Ions

 In a chemical reaction atoms can form ions by

gaining or losing electrons.
 Metals tend to lose one or more electrons to
form positive ions called cations.

– Cations are generally named by using the name of the

parent atom.
 Ions
 Nonmetals tend to gain one or more electrons
to form negative ions called anions.

• Anions are named by using the root of the atom name

followed by the suffix –ide.
Chemical bonds: an attempt to fill electron shells in
order to follow the octet rule

1. Ionic bonds
2. Covalent bonds
3. Metallic bonds
 Electron Affinity:
 Electron Affinity Definition : the energy change
when an electron is added to a neutral atom and
becomes negative In simpler terms, the process of
adding an electron.
 Ionization Energies:
 Ionization Energies Definition: the energy change
when an electron is removed from a neutral atom
and becomes positive Energy is measured in
kilojoules per mole (kJ/ mol ) In simpler terms, the
process of removing an electron.
 Ionic Bonding
 Ionic bonding forms when one atom gives up an
electron and another atom takes that electron
 Forms between an atom with a weak ionization
energy and an atom with a strong
electronegativity
 Usually between a metal and non-metal
 Usually between atoms from the right side of
the periodic table and the left side of the
periodic table
 Ionic Bond
 Between atoms of metals and nonmetals with very
different electronegativity
 Bond formed by transfer of electrons
 Produce charged ions all states.
 Ionic Bond: The Definition

An ionic bond…
is the force of attraction between
opppositely charged ions in a
compound.
Sodium chloride provides example
Na loses
electron

Cl gains
electron
1). Ionic bond – electron from Na is transferred to Cl, this causes a
charge imbalance in each atom. The Na becomes (Na+) and the Cl
becomes (Cl-), charged particles or ions.
In an IONIC bond, electrons are lost or gained,
resulting in the formation of IONS in ionic
compounds.
Between atoms must exist a large difference in
electronegativity

K F
K F
K F
K F
K F
K F
K F
 +
_
K F
 +
_
K F
The compound potassium fluoride
consists of potassium (K+) ions
and fluoride (F-) ions
 +
_
K F
The ionic bond is the attraction
between the positive K+ ion
and the negative F- ion
 Lattice Energy

 The energy associated with electrostatic interactions

is governed by Coulomb’s law:

Q 1Q 2
Eel = 
d
 Ionic Bonding

Example: NaCl Na (1s22s22p63s1) –> Na+(1s22s22p6) + e-

Cl (1s22s22p63s23p5) + e- –> Cl- (1s22s22p63s23p6)
NaCl - An Example of Ionic Bonding
 Properties of Ionic Compounds

 Crystalline structure.
 A regular repeating arrangement of ions in the solid.
 Ions are strongly bonded.
 Structure is rigid.
 High melting points- because of strong forces
between ions.
 Do they Conduct?
 Conducting electricity is allowing
charges to move.
 In a solid, the ions are locked in place.
 Ionic solids are insulators.
 When melted, the ions can move around.
 Melted ionic compounds conduct.
 First get them to 800ºC.
 Dissolved in water they conduct.
 Compounds That Contain Ions
Formulas for Ionic compounds

• Write the cation element symbol followed by the anion

element symbol.
• The number of cations and anions must be correct for their
charges to sum to zero.
Octet Rule = atoms tend to gain, lose or share electrons so as to have
8 electrons
C would like to Gain 4 electrons
N would like to Gain 3 electrons
O would like to Gain 2 electrons
 The covalent bond

Atoms want to fulfill the octet rule by completing their

outer shell, but in covalent bonding atoms prefer to
SHARE electrons rather than losing or gaining them. The
covalent bond occurs between non-metal atoms.
 Covalent Bond: The Definition

A covalent bond is…

a bond formed by the sharing of
a pair of electrons.
In covalent bonding, atoms still want to
achieve a noble gas configuration(the octet
rule).
But rather than losing or gaining electrons,
atoms now share an electron pair.

The shared electron pair

is called a bonding pair
 Ionic VS Covalent
 Similarities
 Electronic configuration of a noble gas
(PS: Everybody wants to be noble!!)

 Differences
Ionic Bond Covalent Bond
Between positive ions of Between non-metal
metals and negative ions of atoms
non-metals
Electrons are transferred Electrons are shared
There are two types of covalent bonds

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds (share equally)

Polar Covalent Bonds (share unequally)

 Ionic bond: electrons are transferred

Sodium needs to give

an electron away,
while Chlorine needs
to get one.

Covalent bond: electrons are shared

Each oxygen atom prefers to

share electrons with the other for
half of its life, than “live
forever” with 6 electrons.
 Covalent Bonding
 Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons and it
is broken into two different types
1. Non-polar Covalent Bonding-Equal sharing of
electrons
 Elements have a similar electronegativity
 Because the electrons are shared evenly there
is no change in the charges of the atoms
 Covalent bonding

 Fluorine has seven valence electrons

F
 Covalent bonding

 Fluorine has seven valence electrons

 A second atom also has seven

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons
 Both end with full orbitals

F F
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons
 Both end with full orbitals

8 Valence
F F electrons
 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons
 Both end with full orbitals

8 Valence
electrons F F
 Single Covalent Bond
 A sharing of two valence electrons.
 Only nonmetals and Hydrogen.
 Different from an ionic bond because they actually
form molecules.
 Two specific atoms are joined.
 In an ionic solid you can’t tell which atom the
electrons moved from or to.
 How
will
Cl Cl two
chlorine
atoms
react?
 Cl Cl
Each chlorine atom wants to
gain one electron to achieve an octet
Neither atom will give up an electron
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
octet
 Cl Cl
octet
 Cl Cl
The octet is achieved by
each atom sharing the
electron pair in the middle
 Cl Cl
The octet is achieved by
each atom sharing the
electron pair in the middle
 Cl Cl
This is the bonding pair

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets
 Sharing two electrons effectively doubles
the count
 Each atom wants 8
 Alone each has seven
 Together each one has eight
 14 electrons appear to become 16
 Single covalent bond
 Cl Cl
It is a single bonding pair

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets
 Cl Cl
It is called a SINGLE BOND

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets
 Cl Cl
Single bonds are abbreviated
with a dash

circle the electrons for

each atom that completes
their octets
 Cl Cl
This is the chlorine molecule,
Cl2
circle the electrons for
each atom that completes
their octets
 Multiple Bonds
 Sometimes atoms share more than one pair of
valence electrons.
 A double bond is when atoms share two pair (4) of
electrons.
 A triple bond is when atoms share three pair (6) of
electrons.
 Multiple bonds are a feature
 O2 and N2 do not achieve octets by sharing two
 Must share more electrons
 O2 has double bond
 N2 has triple bond – one of the strongest in
chemistry
 N2 is very stable and unreactive – also the major
product from explosives
 O2
Oxygen is also one of the diatomic molecules
 O O
How will two oxygen atoms bond?
 O O
Each atom has two unpaired electrons
O O
O O
O O
O O
O O
O O
 O O
Oxygen atoms are highly electronegative.

So both atoms want to gain two electrons.

 O O
Oxygen atoms are highly electronegative.

So both atoms want to gain two electrons.

O O
O O
O O
O O
 O O
Both electron pairs are shared.
O O
6 valence electrons
plus 2 shared electrons
= full octet
 O O
6 valence electrons
plus 2 shared electrons
= full octet
 O O
two bonding pairs,
making a double bond
O O O =O
For convenience, the double bond
can be shown as two dashes.
 O =O
This is the oxygen molecule,

O2
 DIRECTIONAL AND NON-
DIRECTIONAL BONDS

 Directional Bonds: Single or multiple bonds, which

are localized and occur at fixed angles with respect
to each other.
 Non-Directional Bonds: Bonding is equally probable
at all angles. The bond is not localized to a specific
direction (i.e. ionic bonds).
 Sigma Bond Formation by Orbital Overlap
Two s Atomic Orbitals (A.O.s) overlap to form an s
(sigma) Molecular Orbital (M.O.)
H H
• + • •  •
sigma bond ( )
 sigma bond
 a bond formed when two atomic orbitals combine
for form a molecular orbital that is symmetrical
around the axis connecting the two atomic nuclei
Covalent Bonding and Orbital Overlap
 pi bond or pi greek bond
 a covalent bond in which the bonding electrons are
most likely to be found in sausage-shaped regions
above and below the bond axis of the bonded atoms
 Covalent Bonding
σ - bond: e- density in the bond is distributed
symmetrically about the bond axis.
π - bond: e- density in the molecular orbital has a nodal
plane that contains the bond axis.
 Atomic orbitals in pi bonding overlap less than in
sigma bonding. Therefore, pi bonds tend to be
weaker than sigma bonds.
In the oxidative process, a molecule of O2 attacks the pi greek
bonds in an unsaturated fatty acid.
That’s because Oxygen needs to reach the octet, so it breaks
the weaker bond to “steal” the two electrons required.

π π

O2 O2

Molecular Oxygen has 0 as oxidation number: in order to

reach -2, it breaks the bonds and that result in a chain
reaction.
Hydrogenation and hardening
Hydrogenation of unsaturated fatty acids is widely practiced in food production to give
saturated fatty acids, which are less prone toward rancidification (in which free radicals
attack double bonds). Since the saturated fatty acids are higher melting than the
unsaturated relatives, the process is called hardening.
This technology is used to convert vegetable oils into margarine. During
partial hydrogenation, unsaturated fatty acids can be isomerized from
cis to trans configuration. Typical commercial hydrogenation is partial
in order to obtain a malleable mixture of fats that is solid at room
temperature, but melts upon baking .

Partially hydrogenated oils have been

used in food for many reasons. Partial
hydrogenation increases product shelf
life and decreases refrigeration
requirements (they don’t undergo
rancidification).
Health factors: while both saturated and trans fats (hydrogenated
saturated fats) increase levels of LDL (“Bad” Cholesterol), trans fats also
lowers levels of HDL (“Good” Cholesterol); thus increasing the risk of
coronary heart disease. The National Academy of Sciences USA is
concerned "that dietary trans fatty acids are more deleterious with respect
to coronary heart disease than saturated fatty acids".
 Polar Bonds
 When the atoms in a bond are the same, the
electrons are shared equally.
 This is a nonpolar covalent bond.
 When two different atoms are connected, the atoms
may not be shared equally.
 This is a polar covalent bond.
 Covalent bond
 Or a polar covalent bond when it is
formed between two different atoms
of different electronegativity ,thus
one atom has a stronger pull on the
pair of electrons resulting in a shift
of electron density toward the more
electronegative atom.
 Such a covalent bond is polar, and
will have a dipole (one end is
positive and the other end negative).
The degree of polarity and the
magnitude of the bond dipole will be
proportional to the difference in
electronegativity of the bonded
atoms.
 Polar Covalent Bonds
 In polar covalent bonds, a shift in electron density
towards the more electronegative atom can be observed.
 Image on the left is hydrogen
fluoride. Since Fluorine is more
electronegative than hydrogen,
electrons are attracted more to
it.
 Due to the electron attraction, atom with the higher
electronegativily has a slight negative charge while the
atom with lower electronegativity has a slight positive
charge.
 Polar Covalent Bonds

 Although atoms often

form compounds by
sharing electrons, the
electrons are not always
shared equally.

• Fluorine pulls harder on the electrons it shares

with hydrogen than hydrogen does.
• Therefore, the fluorine end of the molecule has
more electron density than the hydrogen end.
 Polarity
 Polarity is the unequal sharing of electrons
determined by the electronegativity of the bonded
atoms.
 Atom with the higher electronegativity has greater
attraction over electrons.
 When electrons are shared equally, it is nonpolar.
 When electrons are not shared equally, it is polar.
 In polar bonds, a DIPOLE is present. (Dipole –
seperation of charges in a molecule.)
 Covalent Bonding
In polar Covalent Bonding-Atoms electrons are
shared unequally between atoms
 One atom will have a greater electronegativity
 The atom with the greater electronegativity
will have a stronger pull on the electron
 Since the electron spends more time around
one of the elements that element will have a
slight (-) charge
 How to show a bond is polar
 Isn’t a whole charge just a partial charge
 d+ means a partially positive
 d- means a partially negative

d+ d-
H Cl
 The Cl pulls harder on the electrons
 The electrons spend more time near the Cl
 The more electronegative atom attracts electrons
more strongly and gains a slightly negative charge.
The less electronegative atom has a slightly positive
charge.
 dipole
 a molecule that has two poles, or regions with
opposite charges
 Bond Polarity
•Bond polarity helps to describe the sharing of the
electrons between atoms. There are 3 possibilities…
– Nonpolar covalent: equal sharing of the e- pair
– Polar covalent: unequal sharing of the e- pair
– Ionic: transfer of valence e- from the metal to the nonmetal
•A molecule that has one side slightly positive and one
side slightly negative is said to be a “dipole.”
•The positive end (or pole) in a polar bond is represented
d+ and the negative pole d-. Arrow can also show dipoles.

d+ d-
Polar Covalent Bonds

The greater the

difference in
electronegativity, the
more polar is the
bond.
100% covalent 100% ionic
Bonding spectrum

A B A B A+ B-

Increasing DEN

Increasing polarity Electrons transfer

Covalent bond
 THE COVALENT BOND AND
WATER

 The water molecule consists of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to two
hydrogen atoms.
 However, the oxygen atom attracts the shared electron pairs more strongly
than do the hydrogen atoms, and the shared electrons “spend more time”
with the oxygen atom. Hence, a permanent dipole develops with slightly
positive charges on the hydrogen atoms and slightly negative charges on
the oxygen atoms.
Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity
 Properties of Covalent Bonding
1. It is based on electron sharing.
2. Bond is directional (each atom is surrounded by a
definite amount of other atoms)
3. Bond is hard and strong (slightly less than ionic)
4. Very high melting point.
5. Poor electrical conductivity.
6. Forms b/w atoms with high electronegativity.
Covalent bonding is not limited to elements; many
compounds are covalent, like HCl, H2O.
 Properties of covalent compounds
 Gases, liquids and solids at room temperature
 May be hard or soft (diamond is a covalent solid)
 Dissolve in polar and non-polar solvents, depending
on molecule’s polarity
 Solutions and melts do not conduct electricity
 Most covalent compounds are molecular
 Polar bonds and polar molecules
 Any bond containing different elements will be
polar to some degree
 Molecules contain several bonds
 Molecular polarity depends on how the bonds are
arranged
 A molecule may contain polar bonds and be itself
non-polar
 We need to understand the molecular structure…
 Co-Ordinate Covalent Bond
 Covalent type bond in which both the electrons in the shared
pair come from one atom is called a coordinate covalent bond.
Co-ordinate covalent bond is usually represented by an arrow
() pointing from donor to the acceptor atom.

 Co-ordinate Covalent bond is also called as dative bond, donor

– acceptor bond, semi- polar bond or co-ionic bond.
 Dative Covalent bonds
 Both electrons in the covalent bond are donated
from one atom
 For example, the hydroxonium ion present in acidic
solutions
H2O + H+ → H3O+
 Dative bonds
 They only occur when an atom or molecule has a lone
pair of electrons to donate
 Ammonia, NH3 has a lone pair.

 It can bond with also bond with H+ to make an

ammonium ion.
 Metal bond
 Metals consist of closely packed cations floating in a
“sea of electrons”.
 All of the atoms are able to share the electrons.
 The electrons are not bound to individual atoms.
 Sea of Electrons
 Electrons are free to move through the solid.
 Metals conduct electricity.

+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
METALLIC BONDING
Covalent bonding occurs in electronegative atoms where
they want to give away electrons.
Metallic bond can be considered as a special type of
covalent bond in which instead of sharing particular
valance electrons, general sharing of valance e- is
responsible for the bond.
Valance electrons are detached from atoms, and spread in
an “electron cloud” that holds the ions together.
 Properties of Metallic Bond
1. It is based on electron sharing. Electrons are shared
among all atoms.
2. Non directionality - desire for the largest number of
nearest neighbors.
3. High thermal and electrical conductivity.
4. Moderately lower melting point.
5. Weakest primary bond.
6. Forms between atoms with low electronegativity.
 High thermal and electrical conductivity ?

Since the valance e- are not bound to any particular

atom, they can move through the lattice under
the application of an electric potential causing a
current flow.
Also by a series of collisions with neighboring
electrons they transmit thermal energy rapidly
through the lattice.
 Properties of Metals
 Good conductors
 Ductile
 Malleable

 Electrons act as a lubricant, allowing cations to

move past each other
 Overview

Bonding Ionic Covalent Metallic

Structure Giant Simple Giant Giant
ionic molecular covalent Metallic
Example Sodium Water Diamond Iron
chloride

Bonding and structure explains the properties of a substance!

 Intermolecular Forces

What holds molecules to each other

 Intermolecular forces

 Strong
 covalent bonding
 ionic bonding

 Weak
 Dipole dipole
 London dispersion forces
 Hydrogen Bonds

 During phase changes the molecules stay intact. Energy

used to overcome forces.
 Weak intermolecular Forces

 Intermolecular forces – occur between molecules

 Weak intermolecular forces

 Intermolecular refers to the forces between the

molecules.

 These are what hold the molecules together in the

condensed states.
 Weak intermolecular Forces
The attractions between molecules are not nearly as
strong as the intramolecular attractions that hold
compounds together.
 Weak intermolecular Forces

They are, however, strong enough to control physical

properties such as boiling and melting points, vapor pressures,
and viscosities.
 Weak intermolecular Forces

These intermolecular forces as a group are referred to as weak

forces.
 Weak intermolecular Forces
 They are what make solid and liquid molecular compounds
possible.
 The weakest are called van der Waal’s forces - there are two
kinds
 Dispersion forces
 Dipole Interactions
 depend on the number of electrons
 more electrons stronger forces
 Bigger molecules

In addition we can underline hydrogen bond

 Dipole interactions
 intermolecular forces resulting from the attraction of
oppositely charged regions of polar molecules
 Dispersion forces (Van der Waals)
 attractions between molecules caused by the
electron motion on one molecule affecting the
electron motion on the other through electrical
forces; these are the weakest interactions between
molecules
 Hydrogen bonds
 attractive forces in which a hydrogen covalently
bonded to a very electronegative atom is also
weakly bonded to an unshared electron pair of
another electronegative atom
 Dipole-dipole iinteractions
 Occur when polar molecules are attracted to each
other.
 Slightly stronger than dispersion forces.
 Opposites attract but not completely hooked like in
ionic solids.
Dipole-dipole interactions

d+ d-

d+ d-
 Dipole-Dipole Interactions
 Molecules that have permanent dipoles are attracted to each other.
 The positive end of one is attracted to the negative end of the other and vice-versa.
 These forces are only important when the molecules are close to each other.
 Dipole–dipole forces exist between neutral molecules.
 For molecules of approximately equal mass and size, the intermolecular attractions
increase with increasing polarity.
 Intermolecular Forces

Dipole-Dipole Forces

Attractive forces between polar molecules

Orientation of Polar Molecules in a Solid

11.2
 Dipole interactions
 Occur when polar molecules are attracted to each
other.
 Slightly stronger than dispersion forces.
 Opposites attract but not completely hooked like in
ionic solids.

d+ d- d+ d-
H F H F
 Ion-Dipole interactions
Attractive forces between an ion and a polar molecule

Ion-Dipole Interaction
Attraction Between Ions and Permanent
Dipoles
THE VAN DER WAALS BOND

 Weak, secondary bond formed by the

attraction of fluctuating dipoles between,
for example, atoms of the noble gases and
between molecules. Van der Waals bonds
are non-directional.
 Intermolecular Forces
Dispersion Forces

Attractive forces that arise as a result of temporary dipoles

induced in atoms or molecules

ion-induced dipole interaction

dipole-induced dipole interaction

11.2
 London Dispersion Forces

 While the electrons in the 1s orbital of helium would

repel each other (and, therefore, tend to stay far
away from each other), it does happen that they
occasionally wind up on the same side of the atom.
 London Dispersion Forces

 At that instant, then, the helium atom is polar, with

an excess of electrons on the left side and a shortage
on the right side.
 London Dispersion Forces

 Another helium nearby, then, would have a dipole

induced in it, as the electrons on the left side of
helium atom 2 repel the electrons in the cloud on
helium atom 1.
 London Dispersion Forces

 London dispersion forces, or dispersion forces, are

attractions between an instantaneous dipole and an
induced dipole.
 London Dispersion Forces

 These forces are present in all molecules, whether

they are polar or nonpolar.
 The tendency of an electron cloud to distort in this
way is called polarizability.
 Intermolecular Forces
London Dispersion Forces

 Formation of instantaneous dipoles

 Chemical Bonds
Van der Waals Bonds
Weakest bond – due localized excess charge
Usually between neutral molecules (even large ones like
graphite sheets)
Weakness of the bond is
apparent in graphite cleavage
 THE HYDROGEN BOND

 Weak, secondary bond formed by the

attraction of polar molecules. A polar
molecule (or dipole) results from a
permanent imbalance in the electron
distribution in a molecule. This is between
an electronegative atom (e.g., oxygen) and
an electropositive atom (e.g., hydrogen).
Hydrogen bonds are directional.
 Hydrogen bonding
 Are the attractive force caused by hydrogen bonded
to F, O, or N.
 F, O, and N are very electronegative so it is a very
strong dipole.
 The hydrogen partially share with the lone pair in
the molecule next to it.
 The strongest of the intermolecular forces.
 Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bond
The hydrogen bond is a special dipole-dipole interaction between
they hydrogen atom in a polar N-H, O-H, or F-H bond and an
electronegative O, N, or F atom.
A H…B or A H…A
A & B are N, O, or F
 Hydrogen Bonding
A special form of dipole-dipole attraction, which
enhances dipole-dipole attractions.

H-bonding is strongest when X and Y are N, O, or F

 Hydrogen Bond

11.2
 Hydrogen Bonding
 The dipole-dipole interactions
experienced when H is bonded
to N, O, or F are unusually
strong.
 We call these interactions
hydrogen bonds.
 Hydrogen Bonding

d+ d-
H O
Hd +
 Hydrogen bonding

H O
H
Hydrogen Bonding

 Occurs between H and highly electronegative

atom (for example N, O, F)
 A
consequence
of hydrogen
bonding
 Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bonding
• Hydrogen bonds are responsible for:
– Ice Floating
• Solids are usually more closely packed than liquids;
• Therefore, solids are more dense than liquids.
• Ice is ordered with an open structure to optimize H-bonding.
• Therefore, ice is less dense than water.
• In water the H-O bond length is 1.0 Å.
• The O…H hydrogen bond length is 1.8 Å.
• Ice has waters arranged in an open, regular hexagon.
• Each d+ H points towards a lone pair on O.
Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bonding
 Double helix of
DNA

Portion of a DNA
chain
Base-Pairing through H-Bonds
Base-Pairing through H-Bonds
. Hydrophobic Interactions;
When non-polar substances such as fats or oils are placed in
water they tend to clump together. The attraction of the
hydrophobic (or nonpolar) parts of molecules to each other in
the presence of water (or another polar fluid). Molecules
containing substantial non-polar regions will attract one another
as a result of these hydrophobic interactions.
 Hybridization
 A hybrid occurs when two things are
combined and the result has characteristics
of both
 EX: hybrid car (uses gas and electricity)
 During chemical bonding, different atomic
orbitals undergo hybridization.
 Hybridization
 Uses modifications of molecular models to account for
observed structures of molecules or ions
 Is a mixing of the native atomic orbitals to form special
hybrid orbitals for bonding
 The special orbitals will then strive to be as far away from
each other in space as they can be
 Types of Hybridization
 sp3
 sp2
 sp
 dsp3
 d2sp3
 Carbon’s Hybridization
 Consider methane, CH4
 The carbon atom has four valence electrons with the
electron configuration of [He]2s22p2.
 You may expect the two unpaired p electrons to
bond with other atoms and the two paired s
electrons to remain as a lone pair
 However, carbon undergoes hybridization, a
process in which atomic orbitals mix and form
new, identical, hybrid orbitals.
 sp 3 Hybridization

 Combination of one s and three p orbitals.

 Whenever a set of equivalent tetrahedral atomic
orbitals is required by an atom, the localized electron
model assumes that the atom adopts a set of sp3
orbitals; the atom becomes sp3 hybridized.
 Native s orbital

y
 Native p orbitals

x
z

y
x
px
z

y
x
py
z

y
pz
 Hybrid sp3 orbitals
overlapping orbitals
H

x C
H H
z H
CH4 y 4 σ bonds in
the molecule
 The hybrid orbitals in carbon

Note that each hybrid orbital contains one electron that it

can share with another atom, giving carbon 4 bonding sites.
The hybrid orbital is called an sp3 orbital because the four
orbitals form from one s and three p orbitals.
 Structure Determination

Water, H2O
The electron pair
geometry is
TETRAHEDRAL

2 bond
pairs
2 lone pairs The molecular
geometry is BENT.
 Structure Determination
Ammonia, NH3
The electron pair geometry is
tetrahedral.
lone pair of electrons
in tetrahedral position
N
H H
H

The MOLECULAR GEOMETRY — the

positions of the atoms — is TRIGONAL
PYRAMIDAL.
Explanations for the shapes of ammonia
and water
bond pair - bond pair
H repulsion
o
109.5
C H
H
H
methane
lone pair lone pair - lone pair
lone pair-bond pair replusion
bond pair - lone pair
repulsion repulsion
bond pair - lone pair
repulsion
O
N
H H H
H o o
107 H 104.5

bond pair - bond pair bond pair - bond pair

repulsion repulsion
ammonia water
 sp 2 Hybridization

 Used to form double bonds

 Combination of one s and two p orbitals.
 Gives a trigonal planar arrangement of atomic
orbitals.
 One p orbital is not used.
 Oriented perpendicular to the plane of the sp2
orbitals.
 Native s orbital

y
 Native p orbitals

x
z

y
x
px
z

y
x
Leave this one as is py
z

y
pz
 Hybrid sp2 orbitals

x
z
x

y
x
z

y
 Hybrid sp2 orbitals

y
sp2 orbitals
3 effective pairs
120°
trigonal planar
 Hybrid sp2 orbitals
Remember the un-
hybridized p orbital?

y
sp2 orbitals
3 effective pairs
120°
trigonal planar
 Hybrid sp2 orbitals

overlapping orbitals side-by-side orbitals

H H
x C C x
H H
z z

5 σ bonds
C2H4 y y 1 π bond
in molecule
 Sigma () Bond

 Electron pair is shared in an area centered on a line

running between the atoms.
 Pi () Bond

 Forms double and triple bonds by sharing electron

pair(s) in the space above and below the σ bond.
 Uses the unhybridized p orbitals.
 SP hybridization
 In sp hybridization, the s orbital overlaps with only
one p orbital. Atoms that exhibit sp hybridization
have sp orbitals that are linearly oriented;
two sp orbitals will be at 180 degrees to each other.

 Is used to form triple bondings.

 Native s orbital

y
 Native p orbitals

x
z

y
x
px
z

y
x
Leave this one as is py
z

y
Leave this one as is pz
 Hybrid sp orbitals

x x
z z

y y
 Hybrid sp orbitals

sp orbitals
2 effective pairs y
180°
linear
 Hybrid sp orbitals
Remember the un-
hybridized p orbitals?

sp orbitals
2 effective pairs y
180°
linear
 Hybrid sp orbitals
overlapping orbitals side-by-side orbitals

x x

z z

y y
C2H2
 Hybrid sp orbitals

x H x C C H

z z

y y
C2H2
http://www.chem.ucalgary.ca/cours
es/351/Carey5th/Ch02/hybrid.html
Hybridization and molecular shapes of some molecules involving sp orbitals

224
 tetrahedron 109.5o

trigonal planar 120o

linear 180o

geometry
Resonance
 The organic compound
benzene, C6H6, has two
resonance structures.
 It is commonly depicted
as a hexagon with a circle
inside to signify the
delocalized electrons in
the ring.
The Sigma System for Benzene
The Pi System for Benzene