum drill size
appropriate for the cavity.

When venting engraved portions of the cavity, raised charac-

ters are self-venting; but sunken (embossed) sections may require
a small hole in each letter for crisp reproduction.

Slot Vents

Slot vents are the most effective method of exhausting entrapped

air from both male and female cavities. The male-cavity slot vent
is located at the flange junction to the formed part and is rela-
tively simple to fabricate. Larger-diameter exhaust holes (0.19 in.
[4.8 mm] diameter) are hidden under the base of the cavity, re-
sulting in an almost invisible vent line in the finished part (see
Figure 8-14). The same type of venting technique can be repli-
cated at other points along the male or female cavity wall wher-
ever the mold can be split (see Figure 8-15).
Cavity inserts, or other changes in a flat plane, offer an excel-
lent location for slot venting both male and female molds. These
locations offer a break point to disguise the slot so that it is not
noticeable on the formed component (see Figure 8-16).

199

Ch08.pmd 199 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 8-14. Male cavity base vent slot is exhausted through a large-diam-
eter backup hole (Mitchell 1998).

Figure 8-15. Various methods of venting female cavities.

Channel Vents

Vent holes and slots direct exhaust air to channels cut into the
back face of each cavity and toward a central collection spot (see
Figure 8-17). The backside of the cavity is a conduit for heat to
the mold base or mold plate so that channels and collection spot
face-areas deduct from the available heat-transfer surface. These

200

Ch08.pmd 200 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Figure 8-16. Venting removable inserts in a male cavity plate mounted to a

mold.

Figure 8-17. Vent channels lead to a central collection spot on a male cavity.

air-venting highways are best designed deep and narrow (except

at the cavity perimeter) and take up a minimum of contact area
to maintain maximum heat-transfer surface area.
When cavities are to be mounted on a mold plate, a cavity col-
lection spot face is located over a drilled-through hole that termi-
nates on the back face of the mold plate (see Figure 8-16). These

201

Ch08.pmd 201 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

holes are connected by channels in the back face of the mold plate
to a central collection spot face that empties all the cavities into
the mold-base vacuum port.
Male cavities are fastened directly to a mold base and vented
through the mold base to a vacuum seal-off plate attached to the
back face of the mold base (see Figure 8-18). Direct attachment of
a cavity to a mold base offers the best heat-transfer method for
removing heat from a male cavity less than 2 in. (50.8 mm) high.
Family-mold members with the same footprint can share the mold
base without any further modification.
Female cavities less than 2 in. (50.8 mm) deep can be cooled quite
efficiently and vented easily when mounted directly to a mold base
and enclosed by a perimeter wall. This layout allows re-use of the
mold base for any female cavity that can be fitted within the walls
by temporarily sealing off previous cavity-mounting holes.
Both male and female cavities deeper than 2 in. (50.8 mm) may
require individual internal fluid circulation passages to achieve
economical cycling rates (see Figure 8-19). This type of mold base
is designed with two separate fluid temperature-control circuits:
one to supply individual cavity circuits, the other to conduct heat
from the mold base. O-ring seals around the inlet and outlet fluid
ports prevent leakage when fastened closely with a minimum of
three fasteners.
An arbitrary break point of 2 in. (50.8 mm) of cavity depth or
height can be used to determine whether to cool by means of in-
ternal cooling passages based on some of the following consider-
ations:
• A cavity can be cycled only as rapidly as the plastic can be
cooled to the point where the shot can be ejected without
damage.
• A high-profile part takes longer to transfer heat from the
top face of the cavity to the mold base. Much of the hot-
plastic-sheet thickness is deposited at the top face of the
cavity, causing the greatest heat input to travel the furthest
distance to be cooled. Thicker sheets (heavier weight of hot
plastic to be cooled) and fast cycling may cause the top of the
shot to be overheated unless a secondary cooling system is
supplied close to the upper face of the cavity.

202

Ch08.pmd 202 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Figure 8-18. Male cavities mounted directly to the mold base.

203

Ch08.pmd 203 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 8-19. Male cavity internal fluid circulation passages and mold base
circuit.

• It may be more expensive to provide internal cavity cooling

than it is to slow down the thermoforming cycle.

Cavity Fastener

The mounting bolts, which fasten the cavity to the mold base
or mold plate, should be properly spaced and torqued to prevent
air spaces from occurring between metal faces. Air acts as a heat
insulator and prevents efficient metal-to-metal heat transfer. High-
quality aluminum plates (jig or tooling) of precision thickness and
flatness should be specified, and all cavity back faces should be
machined flat for optimum heat-transfer characteristics. Aluminum
and epoxy cavities, as well as mold bases and plates, are relatively
soft materials, and, when tapped for small diameter fasteners,
the threads can be easily stripped. Steel self-tapping threaded in-
serts are highly recommended for all bolts smaller than 0.375 in.
(9.53 mm) diameter to prevent cross-threading by inexperienced
thermoforming machine operators.

204

Ch08.pmd 204 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Mold Buildup Layout

The machinery manufacturer provides envelope dimensions to

which the mold base and pressure box (or vacuum seal-off box)
are mounted to the press platens.

Forming-press Specifications

Details considered for a forming press include open and closed

press specifications, press toggle lockup, depth of draw specifica-
tions, maximum allowable tool weight and location, and mold clear-
ance from the oven.
Platen fully retracted (press open) minus platen fully extended
(press closed) equals the platen stroke. The dimensions for the
shut height of the press are usually specified with a plus toler-
ance, minus zero, so that the actual shut height may require ad-
justment for proper mold lockup. Many forming presses possess a
mechanism to adjust the upper platen shut height sufficiently to
lock the tooling. Older presses may require shimming the tooling
to close the open gap. Rather than having thermoforming ma-
chine setup personnel hunt for odd bits of shim stock, it expedites
tool installation to provide various thicknesses of sheet metal with
the platen bolt-hole pattern punched out for easy use.

Press Toggle Lockup

Most forming presses produce their lockup force by toggle ac-

tion. Toggles deliver maximum power when both links are nearly
fully extended perpendicular to the platen as per machine specifi-
cations. The toggle loses lockup power rapidly when it is not fully
extended, so maximum tooling height should be kept within press
lockup specification to prevent venting the air in the pressure box.

Depth of Draw

Some machine manufacturers may specify a maximum depth

of draw, which describes the recommended maximum height of

205

Ch08.pmd 205 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

the part to be formed. Depth of draw and platen stroke can be

different, so the lesser of the two numbers can be used for the
maximum allowable part height.

Tool Weight

Mold weight per platen can be estimated as soon as a prelimi-

nary tooling layout is available. It can be checked against the
machine’s specified maximum for each platen to prevent the press
from being overloaded.

Tooling Location

Locating tooling central to the press-platen centerline is im-

portant when pressure forming to avoid unbalanced opening
forces, which could cause air leakage. However, forming presses,
which are of four-post design and have a platen length greater
than the mold length, may not accommodate shorter-length molds
central to the platen. Machine builders claim the four-post design
eliminates the problems of operating smaller pressure boxes off-
center because the presses are capable of handling these heavy
eccentric loads.

Oven Location

The edge of the mold closest to the oven exit requires only 0.12
in (3.0 mm) clearance; the mold base should extend to overhang
the rear edge of the platens. If the molds are located inside the
press platen edge, the sheet area between the oven exit and mold
back wall is cooled by air. When the shot is next indexed into the
mold, that section of the sheet may not be hot enough to
thermoform properly (see Figure 8-20).

Mold-base Design

The mold-base design can begin once the mold layout has been
completed and its overall dimensions are fixed. The major function

206

Ch08.pmd 206 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Figure 8-20. Location of the back of the mold base relative to the oven.

207

Ch08.pmd 207 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

of the base design is for heat transfer from the cavities to fluids
circulating through the mold base. It also serves as the structural
foundation to which ancillary components such as cavities, sheet
clamps, spacers, mold plates, and knockouts are attached.

Thickness

The minimum thickness of a mold base is determined by the

hole diameter required for its fluid passages, plus enough mass to
dissipate the heat load of each shot. Two independent fluid cir-
cuits may be needed when fluid is both directed internally up into
the individual cavities and used for cooling the mold base (see
Figure 8-19). Pneumatic or vacuum actuators may be built into
the mold base or cavities for articulating mold parts and to power
knockouts. A separate, drilled, integral compressed-air circuit can
supply the actuators (see Figure 8-21). Mold-base temperatures
over 250° F (121° C) are required to thermoform polysulfone or
crystalline polyethylene terephthalate (CPET). Since 250° F (121°
C) is the maximum range of a water-temperature controller, elec-
tric heating elements can be installed to further increase tem-
perature. A standard fluid-cooled mold base also can accommodate
heating elements drilled at a different plane level for multiple-

Figure 8-21. Mold base with two separated passages, one for temperature
control and the other to supply air or vacuum to knockout actuators.

208

Ch08.pmd 208 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

purpose temperature service—as long as both systems are not

activated simultaneously.

Hole Spacing and Size

Fluids or compressed air, and heating elements, require long

holes drilled through the mold base length. These through-holes
are most often gun-drilled quickly and accurately into the entry
face using a specialized gun-drilling tool. Alternately, the opera-
tor drills two holes, one from each parallel face, which meet in the
center of the plate. Holes should be placed with a minimum wall
thickness of 0.18 in. (4.6 mm) apart to avoid breaking through
any crossing perpendicular fastener or cavity holes. Fluid passage
holes should be a minimum of 1.375 × drill-diameter distance
from any face of the mold base and 2 × drill-diameter to adjacent
parallel holes. Electrical heating elements inserted into through-
holes are fastened on one end only by a set screw because they
increase in length considerably when hot and should not be con-
strained on both ends to avoid damage.
The diameters of the fluid and compressed air passages are of-
ten specified using standard pipe tap-drill sizes so that entrances
and exits can be sealed with standard pipe plugs, as detailed in
Table 8-3.
When a mold is unable to achieve an economical cycle, it is im-
portant to investigate if the cavity temperature is far above the
fluid-outlet temperature and heat is not properly transferring to
the mold base. The problem may reside in the heat-transfer de-
sign or fabrication of the cavity due to its height or depth.

Table 8-3. Pipe sizes commonly used for mold bases

Pipe Size, in. (mm) Tap Drill Diameter
Diameter,, in. (mm)
1/8 (3.18) 0.339 (8.61 mm)
1/4 (6.35) 0.437 (11.10 mm)
3/8 (9.53) 0.562 (14.28 mm)
1/2 (12.70) 0.719 (18.26 mm)

209

Ch08.pmd 209 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Fluid Distribution

Fluid distribution in the mold base can be either in series or

parallel circuits similar to electrical circuits. Advantages and dis-
advantages of the two systems are discussed in Chapter 6. Many
designers choose the series path for large molds and provide mul-
tiple circuits that emanate from a manifold, supplying sufficient
flow to maintain a turbulent stream through mold-base passages
(see Figure 8-22). A parallel-flow circuit does not require adjust-
ing flow valves at the manifold to achieve an overall temperature
gradient across the face of the mold base. However, parallel flow
may not develop enough velocity to become turbulent throughout
the passages. It may best be suited to moderate thermoforming
cycles and where sufficient fluid flow cannot be supplied to a se-
ries circuit.
The series fluid circuit requires internal plugs to direct flow be-
tween parallel-drilled holes in a straight-line path (see Figure 8-
23). Commercial pressure plugs are available from mold suppliers.
Parallel fluid circuits require that the input flow be equally di-
vided among all system water lines (see Figure 8-24). The method
used to balance flow can be a restrictor assembly in each water-

Figure 8-22. Multiple series fluid circuits emanating from a manifold.

210

Ch08.pmd 210 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Figure 8-23. Series fluid circuit using a pressure plug to deflect flow through
the mold base. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co., LLC)

line with a clearance area that equals the water-inlet area when
multiplied by the number of holes (see Figure 8-25). Equation 8-4
is used to calculate the diameter needed to restrict flow.

A1 = N(A1 – A2) (8-4)

211

Ch08.pmd 211 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

where:
πD12
A1 = water inlet area =
4
N = number of parallel holes
πD22
A2 = restrictor area =
4
so,
πD12 π 2
= ( D1 − D2 ) N
2

4 4

ND12 − D12
D2 = = diameter of restrictor to equalize flow
N
in all parallel holes (N)

For example:
D1 = 0.437 in. (11.1 mm)
N =4

4(0.437)2 − 0.4372 3(0.437)2

D2 = = = 0.378 in. (9.6 mm)
4 4

Female cavities may be flood-cooled by machining an annulus

on the cavity and sealing the ends with O-rings to avoid fluid leak-
age from open mold-base faces (see Figure 8-12). A series of these
cavities can be interconnected by a waterline designed for turbu-
lent flow (see Figure 8-26). The required area of the inlet water-
line is:

Wa = (Pw × L) × 2 (paths) (8-5)

where:
Wa = required area of the inlet waterline to induce efficient
2 2
heat transfer by means of turbulent flow, in. (mm )
Pw = fluid passage width, in. (mm)
L = fluid passage length, in. (mm)
Pw × L = half of projected area of fluid passage, in.2 (mm2)

212

Ch08.pmd 212 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Figure 8-24. Parallel circuit mold base flow. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co., LLC)

Molds for Contact Heat

All contact-heat thermoforming molds are female because con-

duction, rather than a combination of radiation and convection
(ovens), is used to transfer heat to the plastic sheet, as discussed

213

Ch08.pmd 213 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 8-25. Restrictor rod geometry in a parallel flow mold passage.

Figure 8-26. Flood cooling of female molds through an annulus groove around
the cavity.

214

Ch08.pmd 214 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

in Chapter 4. These cavities have a knife-like die encircling their

perimeter that provides a seal for pressure forming and a means
of trimming the part when the forming cycle is completed (see
Figure 8-27). The knife-like die has its sharp edge ground so that
a 0.002–0.004 in. (0.05–0.10 mm) flat is produced to act as a seal
for the pressure-forming air without cutting entirely through the
web. A subsequent press action completes the trim.
A knife edge wall is always incorporated into the product when
a flush cut-edge finish is desired (see Figure 8-28). The term nearly
flush cut is a better description because the knife edges extend
beyond the mold and the resulting flange projection can be felt
with a fingernail.

Part Removal from the Mold

Contact-heat undercut parts can be difficult to remove from

the mold with air ejection alone because formed parts are cut free
from the web at completion of the cycle and held for transport
only by partially cut out carry tabs (nicks). Various methods are
used to partially cut into the web to allow transport of the formed
parts out of the mold. These nicks are located on the sides parallel
to indexing, not in the front or back (see Figure 1-14). The best

Figure 8-27. Cut-in-place contact-heat thermoforming tool (Mitchell 1998).

215

Ch08.pmd 215 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 8-28. Nearly flush cut-edge made by a cut-in-place contact heat tool.
(Courtesy G.N. Plastics Co., Ltd.)

time to locate and install the nicks is when the tool is set up and
being tested in the thermoformer. One method of installing nicks
is to dull the knife in a small circular arc at several locations,
slowly deepening the nick after making test shots. If the nicks are
cut too deep, the formed parts may remain in the cavity when the
web is indexed away from the mold.
Spring-loaded knockout pins, located close to the undercut sec-
tion, can help eject undercut parts. Often the mold flange area is
very narrow and the size of the pins must be quite small, 0.125–
0.187 in. (3.18–4.75 mm) diameter, so that several pins may have
to be grouped together to facilitate smooth ejection. A more elabo-
rate knockout system using a blade supplies more consistent power
for ejection of an undercut (see Figure 8-29).

Layout Requirements

The layout parameters of contact-heat molds are somewhat dif-

ferent from the standard, oven-preheat-style mold.

216

Ch08.pmd 216 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Figure 8-29. Contact-heat mold ejector blade. (Courtesy G.N. Plastics Co.,
Ltd.)

• The contact-heat thermoformer does not use a chain index-

ing system and only requires a grip of 0.63 in. (16.0 mm) of
waste on each web edge to transport shot out of the mold.
• Layout of cavity-to-cavity centers needs only to consider the
thickness of the abutting die walls as the minimum distance.
A single, common knife can be used to seal off two cavities
for suitable straight-wall dies, which will reduce shot width
or length. These common knife-cut parts require nicks to
support the shot while being transported away from the mold.
• Contact-heat pressure forming cannot use plugs to help dis-
tribute hot plastic uniformly throughout the mold. When
using female molds, machine manufacturers recommend a
ratio of 0.65 between the depth of the mold and its minimum
open-top width. This ratio, found by Equation 8-6, avoids
causing thin-wall part bottoms on the formed part.

D = 0.65Wm (8-6)

where:

217

Ch08.pmd 217 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

D = mold depth, in. (mm)

Wm = minimum mold width, in. (mm)
• No allowance need be made for a heavy-wall pressure box,
since a welded, forged die serves each cavity as its own per-
sonal pressure box. It would be prudent to calculate force on
the die sidewalls for long or very deep dies.
• The contact-heated blow plate requires a dedicated baffle of
aluminum or copper plate to direct pressure-forming air only
to each cavity (see Figure 8-30). The cut-plate heated surface
contains small, drilled holes located on 0.50 in. (12.7 mm)
centers. The baffle plate must direct airflow only within this
mold area and efficiently transmit heat from the hot blow-
plate source to the cut-plate face. Holes in minimum num-
bers are drilled through the baffle plate to avoid reducing
the surface conducting heat to the blow plate.
• Mold cavities are fastened to the mold plate or base in the
usual manner for best heat transfer, but the die may be fas-
tened by several methods (see Figure 8-31). Die makers may
tap the narrow wall blade with small-diameter threaded holes

Figure 8-30. Baffle plate installation. (Courtesy G.N. Plastics Co., Ltd.)

218

Ch08.pmd 218 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

on the mold plate (#1 method). If space is sufficient on the

outer perimeter of any two parallel sides of the die, a short
outer strut or tab can be welded on the die during its fabrica-
tion to bolt the die in place (#2 method). When the outer
space is limited, a narrow inner strut or tab can be welded to
secure the die in place (#3 method). The internal welded
member requires that the mold back face provide clearance
for the strut. This reduces heat transfer to the cooling plate
by reducing the mold area in contact with plate. The welded
struts should be ground flush with the back of the die during
manufacture so they are in contact with the mold base.

Conclusion

Cavity layout and mold-base design are interlinked by many

factors. Paramount is maintaining uniform cavity temperature
and efficient heat transfer for fast cycling. The mold purchaser
requires the maximum number of cavities per shot to reduce sheet
waste and minimize thermoforming machine running time. Mold

Figure 8-31. Three methods of fastening a die to a mold plate. (Courtesy

G.N. Plastics Co., Ltd.)

219

Ch08.pmd 219 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

designers have to decide on the best of many conflicting options

to keep tooling cost reasonable, yet be certain that the completed
mold functions without unpleasant surprises. Mold builders work
best when the design is clean and straightforward and their input
is considered and valued.
Figure 8-32 shows specifications that can prove useful to both
the customer and mold designer.

Reference

Mitchell, Philip, ed. 1998. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers

Handbook, Fourth Edition, Volume 8: Plastic Part Manufactur-
ing. Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

220

Ch08.pmd 220 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Chapter 8: Mold Layout and Mold Base Design

Checklist of Mold Details

1. Plastic resin specified _______________ Plastic shrinkage_______________

2. Critical wall thickness ____________________ Location ________________
3. Critical fit area as per prototype testing data ________________________
4. Engraving ________________ Texturing ______________________________
5. Thermoforming machine model and manufacturer ___________________
6. Thermoform equipment specifications:
A) Pressure form ________________ Vacuum form ___________________
B) Maximum mold size: width ______ length______ height _______
C) Roll-fed thermoformer with oven preheat web ____________________
D) Contact-heat thermoforming ____________________________________
E) European mold and trim-in-place system _________________________
7. Trim press model and manufacturer________________________________
Type of die
A) Steel-rule die _______
B) Forged knife-like die _______
C) Punch and die _______
D) Contact-heat tool die ___________
E) European trim-in-place die _______
8. Number of cavities per shot specified by user_______
9. Cavity material:
A) Cast plastic __________
B) Cast aluminum______________
C) Machined aluminum _______
10. Mold finish:
A) Sand or shot blast: rough ______ medium _____ fine ______
B) Polish: fine _______ medium _______ coarse _______
C) TeflonTM coat _______
D) Other ____________________________________
11. Type of mold cavity:
A) male ____ female ____ foam mold ____ contact heat ____
other ____________________
B) Family style to allow interchangeable cavities _______
C) Cavity mounting style:
a) Cavity mounted directly onto a dedicated temperature-controlled
mold base_______
b) Cavity mounted onto a mold plate that will be mounted to an
existing temperature-controlled mold base _______
c) Cavity to be internally drilled for liquid temperature passages and
mounted to a dedicated mold base _______

Figure 8-32. Checklist of mold details.

221

Ch08.pmd 221 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

12. Temperature-controlled mold base specified:

A) New, dedicated to one style of cavity _________
B) New mold base that can be used for many mold plates of same size
__________
C) New, adjustable-length mold base for many mold plates of equal
width and variable length __________
D) Customer will provide an existing mold base for this mold _________
13. Pressure box:
A) New, single-purpose dedicated pressure box ______
B) New pressure box to be used with a variety of other molds that will fit
in the box ______
C) New adjustable-length pressure box to be used with a variety of other
molds of equal width and variable length ______
D) Customer will provide an existing pressure box ______
14. Assists for male molds:
A) Ring assist _____
B) Simple assist _____
15. Plugs for female molds:
A) Electrically heated and temperature controlled ______
B) Hot oil and temperature controlled ______
C) Insulated material to be used for unheated plug:
a) Wood _______
b) Wood covered with felt_______
c) Epoxy_______
d) Syntactic foam _______
16. Air cylinder sheet clamps ________ Gas-activated spring clamp _______
A) Mounted on mold base _______
B) Mounted on pressure box _______
C) Front and rear only _______
D) Four-sided clamp _______
17. Quick-change tooling system manufacturer:__________________
18. Mold undercuts ____________
19. Ejecting completed shots:
A) air blow-off _____
B) air-cylinder activated _____
C) thermoforming press knockout activated _____
D) knockout plates _____
E) knockout pins _____
F) articulating mold section _____
G) other _____________________
20. Special features:__________________________________________

Figure 8-32. (continued)

222

Ch08.pmd 222 7/17/02, 9:07 AM

 9
Chapter 9: Mold Cost Estimating

Mold Cost Estimating

This chapter will discuss mold cost estimating and variables

that affect profit. Forms are included to make the job of mold
estimating easier.

Factors that Make Up Cost

A thermoforming mold supplier often is called upon to quote a

fixed price to a potential customer. If the price is low, the mold
maker will incur a financial loss, and if the quote is too high and
noncompetitive, the order will be lost. The seller must accurately
estimate both direct and indirect costs, plus include a reasonable
profit to arrive at a fair selling price.

Indirect Costs

Indirect costs can be grouped into two categories: variable and

fixed. Variable indirect costs may include the costs of:
• sales,
• advertising,
• trade shows, and
• travel and entertainment.
Fixed indirect costs may include the costs of:
• business office and management personnel,
• plant real estate,

223

Ch09.pmd 223 7/17/02, 9:08 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

• plant utilities,
• company vehicles,
• taxes and social security,
• insurance,
• pension and vacation periods, and
• computers and shop equipment.
Indirect costs can be compiled from the previous year’s state-
ments and updated by an accountant. The burden can be distrib-
uted on an apportioned hourly basis among appropriate personnel
of the company as overhead cost-per-hour. The author does not
attempt to list all indirect costs, but does provide a list of direct-
cost factors to assist the mold-estimating process.

Shop Backlog

The percentage of profit per project fluctuates, depending on

the size of the potential order when compared to the existing
order backlog, the capacity available for design and fabrication,
and the expected tool complexity. Companies that have a small
backlog of work may accept tough projects at low profit margins
because their indirect costs continue to mount day after day. Al-
ternately, a fat project backlog tends to increase the price of diffi-
cult tooling, which may absorb too much time and energy from
skilled personnel.
A small minority of customers are impossible to satisfy either
because they require a political committee to approve every mold
detail, or because an individual buyer by nature is inherently nega-
tive. It is wise to ferret out these troublemaking end users and
avoid them because they never will allow a mold supplier to make
a fair profit.
On-time delivery of molds may demand unexpected excessive shop
overtime work at premium wages to meet commitments made to a
customer. Unforeseen design or fabricating costs have to be borne
by the firm producing the mold. From time to time, finished molds
or cavities must be reworked, and those changes cannot be passed
on to the customer. The costs must be absorbed by the toolmaker. A

224

Ch09.pmd 224 7/17/02, 9:08 AM

 Chapter 9: Mold Cost Estimating

contingency factor based on past experience can cover these losses

and maintain a fair overall profit.

Direct Mold Costs

Direct mold costs consist of the dollar value of purchased mate-

rials, perishable tools, and the direct cost of all labor. Commonly
purchased materials may be ordered in larger quantities than
necessary. The extra material costs less as part of a larger order
and can be kept for future use. The value of material used di-
rectly for the mold can be based on a nondiscounted price and
should include cutoff scrap, which occurs whenever standard stock
sizes are ordered.
The direct cost of labor can be kept simple by using the actual
labor hourly rate and benefits, plus a proportional share of indi-
rect costs. A premium may be charged for items machined on very
expensive machine tools. Estimated labor consists of the number
of estimated hours times the appropriate direct hourly cost for
each task.
The estimated mold cost can be made more accurate if the num-
ber of cost factors is broken down into small fragments and each
is assigned a cost. If a serious estimating error is made on one
fragment, the other items often compensate to balance out pric-
ing. In the final analysis, the mold estimate should be reviewed
and studied to see if the final price makes practical sense when
compared to similar completed molds.

Variables that Affect Profit

When all direct and indirect costs have been tallied in the esti-
mate, a standard profit percentage is added to the total costs. The
standard profit percentage does not exist as a textbook figure, but
should be a monetary goal that is essential to maintaining and
growing a business. Modification of the standard profit may be a
necessary strategic business decision, but it cannot be intelligently

225

Ch09.pmd 225 7/17/02, 9:08 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

made until the true total cost has been tallied and reviewed for
any flaws.

Complexity

The complexity of the project judges whether the mold will move
smoothly through the shop and be delivered on time. If the project
is relatively straightforward and simple, competition may cause
the standard profit percentage to be adjusted downward to be ac-
ceptable to a customer.
A pioneering and complex mold can tie up an engineering de-
partment and mold shop for extended periods of time, disrupting
other profitable work and wrecking delivery schedules. This kind
of project difficulty requires a company with sufficient resources
so that, if the undertaking bogs down, the rest of the organization
can continue to function normally. The financial risk involved
deserves a rich premium since complex molds are speculative in
nature and are undesirable business for most small and mid-sized
companies.
The standard profit percentage can be reduced by 3–7% for
simple molds and increased by up to 20% for complex molds.

Profit Contingency

A profit contingency factor is often necessary since unknown

losses can occur even on the most mundane of molds. Many times
this extra funding is not required for most molds. However, sud-
denly all the accumulated contingency money may be poured into
the next mold. In the experience of some business veterans, at the
end of the fiscal year all the contingency funds manage to be spent
and none show up in the bottom profit line.
As a percentage of the total quote, it may be prudent to add a
minimum of 3–7% to the total mold cost to cover profit contingency.

Back Orders

When the mold shop has a heavy backlog and is unable to de-
liver new orders on time, honesty is the best policy. Long-time

226

Ch09.pmd 226 7/17/02, 9:08 AM

 Chapter 9: Mold Cost Estimating

customers may still insist on a quote and it may be unwise to put

them off. If the shop has a continuing relationship with reliable
subcontractors, portions of the mold may be sent out for fabrica-
tion and internal shop overtime increased. This may create suffi-
cient additional capacity to satisfy the buyer if he is willing to pay
a realistic premium above the additional cost for these efforts.
However, nothing will destroy a business relationship faster than
paying a premium for a late delivery. Thus, careful weighing of
the pros and cons in accepting the order is necessary.

Customer Assistance

A neophyte customer starting up a new thermoforming op-

eration needs a great deal of handholding, which goes far be-
yond selling him molds. This type of purchaser often requires
information about common business practices and thermoform-
ing problems.

Most Often Asked Questions

Labor

Question: Where can I hire experienced supervisors and opera-

tors?
Answer: I can not help you locate currently employed skilled
employees. The labor market is very slim so that all new employ-
ees may have to be trained internally.

Thermoforming Parts Formed Improperly

Question: Are improperly formed parts caused by the mold, ma-

chine, plastic-sheet problems, or lack of thermoforming skills?
Answer: Our mold will form the part properly but we will assist
and advise you to the best of our ability to get production started.
This unpaid consulting work can be the start of a business rela-
tionship lasting many profitable years if the mold supplier is knowl-
edgeable and willing to invest the necessary time to help a novice
who is capable of acting on the basis of counsel.

227

Ch09.pmd 227 7/17/02, 9:08 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Uneconomical Initial Quantity of Plastic Formed Parts

Question: I am new to the industry and my customer’s initial

quantity orders are small. How can I buy a mold made within my
budget?
Answer: I can quote on a smaller number of less sophisticated
cavities than would be normally recommended to lessen tooling
costs. Cost for your labor, machine time, and plastic materials may
tend to exceed estimates but will allow proceeding with your ini-
tial order.
Machinery and plastic suppliers also have a responsibility to
help get a new thermoforming operation up and going. If they are
not technically knowledgeable, they may shift responsibility for
proper functioning away from their equipment. Technical assis-
tance from the mold supplier to the novice at this critical time can
help build self-confidence in the novice and faith in the mold maker.

Mold Estimating Forms

The mold estimating form shown in Figure 9-1 may not con-
tain all the items that pertain to every mold. Users may wish to
add suitable items to fit a particular mold design. A customer can
be very reluctant to approve additional payments for items missed
during the estimating process, so it is important to check the origi-
nal specifications for all details. Breaking an estimate into tiny
bits and putting a cost to every detail increases confidence in the
overall final quote.
The estimating form provides direct costs only. A fair price must
include a profit percentage added to these costs.

228

Ch09.pmd 228 7/17/02, 9:08 AM

Ch09.pmd
ESTIMA
ESTIMATE
TE OF DESIGN AND ENGINEERING DIRECT COST QUOTE NO. __________
QUO
QUOT TATION SHEET
Date: ________ Est. by: __________ Page _________ of ________

Part Description Hours × Hourly Rate = Cost Remarks

DESIGN
DESIGN,, TESTING ART DET
TESTING,, AND PPART AIL DRA
DETAIL WING
DRAWING

229
Preliminary product design, modification, and approval
Prototype mold design (male, female, plugs)
Testing, modifying prototype mold
MOLD ENGINEERING DECISION MAKING

229
Temperature control system, mold base cavities, and stripper plates
Number of cavities and preliminary spacing on mold base
Fixed- or adjustable-length pressure box and mold base
Reviewing customer’s special needs
Knockout and sheet clamp system
Cavity fabrication—casting or machining

7/17/02, 9:08 AM
Method of thermoforming uniform plastic walls (plugs or assists)
Reviewing trim system to confirm compatibility to mold
Chapter 9: Mold Cost Estimating

Figure 9-1. Mold estimating form.

Ch09.pmd
Page _________ of ________

Part Description Hours × Hourly Rate = Cost Remarks

MOLD ENGINEERING DECISION MAKING
Special cavity finishes or engraving
Specifying any special purchased parts required

230
Review all thermoforming machinery manufacturers’ data to
confirm that mold is compatible to the machine
Plug heating methods and materials specified
MOLD LAYOUT
LAYOUT,, DESIGN AIL
DETAIL
DESIGN,, DET

230
Cavity layout on mold base
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Cavity drawing
Mold base layout (fixed or adjustable)
Mold base buildup to sheet line
Detail drawings of individual mold parts
Pressure box layout

7/17/02, 9:08 AM
Pressure box layout to sheet line (fixed or adjustable length)
Plug or assist layout

Figure 9-1. continued.

Ch09.pmd
Page _________ of ________

Part Description Hours × Hourly Rate = Cost Remarks

MOLD LAYOUT
LAYOUT,, DESIGN AIL
DETAIL
DESIGN,, DET
Plug heating design, if required
Pressure box detail

231
Purchased parts installation drawings
Electrical layout
Plumbing layout
Positioning and locating devices for quick mold installation

231
Check and review design and details
CAVITY MA
CAVITY CHINING AND FINISHING*
MACHINING
Interior cavity machining
Exterior cavity machining
Cavity interior finish
Vacuum hole drilling

7/17/02, 9:08 AM
Vacuum distribution grooves
* Cost per cavity × number of cavities + spares

Figure 9-1. continued.

Chapter 9: Mold Cost Estimating
Ch09.pmd
Page _________ of ________

Part Description Hours × Hourly Rate = Cost Remarks

CAVITY MA
CAVITY CHINING AND FINISHING
MACHINING
Internal water passages for cavity cooling (if required)
Mounting holes to mold base

232
Special additional work (for example, engraving)
MOLD BASE MACHINING
MACHINING
General machining interior and exterior of plates
Female mold base cavity machining (if required)
Drilling and tapping of fastener holes

232
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Vent hole drilling and machined vent passages

Cavity mounting holes
Drilling and tapping of water passages and electrical
heating elements
O-ring water inlets for cavity water cooling (if required)
Vacuum vent collection plate (if required)
Press platen to mold base mounting plate

7/17/02, 9:08 AM
Knockout mounting holes

Figure 9-1. continued.

Ch09.pmd
Page _________ of ________

Part Description Hours × Hourly Rate = Cost Remarks

MOLD PLATE AND CA
PLATE VITY ASSEMBL
CAVITY Y MA
ASSEMBLY CHINING (if specified)
MACHINING
Mold plate machined to size
Mold plate cavity mounting holes

233
Mold plate machine vent passages
Perimeter wall for female mold (if required)
Mold plate mounting holes and threaded insert
O-ring water inlets for cavity water cooling (if required)

233
PLUG AND ASSISTS
PLUG
Plug machining and mounting holes
Assist assembly
Note: Plug heating, if needed, can be complex and should be
estimated as a separate project.
SHEET CLAMPS
Four-sided or front and back clamps

7/17/02, 9:08 AM
Cylinder brackets and associated items
Air cylinders or gas springs
Chapter 9: Mold Cost Estimating

Figure 9-1. continued.

Ch09.pmd
Page _________ of ________

Part Description Hours × Hourly Rate = Cost Remarks

SPECIAL MOLD BASE FEATURES
FEATURES
Off-line trim index pusher tabs
Knockout plates and pins

234
Mold articulating systems
Quick-mounting change locks (if required)
Special water distribution manifold
Special measures

234
PRESSURE BOX MA
BOX CHINING
MACHINING
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Fixed-size pressure box back plate

Adjustable-length pressure box back plate
Sidewalls
Air baffle
Plug or assist mounting plate

7/17/02, 9:08 AM
Figure 9-1. continued.
Ch09.pmd
Page _________ of ________

Part Description Hours × Hourly Rate = Cost Remarks

PRESSURE BOX MA
BOX CHINING
MACHINING
Spacer bars (number required)
Platen mounting plate

235
Mounting quick-change locks (if required)
ASSEMBL
ASSEMBLY OOLING
Y OF COMPLETE TTOOLING
Mechanical assembly of machined parts
Plumbing of fluid passages and air and vacuum connections

235
Electrical assembly of heating elements, sensors, and switches
Testing knockouts, articulating components, and clamp frame
Plastic thermoforming test of mold to check process and
finish parts
Part Description No. of Units × Cost/Unit =
=TTotal Cost Remarks
MOLD RAW MA
RAW TERIAL COST
MATERIAL
Cavities:

7/17/02, 9:08 AM
*A) Cast aluminum cavities
Casting pattern (1)
Chapter 9: Mold Cost Estimating

Figure 9-1. continued.

Ch09.pmd
Page _________ of ________

Part Description No. of Units × Cost/Unit =

=TTotal Cost Remarks
MOLD RAW MA
RAW TERIAL COST
MATERIAL
As-cast cavity
Rough casting cleanup

236
OR
*B) Machined aluminum cavity/raw stock
C) Plug raw material
D) Assist raw material

236
* Choose one of items A or B. Allow a scrap minimum of one extra
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

cavity plus an additional spare for every 10-12 cavities required.

MOLD BASE ALUMINUM PLA
ALUMINUM TES
PLATES
Mold base estimate weight ___________
Mold plate estimate weight ___________
Mold spacer, and related items _______
PRESSURE BOX MA
BOX TERIALS
MATERIALS

7/17/02, 9:08 AM
Back plate aluminum
Sidewalls
Figure 9-1. continued.
Ch09.pmd
Page _________ of ________

Part Description No. of Units × Cost/Unit =

=TTotal Cost Remarks
PRESSURE BOX MA
BOX TERIALS
MATERIALS
Pressure box buildup
MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS

237
Fasteners and pins
Knockout materials
Surface finish (plating, black oxide, sandblast)
Valves

237
Plumbing supplies
Electrical supplies and heating elements
Seals
Indexing buttons
Quick-change locks
Specially shaped machine-shop cutters
Perishable cutters

7/17/02, 9:08 AM
Figure 9-1. continued.
Chapter 9: Mold Cost Estimating
Ch09.pmd 238 7/17/02, 9:08 AM
 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

10
10
Knife-like Trim Dies

Knife-like trim dies are readily available at relatively low cost

and with rapid delivery from many different sources. The best die
suppliers are those who have experience dealing with specific prob-
lems common in the thermoforming industry. Other die makers
specialize in serving the graphic arts and box-making industries
and, if they are to be engaged to build thermoforming dies, may
require considerable advice and guidance from the die user.
There are three basic types of knife-like dies: steel rule, forged
(high die), and machined-tool-steel knife edges (see Figure 10-1).
All of these trim blades are sharpened to a keen edge, are of preci-
sion height and parallelism, and conform to the shape to be trimmed.
They vary in maximum practical knife height and trim-life lon-
gevity based on tool-steel composition and the maximum hard-
ness of the cutting edges. Fabrication techniques unique to each
type of die will dictate price, delivery, and quality.

Steel-rule Dies

Steel-rule dies are fabricated from a ribbon of prehardened,

sharpened steel rule. The thickness is measured and specified in
points (a printing term). Thermoforming dies are generally manu-
factured of 3 point (0.042 in. [1.07 mm]) rule. Standard steel rule
must be ductile enough to bend into tight radii, so it is moder-
ately hardened to only 35 Rockwell-C (RC) or a bit higher. Other
types of rule are available with a relatively hard edge (45 RC or
higher) and soft ductile body. This type of rule may be used when

239

Ch10.pmd 239 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 10-1. Three types of knife-like dies. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co., LLC
and Ontario Die Ltd.)

240

Ch10.pmd 240 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

forming a small radii, which otherwise may fracture the metal at

the bend area. Most commercial rule is available in heights of
0.937–3.000 in. (23.80–76.20 mm), with many standard sizes in
between these limits.

Die Blade Types and Uses

The sharpened edge can be ordered with a variety of ground

angle bevels that gradually reduce rule-body thickness to the re-
quired cutting geometry (see Figure 10-2). A single (or side) bevel
is ground on one face and a center bevel is ground on both faces.
The bevel can be blunt (not good for cutting plastics), have a long
acute angle (best for plastics), or be a double-double bevel, which
thins the cutting-edge cross section considerably and reduces re-
quired cutting force. Perforating rule, which has its knife-edge
cut away in a regular pattern, can be used to weaken a package
area that is later torn open by the consumer.
A single-bevel knife can be bent so the cutting edge abuts ei-
ther the interior or exterior of a die cavity. When the cutting edge
is adjacent to the interior, it can be used to trim as close as pos-
sible to a thermoformed wall and the resulting edge is nearly flush.
The plastic trimmed edge can never be flush to the wall because
all single-bevel knife edges have a slight chamfer (0.015 in. [0.38
mm]) on the blade, opposite to the main bevel, for sharpening
purposes. When two formed cavities are very close together, the die
can be designed so the cutting edges of the dies are on the exterior
wall of the die with the blade thickness and bevel area facing the
inside of the cavity. A center-bevel knife is applicable when two

Figure 10-2. Typical steel-rule cutting edges. (Courtesy J.F. Helmold Corp.)

241

Ch10.pmd 241 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

cavities are to be split apart with one blade. Perforating rule can
be substituted for any of these conditions. However, it is prudent
to test a single-cavity die before building a multicavity perforat-
ing die. The number of perforations per inch of rule can be varied
to achieve the correct weakening of the tear zone.

Die Board Selection

Steel rule is pressed into laser- or saw-cut slots in a very high-

grade laminated wood die board, which acts as the base of the die.
Standard die board is fabricated from laminated birch layers, but
premium board is made from a hard maple laminate, which is
very dense and stable. These boards are available in 0.50–1.00 in.
(12.7–25.4 mm) thickness, and their principal purpose is to main-
tain the rule square to the base. Very accurate dies should have a
maximum 0.30 in. (7.6 mm) extension of steel rule above the board.
Sometimes several die boards are bolted together to maintain a
minimum of blade extension. The die board may be cut out inter-
nally to clear the thermoforming part to avoid damage by contact
with the board. Thermoformed parts that are deeper than the
standard rule can be trimmed on dies or built up on die board or
metal pedestals. The pedestals have suitable cutouts to provide
clearance for the height of these parts (see Figure 10-3). The back

Figure 10-3. Steel-rule die built on a metal pedestal to increase its depth to
clear a thermoformed part.

242

Ch10.pmd 242 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

face (opposite to the knife edge) of a steel rule should not rest on
a bare wood or aluminum pedestal. Rather, it should bear the cut-
ting load directly against a stainless steel sheet of 0.06 in. (1.5
mm) thickness to prevent the back of the rule from being driven
down into the softer die buildup.

Layout Techniques

The layout of the die is drawn directly on the die board when
manually jig sawing the slots. For a computer-generated layout,
the slot is laser cut directly into the board. The steel-rule slot
width is sized to provide a tight friction fit for the rule in the
board. If the die becomes damaged or worn, the existing rule can
be removed and the die can be re-ruled at a lower cost than fabri-
cating a new die. The layout tolerance when measured between
any two cavities is in the order of 0.010–0.015 in. (0.25–0.38 mm)
for manual layout and 0.001–0.005 in. (0.03–0.13 mm) for com-
puter layout. Overall accuracy is dependent on the complexity of
the die, the rule-bending ability of the die maker, the blade exten-
sion from the die board, and other factors that can increase these
tolerances.

Bending and Die Finishing

Steel rule is bent to shape manually or by computer-directed

equipment with the intention of producing a die requiring the
minimum number of open seams in the rule. The best die is one
made from one length of rule containing only one open joint. Any
attempt at welding or brazing a joint may change the temper of
the rule and reduce the hardness and sharpness of the knife edge.
A skillful die maker can spot weld a metal strap lap-joint rein-
forcement below the knife edge at the seam, creating a nearly
continuous knife edge without drawing the temper of the rule
(see Figure 10-4). Care must be exercised during spot welding to
keep both sharp edges of the joint in a straight plane or the die
will not cut cleanly at that juncture. Every unreinforced rule joint
tends to open under the force of trimming, exhibiting itself as a

243

Ch10.pmd 243 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 10-4. Spot-welded lap joint at a steel-rule seam.

blemish on the plastic trimmed edge and possibly enlarging the

die outline. The best place to lay out a seam in the die is along a
straight section of die, never at a radius, which tends to spread
open due to internally induced trim forces.

Stripping of Cut Parts

Trimmed parts often require a stripping action to release them

from the die. The simplest and least expensive stripping method
is to cement narrow widths of rubber or plastic sponge along both
sides of the rule at critical spots to facilitate part and shot skel-
eton removal (see Figure 10-5). Spring-action stripping plates or
bars can be useful for difficult cases of part release and also act as
locator pilots for accurate part registration (see Figure 10-6). Care
must be exercised to avoid installing an excess of sponge material
in the die because it requires a great deal of trim-press energy to
compress large areas of sponge, thereby reducing the trimming
force available for cutting.

Buildup for Part Height

When a die requires additional space to clear the depth of a

plastic part, a wooden die-board pedestal can be built up under
the die board as an inexpensive means of providing clearance. A
die board is relatively parallel, but its thickness tolerance is far
less precise than a machined or ground metal face. A wooden

244

Ch10.pmd 244 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

Figure 10-5. Ejecting trimmed parts and the skeleton from a knife-like die
using sponge rubber.

Figure 10-6. Spring-action combination pilot and knockout locate and eject
a trimmed part.

buildup may call for more extensive manual shimming (make-

ready) effort than a machined metal pedestal. The metal pedestal
may require cutouts to provide clearance for the thermoformed
parts. This can require machining or flame cutting, and final fin-
ish-surface grinding. The higher cost of the metal pedestal often
can be recouped by faster die setup time at the trim press.

245

Ch10.pmd 245 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Tolerances

The tolerance of a completed steel-rule die when measured from

cavity to cavity can be at best ±0.015 in. (±0.38 mm) when manu-
factured by hand layout and manual jig sawing. A computerized
layout that directs a laser to burn the board might increase the
maximum overall accuracy to ±0.008 in. (±0.20 mm). This will
depend on the board’s geometry and complexity, and if a mini-
mum amount of rule extends above the die board. The tolerances
cited are not average, but are typical of the best of dies. Often,
commercial dies may have far looser tolerances.

Shrinkage

The plastic shrinkage factor can be estimated as one-half of the

specified cold shrinkage when an in-line thermoformer indexes to
a trim press located next to it on a machine frame (see Chapter 8,
Table 8-1). The difference between trimming a cold shot off-line
and trimming in-line is that the in-line shots are often still hot and
not fully shrunk when indexing into the die-cutting press. Off-line
trimming part shrinkage is more predictable because the time lag
allows most of the plastic heat to dissipate before die cutting.

Trimming Solutions

The discussion of tolerance and shrinkage in this chapter fo-

cuses on a best effort to trim and register multiple parts accu-
rately and uniformly. If for any reason the result from the initial
steel-rule die is not acceptable to a customer, two choices are avail-
able:
• Cavities on a standard, multicavity, steel-rule die cannot be
moved to compensate for shrinkage, but a new die can be fab-
ricated benefiting from the shrinkage lessons learned from the
original die.
• A more expensive die technique using individually mounting
floating steel-rule dies to allow each die cavity to shift and
pilot itself to the formed cavity can be specified.

246

Ch10.pmd 246 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

An ordinary steel-rule die is usually specified when a minimum

quantity of parts is to be trimmed. This type of die is available at
the lowest cost with the most rapid delivery, and its overall qual-
ity and accuracy are within reasonable expectations. The steel-
rule die maker and the customer should know the “rules of the
game.” The user is obligated to pay for both dies if the first die
was built to the estimated shrinkage, but does not register satis-
factorily to the shot. The cost to the customer includes produc-
tion downtime while awaiting delivery of a redesigned die. In-line
thermoforming die shrinkage is not an exact science. The ability
to float or shift individual dies can be an invaluable asset.

Forged Dies

Forged (high) dies are bent from unsharpened, bar-tool steel

pre-forged into an approximate knife-like edge. This type of die
has no open joints since the ends are welded to provide a continu-
ous contour with little chance of changing shape. The unfinished
die is heat-treated to 45–56 RC hardness and ground to the re-
quired height, flatness, and parallelism. The die edge is then hand
sharpened to the desired trim perimeter and specified bevel. Forged
dies can be accurately CNC-machined, providing duplication of
each cavity trim-edge shape. Dies deeper than the available stan-
dard die stock are fabricated by welding hot-rolled mild steel to
the back of the die steel to increase its depth. The two pieces are
bent together to form the die. Various methods, as shown in Chap-
ter 8, Figure 8-32, are available to fasten individual dies to a base
plate to produce a multi-cavity trim die. The die-mounting plate
may be of ground steel or precision aluminum to provide an accu-
rate mounting surface for the dies.

Die Adjustment
Individual forged dies can be moved from their initial design
locations to accommodate the true shrinkage experienced at the
trim press. A provision to later shift the dies can be planned. Loose-
fitting, die-mounting holes or slots are machined into the die-
mounting struts, and roll-pin holes are added to assist in locating

247

Ch10.pmd 247 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

the final permanent die position. Initially, only two of the four
pins are drilled into the mounting plate to provide the calculated
home-position design location. If the dies need to be shifted to
adjust for shrinkage, the other two unused locator roll pins can
then be drilled, and the loosely fitted mounting bolts secured.

Spare Dies

At the time of purchase of forged dies, it is prudent to buy spares

and to ensure that the height and perimeter dimensions allow the
interchange of dies in case of damage. (One common die accident
is striking a loose screwdriver or bolt.) The die maker can refinish
damaged dies, but it usually means shipping all the dies and the
plate back for regrinding and sharpening. When selecting a die
maker, it is important to be certain that the heat-treating facility
provides consistent results and all dies are checked for uniform
hardness. All new dies look keen and sharp. However, unless the
heat treatment is done according to specification, they will dull
quickly.
Manually fabricated forged dies can be supplied to a tolerance
of ±0.015 in. (±0.38 mm). The trim-die perimeter can be machined
to a tighter tolerance at increased cost.

Machined Tool-steel Dies

Machined tool-steel dies are milled from 0.50–1.00-in. (12.7–

25.4-mm) thick, bar-tool steel stock and the knife-like shape is
produced on a vertical milling machine. The rough die blank is heat
treated, ground to height, and the edge is hand-sharpened. De-
pending on the tool steel used, the hardness and toughness char-
acteristics must be sufficient to avoid brittleness, which can cause
breakdown of the cutting edge during service. Individual dies may
be mounted on support blocks to provide depth to clear the thermo-
formed parts. The complete assembly, in turn, is fastened to a
base plate (see Figure 10-7).
The tool-steel die can be machined to the closest tolerance
(±0.001 in. [±0.03 mm]) of all knife-like dies. Machined dies re-

248

Ch10.pmd 248 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

Figure 10-7. Machined and hardened knife-like die backed by a low-cost

support block.

quire expensive raw materials, extensive machining, careful heat

treatment, and manual sharpening. They have the highest cost
among knife-like dies.

Punches

Individual standardized punches can be used in conjunction with

all of the different knife-like dies to trim out round holes, stan-
dard shapes, and forms, such as hang holes, for supermarket blis-
ter packaging (see Figure 10-8). When specifying punches, a major
problem is how to handle loose scrap segments.
The scrap segment can be pushed back into the body of the
trimmed part by inserting stripper-sponge rubber or a spring-ac-
tion mechanism in the punch center (see Figure 10-9). The scrap
segment will then be carried out with the trimmed parts and away
from the press for later removal.

Methods of Scrap Removal

There are several methods of scrap removal: manual detachment,

semi-automatic removal, self-stripping, and manual punching.

249

Ch10.pmd 249 7/17/02, 9:09 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 10-8. Typical standardized steel-rule punches. (Courtesy Frank Wagner

& Sons and J.F. Helmold Corp.)

250

Ch10.pmd 250 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

Figure 10-9. Methods of ejecting scrap from punches. (Courtesy Frank Wagner
& Sons)

251

Ch10.pmd 251 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Manual Detachment

A customer may accept thermoformed parts with the punched

segment still inserted in the holes. These parts can be detached
by simply pushing them out. The customer could receive a finan-
cial incentive for this labor.

Semi-automatic Removal

Some of the in-line thermoforming machines have an automatic

part-stacking station, which could be set up with the appropriate
tooling to push out the die-cut scrap. This method may then re-
quire manual removal of finished trimmed parts from the web
because most thermoforming machines come equipped with only
one automatic part-stacking station.

Self-stripping

The die could be designed with self-ejecting punches on the

bottom platen of the trim station (see Figure 10-9). The scrap
segments, when trimmed, would remain in the entrance of the
punch and the next part trimmed would push the scrap deeper
into the punch. The interior of the self-stripping punch will gradu-
ally fill with scrap that can exit from an outlet cut in the side of
the punch. The scrap can then be removed from the die-mounting
plate. Self-stripping punches are notorious for jamming with scrap
plastic, bursting, and thus disrupting continuous die-cutting pro-
duction. When the punches do eject scrap properly, loose scrap
pieces may migrate into the machine mechanism or may be at-
tracted to the web by the static electric charge generated by in-
dexing plastic webs. A remedy for this problem must be sought.
Compressed air or a vacuum system has been used to gather much
of the loose plastic scrap out of harm’s way under favorable con-
ditions. However, either is not a perfect solution. Positive meth-
ods exist to remove punched scrap from thermoformed parts, but
they are labor intensive or costly.

252

Ch10.pmd 252 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

Manual Punching

Each formed and trimmed part in a single-cavity punch and die

can be manually punched using a pneumatic or kick press. The
punch will drive the scrap segment into the die and gravity will
cause it to fall into a collection container. The punch and die is
mounted in a die set to maintain correct tool alignment and cut-
ting clearance. The production rate using this manual method is
slow and expensive, although the tooling cost is much lower than
building a multicavity punch and die.
A similar punching scheme can be used to punch out scrap seg-
ments from each thermoformed shot, using a multicavity punch
and die to remove segments with one stroke of the press. This
system calls for a big press bed to accommodate a large, relatively
expensive die. It is imperative that perimeter-trimmed cavities be
held in place by weak tabs. This is due to the manual handling,
which may cause the trimmed cavities to fall apart before reach-
ing the multicavity die. If cavities in the shot are not pretrimmed,
a later, manual-die-cutting operation to separate individual cavi-
ties from the shot is required.

Hybrid Dies

A hybrid die to fit an in-line trim press can be designed for very
long continuous runs of thermoformed parts, which require clean
punching of segments with minimal manual labor. Hybrid
multicavity dies are a combination of a punch and die for easy
scrap-segment removal and forged dies to cut the perimeter of
thermoformed parts (see Figures 10-10 and 10-11). The punch
and dies require a four-post die set to maintain punch-and-die
alignment and a scrap removal system for loose segments.
In-line trim presses with a die set are located within a set of
parallel sheet-indexing rails traversing through the press plat-
ens. This setup requires that die-set posts and bushings be placed
on the exterior of these rails. The posts must be easily removed to
allow the bottom section of the hybrid die set to be installed in the
press. The lower platen of an in-line trim press does not contain

253

Ch10.pmd 253 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

Ch10.pmd
254
254
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

7/17/02, 9:10 AM
Figure 10-10. Hybrid segment punch and die with forged perimeter knife-like dies.
 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

Figure 10-11. Hybrid die cross section.

255

Ch10.pmd 255 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

an opening for loose scrap segments to fall easily through the plat-
ens. The hybrid die should include a system, such as a low-profile
conveyor belt or gravity scrap chutes, to move punched scrap away
from the die area.
Make-ready striker plates for each cavity assist with clean trim-
ming of the part perimeter by hybrid forged dies. Plastic shrink-
age allowance for location of the punch and dies is critical since
they are immovable, unlike forged-perimeter dies, which can be
shifted if necessary. Mold design should consider movement of mold
cavities, if needed, to line up with the punches to achieve regis-
tration. Each punch needs a stripper device to press down the
formed part against the die as the punch enters the die. The strip-
per device can be a donut-shaped rubber or polyurethane section
slipped onto the punch and held by friction. The leading edge of
the stripper material extends past the punch tip and compresses
when cutting, providing stripping action when the die opens.
Most commercial die sets are built of steel and the plates can be
quite heavy, particularly with necessary buildup plates. They may
exceed the specified maximum tooling weight for the trim press.
More importantly, plate weight can surpass the handling capacity
of the thermoforming shop setup crew. Instead of steel, a hybrid
die assembly of aluminum jig plate is one-third the weight and
has good stability. All the punches and dies used are fully hard-
ened and press-fitted into aluminum retaining plates. The remov-
able die-set pins and bushings are aligned by hardened and ground
steel bushings mounted in the die set.
Punching out scrap segments appears to be a minor trimming
problem, but it always involves nuisance and cost. The die maker
and the customer should decide what available options suit their
particular project.

Heat-assisted Die Cutting

Heat-assisted die cutting reduces the force needed using a knife-

like die. Properly transmitted heat lowers the shear strength of
plastic when the temperature is raised to softening temperature.
Some thick plastic sheets (high-impact styrene, acrylics, etc.) may
shatter, causing rough-trimmed finished edges and cracks when

256

Ch10.pmd 256 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

an attempt is made to drive the die knife at room temperature.

These cracks can extend into the finished parts. This problem
becomes extreme as plastic thickness increases; a 0.25 in. (6.4 mm)
sheet when cut cold emits sounds like a shotgun as the knife-like
die breaks its way through the plastic sheet as if it were glass.
Most in-line trim presses have a low-pressure closing stroke that
can be timed to the heat-assisted sequence before high-pressure
cutting is activated. A uniform temperature must be available dur-
ing the process, and a stable heat reservoir can be obtained from
heat buildup in the heavy striker plate when it is electrically heated.
The temperature is gradually raised until it is below the tempera-
ture at which hot plastic sticks to the striker plate. The press
platens are adjusted during the low-pressure press extension cycle
so that the knife does not cut through, yet is in complete contact
with the plastic. A heated striker plate only heats the spot where
the knife impinges on the plate and does not disturb or distort the
rest of the formed part. During the trim cycle, a layer of air insu-
lates the rest of the part from the heated plate during the short
time of the trim cycle.
Some thermoforming machinery manufacturers recommend
heating the die rather than the striker plate. It is questionable
whether sufficient heat can be driven from the base of the thin
steel-rule blade to its cutting edge to provide a consistent tem-
perature for die cutting. The standard steel rule is imbedded in a
wooden die board, which tends to shrink and crack as moisture is
driven from the wood during heating. There may be some justifi-
cation for this technique if a steel-rule die is constructed using an
aluminum die-board base and die allowance is calculated for the
metal base to expand during heating.
Heat-assisted die cutting does not eliminate the need to make-
ready dies that are not cutting properly. All the knife blades must
be in contact with the striker plate to achieve uniform trimming.

Trimming on Two Planes Using Knife-like Dies

Trimming on two planes using knife-like dies demands a great

deal of make-ready skill from the thermoforming setup crew (see
Figure 10-12). When die cutting is in one plane only, each of the

257

Ch10.pmd 257 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 10-12. Trimming a part on two planes using a knife-like die.

cavities of the die must be made ready with reference to each other
for the whole shot to be cleanly trimmed. Die cutting on two planes
requires that two separate dies trim on individual planes and not
obstruct each other. If one of the dies cuts perfectly in one plane
after addition of shims, these shims may affect the ability of the
second die to cut cleanly in the second plane. The second die may
then need make-ready shims for its striker plate to cut cleanly,
causing a disturbance of the original make-ready for the first die.
When designing a two-plane die, it will be useful if the die-setup
technicians provide individual-cavity striker plates for the perim-
eter die cavities and prefabricated 0.001–0.002-in. (0.03–0.05-mm)
thick make-ready shims for the interior die. These thin shims are
applied slowly. Both dies are continually tested to make sure the
new make-ready does not change the cutting pattern of the first
die, and that both planes cut simultaneously. All of the plates used
for the dies and their buildups must be flat, burr-free, and of pre-
cision thickness to avoid creating additional obstacles.

258

Ch10.pmd 258 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

Trimming Above and Below the Sheet Line

Die cutting of parts formed above and below the sheet line re-
quires furnishing an additional die component—a match plate.
Openings must be provided within both the die and its match-
plate assembly (consisting of a striker plate and its buildup) to
clear thermoformed part protrusions (see Figure 10-13). The die
and its match plate are made to register by means of lineup holes
for removable alignment pins in each of the tool halves. The match-
plate part-clearance opening should be chosen from the thermo-
formed component side that provides the widest remaining
striker-plate land for the die blade to cut against. A knife-like die
cannot have its blade strike inside the open edge of a match plate
because the die will become damaged and the cutting erratic. Most
in-line die-cutting presses have both platens movable; and the top
platen often has a greater stroke than the lower platen. Care must
be exercised that sufficient part clearance is available from each
platen chosen for the match-plate-and-die combination.
Trimming parts formed above and below the sheet line leaves
no support under individual parts after the trim. The parts are
suspended without support in the web. Only uncut tabs (nicks)

Figure 10-13. Trimming a part formed above and below the sheet line.

259

Ch10.pmd 259 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

keep them from breaking free when both press platens are opened.
Stripper rubber helps prevent parts from “hanging up” or stick-
ing in the die. These hang-ups often cause attachment tabs to
break when the platens open. To avoid disturbing trimmed parts,
the machine operator should adjust the cycle so the die platen
will retract first (allowing the part to strip from the die) before
opening the match-plate platen.
Combining the processes of die cutting and lamination (lami-
nating a backing sheet to a thermoformed part) provides two op-
erations in one stroke of the trim press. This type of part design
increases the rigidity of a package constructed of a floppy thermo-
formed part laminated to a backing sheet of cardboard or plastic
(see Figure 10-14). Production can take place on a continuous in-
line thermoformer or on manual off-line die cutters. A standard,
steel-rule die is modified for this service with spring-activated
pressure pads fitted inside the die close against the steel rule.
The backing sheet is coated with a suitable adhesive and placed
on the flange of a downward-facing thermoformed shot before it
enters the die-cutting press. When the die-cutting platens are
closed, the die pressure pads press against the flange area of the
part, laminating the components at the same instant the knife
trims the cavity. Care should be exercised in choosing the adhe-
sive; it should remain tacky until laminated and then set quickly.
When the package is sealed, considerable liquid solvent can re-

Figure 10-14. Knife-like die for simultaneous adhesive lamination and trimming.

260

Ch10.pmd 260 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

main entrapped inside the laminate and create a source of future

damage. Therefore, the adhesive should be selected so that the
plastic is not affected.
A similar die configuration can be used to heat-seal a heat-
activated, adhesive-coated cardboard backing to a thermoformed
component. The platen opposite the die requires a temperature-
controlled platen to activate the coated, heat-seal board when the
platens are closed during a timed interval. The pressure pads
should have a silicone, sponge-rubber face similar to blister-seal
tooling (see Figure 10-15). When heat-sealing the laminate, a mini-
mum 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) flange is recommended for package strength
and to allow the silicone rubber sponge to properly adhere to its
metal backup pad.

Choosing a Knife-like Die

A thermoformed part has a high-quality trimmed edge if the pe-

rimeter of the part feels smooth and clean to the finger. When the
knife edge is dull, it will crush and break through the plastic, leav-
ing a lumpy, uneven edge on the trimmed wall. A dull die has a flat
shiny face visible on its cutting edge. This flat area crushes a thin
segment of plastic, which results in a residue called angel hair ad-
hering to the finished part. Angel hair is very difficult to remove
because it is often held to the finished part by static electricity.

Figure 10-15. Tooling for a combination heat-sealing and trim die.

261

Ch10.pmd 261 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Medical, food product, and single-use catering product users con-

sider angel hair to be a contaminant; other less-critical industries
look on it as an avoidable nuisance that a sharp knife edge can
minimize. Table 10-1 summarizes the characteristics of knife-like
trim dies.
Economics play the most important role in knife-like die selec-
tion with a diminishing importance paid to quality of the trim, die
life, ability to shift die cavities, and die delivery time. The hard-
ness of the cutting edge helps to determine the life of the cutting
edge. However, the user is responsible for the knowledge and skill
to properly make-ready a new die. The cutting edge of any knife-
like die can be destroyed with the first stroke of the trim press on
an improper make-ready. Table 10-2 shows the advantages and
limitations of four types of knife-like trim dies.

Preliminary Layout of Knife-like Dies

Data needed to lay out a die comes directly from the mold de-
sign, specified plastic resin, customer requirements, and thermo-
forming machinery trim-press data.
The die layout can proceed smoothly after the following ques-
tions have been answered:
1. Will the parts be formed above or below the sheet line or will
they be both below and above?
2. What is the resin shrinkage coefficient (see Chapter 8, Table
8-1) and will trimming be in-line (half-shrinkage) or off-line
die cutting (full shrinkage)?
3. What type of knife-like die best suits the customer’s needs?
What is the quality and quantity of parts, delivery schedule,
and proposed die budget?
4. Are there any existing die-buildup plates available for use
with this die, or are new buildup plates to be supplied?
5. Does the in-line trim-press data show whether upper and
lower platen stokes will fit the die requirements?
6. Special die specifications that might be requested by the cus-
tomer:

262

Ch10.pmd 262 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

Ch10.pmd
Table 10-1. Knife-like trim-die characteristics
Ratio of
Cost When Typical Average Life (Strikes
Compared to Delivery Quality Die Hardness Until Sharpening
Type of Die Steel-rule Dies (Days) rim
of TTrim (RC) or Replacement)

Steel-rule die 1:1 1–5 Fair 35 1,000–5,000

263
Knife-like forged die 3:1–5:1 10–20 Good 45–56 5,000–10,000*

Machined tool-steel die 5:1–8:1 15–30 Best** 45–56 10,000–15,000*

Hybrid forged die and punch 6:1–12:1 60–90 Very best Punches Punches*
and dies 59–61 20,000–50,000

263
* Can be resharpened by a knowledgeable customer
** Most accurate die ±0.001 in. (±0.03 mm)
Notes:
1. Cost and delivery are directly proportional to the complexity of the die.
2. Average die life is dependent on many factors; for example, plastic material characteristics, ability to make-ready the die, trim-
press platen parallelism, etc.

7/30/02, 9:15 AM
Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies
 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Table 10-2. Knife-like die comparison

Type of Die Advantages Limitations

Steel-rule dies Lowest cost, Dies cannot be sharpened,

rapid delivery, and shorter die life, dulls rapidly,
many die suppliers quality of trimmed parts
available. Easily deteriorates rapidly, center-
re-ruled. to-center errors cannot be
corrected.

Knife-like Trim edges stand up Few die suppliers available;

forged dies 2-3 times as long delivery time is longer than
as steel-rule dies, can for steel-rule dies.
be resharpened,
center-to-center and
die errors can be
corrected.
Machined tool- Longest production Most expensive knife-like
steel dies die life, can be re- die type, long delivery time.
sharpened, most
precise die, center-to
center errors can be
corrected, and local
tool shops can fabricate.
Hybrid dies— Built in a die set. Most expensive, longest
forged die Clean trim out of delivery time for this type of
with punch punch segments. die.
and die

A. Will this be heat-assisted die cutting? Is there an ex-

isting heat-assisted striker plate assembly or it is to
be supplied?
B. Are there laminating or heat-sealing requirements?
C. If punches are needed, how are the scrap segments to
be handled?
D. Method of assuring accuracy of registration of shot to
the die:
a) Are the forged die cavities to be individually relo-
cated by the customer as needed?

264

Ch10.pmd 264 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

b) Is a standard steel-rule, one-piece die to be floated

or fixed to the trim-press platen?
c) Are individual die cavities to be floated?
d) Are pilot locators to be provided?
E. Is sponge or mechanical part stripping to be specified?
7. If a match plate is required, will it be attached to an existing
buildup or is a complete buildup necessary?
8. What type of striker plate is needed—stainless steel or hard-
ened-steel plate?
9. On a deep-cavity die, is the pedestal buildup depth beyond
the back of the die to be metal or constructed of die board?

Press Tonnage

Every model of trim press has a tonnage output rating that can
be used to calculate the maximum length of knife blade that may be
incorporated into a die. All the following design data is empirical,
but the information provides a conservative guide to the design of
many dies.
• Straight lengths of knife require 100–300 lb (17.5–52.6 N) of
force per running in. (mm) of die to cut at room temperature.
• Small radii of 0.06–0.19 in. (1.5–4.8 mm) offer more cutting
resistance than larger radii. Their circumferential length
should be increased to two-to-four times that of an equiva-
lent straight knife length.
• The perimeter of all punches with rubber internal knock-
outs absorbs a great deal of press tonnage—two times their
circumference length.
• Plastic resins vary in resistance to knife trimming and are
listed by increasing difficulty:
high-impact styrene (HIPS) (least difficult); polyvinyl chlo-
ride (PVC); polyolefins; acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
and engineering plastics; and polyethylene terephthalate gly-
col (PETG) (most difficult).
• The knife blades gradually become dull during production,
which may cause the cutting force to double before the blade
is resharpened or replaced.

265

Ch10.pmd 265 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

• Heat-assisted trimming can reduce by half the required cut-

ting force of an ambient-temperature die.
To find the maximum allowable blade length required for a given
press tonnage, consider the following example.
Maximum trim-press cutting force—200,000 lbf (890 kN)
available
Material to be trimmed—HIPS or PETG
Trim perimeter—rectangle 5 × 7 in. (127 × 177.8 mm)
Corner radius—0.50 in. (12.7 mm), four required
Punches—0.50 in. (12.7 mm) diameter, three required with
internal knockouts
Determine the number of in. (mm) of straight rule in each cav-
ity by using Table 10-3.
HIPS—Estimated cutting force requirement = 100 lbf (17.5
N) per in. (mm) of length
PETG—Estimated cutting force requirement = 300 lbf (52.6
N) per in. (mm) of length
FF
Nc = (10-1)
CF PC
where:
NC = maximum number of cavities to be trimmed
FF = trim-press cutting force, lbf (N)

Table 10-3. Projected lengths

Cavity Calculated Difficulty Knife LLength
ength
Component Length Factor* in. (mm)
Rectangle 2 (4 + 6)** ×1 20 (508 mm)
Punches 3 required × ␲ × .5 × 2 (punches) 18.80
× 2 (rubber) = 4 (477.5 mm)
Corner 4 required × ␲ × 1 ×2 6.28
radius 4 corners (159.5 mm)
Total projected lengths of rule for each cavity = 45.08 in. (1,145.0 mm)
* Difficulty factor—judgment call based on radius size compared to straight length.
** Straight length less end radii.

266

Ch10.pmd 266 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

CF = plastic resin cutting force, lbf (N)

PC = total projected rule length for each cavity, in. (mm)

200,000
HIPS = = 44 possible cavities
100 × 45.08

200,000
PETG = = 15 possible cavities
300 × 45.08

For a dull die, assume doubling the trim force (very conserva-
tive) to compensate for long production.

44 cavities
HIPS = = 22 cavities
2

15 cavities
PETG = =7-1/2 (round out to 8 cavities)
2

The average thermoforming machine could profitably run 22

HIPS cavities per cycle. Eight PETG cavities per shot is an un-
economical quantity. Tooling should be augmented with heat as-
sistance to double the output to 16 PETG cavities per cycle.
Aligning the center of pressure of die-cavity perimeters to the
centerline of the press distributes the trim-press forces evenly to
each cavity. Where the press and the die centerline coincide, the
center for a die cavity can be found if it has a regular shape, such
as a circle or a rectangle. This is not true of irregular shapes such as
triangles, semi-hemispheres, etc., as their center of pressure (CP)
is equal to the center of gravity (CG) of the lines of their perim-
eters. Some geometric shapes with their perimeter lines and center
of gravity are illustrated in Figure 10-16. The lines of the perim-
eter and its center of gravity are not the same as the center of
gravity of the shape’s area.
Example: Find center of pressure (CP) of a die by using Equa-
tion 10-2. Refer to Figure 10-17 for data.

HX = distance from X–X axis to CP of the die (10-2)

267

Ch10.pmd 267 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 10-16. Perimeter lines and centers of gravity for some geometric
shapes.

4 2 − 32
X1 = X2 = = 1.322 in.
2

semicircle CG = 0.636 R = 0.636(3) = 1.908 in.

X3 = 1.908 + 2.645 = 4.553 in.

L1 = L2 = 4 in.

268

Ch10.pmd 268 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies

πD π × 6
L3 = = = 9.42 in.
2 2

L1 X1 + L2 X2 + L3 X3 2(4 × 1.322) + (9.42 × 4.553) 53.48

Hx = L1 + L2 + L3 = =
2(4) + 9.42 17.42

Hx = 3.07 in. CP of die

Figure 10-17. Center of pressure (CP) for a simple knife-like die.

Layout of a Steel-rule Die

Mold layout dimensions are used as a basis for die layout. Each
centerline dimension should be identified as to whether it is for

269

Ch10.pmd 269 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

the mold or for the die. The die dimensions are reduced by the
styrene (HIPS) shrinkage coefficient for in-line thermoformers of
0.0025 in./in. (0.0025 mm/mm) as shown in Figure 10-18. The die
board minimum requirement of 0.25 in. (6.4 mm) of wood between
die cavities is necessary to maintain the structural integrity of
the board. The mold cavity center-to-center distance of 5.74 in. –
(5.74 × 0.0025 sheet shrinkage) = 5.726 in. (145.44 mm) die cen-
ter-to-center distance. This is the starting point of the die layout.
The die board overall dimensions are smaller than the mold
base to provide clearance if the board must pass through the in-
dexing rails of the machine. Die cavities have sufficient board-
edge support (0.74 in. [18.8 mm]) and the blade extension beyond
the board thickness (0.31 in. [7.9 mm]) will provide a sturdy back-
ing for the steel rule.
The part depth of 3 in. (76.2 mm) requires an aluminum jig-
plate buildup (2.25 in. [57.2 mm]) and 0.06-in. (1.5 mm) stainless
sheet die-backup plate to supplement the die. A hole through the
die board and its buildup to clear the thermoformed part com-
pletes this assembly. Mounting holes or other means of securing
this die assembly to the trim press should be provided. If this
rather heavy assembly is to be floated to improve registration,
locator pilots and a limited movement system needs to be devised.
A die-dimensional layout similar to Figure 10-18 is required if
this cup-like part is formed above and below the sheet line due to
inclusion of a stiffener rim in its design (see Figure 10-13). The
rim portion faces the steel-rule die and clears the face of the die
board. The height of the cup extends up through the match-plate
clearance hole, with trimming taking place at the striker plate.
Lineup of the die to the match plate is accomplished by employing
removable pins placed in holes drilled on the X or Y centerlines.

Die User and Die Builder Responsibilities

Trimming thermoformed parts using knife-like dies is always

less costly and the dies can be delivered more rapidly than punch
and dies. However, knife-like dies require the user to develop nec-
essary make-ready and die-cutting skills to provide high-quality
trimmed parts and extend the life of the die blades. In-line die

270

Ch10.pmd 270 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

Ch10.pmd
271
271

7/17/02, 9:10 AM
Figure 10-18. Steel rule layout from mold dimensions, half-shrinkage.
Chapter 10: Knife-like Trim Dies
 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

cutting on a thermoforming machine base requires making shot-

shrinkage assumptions, which are not always precise when com-
pared to off-line, fully cooled shot-shrinkage calculations.
Auxiliary devices—pilots, floating dies, heat-assisted trimming
and stripping of parts—are tools for the designer to use to solve
die problems before they occur in production. A decision on how
to eliminate the scrap segments caused by punch trimming needs
the input of the die user and the die maker. An informed cus-
tomer should participate in deciding which types of knife-like dies
will best serve the required production methods.

272

Ch10.pmd 272 7/17/02, 9:10 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

11
11
Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Punch-and-die trimming provides the most economical and

highest quality product when millions of thermoformed parts are
required (see Figure 11-1). The dies stay sharp for many die strikes
and can be resharpened on a tool-room surface grinder. Unlike
knife-blade trimming, which requires careful make-ready to pro-
duce high-quality trimmed parts, punch-and-die tooling requires
less training to master. Make ready is a system used to level all of
the cutting blades of a knife-like die in one plane.

Figure 11-1. Common components of a simple die (Nee 1998).

273

Ch11.pmd 273 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

The action of a punch and die provides true shearing action—

superior to the splitting or crushing action of a knife blade—to
produce a high-quality trimmed part (see Figure 11-2). The
trimmed parts can automatically self-stack after being cut free
from the web, allowing accurate counting and rapid packing of
the completed units.

Figure 11-2. Stresses caused by the action of the punch and die (Nee 1998).

Cost Justification

Most off-line trim presses are designed to allow trimming a row

or two of a formed shot with each stroke of the press. The cost of
a die consists of the fixed assembly (die set, buildup, scrap chop-
per, etc.) and the variable components (punches, dies, pilots, knock-
outs, and exit chutes). Each additional trim cavity increases the
price of the variable components by an amount many times greater

274

Ch11.pmd 274 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

than the increase in cost of the fixed assembly. Therefore, the die
designer must attempt to minimize the number of trim cavities in
the die by a careful analysis of the press and its index system
capabilities.
Punch-and-die initial purchase costs are higher and delivery
time is longer than those for any other types of knife-like dies.
Dividing the die cost by the number of parts to be trimmed pro-
vides the answer to the question of whether a punch and die is
economical for a given project (see Table 11-1).

Table 11-1. Determining economy of purchase

for a punch and die based on $25,000 price (1999)
Number of PParts
arts Cost per PPart,
art, $
250,000 0.100
2,500,000 0.010
25,000,000 0.001

The cost per part in Table 11-1 suggests that production in vol-
ume of several million parts would be needed to amortize this tool
for most practical purposes. Knife-like dies are often specified for
part quantities that fall below the limits necessary to pay for a
punch and die.
There are occasions when the advantages of trimming small
quantities on a punch and die may outweigh the high initial cost.
• Parts whose trim perimeter may be in more than one plane
or may need to be trimmed along a sidewall are best done on
a punch and die.
• A properly maintained punch and die tends to produce far
less angel hair than a knife-like die, which makes it appro-
priate for critical parts (medical and food packaging).
• A punch and die can cut very close to a thermoformed wall,
leaving a miniscule flange far smaller than the tiniest flange
a knife-like die produces.
• Parts cut on off-line trim presses generally allow the plastic
web to cool to full shrinkage before being trimmed. A punch
and die can help reduce shrinkage design error when used
for cutting precision thermoformed parts.

275

Ch11.pmd 275 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Punch and Die Design

The punch and die design should be based on the trimming

needs, the trim press, and the maximum cutting force of the press.

Trimming

Trimming can take place after one or more rows of parts are
indexed into the cutting area of the die. Continuous thermoforming
production at a maximum cyclic rate requires the trim press to be
operated at speed sufficient to cut all rows of parts indexed into
the cutting area of the die. The trim press and its indexer have a
rated maximum revolutions per minute (rpm) specification for
the flywheel that equals the number of trim strokes per minute.
This rpm maximum specification varies depending on the length
of the platen stroke, which can be manually adjusted to suit the
height of the parts being processed. When the number of rows of
parts thermoformed per minute exceeds the maximum allowable
strokes/minute of the trim press, the number of die cavity rows
should be increased or the thermoforming-machine output must
be curtailed. Mold and die design should be coordinated so that
the number of die rows can be divided into the number of rows of
mold cavities by a whole number. This is done to avoid simulta-
neously trimming parts of two adjoining shots (for more informa-
tion, see Chapter 8).
After the web has been trimmed of its usable components, the
scrap skeleton is cut into strips suitable to be fed into a granula-
tor. The scrap cutoff blade built into the die may be a straight-line
guillotine shear or it may cut the skeleton into two or more parts
for easier processing (see Figure 11-3). Cutting off skeleton scrap
not only solves a material-handling problem, but also may pre-
vent misregistration of the incoming web due to jamming of the
scrap web. Cut skeletons can be removed by a conveyor belt from
the die to be ground-up or dropped directly into the mouth of a
low-profile granulator.
By incorporating two in-line die workstations (progressive die)
in a single die set, the die can do more than blank out individual
parts (see Figure 11-4). Where die space permits, the tool may

276

Ch11.pmd 276 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Figure 11-3. Methods of cutting off scrap skeleton into one or more pieces.

punch out segments in a first die station. Then, that row is in-
dexed to the next station for final perimeter cutting. This tech-
nique saves the cost of building two dies and tying up an additional
trim press. It works well for noncritical hole locations.

277

Ch11.pmd 277 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 11-4. A progressive die with in-line workstations trimming a hole and
then the perimeter of a formed part.

Trim Press

The die designer should study the workings of each type of off-
line trim press and its feeding system to provide necessary ser-
vices for some of the following conditions:
• Fastening the tool into the proper location on the trim press
requires care in laying out die-set mounting holes. When a
horizontal trim press is utilized, its large-diameter mount-
ing bolts support the whole weight of the die set and they
can not be easily shifted if misaligned.
• Orienting the die-cavity exits to the press opening permit
the trimmed parts to travel without impediment out of the
die through the existing press opening in the stationary
platen.
• Stack parts for easy removal and counting by using trays or
custom-designed chutes for each different type of part exit-
ing the die-set area.

278

Ch11.pmd 278 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

• Auxiliary guides and pushers are needed to locate and guide

rows of parts directly into the trimming area of the die (as
shown in Figures 5-9 and 8-6). Press guides and other mecha-
nisms should be prepared for each thermoformed part to re-
duce setup time at the press. Many presses require specially
designed cams to drive the press feed stroke and provide an
accelerating or decelerating motion for smooth movement of
the indexing system and the web.
• A knockout device can be used to push cut parts down into
the die cavity so that they do not pop out of the die and inter-
fere with incoming indexed shot. These knockouts are at-
tached to a mechanical device built into the trim press, which
is triggered to act after the parts are cut free.
• Die clearance should be provided for index guides that may
intrude into the die area and for those portions of the formed
web that may overlap die buildups. Incoming rows of parts
may require clearance built into the die plates to avoid being
damaged when the press closes.
The die assembly is the most important tool component in the
trim system, but intelligent and timely design of many of these
auxiliary mechanical devices determines whether the die change-
over can be done in a matter of hours or days.

Maximum Cutting Force of Press

The maximum rated cutting force of the press is available only

at the maximum rpm of the press flywheel. Most press flywheels
are directly driven by means of a variable-speed motor. This abil-
ity to adjust the rpm of the flywheel (and the press strokes per
minute) helps the trim press coordinate its output with the
thermoforming machine. Trim-press stroke length can be adjusted
to allow varying depths of parts to be indexed into the open die
space. The press rpm is reduced as the stroke is lengthened be-
cause the platen velocity and its kinetic energy increase, which
may cause press or die damage.

279

Ch11.pmd 279 7/30/02, 9:16 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Tonnage Rating

The trim-press tonnage output is rated by the press manufac-

turer at a specific rpm and press stroke. A flywheel stores kinetic
energy at the rated rpm and delivers it through its crankshaft
stroke at its shut height as a force (rated tonnage). Looking at
equation,

Ke = CFr2 (11-1)

where:
Ke = kinetic energy, ft-lb (M-kg or Joule)
C = constant gravitational force (32.2 ft/sec), radius, and
weight, which are uniform at any revolution speed
Fr2 = flywheel rpm
If the rpm is reduced below the manufacturer’s rating, the out-
put tonnage is proportional to the slower rpm2 when compared to
2
the rated rpm . For example:
Rated press tonnage = 35 tons (70,000 lbf [311 kN]) at 100 rpm

Find the number of tons (kN) available at 33 rpm.

where:
slower rpm2
rpm tonnage = × rated press tonnage
rated rpm2

Therefore:
slower rpm = 35
rated rpm = 100
rated press tonnage = 35

332
= × 35
1002

= 3.81 tons (7,620 lbf [34 kN])

280

Ch11.pmd 280 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Cutting Force

The cutting force required for trimming plastic in a punch and

die is based on this relationship:

FC = SM A (11-2)
where:
FC = cutting force, lbf (kN)
SM = maximum shear stress, psi (kPa)
A = area to be cut, in.2 (cm2)
Shear stress. The SM factor must be deduced empirically be-
cause standard plastic physical property tables give tensile stress
at break point, but no shear-strength values. An SM factor for
commodity plastics that may be used is 5,000 psi (34,500 kPa),
which includes a respectable safety factor. For example:
Find the cutting force required to trim a single row
containing six cavities with a 30-in. (76.2-cm) long cut-
off blade and a stripper plate exerting 10 lbf/in. (1,745
N/m) of trim length. The material is 0.06-in. (1.5-mm)
thick high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) and each cavity
is 4 × 8 in. (101.6 × 203.2 mm).

Ft = Ftp + Fsp = SM Atp + 10Pt (11-3)

where:
Ft = total force to trim shot, lbf (N)
Ftp = cutting force to trim cavities and trim scrap, lbf (N)
Fsp = force to clamp shot with stripper plate = 10 lbf/in. (1,745
N/m)
SM = maximum shear stress of plastic = 5,000 psi (34,500 kPa)
Atp = total trim area of cavities and trim scrap, in.2 (cm2)
Pt = total trim perimeter of cavities and trim scrap, in. (m)
Pc = perimeter of a cavity, in. (cm)
N = number of cavities
L = length of trim scrap, in. (cm)
T = thickness, in. (cm)

281

Ch11.pmd 281 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Therefore:
Pc = 2(4 × 8) = 24 in. (61 cm)
Pt = NPc + L
(6)(24) + 30 = 174 in. (442 cm)
2 2
Atp = TPt = (0.06)(174) = 10.44 in. (67.4 cm )
Then:
Ft = SM Atp + 10Pt = 5,000(10.44) + 10(174) = 53,940 lbf
(240 kN) = total cutting force

Minimum rpm. The die requires 53,940 lbf (240 kN) of cut-
ting force and can be operated in a 35-ton (70,000 lb [311 MPa])
press rated at 100 rpm. The minimum rpm is calculated as fol-
lows:

Fl
Rmin = × R2 max (11-4)
Fm

where:
Rmin = minimum rpm
Fl = lesser press force, lbf (kN)
Fm = maximum press force, lbf (kN)
Rmax = maximum rpm
Therefore:

53,940
Rmin = × (100)2 = 88 rpm
70,000

If 88 rpm is too fast to synchronize production with the

thermoformer, two options are available:
1. A trim press running at maximum rpm can be stopped auto-
matically by sensors that are energized when the indexing
web coming from the thermoformer becomes taut. The sen-
sors can restart the press when the web becomes slack. How-
ever, starting and stopping the press can cause misregistration
of the web on each press startup.

282

Ch11.pmd 282 7/30/02, 9:19 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

2. Stepping the height of the punches so all of the punches do

not contact the web simultaneously can reduce the cutting
force required to trim (see Figure 11-5). Not all models of trim
presses and feeds operate as described earlier and the die de-
signer needs to consult the trim press manual for guidance.

Figure 11-5. Method of reducing cutting forces by allowing punches to cut

consecutively (Nee 1998).

Punch-and-die Tooling

Tool Clearance

The punch-and-die components are the centerpiece of the tool-

ing package. Clean shearing of a thermoformed part requires that
the die clearance (the space on one side, between the die and the
punch) not be large enough to cause the plastic to bend and break.
Conversely, clearance should never be so slight that two tool com-
ponents are able to rub against each other to cause metal gouging
and tool wear.
Other factors loom large on the question of selecting a clear-
ance for the tool such as weight, operating conditions, skills, die-
handling methods, and type of plastic to be trimmed.

283

Ch11.pmd 283 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Weight

The weight of the horizontal trim-press moving platen and the

punch holder acts downward with gravity to squeeze all of the mov-
ing platen and die-set running clearance to one side of the punch
and die. This problem does not exist in a vertical press since grav-
ity does not act on the tool in the same manner to affect running
clearance. Many die makers do not have the equipment to test the
die in the horizontal position. The die user should be given op-
tions to adjust clearance in the tool later on site if needed.

Operating Conditions

A die designer cannot control the operating conditions of a hori-

zontal press platen. However, specifying the largest practical diam-
eter pins, tightest tolerance bushings, and using a four-post die set
to offset gravity may help alleviate the action of a worn press.

Skills

The skill and ability of the die shop personnel to build the tool
according to specifications are important variables in selecting a
die clearance. Punches and dies may be machined exactly to speci-
fications. Yet, if they are not mounted concentric with respect to
each other, clearance will not be uniform around the cutting-edge
perimeter.
Many die shop personnel developed their skills and knowledge
while building metal forming and trimming dies. The vast major-
ity of these metal-fabricating dies weigh less than 300 lb (136 kg)
and are set up in vertical presses, which are very rigid and de-
signed with long, precision dovetail-guided slides. Horizontal
thermoforming trim-press dies weigh 1,000–2,500 lb (454–1,134
kg) and are set up on massive platens, which are not as rigid as
metalworking machines. Moving press platens are often guided
by sliding bushings running on shafts and partially supported by
platen-to-press slides, which may require skillful adjustment.

284

Ch11.pmd 284 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Newer models of horizontal trim presses are available with V-ways.

These presses reportedly support the die properly and may re-
duce the gravity effect.

Die-handling Methods

When metal-stamping die shops first started fabricating hori-

zontal thermoforming trim dies, the size and weight of the dies
required a change in die-handling methods and an alternative
approach to die building. Selecting die clearance became a bal-
ancing effort between too little clearance that can create the con-
ditions for a chipped die, and excessive clearance, which can yield
poor trim quality.

Type of Plastic

Die clearance selection is influenced by the type of plastic resin

to be trimmed. The most clearance is specified for the more brittle
materials and the least for more rubbery plastics (see Table 11-2).

Table 11-2. Resin comparative die clearance

Material Clearance
High-impact polystyrene (HIPS) Most
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) to
Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG)
Polypropylene (PP)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) Least

Options are available to the die user to reduce excessive clear-

ance in the die after it is installed in a horizontal trim press. These
alternatives can be utilized after die delivery to improve perfor-
mance, but they are not a substitute for skillful workmanship,
thoughtful design, and high-quality die components.

285

Ch11.pmd 285 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Fastening Punches

Many die users prefer to fasten the punches into the tool after
the die set is mounted in a horizontal press and gravity has had
its effect on the tool. When the moving platen is closed to the
cutting position, the punches are inserted through the die open-
ing, which is directly accessible through the back of the press.
The punches are loosely held in place by bolts while thin shim
stock is used to centralize tool clearance. When the punch is cen-
tered, fasteners are tightened to full torque specifications. The
die cavities are rigidly bolted and doweled in place to prevent them
from shifting during the running of the press. This procedure al-
lows the die and platen weight to be negated so that uniform tool
clearance can be preserved.
Die purists may detect some heresy in not mentioning installa-
tion of dowel pins to locate the punches. If dowel pins are inserted
at the die shop, they will always shift the punch to a preset posi-
tion, which may or may not be correct for a horizontal press setup.
Since bolts are the only fasteners used for attaching the punch, a
sufficient number must be employed to mount and maintain the
punch to its correct position. Before the tool is taken out of the trim
press and placed in storage, the punches can be removed to pro-
tect them from damage. Alternatively, if the die set (with punches
still mounted) is removed from the press, it should be blocked
from closing to its cutting position when stored.

Hardness

Some die makers recommend having the die cavities heat treated
to less than full hardness and the punch to maximum hardness.
This difference in heat treatment allows the tool user to peen (dis-
place) metal inward toward the die cavity to remove any excess
wear, which occurs during thermoforming production. When the press
is closed manually, the hardened punch shears through the peened
section of the softer die cavity, providing a fresh cutting face. This
avoids shutting down the thermoforming line for die maintenance
during production.

286

Ch11.pmd 286 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

It is important to understand that the words “softer” or “less-

than-full hardness” are relative, since a die must be hard enough
to maintain a cutting edge during its reasonable production life.
Tool steel tempered to its recommended maximum hardness can
be somewhat brittle. Tempering the steel at a higher tempera-
ture tends to make the steel tougher (less brittle) but also less
hard. A study of the tempering chart for tool steel may indicate
the point that is a compromise among the best qualities of the
steel. If both punch and die are fully hardened, care must be exer-
cised that they always have sufficient clearance when being closed
to avoid chipping the tool.
A die is considered dull when its cutting edge shows evidence of
a radius developing during production trimming. Grinding the
hardened tool face (never on its perimeter edge) to eliminate a
die-edge radius will resharpen the die or punch.

Die Sets

The die set is a complete tool module that contains the punch
and die and other necessary components for trimming thermo-
formed parts from the web (see Figure 11-6). Commercial off-the-
shelf die sets are rarely adaptable for thermoform trimming.
Custom-built die sets are either purchased or fabricated by the
tool shop. Because of their weight and since they often operate in
the horizontal position, automatic lubrication of guide-pin bush-
ings is essential. Contamination of the bushings by dirt or dust
can cause them to seize or gall. They should never leave their
guide pins when the moving platen is fully retracted.

Guide Pins and Bushings

Different types of guide bushings are commercially available.

The best guide pins and bushings create the least running fric-
tion and have minimum clearance between the guide pin and bush-
ing. Guide pins and bushings come in two basic styles: removable
and those that are press-fitted into the die set (see Figures 11-7

287

Ch11.pmd 287 7/17/02, 9:11 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 11-6. Typical punch-and-die assembly. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co., LLC)

Figure 11-7. Typical die-set bushings. (Courtesy Producto Machine Company)

288

Ch11.pmd 288 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

and 11-8). All pins are hardened and ground and can be purchased
in standard diameters of any length. Removable guide pins are
seated in conforming tapered bushings or precision straight holes
to maintain true alignment. They are easily disassembled to fa-
cilitate tool fabrication and sharpening.

Figure 11-8. Typical die-set guide pins. (Courtesy Producto Machine Company)

Punch-and-die Holders

Punch-and-die holders are fabricated of steel plate, which may

require machining or flame-cut openings needed for knockouts or
to act as an exit for the trimmed thermoformed parts. These plates
are stress relieved by special heat treatment. Their parallel faces
are ground flat, and the four plate edges machined square and to
size. It is important for additional precision machining of these
components that the plates are relieved of internal stresses that

289

Ch11.pmd 289 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

can cause warping, bending, or other distortions. Buildup plates

used in the fabrication of the die are similarly processed.

Stripper Plate

A stripper plate is an essential tool component, which is spring-

loaded and located on the punch holder and set 0.06–0.13 in. (1.5–
3.3 mm) in advance of the punch. Initially on press closure it clamps
the web to the die face, preventing the plastic sheet from shifting
as the punch enters the die cavity. After the parts are cut, it forces
the web off the punch, freeing the shot for the next index. The
compression force of stripper springs should be added to the re-
quired trimming force. The combined amount should be within
the rated press capacity.

Pilots

Pilots are components of the punch and can be either male or

female configurations shaped to the contour of the formed plastic
cavity (see Figures 11-9 and 11-10). They may be separately at-
tached or machined into the body of the punch so that each cavity
is individually located by its own pilot. The trim-press index sys-
tem locates a row of parts into the die area where the pilots pick
them up to complete precise registration.
Auxiliary cone locators are sometimes used to correct the index
of a row of parts prior to the pilot engaging the sheet (see Figure
11-11). These spring-loaded locators are designed to nest in pre-
thermoformed conical portions of the web.

Knockouts

Knockouts are used to push trimmed parts out of the web down
through the die, providing clearance to allow indexing the next
row of parts into the die area. Female punches contain an inter-
nal cavity that acts as a pilot for the formed part extending in-
ward toward the punch. The cut component remains up above

290

Ch11.pmd 290 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Figure 11-9. Combination pilot within a female punch.

Figure 11-10. Male pilot mounted on a flat-faced punch.

the die face until the knockout action forces it below the sheet
line (see Figure 11-9). Flat-faced punches can be used to trim com-
ponents that have their formed depth facing into the die cavity.
The knockout then pushes cut parts past the die lands (see Figure

291

Ch11.pmd 291 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 11-11. Auxiliary cone locators to assist registration of a row of parts

relative to the die. (Courtesy E.D. Segen & Co., LLC)

292

Ch11.pmd 292 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

11-12). The die lands are the precision-machined portion of the

die that acts as the trimming area. Beyond the land area, clear-
ance allows cut parts to move freely through the die. Normally,
the die land is only 0.19–0.32-in. (4.8–8.1-mm) long and the punch
usually penetrates the land area during the cutting process by
approximately 0.03 in. (0.8 mm). This is to avoid undue wear on
working portions of the tools and to allow room for resharpening
(see Figure 11-12). Finished cut parts left in the land can be jarred
out of the die land area by press vibration. The knockout serves
to avoid these misfeeds.
Die backup and buildup plates are needed in a die for spacing
the web away from punch-and-die holder plates (see Figure 11-
12). Clearance for the depth of incoming thermoformed parts is
provided by the buildup plates to prevent crushing parts when
the press is closed. Multicavity punches and dies are often as-
sembled on individual backup plates outside the die set. Completed
subassemblies are mounted and later aligned in the die set. This
assembly is used to allow relatively low-cost, thicker, mild-steel

Figure 11-12. Product trough organizes parts into stacks for counting and
packing.

293

Ch11.pmd 293 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

plates to back up and support the thinner, expensive hardened

tool-steel, punch-and-die components and to clear the formed part
height.

Exit Chutes or Product Troughs

Exit chutes or product troughs help organize trimmed-part

output into stacks for counting and packing (see Figure 11-12).
Efficient production may be disrupted if the chutes are not planned
for the specific trimmed parts, leaving the user to contrive a make-
shift setup.
Troughs should be carefully aligned to the die-set exit cavities
to provide a smooth part transition from die set to trough. Very
high-production items such as cups or lids may be counted, sleeved
in polyethylene (“poly”) bags, and packed by special automatic
equipment. Shorter production runs of parts are manually counted
by measuring a stacked height of trimmed components and strip-
ping them directly off the trough of a horizontal trim press into a
polybag. The length of the chute should be three-to-four times
the length of a stack of packed products. Horizontal press-trimmed
parts advance out of the die exit with each stroke of the press and
will stack properly when a sufficient number of components are
left on the trough to lightly compact the incoming product stream.
Troughs are best fabricated of stainless-steel sheet metal rather
than mild steel, because stainless steel does not need painting to
prevent rust. Paint or rust increase frictional resistance to part
movement and may contaminate food or medical components that
require cleanliness and sanitation.

Cutoff Blades

Scrap cutoff blades, which trim the indexed web with every
stroke of the press, are necessary for a horizontal trim-press die
(see Figure 11-13).
The decision to use a simple straight cutoff blade or to trim
the scrap into two or more pieces depends on several factors that

294

Ch11.pmd 294 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Figure 11-13. Commercially available scrap cutoff blades hardened and

ground to size can be combined to increase length. (Courtesy E.D. Segen &
Co., LLC)

come into play when granulating in-line, trimmed scrap (see Fig-
ure 11-3).
• The granulator may not have sufficient shredding capacity
to accept a straight cutoff scrap web, yet may be capable of
processing the same skeleton when cut into segments by the
die. Lack of grinding capacity can be due to either a high-
cyclic rate of output from the trim press or inadequate granu-
lator shredding horsepower. Granulators may have small-inlet
throat openings that limit the size of the skeleton, which can
cause jamming or bridging of incoming full-width web scrap
at the inlet throat.
• Die set available length in the index direction can be a limit-
ing factor in the design of the web cutoff when it is used to
trim the scrap skeleton into several pieces. Trimming scrap
into segments requires the web to advance one additional
index beyond the trim cavity to allow sufficient space to mount
the scrap cutoff blades.
• Additional die cost is incurred to provide multiple-segment
cut-up of a scrap skeleton.
The die user should have the production experience to guide
the tool designer in providing the scrap-cutoff method most suit-
able for the user’s scrap-handling equipment.

295

Ch11.pmd 295 7/30/02, 9:22 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Safety

Die-handling safety devices should be made available with each

die with instructions for their use when moving dies from storage
to the trim press. Off-line horizontal trim-press configuration re-
quires that a die set be lifted up into the press by chains attached
to eye bolts, or hoist rings fastened to the edges of the die-set
plates. These lift devices should be fabricated of high-quality forged
steel and their rated capacity should be drastically reduced if the
chain is set at an angle to the vertical axis. For example: if a chain
when loaded rests at 45° (the maximum allowable angle) to an
eyebolt, its lifting capacity is reduced to 25% of its rating. Many
types of hoist rings allow 360° swivel and 180° pivoting, which
helps prevent eye-bolt breakage from side loads or twisting. Full
rated load is permitted if all the manufacturer’s specifications are
observed in the use of these safety devices.
When removed from the press, the die set should have a secure
system to fasten the movable punch holder to the die holder plate
to prevent accidental opening or closing while being handled.

Thermoforming Molds and

Trim-in-place Punch and Dies

Thermoforming molds and trim-in-place punch and dies are a

combination tool, as shown in Figures 11-14 and 11-15, which
require a special thermoforming machine. These tools eliminate
the need for indexing a thermoformed part from the mold to a
separate punch-and-die trim press. Perimeter-trimming registra-
tion relative to the formed part is the most accurate obtainable in
any existing system. These tools and equipment are very popular
throughout the world and used for many special projects in North
America.
Thermoforming with trim-in-place punch and dies uses either
vacuum or pressure forming and plugs when needed. Finished
thermoformed parts are mechanically ejected directly into individual
stacking chutes. Thermoforming is mainly accomplished with fe-
male molds mounted within the punch, although shallow male cavi-
ties, such as lids, can be directly formed using this process.

296

Ch11.pmd 296 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Figure 11-14. Tilting trim-in-place tool. (Courtesy Marbach Werkzeugbau

GmbH)

In vertical presses, the punch platen is stationary and the die

platen travels vertically. The weight of the tooling and press platen
does not affect the die bushing and pin clearance, as it does in a
horizontal trim press. Removal of finished trim parts requires the
bottom platen to rotate and tilt at an angle to align itself with a
stacking cage. Tilting the lower tool causes both die-set bushings
and lower-press-platen bushings to leave their guide pins. Disen-
gagement of pins and bushings may cause excessive wear. Dust
and dirt accelerate this process. Excessive wear in the die-and-
platen guidance system may increase allowable tool clearance and
eventually affect the trimming ability of the tool. The trim-in-place

297

Ch11.pmd 297 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 11-15. Thermoforming trim-in-mold tool (Mitchell 1996).

die designer may specify more guide pins and bushings than are
commonly used on dies that never leave their guide pins.
When thermoforming and trimming take place in the same tool,
heat from the web can affect trim-tool clearance. A temperature
differential control system is available that maintains the moving
and stationary die-set platens within 5° F (3° C) of each other to
avoid damage to the die cavities due to heat expansion. The tem-
perature-control system can be programmed to halt the machine
if the temperature differential exceeds specifications.
The economics of a trim-in-place system require study of the
cost of providing a punch-and-die to accompany each thermoform-
ing cavity in the mold. The cost per cavity tends to limit the num-

298

Ch11.pmd 298 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

ber of cavity rows specified for many projects. The cost per die
row may become an important economic factor when comparing
the cost of a trim-in-place die to a horizontal, off-line, trim-press
die (which needs only one or two rows of punches and dies to trim
a multi-row mold). Each of these methods of production has ap-
proximately the same mold cost for a similar number of cavities.
The cost for the additional part-stacking chutes, knockout devices,
and differential die-temperature system further increases the price
of a trim-in-place tool. However, the tooling cost per unit of a trim-
in-place system becomes economically viable when large numbers
of plastic components of the type best suited for trim-in-place tool-
ing are required.

Layout of an Off-line Punch and Die

Mold layout, the plastic resin specified, input gained through

customer consultation, and trim-press data all influence punch-
and-die design.
The following steps are used to gather specific design informa-
tion.
1. Determine the number of rows of trim tools required.
S
N= (11-5)
C
where:
N = number of rows of trim tools required
S = strokes/min required to trim web = thermoformer’s
output (shots/min) × number of rows in one shot
C = maximum trim-press strokes/min output (per manu-
facturing specification)
2. Access the resin shrinkage coefficient from Table 8-1. Use
full shrinkage, since the web cools to ambient temperature
by the time it reaches the die.
3. With the trim press operating at rated speed, calculate the
estimated tonnage and compare it to the cutting force re-
quired to trim (see Equations 11-2 and 11-3). If press tonnage

299

Ch11.pmd 299 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

is insufficient, consider stepping punch heights by allowing

trimming to take place consecutively (Figure 11-5). Alter-
natively, the punch cutting face can be ground at a shear
angle so that the punch does not trim the whole die perim-
eter at once but instead cuts incrementally.
4. Decide whether the scrap web should be cut into multiple
segments or cut off in one piece, based on scrap-skeleton
granulating capacity.
5. Decide on an appropriate punch-and-die tool clearance.
6. Decide whether the die will be peened while in service. Se-
lect suitable tool steel and heat treatment for the punch
and dies.
7. Select the type of guide bushings and pins to be specified
for the die set.
8. Resolve whether the customer or die maker will supply aux-
iliary devices, such as output troughs, web guides, and in-
dexing pushers.
9. Obtain a trim-press-platen layout drawing and specifications
to locate the die set on the press platen and check the fol-
lowing items:
• die-set mounting holes,
• guide-pin clearance locations through the moving press
platens,
• knockout location on moving-press platen opening,
• stationary platen trimmed part exit opening, and
• standard adjustable press stroke and shut-height adjust-
ment specifications to determine pin guide length.
10. Determine if the thermoformed section will be facing the
punch (female punch) or protruding into the die (flat-face
punch).
11. Determine if the die will be designed to trim an interior
segment and then index again within the die set to blank
out the finished part (see Figure 11-4).
12. Determine if the end user is to install the punches after the
die set is mounted in a horizontal trim press or if they will
be dowel-pinned rigidly in place on the punch plate by the
die maker.
13. Determine if the end user requires cone locators to assist in
locating each indexed trim row.

300

Ch11.pmd 300 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

14. Determine the requirements for special types of lift eye bolts,
hoist rings, or other methods of preventing opening and clos-
ing of the die set while it is being mounted in the press.

Design Parameters

Table 11-3 outlines the die design specifications for the 18-cav-
ity mold shown in Figure 11-16.
The design of the mold outlined in Table 11-3 is such that the
die can be built with either three or six cavities in each transverse
row. The cost of a three-cavity die might be 50% less than the
price of a six-cavity die. In this case, economics call for the least
number of cavities.

Table 11-3. Die design specifications for an 18-cavity mold

Specification Parameter
Plastic web—high-impact 0.04-in. (1.0-mm) thick
polystyrene 30.75-in. (78.1-cm) wide
Mold area 29-in. (73.7-cm) wide × 28.21-in.
(71.7-cm) long
Perimeter trim size—no interior 4 × 8.63 in. (10.2 × 21.9 cm)
segments pre-trimmed 0.25-in. (6.4-mm) corner radii
Flat punch and male pilot See Figure 11-10
Maximum off-line trim-press See Table 11-5
speed with a 4.5-in. (11.4-cm)
stroke is 100 strokes/min at
60,000 lbf (267 kN)
Thermoforming output 16 shots/min
Number of cavities 18 = 3 across × 6 rows deep per shot
Depth of part 1.50 in. (38.1 mm)
Scrap cutoff blade—straight 32.25-in. (81.9-cm) long
blade includes excess for
web misalignment
Stripper plate clamp force 10 lbf/in. (1,745 N/m) of trim
perimeter

301

Ch11.pmd 301 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 11-16. An 18-cavity mold layout.

First, determine if the complete output of the thermoformer is

capable of being processed in a die containing three cavities in a
row. Then, Equation 11-5 can be used to determine the number of
rows of trim tools required. Assume:

302

Ch11.pmd 302 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

S = 16 × 6 = 96
C = 100
96
N= = 1 row of trim tools
100
So, one row of three cavities will suffice.
Thermoforming certain resins or shapes of parts can be ad-
versely affected by the extruder direction relative to the geom-
etry of the mold cavity. As this particular mold is not sensitive to
extrusion direction, three cavities in a row would be suitable for
this die layout.

Trim Force

The trim-press cutting force must be sufficient to trim three

cavities and compress the stripper-plate springs. Calculate the
perimeter of the three cavities and length of the web cutoff blade.
Using Equation 11-3, assume:
Pc = 2(4 + 8.63) = 25.26 in.
Pt = 3(25.26) + 32.25 = 108 in.
2
Atp = TPt = 0.04(108) = 4.32 in.
Therefore:
Ft = SMAtp + 10Pt
= 5,000(4.32) + 10(108) = 22,680 lbf (101 kN)
Rated press force at maximum rpm of 100 rpm = 60,000 lbf
(267 kN)
The available press force is more than double the total trim force
needed to cut three parts in a row.

Die Clearance

Polystyrene plastic is somewhat brittle so that it will tolerate a

more generous clearance than a more rubbery plastic. One method
for calculating the die clearance is to enlarge the gap between the
punch and die to compensate for an increase in sheet thickness. A

303

Ch11.pmd 303 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

tool clearance of 3% of sheet thickness is a good starting point.

From Table 11-2, the high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) sheet thick-
ness is 0.04 in. (1.0 mm) × 3% = 0.0012-in. (0.030-mm) tool clear-
ance (per wall).
A more rubbery plastic (high-density polyethylene) may require
1.5–2% tool clearance or 0.0006–0.0008-in. (0.015–0.020-mm) tool
clearance.
To avoid excess tool wear, a minimum of 0.0003–0.0005 in.
(0.008–0.013 mm) is a practical lower limit for tool clearance.

Guide Pins

Most die sets use the four-guide-pin design (Figure 11-8) but
some older presses may accommodate only two-guide-pin tooling.
The pins must be of sufficient length so they are fully engaged by
the guide-pin bushings at the maximum working opening of the
trim press. Guide pins are hardened, ground, and mirror-finished
to 5–8-µin. (0.1–0.2 µm) for maximum life and to reduce frictional
resistance. Guide pins can be press-fitted into the die holder for
maximum accuracy and squareness. The removable-style pin is
specified for ease of die fabrication, sharpening, and for rapid re-
placement of worn pins. Special guide pins, which are used with
pre-loaded ball bearing retainers and bushings, are available as
completely packaged assemblies.

Guide Bushings

Guide bushings (Figure 11-7) are available in press-fitted or

removable styles and in materials such as hardened steel, tough
aluminum bronze, or bronze-plated steel. Nonferrous materials
are specified to minimize damage that could occur if the lubrica-
tion system fails, as steel-to-steel components may seize and gall.
Pre-loaded, ball-bearing bushings have a retainer cage in which
the steel balls are arranged in a helical pattern so that each ball
has a separate linear path to travel on the guide pin (see Figure
11-17). The balls are pre-loaded between an outer steel bushing
and the guide pin. This arrangement tends to minimize the clear-

304

Ch11.pmd 304 7/17/02, 9:12 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Figure 11-17. Packaged, pre-loaded, ball-bearing retainer, bushing, and

pin. (Courtesy Producto Machine Company)

ance required for linear travel of the punch plate and provides
the most precise lineup for the punch and die.
Selection of a suitable style pin and bushing depends on the
allowable clearance between the punch and die, and experience
the end user has had with these components. The diameter of the
pins and bushing for a four-pin die set range from 1.25–2.00 in.
(31.8–50.8 mm), depending on the thickness of the die holder.

Plate Thickness

The plate thickness of the punch-and-die holder plates in the

die set is based on retaining sufficient cross-sectional area to keep
them flat and parallel to each other. This becomes the foundation
on which to build the tool. The distance between the pins and the
size of the cutouts for parts clearance that exit from the die re-
quire specification of the proper plate thickness. The die set must

305

Ch11.pmd 305 7/17/02, 9:13 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

support itself as a monolithic structure without distortion, and

die buildup plates add to the stiffness of the tool. A good starting
point for the thickness of die-set plates is 2.50–3.00 in. (63.5–76.2
mm). This assumes that the plates do not contain excessive cut-
out areas and have approximately 40 in. (101.6 cm) between the
guide pins.

Tool Steel Selection

Tool steel selection and heat treatment is complicated because

no one steel can possess all the qualities to make it an easy choice
(see Table 11-4). Water (W) or oil (O) -hardening tool steels are
readily available and relatively inexpensive. They are easily ma-
chined, but tend to deform when quenched rapidly in fluids after
undergoing high-heat-treatment temperatures. Air-hardening (A)
steels are heated to red heat and quenched slowly in air, which
results in minimal distortion. High-carbon, high-chromium (D)
steels are difficult to machine but have the greatest toughness
and wear resistance of all the tool steels. The remaining tool steels
in Table 11-4 are rarely used in thermoforming trim dies.
To prevent stress-concentration cracking, punch-and-die com-
ponents that are to be hardened should not have sharp corners.
Whenever possible, the designer should try to maintain a uniform
cross-sectional area to reduce heat-treatment distortion. Die parts
are first machined undersize if they are to be ground later to fin-
ished dimensions after hardening. Small tools that have a punch-
and-die clearance of 0.0008 in. (0.020 mm) or greater are often
machined to finished size when fabricated from air-hardened tool
steel. Then, they are heat-treated without further internal grind-
ing. These hardened parts are ground parallel on their faces to
sharpen their cutting edges and provide a flat mounting surface.
The majority of hardened die components are fabricated from
either A-2 or D-2 tool steel, which have some of the following char-
acteristics.
Air-hardening die steels. Type A2 is the most often specified
type of air-hardening tool steel. It exhibits minimum movement
in hardening and has higher wear resistance than oil-hardening
die steels, with equal toughness. Steels A4, A5, and A6 can be

306

Ch11.pmd 306 7/17/02, 9:13 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Table 11-4. Comparison of the basic characteristics

of steels used for press tools
Resistance
AISI* Non- Safety to Softening
Steel deforming in Effect Wear Machin-
Number Properties Hardening Toughness of Heat Resistance ability
W1 Poor Fair Good Poor Fair Best
W2 Poor Fair Good Poor Fair Best
O1 Good Good Fair Poor Fair Good
O2 Good Good Fair Poor Fair Good
O7 Good Good Fair Poor Fair Good
A2 Best Best Fair Fair Good Fair
A4 Best Best Fair Poor Fair Fair
A5 Best Best Fair Poor Fair Fair
A6 Best Best Fair Poor Fair Fair
D2 Best Best Fair Fair Good Poor
D3 Good Good Poor Fair Best Poor
D4 Best Best Poor Fair Best Poor
D6 Good Good Poor Fair Best Poor
S1 Fair Good Good Fair Fair Fair
S2 Poor Fair Best Fair Fair Fair
S4 Poor Fair Best Fair Fair Fair
S5 Fair Good Best Fair Fair Fair
H11 Best Best Best Good Fair Fair
H12 Best Best Best Good Fair Fair
H13 Best Best Best Good Fair Fair
H21 Good Good Good Good Fair Fair
H26 Good Good Good Best Good Fair
T1 Good Good Fair Best Good Fair
T15 Good Fair Poor Best Best Poor
M2 Good Fair Fair Best Good Fair
M3 Good Fair Fair Best Good Fair
M4 Good Fair Fair Best Best Poor
L2 Fair Fair Good Poor Fair Fair
L3 Fair Poor Fair Poor Fair Good
L6 Good Good Good Poor Fair Fair
F2 Poor Poor Poor Fair Best Fair
* American Iron and Steel Institute

307

Ch11.pmd 307 7/17/02, 9:13 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

hardened from lower temperatures. They have lower wear resis-

tance but better distortional properties.
High-carbon, high-chromium die steels. Type D2 is often
used for thermoforming dies. It finds wide application for long-run
dies. It is deep hardened, fairly tough, and has good resistance to
wear, but is more difficult to machine than A2. Steels D3, D4, and
D6, containing additional carbon, have very high wear resistance
and lower toughness. Steels D2 and D4 can be air-hardened.

Sheet Shrinkage

Shrinkage of the plastic, from the size of the mold down to the
finished part, should be analyzed as to how it affects die dimen-
sioning. Heated high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) sheet shrinks
0.006 in./in. (0.006 mm/mm) uniformly in the transverse and in-
dex directions. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) and some other
extruded resins may have a differential shrinkage relative to the
transverse and index direction of extrusion.
The following dimensions affect shrinkage and die design:
• Centerline to centerline dimensions of the cavities are affected
across the web (transverse). The index direction is affected
only when two or more rows are blanked at one time.
• Pilots that are used to position the formed part to the die
must conform precisely to the shrunken component to be ef-
fective.
• A part whose formed section is not centered to its perimeter
trim requires care when designing its pilot location.
• Cone locators are used to pre-register shot rows on the outer
edges of the web. An error in shrinkage of 0.002 in./in. (0.002
mm/mm) on a 30-in. (76.2-cm) wide web would be 0.06-in.
(1.5 mm) and may cause misregistration of the row.

Stripper Plates

Stripper plates, mounted on the punch plate and guided by

shoulder bolts, are spring-loaded to their fully extended position.
Stripper steel-plate stock that has been stress-relieved and ground

308

Ch11.pmd 308 7/17/02, 9:13 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

on all faces is used to fabricate this component. The plate thick-

ness can vary from 0.50–1.00 in. (12.7–25.4 mm), depending on
how much material remains after machining the cavity to clear
the punches. The material is a low-carbon steel, has no alloying
elements, and tends to machine with minimal finished distortion.
Choosing die-set design dimensions requires studying the press
specifications of the machine manufacturer, as shown in Table
11-5, and platen drawings (see Figures 11-18 through 11-20). Ex-
amining the critical dimensions of these trim-press platen lay-
outs will help rough out the overall minimum size of the die set.
• The four guide pins should have a center-to-center distance
of 9 × 42 in. (22.9–106.7 cm) with a maximum pin diameter
of 2.25 in. (57.2 mm).
• Alternate rows of mounting holes for the punch plate of 10
and 13 in. (2.5 and 33.0 cm) allow direct fastening of the punch

Table 11-5. Brown Machine T-300

trim-press specifications (Courtesy Brown Machine, LLC)
Moving Platen Openings
B—Minimum Shut, A—Adjustable LLength,
ength, Maximum
Stroke in. (mm) in. (mm) rpm
4½ 7½ (190.5) 16 (406.4) 100
7½ 6 (152.4) 16 (406.4) 90
10½ 6 (152.4) 14½ (368.3) 80
13½ 6 (152.4) 13 (330.2) 60
16½ 6 (152.4) 11½ (292.1) 60

309

Ch11.pmd 309 7/17/02, 9:13 AM

Ch11.pmd
310
310
Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

7/17/02, 9:13 AM
Figure 11-18. Moving platen layout for Brown trim press. (Courtesy Brown Machine, LLC)
Ch11.pmd
311
311

7/17/02, 9:13 AM
Figure 11-19. Stationary platen layout for Brown trim press. (Courtesy Brown Machine, LLC)
Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming
 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 11-20. Die shown mounted in a horizontal Brown T-300 trim press.
(Courtesy Brown Machine, LLC)

plate to the moving platen without removing any of the over-

hanging tooling. The size and weight of the punch plate can
be reduced when smaller punches are needed by using the
minimum mounting-hole centers.
• The three fixed keys help operators to locate the die set in
the correct position on the centerlines of the platens.
• Once the moving platen dimensions are settled, the station-
ary-platen-mounting dimensions will fall into place.

312

Ch11.pmd 312 7/17/02, 9:13 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Shut Height

The minimum shut height of the press, which is based on the

press stroke and maximum rpm, guides the designer as to choice
of thickness for the buildup of plates to meet the minimum and
maximum specifications (see Table 11-5).

Sheet Shrinkage

Salient shrinkage dimensions of the mold layout, as shown in

Figure 11-16, are recalculated and marked “die” to indicate the
cold-shrink size of the plastic to be presented to the trim tool. Die
dimensional information should be re-examined for accuracy to
provide correct registration of the shot relative to the die. It should
be noted that the distance between mold cavities in the trans-
verse and index directions is different. Abutting transverse die-
cavity walls will reinforce each other to provide sufficient
cross-sectional stiffness to resist deflection by the trim force, and
they still can be removed as individual units.
The die user often specifies that a scant minimum of plastic
wall be left in the web as trim scrap. A wider die wall may become
necessary to provide a strong die and the difference should be
resolved by negotiation with the customer. The index directional
sidewalls on a single-row die generally have sufficient space avail-
able to provide strong die walls.
Figure 11-20 shows platen layouts in the side view of the trim
press to help complete the design of a four-post die set. The mov-
ing platen has a center opening to allow installing knockouts and
0.75 in. (19.1 mm) keyways at three centerline locations to center
the die set. The stationary platen contains a large exit opening
that can accommodate parts up to 12.50-in. (31.8-cm) long.
Table 11-5 shows the press stroke and connector rod adjust-
ment for a moving platen. The minimum shut height of the die
for a 4.50-in. (114.3-mm) stroke is 7.50 in. (190.5 mm), which sets
the minimum dimension for the die-set buildup. Die-set mount-
ing-hole locations are obtained from both platen drawings.

313

Ch11.pmd 313 7/17/02, 9:13 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Pins

Die-set thickness, pins, and bushings selected for the die speci-
fication in Table 11-3 are conservative and tend to be oversized
(see Figures 11-21 and 11-22). Die-set platens of 2.50-in. (63.5-
mm) thickness offer a solid foundation to support the punch-and-
die cavities. Four 1.50-in. (38.1-mm) diameter pins and bushings
provide precision and guidance for movement of the die set. The
pins, which should always remain within the confines of the bush-
ing, use a 4.50-in. (114.3-mm) press stroke. Pins can be as long as
11.00 in. (27.9 cm). The trimmed-part openings in the die plate
can be flame-cut and later machine-finished to size.

Scrap Cutoff

The scrap-trim cutoff location makes use of the trailing edge of

the three cavities as a convenient blade rather than fabricating
an additional component. This leaves an open area for the trimmed
scrap to fall cleanly away from the die and avoids any uncut cavi-
ties from being crushed and possibly jamming the incoming in-
dexed sheet.
The stripper plate clamps the trim scrap firmly against the die’s
blade edge. This assists in achieving a clean cut as well as strip-
ping scrap away from the trim blade.

Conclusion

Design of the trim punch and die does not take place in a
vacuum, shielded from outside forces. Mold layout has a major
influence on both the cost and ease of fabricating a die. The
customer’s thoughtful input and willingness to modify particular
specifications when necessary can turn a complicated die project
into a routine operation. Toolmaking facilities with modern pre-
cision equipment, skilled employees, and enlightened management
ease the die-designer’s task. Trim-press manufacturers are an
essential part of the die team because they supply the equipment
to help maintain the die in its original precision condition, provide

314

Ch11.pmd 314 7/17/02, 9:13 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

Figure 11-21. Punch plate assembly.

315

Ch11.pmd 315 7/30/02, 10:36 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

Figure 11-22. Die plate assembly.

316

Ch11.pmd 316 7/17/02, 9:13 AM

 Chapter 11: Off-line Punch-and-die Trimming

easy access to mount the tooling, and maintain a safe environ-

ment for machine operators.
Finally, thermoforming shop personnel who have been prop-
erly instructed in maintenance and operation of the die ensure a
long, productive life for the tool.

References

Mitchell, Philip, ed. 1996. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers

Handbook, Vol. 8. Plastic Part Manufacturing. Dearborn, MI: So-
ciety of Manufacturing Engineers.
Nee, John. 1998. Fundamentals of Tool Design, Fourth Edition.
Dearborn, MI: Society of Manufacturing Engineers.

317

Ch11.pmd 317 7/17/02, 9:13 AM

Ch11.pmd 318 7/17/02, 9:13 AM
 Index

Index

A C
adjustable-length cavity
mold base, 163 (Fig. 7-7) center-to-center dimensions, 183
pressure box, 164 (Fig. 7-8) (Eq. 8-2)
vacuum-forming seal-off box, fastener, 204
165 (Fig. 7-9) length, 182 (Eq. 8-1)
air cooling of molds, 137 materials, 133
aluminum number per shot, 127
-cast cavities, 131 center of pressure (CP)
-filled epoxy cavities, 130 calculation of, 267 (Eq. 10-2)
model or pattern for casting, 130 for knife-like die, 269 (Fig. 10-17)
amorphous plastic molecules, 21– center-to-center
22 (Fig. 2-3) cavity dimensions, 183 (Eq. 8-2)
angel hair, 261 distance between male cavities,
assists, 168 185 (Fig. 8-1)
B centers of gravity and perimeter
lines, 268 (Fig. 10-16)
back drill to vent hole, 200 (Fig. 8-13)
baffle plate installation, 218 (Fig. ceramic heating element and
8-30) panel, 76 (Fig. 4-9)
ball-bearing retainer, bushing, and channel vents, 200
pin, 305 (Fig. 11-17) checklist of mold details, 221-222
barrier, 32 (Fig. 8-32)
bending and die finishing, 243 choosing
blisters, 63 a knife-like die, 261
buildup a resin, 45, 120
for part height, 244 clamps, 147–149 (Fig. 6-14)
to support die and striker plates, clarity, 33, 122
11 (Fig. 1-10) clearance from top of male cavity
bushings, 288 (Fig. 11-7) to assist plate, 160 (Fig. 7-5)

319

index.pmd 319 7/17/02, 11:16 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

coefficients of thermal conductivity, design

141 (Tab. 6-2) draft angle and radii, 55
coining force, 173 (Eq. 7-2) features, 53
cone locators to assist registration, modification, 52
292 (Fig. 11-11) mold texture, 58
contact heat of inserts, 59
accuracy of mold buildup, 153 of parts, 51
and foam thermoforming, 172 of plugs and assists, 167, 170–171
mold ejector blade, 218 (Fig. 8- of thermoformed products, 51–66
29) parameters, 301
mold temperature control, 153 rib stiffeners, 56
molds, 213, 215–216 stack height variables, 56
pressure former, 69 (Fig. 4-2) undercuts, 58
thermoforming process, 88 uniform wall thickness, 56
die
(Fig. 4-16), 152
allowance (forged), 187
continuous formed parts, 65
blade types and uses, 241
continuous web thermoforming, 2 board selection, 242–243
control systems, 79 clearance, 285 (Tab. 11-2), 303
cooling annulus for a deep female components, 273 (Fig. 11-1)
mold, 198 (Fig. 8-12) cutting, 101, 103, 106
costs, 223–225, 274 damage, 110
creasing (mechanical forging), 174 design specification, 301 (Tab.
creep, 34 11-3)
critical wall thickness, 121 handling methods, 285
knife-like, 60 (Tab. 3-1), 101
crystalline material, 21–22
(Fig. 5-3), 240 (Fig. 10-1), 254
crystalline versus amorphous
(Fig 10-10), 258 (Fig. 10-12),
thermoplastics, 20–24 260 (Fig. 10-14), 262, 265, 269
cup rim rolling machines, 63 (Fig. (Fig. 10-17)
3-6) mounted in horizontal trim
cut-in-place contact heat press, 312 (Fig. 11-20)
cut edge, 217 (Fig. 8-28) plate assembly, 316 (Fig. 11-22)
thermoformer, 85, 87 (Fig. 4-15) set bushings, 288 (Fig. 11-7)
thermoforming tool, 216 (Fig. set guide pins, 289 (Fig. 11-8)
8-27) steel rule, 9 (Fig. 1-8), 239
cutting allowance, 186
flush, 215, 217 (Fig. 8-28) bending and die finishing, 243
force, 266 (Eq. 10-1), 281 (Eqs. buildup for part height, 244
11-2 and 3), 283 (Fig. 11-5) built on a metal pedestal,
off scrap skeleton, 277 (Fig. 11-3) 242 (Fig. 10-3)
through plastic, 102 (Fig. 5-4) cutting edges, 241 (Fig. 10-2)
layout, 243, 271 (Fig. 10-18)
D shrinkage, 246
depth of draw, 205 stripping of cut parts, 244

320

index.pmd 320 7/17/02, 11:16 AM

 Index

tolerances, 246 length, 188

trimming, 246 pressure box, 191
swell, 42 flat punch use, 193 (Fig. 8-8)
swing-arm clicker cutter, 96 flexure, 26 (Eq. 2-1)
(Fig. 5-1) flood cooling of female molds, 215
user and die builder respon- (Fig. 8-26)
sibilities, 270 flow
draft angle and radii, 55 behavior of polymers, 36–39
drill sizes for venting, 199 (Tab. 8-2) behavior of polypropylene
drinking straws, 175 resins, 40 (Fig. 2-8)
rates, 144 (Tab. 6-3)
E fluid distribution, 145 (Fig. 6-12),
ejecting 210
scrap from punches, 251 (Fig. flush cut, 215, 217 (Fig. 8-28)
10-9) foam mold cross-section, 151 (Fig.
trimmed parts and skeleton, 6-17)
245 (Fig. 10-5) foam packaging, 64
ejector plate, 149 (Fig. 6-15) foam thermoforming, 149
electrically heated molds, 139 food containers, 62
embossing and texturing, 61 force
engraving, 125, 127 (Fig. 6-5) coining, 173 (Eq. 7-2)
environmental stress crack cutting, 266 (Eq. 10-1), 281
resistance (ESCR), 34 (Eqs. 11-2 and 11-3), 283 (Fig.
extrudate thickness changes, 43 11-5)
(Fig. 2-9) trim, 303
extruded plastic sheet, 3 (Fig. 1-2) forged dies, 247
extruder, 3 (Fig. 1-3), 92 (Fig. 4-18) adjustment, 247
extrusion behavior, 39 allowance, 187
spare dies, 248
F forging a living hinge in polypropy-
family-style tooling, 165 lene, 175 (Fig. 7-14)
fatigue resistance, 35 founders of thermoforming
female mold machinery firms, 93
cavities, 135 (Fig. 6-8), 161
(Fig. 7-6), 194 (Fig. 8-10), 196 G
(Fig. 8-11) glass-transition temperature, 22
flood cooling, 215 (Fig. 8-26) glassy, 21
layout, 192, 194–195 gloss, 33
piloted punch, 194 (Fig. 8-9), guide bushings, 287–288 (Fig. 11-7),
291 (Fig. 11-9) 304
plug and finished plastic part, guide pins, 289 (Fig. 11-8), 304
170 (Fig. 7-12) guillotine shear, 99 (Fig. 5-2)
venting, 201 (Fig. 8-15)
fixed mold base, 188, 193 (Fig. 8-6) H
machine chain width and index hard anvil striker plate, 103

321

index.pmd 321 7/17/02, 11:16 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

heat knife-like, 101 (Fig. 5-3)

assist, 103, 171 die-cutting presses, 107 (Fig.
assisted die cutting, 256 5-6)
distortion temperature, 30 dies, 60 (Tab. 3-1), 240 (Fig.
loss to plug, 170–171 10-1), 254 (Fig. 10-10), 258
transfer in metal molds, 140– (Fig. 10-12), 260 (Fig. 10-14),
141 (Fig. 6-10) 262, 265, 269 (Fig. 10-17)
distributing cooling fluid, 145 trim dies, 239–262, 263-264
high temperatures, 142 (Tabs. 10-1 and 10-2), 265–272
liquid flow velocity, 143 knockouts, 290
heated molds, 139
heated sheet sagging onto lower L
tooling, 129 (Fig. 6-6) labor, 227
heating the plastic, 1 lamellae, 23
height of product, 128 laminar flow versus turbulent
hinges, 125–126 (Fig. 6-4) flow, 144 (Fig. 6-11)
holding trimmed parts, 15 (Fig. layout
1-14) location of mold base relative to
hole spacing and size, 209 oven, 208 (Fig. 8-20)
horizontal trim presses, 112 (Fig. of a steel-rule die, 269
5-7) of an off-line punch and die, 299
hybrid die cross section, 255 (Fig. of liquid cooling paths, 146
10-11) (Fig. 6-13)
hybrid tool-steel dies, 253 techniques, 243
lengths of material, 266 (Tab. 10-3)
I lockup force, 77
indexing, 71
chain electrical servomotor M
drive, 73 (Fig. 4-6) machine
pusher lugs, 188, 190 (Fig. 8-5) chain width and index length,
sheets, 12 188
the web, 72 (Fig. 4-5) components, 4
initial plug design, 168 (Fig. 7-10) machined
initial sheet thickness, 176 and hardened knife-like die,
inlet diameter to restrict flow, 211 249 (Fig. 10-7)
(Eq. 8-4) cavities, 132
in-line tool-steel dies, 248–249
extruder, 3 (Fig. 1-3) hybrid, 253
thermoforming, trim, and manual detachment, 252
packing machine, 84 (Fig. 4-13) manual punching, 253
trim press, 96 methods of scrap removal,
inserts, 59 249
self-stripping, 252
K semi-automatic removal, 252
kisscut, 103 make-ready, 103, 273

322

index.pmd 322 7/17/02, 11:16 AM

 Index

male cavity, 204 (Fig. 8-18) mold-base assembly components,

base vent slot, 200 (Fig. 8-14) 155–156 (Fig. 7-1)
distance between, 185 (Fig. 8-1) adjustable, 162
internal fluid circulation, 207 cavities, 157
(Fig. 8-19) clamp bars, 162
layout, 186 (Figs. 8-2 and 8-3) mounting platen, 161
male mold pipe size, 209 (Tab. 8-3)
assists, 169 (Fig. 7-11) pressure boxes, 158
cavity, 135 (Fig. 6-7), 189 (Fig. sheet clamps, 157
8-4) spacers, 161
forged die allowance, 187 with two separated passages,
indexing pusher lug allowance, 210 (Fig. 8-21)
188 mold buildup layout, 153, 205
layout, 183 air cooling, 137
punch and die allowance, 187 cavity design, 134
steel rule die allowance, 186 depth of draw, 205
trim die mold clearance, 186 ejector blade, 218 (Fig. 8-29)
male pilot mounted on a flat-faced electrically heated molds, 139
punch, 291 (Fig. 11-10) female cavities, 136
manual die cutter, 96 (Fig. 5-1), forming-press specifications,
105 (Fig. 5-5) 205–206
manually fed trim press, 99 male cavities, 134
master sheet, 109 mold temperature, 137
objectives, 119
material lengths, 266 (Tab. 10-3)
oven location, 206
mating parts surfaces, 122 (Fig. 6-1)
press toggle lockup, 205
mechanical knockouts, 149
refrigerated cooling fluid, 139
mechanical properties of solid
tool weight, 206
polymers, 26
tooling location, 206
heat-distortion temperature, 30 wall thickness distribution, 136
modulus, 27 water cooling, 137
orientation, 28 water mineral deposit buildup,
stiffness, 26 140
toughness, 30 mold cavities, 129, 134, 136
medical packaging, 62 aluminum-cast, 131
melt aluminum-filled epoxy, 130
elasticity, strength, and orienta- base design, 206
tion, 41, 43 cost estimating, 223–238
flow rate (MFR) test, 39 (Fig. depth, 217 (Eq. 8-6)
2-7) design, 119–154
fracture, 42 estimating form, 228–229 (Fig.
mer, 19 9-1)
minimum fluid distribution, 210
rpm, 282 (Eq. 11-4) hole spacing and size, 209
web width, 190 (Eq. 8-3) layout, 181–222, 302 (Figure
modulus, 27, 29 (Fig. 2-6) 11-16)

323

index.pmd 323 7/17/02, 11:16 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

machined, 132 oven

model or pattern for casting, 130 heat sources, 73
mounted to a press platen, 152 location, 206
(Fig. 6-18) opening, 74 (Fig. 4-7)
parting line, 150 (Fig. 6-16)
shrinkage coefficients, 181
P
system components, 155–179 package design, 55 (Fig. 3-4)
temperature control, 153 parallel circuit mold base flow, 214
texture, 58 (Fig. 8-24)
thickness, 208 part clarity, 122
water temperature controller, part design, 51
138 (Fig. 6-9) determining features, 53
mold costs, 225 draft angle and radii, 55
mold details checklist, 221–222 inserts, 59
(Fig. 8-32) modification, 52
molds for contact heat, 213, 215– mold texture, 58
216 rib stiffeners, 56
molecular weight, 25 stack height variables, 56
monomers, 19 undercuts, 58
moving-platen layout, 310 (Fig. uniform wall thickness, 56
11-18) part ejection, 148
multi-cavity part handling, 13
egg carton, 65 (Fig. 3-7) pattern shrinkage allowance, 182
female mold plug and finished perimeter lines and centers of
plastic part, 170 (Fig. 7-12) gravity, 268 (Fig. 10-16)
knife-like dies, 101 (Fig. 5-3) physical properties of plastic
materials, 19–50
N pilot, 290–291 (Fig. 11-9)
pilot pins, 314
non-Newtonian, 40 pipe size for mold bases, 209 (Tab.
nuclei, 23 8-3)
number of cavities per shot, 127 plastic materials (physical proper-
ties), 19–50
O platen layout (stationary), 311
off-line (Fig. 11-19)
press, 85 plugs and assists, 167, 170–171,
punch-and-die trimming, 274 193 (Fig. 8-7)
self-indexing trim press, 14 points, 239
(Fig. 1-13) polyethylene molecules, 21 (Fig. 2-2)
trim press, 86 (Fig. 4-14), 111 polymer, 19, 36
on-line polymerization, 19
knife-like die-cutting presses, polystyrene foam crease for hinge,
107 (Fig. 5-6) 174 (Fig. 7-13)
press, 82 pre-loaded ball-bearing retainer,
trim press, 106 bushing, and pin, 305 (Fig. 11-17)
orientation, 28 press (off-line), 85

324

index.pmd 324 7/17/02, 11:16 AM

 Index

press toggle lockup, 205 stripper plate, 290

press tool steels, 307 (Tab. 11-4) weight, 284
pressure box, 7 (Fig. 1-7), 158–160 trim press, 278, 280
(Figs. 7-2, 7-3, and 7-4), 191 trimming, 10, 274, 276
pressure forming, 6, 68 pusher lugs, 115 (Fig. 5-9)
process comparison, 8
product trough, 293 (Fig. 11-12) Q
profit variables, 225–227 questions most asked, 227–228
progressive die with in-line quick-change tooling, 176–177
workstations, 278 (Fig. 11-4) (Fig. 7-15)
properties of plastic materials, 19–
50 R
prototypes, 80–81 (Fig. 4-11) radiant heating panels, 75 (Fig. 4-
punch and die, 10 8)
allowance, 187 radius “V” and “W” package
assembly, 12 (Fig. 1-11), 288 hinges, 126 (Fig. 6-4)
(Fig. 11-6), 315 (Fig. 11-21) refrigerated cooling fluid, 139
cutting force, 279, 281 resin
design, 276 comparison, 46–47 (Tab. 2-2)
economy of purchase, 275 shrinkage and registration for
(Tab. 11-1) trimming, 12
for thermoformed parts, 9 restrictor rod geometry, 214 (Fig.
(Fig. 1-9) 8-25)
press, 97 rib stiffeners, 56
segment, 254 (Fig. 10-10) roll-fed thermoforming, 1–17, 71,
steel-rule punches, 250 (Fig. 83 (Fig. 4-12)
10-8) roll stand, 5 (Fig. 1-4)
stresses, 274 (Fig. 11-2) roller-die cutting, 104
tooling, 283 rolls of extruded plastic sheet, 3
clearance, 283, 285 (Fig. 1-2)
cutoff blades, 294 rotary-drum mold thermoformer, 90
die handling, 285 rpm (minimum), 282 (Eq. 11-4)
die sets, 287
exit chutes or product S
trough, 294 safety, 100, 296
fastening, 286 scrap, 116, 249, 252, 295 (Fig. 11-
guide pins and bushings, 13), 314
287 screw-type lids, 176
hardness, 286 seal-joint ends, 160 (Fig. 7-4)
holders, 289 secondary processes, 16–17 (Fig. 1-
knockouts, 290 15)
operating conditions, 284 segment punch and die, 254 (Fig.
pilots, 290 10-10)
safety, 296 semi-crystalline plastics, 23 (Fig.
skills, 284 2-4)

325

index.pmd 325 7/17/02, 11:16 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

series fluid circuit, 211 (Fig. 8-22), stiffness, 26

213 (Fig. 8-23) Stratton, E. Bowman (Bo), 68 (Fig.
service ports (maximum), 145 (Eq. 4-1)
6-2) stresses (punch and die), 274 (Fig.
shear (guillotine), 99 (Fig. 5-2) 11-2)
shear rate, 40 striker plate material, 108
sheet stripper plates, 290, 308
indexing for trimming, 12 stripping of cut parts, 244
properties, 37–38 (Tab. 2-1) swing-arm clicker manual die
shrinkage, 308, 313 cutter, 96 (Fig. 5-1)
starting thickness, 176 (Eq. 7-2) symmetrical male cavity layout,
thinning and loss of properties, 2 186 (Fig. 8-2)
(Fig. 1-1)
shop backlog, 224 T
shrinkage, 181, 246, 308, 313 texturing and embossing, 61
allowance for pattern, 182 thermal conductivity coefficients,
coefficient, 181–182 (Tab. 8-1) 141 (Tab. 6-2)
shut height, 313 thermoformed
skin packaging, 70 (Fig. 4-3) clear panel surface, 124 (Fig. 6-3)
slot vents, 199 part shrinkage, 181
soft anvil striker plate, 102 part with sufficient radius and
spherulites, 24 draft angle, 54 (Fig. 3-3)
spot-welded lap joint at a steel- thermoformer, 85, 87 (Fig. 4-15), 90
rule seam, 244 (Fig. 10-4) thermoforming, 1
spring-action combination pilot a continuous web, 2
and knockout, 245 (Fig. 10-6) foam, 149
starting sheet thickness, 176 (Eq. machines, 67–93
7-2) molds
stationary platen layout, 311 (Fig. adjustable, 162
11-19) air cooling, 137
steel rule die, 9 (Fig. 1-8), 239 base assembly components,
allowance, 186 155–156 (Fig. 7-1)
bending and die finishing, 243 base design, 206
blade types and uses, 241 buildup layout, 153, 205
board selection, 242 cavities, 129–132, 157, 210,
buildup for part height, 244 217 (Eq. 8-6)
built on a metal pedestal, 242 clamp bars, 162
(Fig. 10-3) cost estimating, 223–229
cutting edges, 241 (Fig. 10-2) (Fig. 9-1), 230–238
layout, 243, 271 (Fig. 10-18) depth of draw, 205
shrinkage, 246 design, 119–154
stripping of cut parts, 244 details checklist, (Fig. 8-32)
tolerances, 246 electrically heated, 139
trimming, 246 female cavities, 136
steel-rule punches, 250 (Fig. 10-8) for contact heat, 213, 215–
steels for press tools, 307 (Tab. 11-4) 216

326

index.pmd 326 7/17/02, 11:16 AM

 Index

forming-press specifications, 11-15)

205–206 trapped sheet, 147, 172
hole spacing and size, 209 thermoplastics, 19
layout, 181–222, 302 (Fig. thermosetting plastics, 20 (Fig. 2-1)
11-16) thin-wall formed parts, 62–65
male cavities, 134 three
model or pattern for casting, methods of fastening a die to a
130 mold plate, 219 (Fig. 8-31)
mounted to a press platen, -point bending test, 27 (Fig. 2-5)
152 (Fig. 6-18) tilting trim-in-place tool, 297 (Fig.
mounting platen, 161 11-14)
objectives, 119 toggles, 78 (Fig. 4-10), 205
oven location, 206 tolerances, 246
parting line, 150 (Fig. 6-16) tonnage rating, 280 (Eq. 11-1)
press toggle lockup, 205 tool
pressure boxes, 158 clearance, 283–285
refrigerated cooling fluid, 139 -steel dies, 248–249
sheet clamps, 157 hybrid, 253
shrinkage coefficients, 181 manual detachment, 252
spacers, 161 manual punching, 253
system components, 155–179 methods of scrap removal,
temperature, 137, 153 249
texture, 58 self-stripping, 252
thickness, 208 semi-automatic removal, 252
tool weight, 206 steel selection, 306–307 (Tab.
tooling location, 206 11-4)
wall thickness distribution, weight, 206
136 tooling
water cooling, 137 for a combination heat-sealing
water mineral deposit and trim die, 261 (Fig. 10-15)
buildup, 140 for vacuum forming, 7 (Fig. 1-6)
water temperature con- location, 206
troller, 138 (Fig. 6-9) toughness, 30
with two separated pas- trapped-sheet thermoforming,
sages, 210 (Fig. 8-21) 147, 172
parts formed improperly, 227 tray packaging, 64
presses, 6 (Fig. 1-5), 77–79 indexing pusher lug allowance,
systems, 172 188
coining, 173 punch and die allowance, 187
contact heat and foam, 172 steel rule die allowance, 186
drinking straws, 175 trim-die mold clearance, 186
increasing (mechanical trim
forging), 174 die mold clearance, 186
screw-type lids, 176 force, 303
venting, 174 -in-place preheat thermoformer,
tool, 216 (Fig. 8-27), 298 (Fig. 90–91 (Fig. 4-17)

327

index.pmd 327 7/17/02, 11:17 AM

 Thermoforming: Improving Process Performance

-in-place tool (tilting), 297 (Fig. holes, 198

11-14) slots, 199
presses, 82, 85, 95–113 (Fig. 5- venting, 174, 197
8), 114–117, 312 (Fig. 11-20) cavities during thermoforming,
punch and dies, 296 197
specifications, 309 (Tab. 11-5) cavity fastener, 204
tools, 299 (Eq. 11-5) channels, 200
trimming, 8, 60 drill sizes, 199 (Tab. 8-2)
above and below the sheet line, female cavities, 201 (Fig. 8-15)
259 (Fig. 10-13) holes, 123 (Fig. 6-2), 198
on-line, 13 (Fig. 1-12) plate thickness, 305
on two planes using a knife- removable inserts, 201 (Fig. 8-16)
like die, 257–258 (Fig. 10-12) slots, 199–200 (Fig. 8-14)
punch and die, 10 vertical trim presses, 113 (Fig. 5-8)
resin shrinkage and registration,
12
W
sheet indexing, 12 wall thickness, 56, 121, 136
solutions, 246 water
turbulent flow versus laminar cooling of molds, 137
flow, 144 (Fig. 6-11) mineral deposit buildup, 140
temperature controller, 138
U (Fig. 6-9)
undercuts, 57–58 (Fig. 3-5) wattage required to heat mold
cavity, 142 (Eq. 6-1)
V web indexed, 72 (Fig. 4-4)
vacuum forming, 67 web width (minimum), 190 (Eq. 8-3)
machines, 80 webbing reduction, 53 (Fig. 3-2)
process, 5
roll-fed machine, 83 (Fig. 4-12)
Z
seal-off methods, 164 zero draft on sharp-cornered
vent rectangular part, 52 (Fig. 3-1)
channels, 200, 203 (Fig. 8-17)

328

index.pmd 328 7/17/02, 11:17 AM