Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Wear
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wear

Wear behavior of ultrafine WC-Co cemented carbide end mills during

milling of Inconel 718
Boxiang Wang a, *, Zhenhua Wang b, **, Zengbin Yin b, Juntang Yuan b
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing Institute of Technology, Nanjing, 211167, China
b
School of Mechanical Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing, 210094, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Two innovative ultrafine cemented carbide end mills, denoted C1 and C2, were synthesized through spark
Ultrafine cemented carbide plasma sintering, featuring compositions of WC-8Co-0.4VC-0.4Cr3C2 and WC-40(Ti,W)–8Co-0.4VC-0.4Cr3C2,
WC-Co respectively. Their wear behaviors were delved into during the precision machining of Inconel 718, and distinct
Wear behavior
disparities in wear evolution and tool longevity were unveiled. C1 exhibits exceptional wear resistance, sur­
Cutting performance
End mill
passing C2 by a striking margin of 7.4–9.5, depending on the cutting speed employed. The sharp cutting edge of
C1, characterized by a single hard phase of WC, minimal grain size, and high hardness, demonstrates excellent
wear resistance and deformation resistance, thereby minimizing the onset of notch wear. In contrast, C2 expe­
riences severe adhesive and diffusive wear phenomena, which culminate in substantial flank wear and cutting
edge chipping. The addition of 40 wt% of (Ti,W)C exacerbates adhesion, flaking, and notch wear during
machining. The prolonged and intensified adhesive wear witnessed in C2 leads to the deterioration of the tool
surface and the formation of deep wear craters on the flank face. A comparison evaluation involving the prepared
novel tools and commercially available end mills reveals that C1 boasts a longer tool life that outstrip those of its
commercial counterparts by approximately 1.7–3.5 times under identical cutting conditions.

1. Introduction have maintained a significant market share and evolved into the most
widely employed choice. Despite recent studies exploring ceramic ap­
Inconel 718, a nickel-chromium-based superalloy renowned for its plications in machining Inconel 718 [10–13], cemented carbide tools
exceptional high-temperature properties and corrosion resistance, is a remain the primary choice due to their superior toughness and
favored material in aerospace and other industries demanding compo­ cost-effectiveness.
nents with enduring strength under extreme conditions [1–3]. Never­ However, the currently available cemented carbide tools are not
theless, machining Inconel 718 presents considerable challenges due to really satisfactory in terms of durability and lifespan during the
its unique characteristics, including high-temperature strength, low machining of Inconel 718. One prominent issue pertains to the wear
thermal conductivity, and a tendency to work-hardening during cutting behavior of cemented carbides. Researchers have meticulously exam­
processes [4–6]. To tackle these challenges and enhance tool longevity, ined the various wear processes encountered during Inconel 718
it is imperative to advance the development of tool materials with su­ machining, shedding light on the intricacies of adhesive wear, diffusion
perior wear resistance and performance. wear, and cutting edge wear, all of which significantly impact the tool
Cemented carbides are a type of hard material produced through life of cemented carbides [14]. Rakesh et al. [15] investigated the wear
high-temperature sintering utilizing powder metallurgy, and they are of uncoated carbide tools when machining Inconel 718, revealing that
composed of refractory metal carbides (WC, TiC, NbC, or TaC) as the adhesion, built-up-edge formation, chipping, and grooving play pivotal
matrix and transition metals (Co, Fe, or Ni) as the binder [7,8]. Due to roles in the failure of cemented carbide tools. Adhesion to the cutting
their exceptional hardness, wear resistance, and strength, cemented tool is a common occurrence when machining Inconel 718, which can
carbides are extensively used in cutting tools [9]. Compared to alter­ harm the tool surface [16,17]. Furthermore, the diffusion phenomenon
native tool materials like diamond and ceramics, cemented carbides is exacerbated by the strong chemical affinity between the workpiece

* Corresponding author.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (B. Wang), [email protected] (Z. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2024.205359
Received 30 October 2023; Received in revised form 19 January 2024; Accepted 30 March 2024
Available online 2 April 2024
0043-1648/© 2024 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

and the tool material [18,19]. The intersection of the cutting edge and mills were meticulously crafted through the spark plasma sintering
the machined surface creates a severe notch due to the serious technique. A pivotal focus of this research lies in thoroughly examining
work-hardening tendency of Inconel 718 [20,21]. This notch is what the wear evolution exhibited by the two types of ultrafine cemented
readily breaks the cemented carbide tools. The workpiece adhering to carbide end mills during the milling of Inconel 718. This study seeks to
the tool flank contributes to flank wear and cutting edge chipping, advance the understanding of tool wear mechanisms, tool longevity, and
representing one of the primary failure modes in Inconel 718 machining. cutting performance of ultrafine cemented carbide tools. Understanding
Consequently, severe flank wear and notch wear at the depth of cut are how these modifications affect tool behavior during machining con­
the predominant causes of cemented carbide tool failure. tributes to a deeper comprehension of their characteristics and appli­
Coated cemented carbide tools are commonly employed for cutting cations, ultimately offering insights to industries of Inconel 718
challenging-to-machine materials like Inconel 718, and they generally machining.
outperform their substrates [22–24]. Bhatt et al. [25] observed that
multi-layer (TiCN/Al2O3/TiN) coated tools exhibited exceptional wear 2. Experimental procedure
resistance at high cutting speeds and low feed rates, while uncoated
tools surpass single-layer (TiAlN) or multi-layer (TiCN/Al2O3/TiN) 2.1. Preparation of cutting tools
coated tools at low cutting speeds and intermediate feed rate. As the
cutting process progresses, the substrate becomes vulnerable to expo­ The target materials for this investigation are WC-Co and WC-(Ti,W)
sure and involvement in the machining operation once the coating be­ C–Co cemented carbides. The raw materials used in the experiment were
gins to deteriorate. The longevity of tools is consequently influenced by obtained from Shanghai Chaowei Nanotechnology Co., Ltd, China, and
the wear resistance of the substrate. included the following powders: WC (purity: 99.99%, 60 nm), Co (pu­
Currently, most WC-Co cemented carbides used in cutting tool pro­ rity: 99.99%, 500 nm), (Ti,W)C (purity: 99.99%, 1.5 μm), VC (purity:
duction are submicron/fine grade (WC grain size ranging from 0.5 to 99.99%, 60 nm), and Cr3C2 (purity: 99.99%, 60 nm). Powders of VC and
1.3 μm). Altering the WC grain size significantly impacts the mechanical Cr3C2 were added to inhibit grain growth. The specific symbols and
properties of cemented carbides [26–29]. In particular, ultrafine WC-Co composition ratios of the cemented carbides are presented in Table 1.
cemented carbides (WC grain size of 0.2–0.5 μm) exhibit substantially Fig. 1(a) displays the mixing process for preparing composite pow­
increased hardness and wear resistance compared to ders. For the WC-Co composite powders, an ultrasonic vibration process
submicron/fine-grade counterparts [30]. Several studies [31–34] have was utilized. Initially, the raw powders were accurately weighed in a
delved into the mechanical properties of ultrafine WC-Co cemented predetermined ratio and then combined with pure ethanol within a
carbides and have revealed hardness levels ranging from 1900 to 2200 conical glass container. Subsequently, the mixture was placed on an
HV, approximately 20–30% higher than normal cemented carbides. ultrasonic platform (DSA200-JY1-9.0L, China) equipped with a me­
Thus, refining WC grain size proves to be an effective strategy for chanical stirring device. The powders were subjected to a 2-h mixing
enhancing the wear resistance of cemented carbide tools. procedure involving ultrasonic vibration and mechanical stirring. On
Spark plasma sintering, characterized by rapid sintering technology the other hand, the WC-(Ti,W)C–Co composite powders were prepared
for creating ultrafine -grain materials, boasts advantages such as swift using a ball milling process. Similarly, the raw powders were weighed
heating, short holding times, and a wide pressure range. It achieves according to a specific ratio and introduced into a stainless steel jar with
heating rates as high as 100–200 ◦ C/min and 5–10 min holding times, pure ethanol and 6 mm diameter WC balls. The ball milling process was
effectively inhibiting grain coarsening [35]. Spark plasma sintering has carried out in a planetary ball mill (QM-3SP2, China) at a rotational
emerged as the foremost competitive method for producing speed of 250 r/min for 4 h. The ball-to-powder mass ratio was set at 8:1
high-performance ultrafine cemented carbides [36–38]. Wang et al. to ensure adequate mixing. After the respective mixing processes, the
[39] successfully prepared ultrafine WC-Co cemented carbide tools composite powders were dried in a vacuum oven (DZF-1, China) at
through spark plasma sintering and evaluated their performance when 80 ◦ C. Subsequently, they were carefully packaged after being filtered
used for turning Ti–6Al–4V. They reported that the tool life of these through a 100-mesh sieve, ensuring uniformity and eliminating unde­
ultrafine WC-Co cemented carbide tools was extended by 1.6–1.8 times sired particles.
compared to that of conventional cemented carbide tools, while also Fig. 1(b) illustrates the schematic representation of spark plasma
achieving lower machining surface roughness. The exceptional perfor­ sintering applied to produce ultrafine cemented carbides. Initially, a
mance of ultrafine WC-Co cemented carbides positions them as a highly graphite mold was filled with pre-weighed composite powders. The
promising choice for cutting challenging materials. graphite mold boasts an outer diameter of 90 mm, an inner diameter of
Nonetheless, further research is necessary to comprehensively un­ 15.5 mm, and a length measuring 90 mm. Notably, the mold in­
derstand how ultrafine WC-Co cemented carbide tools perform when corporates a thermometer hole with a diameter of 2 mm and a depth
cutting Inconel 718. In particular, a deep understanding of their wear extending to 25 mm. Positioned at both ends of the mold are two
behavior during cutting is essential, as different microstructures can punches with a diameter of 15 mm and a length of 32.5 mm. To prevent
significantly influence their suitability for machining Inconel 718. Such direct contact between the powders and both the punches and inner
insights can be employed to adjust tool material compositions, thereby walls of the graphite mold, a layer of 0.2 mm thick graphite paper was
improving machining efficiency and tool longevity. Despite extensive employed, serving as an effective isolating medium in this experimental
research on the tool wear and tool life of normal cemented carbide tools configuration. Subsequently, the graphite mold enveloped in graphite
in Inconel 718 machining, studies addressing the wear behavior of ul­ felt was carefully placed into a spark plasma sintering furnace. This
trafine WC-Co cemented carbide tools are scarce, and a knowledge gap sintering process was employed to consolidate and shape cemented
persists regarding the effects of corresponding wear mechanisms on tool carbide samples. The controlled environment within the spark plasma
lifespan.
In this investigation, the chosen tool materials consist of two
commonly employed components in cemented carbide. One comprises Table 1
Composition ratios of ultrafine cemented carbides (wt.%).
WC and Co as the primary constituents, demonstrating remarkable
comprehensive mechanical properties, particularly noteworthy for its No. Cemented carbides WC (Ti,W) Co VC Cr3C2
good transverse fracture strength. The second variant is centered around C

the WC, (Ti,W)C, and Co phases, where including (Ti,W)C contributes C1 WC-8Co-0.4VC-0.4Cr3C2 Bal. 0 8 0.4 0.4
heightened high-temperature performance to the cemented carbide C2 WC-40(Ti,W)C–8Co-0.4VC- Bal. 40 8 0.4 0.4
0.4Cr3C2
[40]. Consequently, two distinct ultrafine WC-Co cemented carbide end

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B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

Fig. 1. Preparation process of ultrafine WC-Co cemented carbide end mills, (a) mixing powders, (b) spark plasma sintering, (c) creating end mills.

sintering furnace allowed for precise temperature regulation and pres­ temperature within the furnace.
sure application, facilitating the sintering of the materials in the graphite Following the sintering process, the resulting samples underwent
mold. An infrared thermometer was employed to monitor the sample precision machining using wire-electrode cutting techniques to craft
temperatures during the sintering process, which allowed temperature cylindrical bars with a diameter of 5.8 mm and a length of 35 mm.
measurements through a designated thermometer hole in the graphite Subsequently, meticulous grinding procedures were implemented,
mold. The sintering conditions employed were as follows: a sintering adhering to predetermined geometrical parameters. These processes
pressure of 70 MPa, a heating rate of 100 ◦ C/min, and a holding time of were meticulously executed to fashion end mills, as illustrated in Fig. 1
5 min. The sintering temperature differed based on the cemented car­ (c). This systematic approach to sample preparation underscores the
bide type, with WC-Co cemented carbides sintered at 1250 ◦ C and WC- commitment to achieving consistency and accuracy in fabricating the
(Ti,W)C–Co cemented carbides sintered at 1300 ◦ C. Upon completion of end mills for the ensuing stages of the study.
the sintering process, the materials were gradually cooled to room Fig. 2 shows the prepared ultrafine cemented carbide end mills and

Fig. 2. Ultrafine cemented carbide end mills, (a) C1, (b) microstructure of C1, (c) C2, (d) microstructure of C2.

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B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

their microstructures. An examination of Fig. 2(b) and (d) reveals Table 3

distinctive features within the microstructures. WC grains are visibly Geometrical parameters of ultrafine cemented carbide end mills.
presented as gray, equiaxial shapes, while (Ti,W)C grains are observed No. Diameter Tooth Side Side End End Helical
as dark, rounded shapes. The black areas scattered across the micro­ Dc (mm) Z edge edge edge edge angle
structure are the binder phase Co. The WC grains exhibit a fine and rake relief rake relief β (◦ )
angle angle angle angle
uniform distribution, and (Ti,W)C grains are dispersed around them.
γs (◦ ) αs (◦ ) γe (◦ ) αe (◦ )
The overall microstructure of the sintered cemented carbides appears to
be dense. The mechanical properties of these ultrafine cemented car­ C1 5 2 12 8 0 10 50
C2 5 2 8 8 0 12 45
bides are influenced by the composition and grain size of the carbides,
which is reflected in the distribution of (Ti,W)C grains and the WC grain
size within the microstructure. The microstructure and grain size of the observed and measured. The experiments were terminated under the
C1 and C2 prepared for this study are marginally different (Table 2). following circumstances: (1) When the flank wear width (VB) exceeded
Specifically, C1 has a lower WC grain size than C2, resulting in a slightly 0.3 mm, and (2) when significant cutting edge chipping and breakage
higher hardness for C1. The densification of C2 with the addition of (Ti, occurred.
W)C necessitates a high sintering temperature, resulting in a larger WC
grain size of C2 than that of C1. The presence of (Ti,W)C grains con­ 2π arccos[(r − ae )/r]⋅r l
L= ⋅ (ae < r) (1)
tributes to higher brittleness in C2, making it more susceptible to crack 180 fz ⋅z⋅1000
propagation. Consequently, C2 exhibits lower toughness in terms of
where r is tool radius (mm), ae is radial cutting depth (mm), l is tool
fracture resistance and possesses a lower transverse rupture strength
travel distance along feed direction (mm), fz is feed rate per tooth (mm/
compared to C1. Overall, the microstructural variations and differences
z), and z is number of tool tooth.
in grain size between C1 and C2 influence their respective mechanical
To assess the performance of the newly produced ultrafine WC-Co
properties, particularly in terms of fracture toughness and transverse
cemented carbide end mills, comparison studies were conducted using
rupture strength.
cutting tools commonly used in the industry. The selected commercially
In light of the divergent microstructures and material properties
available tools are solid cemented carbide end mills with parameters and
exhibited by C1 and C2, distinct designs for the geometry parameters of
mechanical properties provided in Tables 5 and 6, respectively. These
the two end mills become imperative [41]. Recognizing that C2 pos­
tools resemble the newly developed tool C1 in terms of having a sharp
sesses a lower transverse fracture strength than C1, a deliberate design
cutting edge, a tool nose, and an uncoated tool surface, as depicted in
involves incorporating small rake and helical angles in the geometry of
Fig. 3. The commercial tools share a similar chemical composition of WC
C2 compared to C1. The geometric structures of the end mills are
and Co, and their diameter and Co content are comparable to those of
illustrated in Fig. 2(a) and (c). This approach is informed by the need to
the produced tool C1. The cutting settings for milling Inconel 718 using
account for each end mill’s specific mechanical characteristics, ensuring
the commercially available tools were consistent with those of the
optimal performance and longevity during machining. The geometry
developed tools. Specifically, the cutting speed (v) was 30 m/min, the
parameters, representing the culmination of meticulous optimization
axial cutting depth (ap) was 0.1 mm, the radial cutting depth (ae) was 2
efforts, are delineated in Table 3.
mm, and the feed rate per tooth (fz) was 0.02 mm/z.

2.2. Machining experiments

2.3. Characterization

To analyze the wear behavior and cutting performance of the newly

The wear morphology of the cutting tool was observed using a
designed end mills, finish machining tests on Inconel 718 were con­
scanning electron microscope (SEM, Quant 250FEG, USA). The chemical
ducted. The chemical composition of Inconel 718 is provided in Table 4.
element of the tool wear area was studied using an SEM-energy
The machining tests were performed using down milling and oil-based
dispersive spectrometer system (SEM-EDS). The flank wear width was
lubrication at a machining center (Willemin 408S2, Switzerland). The
measured using a portable digital microscope (ISM-PM200S, Insize,
two cutting tools used in the experiments were ultrafine WC-Co
China). The surface roughness of machined workpieces was measured
cemented carbide end mills (C1 and C2) prepared in this work. Due to
using a surface profiler (DektakXT, Bruker, Germany).
the typical machining practices for Inconel 718 involving the use of
uncoated cemented carbide tools at low cutting speeds (less than 50 m/
3. Results and discussion
min), the cutting speeds (v) employed in the tests were set at 20, 30, and
40 m/min. The axial cutting depth (ap) was fixed at 0.1 mm, the radial
3.1. Tool wear evolution
cutting depth (ae) at 2 mm, and the feed rate per tooth (fz) at 0.02 mm/z.
To ensure the reliability and reproducibility of the findings, every cut­
Figs. 4 and 5 show the flank wear morphology of C1 and C2 at a
ting experiment was systematically replicated three times.
cutting speed of 20 m/min and a cutting length of 21 m, respectively. C1
The milling process involves two phases of tool rotation: cutting into
and C2 exhibit significant wear on their flank faces, and adhesion layers
and cutting out of the workpiece, along with an empty stroke. In this
form near the cutting edges. EDS mapping analysis reveals that the flank
study, the cutting distance for each cutting edge was defined as the
faces of C1 and C2 have a high concentration of Ni, Cr, and Fe elements,
cutting length (L), representing the distance between cutting into and
which indicates that the materials primarily come from the Inconel 718
cutting out of the workpiece. This cutting length (L) is determined using
workpiece. During the machining process, the workpiece bonds to the
Eq. (1). After reaching a certain cutting length (L), the tool wear state is
tool’s friction interface, making Inconel 718 adhere firmly to the flank
faces of C1 and C2. The high stress and chemical affinity between the
Table 2 tool and Inconel 718 cause this adhesion.
Mechanical properties of sintered ultrafine cemented carbides.
As shown in Fig. 4, the flank face of C1 displays a adhesive zone with
No. Density WC Hardness Fracture Transverse a width of 35 μm, and the adhesion layer is evenly distributed. Fig. 5
(g/cm3) average HV30 (kg/ toughness KIC rupture
shows that the flank face of C2 has an uneven adhesion layer and a
size (μm) mm2) (MPa⋅m1/2) strength (MPa)
substantially larger wear width of 80 μm. This discrepancy is attributed
C1 14.4 0.2 2110 10.4 1990 to the more potent chemical affinity between C2 and Inconel 718,
C2 11.6 0.29 1995 8.8 1090
leading to more Inconel 718 adhering to the flank face of C2 compared

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B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

Table 4
Chemical composition of Inconel 718 (wt.%).
C Si Mn Ni Co Cr Al Ti Nb Mo Cu S P Fe

0.034 0.05 0.22 52.9 0.07 19.7 0.7 0.97 5.14 3.06 0.01 0.001 0.003 Bal.

in Fig. 5(a)–a noticeable notch is observed on the flank face of C2. This
Table 5
type of wear, referred to as notch wear, occurs at the point where the
Models and parameters of commercially available end mills.
cutting edge contacts the workpiece surface. The primary factor
No. Tool diameter Tooth Model Manufacturer contributing to notch wear is the work-hardening characteristic of the
SAND 6 mm 2 2P120-0600-NC SANDVIK, Sweden workpiece surface [21]. Due to its lower hardness than C1, C2 is more
SGS 5 mm 2 SGS 3M-40337 KYOCERA, Japan susceptible to notch wear, particularly in the early stages.
MAG 4 mm 2 8500 4.0 MAGAFOR, France Fig. 6 shows the rake wear morphology of C1 and C2 at a cutting
speed of 20 m/min and a cutting length of 21 m. The observed wear
occurs on the rake face close to the cutting edge, with C2 exhibiting a
Table 6 larger wear area than C1. This can be observed in Fig. 6(a), where a
Mechanical properties of commercially available end mills. small amount of tool material is flaked from the rake face of C1 at a
No. Composition WC Hardness Fracture Transverse depth of cut, while Fig. 6(b) shows a substantial wear region on the rake
(wt.%) average HV30 (kg/ toughness rupture face of C2 at the same depth, consistent with the location of notch wear
size (μm) mm2) KIC strength on the flank face. Notch wear, as observed, is a combination of both rake
(MPa⋅m1/2) (MPa)
wear and flank wear. Such notches or material chipping on the rake face
SAND WC-10Co 0.8 1640 10.47 4300 are attributed to the high-stress gradient experienced by the tool edge at
SGS WC-8Co 1.1 1550 10.95 /
the depth of cut.
MAG WC-8Co 0.7 1570 10.48 /
Furthermore, the wear regions of the rake faces of both C1 and C2
exhibit a minor amount of adhered workpiece material. A tiny per­
to C1. Consequently, C2 is more prone to bonding with Inconel 718, and centage of the materials on the chip surface are attached to the rake face
the flank wear area is almost entirely covered by adhered materials, due to the high temperatures at the chip and rake face interface in the
making only scratches on the adhered workpiece visible. Furthermore, cutting process. EDS analysis of points A and B demonstrates a high

Fig. 3. Commercially available cemented carbide end mills, (a) SAND, (b) SGS, (c) MAG.

Fig. 4. Flank wear morphology of C1 (v = 20 m/min, L = 21 m), (a) SE and BSE images showing the flank face of C1, (b) EDS mapping analyses of (a).

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B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

Fig. 5. Flank wear morphology of C2 (v = 20 m/min, L = 21 m), (a) SE and BSE images showing the flank face of C2, (b) EDS mapping analyses of (a).

Fig. 6. Rake wear morphology and EDS analyses of (a) C1 and (b) C2 (v = 20 m/min, L = 21 m).

content of workpiece elements (Ni, Fe, and Cr) and a comparatively low Fig. 7 shows the flank wear morphology of C1 at a cutting speed of
content of tool material elements (W and Co). As shown in Fig. 6(a), 40 m/min and a cutting length of 21 m. A comparison between Fig. 4(a)
point A has 34.16, 11.88, and 11.81 wt% of the elements Ni, Cr, and Fe, and Fig. 7(a) indicates that as the cutting speed increases from 20 to 40
respectively, and 25.05 and 2.78 wt% of the elements W and Co. As m/min, the area of the adhesion layer on the flank face of C1 grows,
shown in Fig. 6(b), the Ni, Cr and Fe element contents in point B are leading to a wear width increase of 53 μm. This growth in the adhesion
40.61, 15.57 and 14.37 wt%, whereas the W, Ti and Co element contents layer is attributed to the higher cutting temperature resulting from the
are 9.85, 2.38 and 1.49 wt%, respectively. Notably, the adhesion zone of increased cutting speed, which enhances the adherence of workpiece
the rake face in C2 reveals a significant thickness of adhered workpiece materials to the flank face and exacerbates flank wear.
material, with a higher content of workpiece elements and a lower In Fig. 7(b) and (c), exposed tool substrate materials are evident in
content of tool material elements. This observation suggests that C2 is the wear region adjacent to the cutting edge. The EDS analysis of area C
more susceptible to adhesive wear, which aligns with the findings on the (Fig. 7(d)) reveals a high W element content of 74.31 wt%, confirming
flank face. According to the magnified images of areas I and II, the loose the predominance of tool materials in this region. Conversely, only 2.82
microstructure is apparent in the wear area of the rake face (depicted as wt% of the element Co is present in area C, while Ni and Cr are in smaller
circles in Fig. 6). This phenomenon indicates the separation of the hard quantities. This suggests that the workpiece materials break down the
phase in the tool substrate during the contact between the chip and the relatively soft binder phase Co during the friction between the flank face
rake face. As a result, the tool substrate loses WC and Co, negatively and the workpiece, leading to the loss of Co and the subsequent sepa­
affecting the rake wear. ration of the hard particles in the tool substrate.

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B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

Fig. 7. Flank wear morphology of C1 (v = 40 m/min, L = 21 m), (a) SE and BSE images showing the flank face of C1, (b) magnified image of area III, (c) magnified
image of area IV, (d) EDS analyses of area C.

Interestingly, Fig. 7(c) demonstrates that the WC grains in the wear and 8(a) reveals that with increasing cutting speed, large adhered
area near the cutting edge have rounded morphologies, in contrast to the workpieces flake off from the flank face of C2, resulting in the removal of
typical equiaxial prismatic shapes of WC grains. This phenomenon is tool materials. This phenomenon leads to the formation of a wear crater
linked to flow stress and the adhesion layer’s element diffusion. On the near the axial depth of cut, as a significant number of tool particles
one hand, the flow stress severely wears the irregular and sharp WC detach from the flank face. The adhesion layer on the flank face, espe­
grains, ultimately causing them to become rounded. On the other hand, cially at a depth of cut, is particularly prone to flaking due to the work
the element diffusion of the adhesion layer leads to the dissolution of the hardening of the workpiece surface.
WC grain surface into the workpiece elements, contributing to the As shown in magnified images of area V (Fig. 8(b)), the carbide
observed rounding of the grains. grains in the wear crater remain intact and unfragmented. The unbroken
Fig. 8 shows the flank wear morphology of C2 at a cutting speed of state of the WC and (Ti, W)C grains within the wear crater indicates that
40 m/min and a cutting length of 21 m. A comparison between Fig. 5(a) tool materials flake off or fracture along the grain boundaries. EDS

Fig. 8. Flank wear morphology of C2 (v = 40 m/min, L = 21 m), (a) SE and BSE images showing the flank face of C2, (b) magnified images of area V, (c) EDS analyses
of area V, (d) EDS mapping analyses of (b).

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analysis (Fig. 8(c) and (d)) demonstrates a uniform distribution of experiences adhesive wear as the dominant wear mechanism, while C2
workpiece elements in the tool substrate, with Ni, Cr, and Fe element undergoes severe adhesive wear and diffusion wear. However, the rake
contents of 1.99, 1.34, and 0.63 wt% on the crater surface, respectively. faces of both C1 and C2 do not show signs of built-up edge or crater wear
The clean and undamaged carbide grains and the absence of adhered within the current cutting speed range.
workpiece coverage on the wear crater indicate that the low content of In the cutting process of Inconel 718, friction develops between the
workpiece elements within the crater is attributed to the diffusion of flank face of the tool and the workpiece, forming an adhesion layer on
workpiece elements into the tool substrate. The diffusion phenomenon is the flank face of the tool at high temperatures. The C2 tool contains high
supported by the adhesion behavior of workpiece materials on the tool proportion (40 wt%) of (Ti, W)C phases, exhibiting a higher chemical
surface. The diffusion of workpiece elements into the tool substrate leads affinity for Ni than WC. As a result, C2 is more prone to bonding with
to the breaking of bonds between the carbide grains and Co. Conse­ workpiece materials, leading to a larger adhesion layer area on C2 than
quently, the compromised bonding strength between the hard phase and on C1 under the same cutting conditions. This difference is visible in the
the binder phase, coupled with the high flow stress during the tool wear morphology presented in Figs. 4 and 5.
machining process, causes the detachment of tool materials from the In the case of diffusion wear, the grain boundary diffusion process
tool surface. plays a crucial role and is influenced by the extent of workpiece element
Fig. 9 shows the rake wear morphology of C1 and C2 at a cutting dissolution in the microstructure of the tool materials at high tempera­
speed of 40 m/min and a cutting length of 21 m. A comparison between tures. The Co–Ni phase diagram indicates that Ni dissolves increasingly
Figs. 6 and 9 indicates that the wear area of the rake faces of both C1 and with Co as the temperature rises. The high temperature and pressure
C2 increases with the increase in cutting speeds. This increase can be impact during the formation of the adhesion layer causes the Ni element
attributed to more workpiece materials adhering to the rake face, in the adhesion layer to dissolve in the Co phase and diffuse into be­
resulting from the elevated temperature in the chip-rake face contact tween the carbide grains of the tool. This diffusion tendency weakens the
region caused by increased cutting speed. bonding strength between the carbide grains and the binder phase Co.
Despite the intensified adhesion phenomena due to the increased The bond between the carbide grains and the Co phases will be broken
cutting speed, the rake face and cutting edge of C1 (Fig. 9(a)) do not when dissolution and diffusion reach a specific point. Meanwhile, the
undergo significant alterations. This is because C1 demonstrates good dissolution rate of carbide grains in nickel is close to 10 wt%. The
resistance to the adhesive and notch wear, enabling the cutting edge to bonding strength between the carbide grains and the Co phases is further
retain its original geometry and resulting in generally uniform rake weakened by the dissolution of WC and (Ti,W)C grains in Ni. As the
wear. In contrast, the cutting edge of C2 (Fig. 9(b)) displays noticeable bonding strength of the grains weakens, the tool material falls off the
notching and a loss of its original geometry. This is a consequence of the tool surface with the adhered layer under the influence of severe alter­
adhesion layer flaking and notch wear, significantly affecting C2. The nating friction and stress. This process is observed in Figs. 7 and 8, where
intensified adhesion and notch wear contribute to the altered shape of the wear crater on the flank face results from a combination of adhesive
the cutting edge in C2. and diffusion wear. The addition of (Ti,W)C in C2 enhances the disso­
lution of carbide grains in Ni, as the solubility of (Ti,W)C in Ni is higher
than that of WC in Ni [19]. This accelerates the loss of the ability of the
3.2. Wear mechanism
carbide grains to bond to the tool substrate, leading to increased tool
wear due to the flaking of tool materials, as seen in Fig. 8. Simulta­
The presented results in Figs. 4–9 demonstrate that the two tools, C1
neously, it is noteworthy that C2 exhibits the low transverse rupture
and C2, exhibit slightly distinct wear mechanisms and significantly
strength, as detailed in Table 2. This reduced strength is attributed to the
different tool wear levels. These variations can be attributed to the
high brittleness of (Ti,W)C, rendering it more susceptible to crack
differences in material composition and mechanical properties between
propagation. The elevated brittleness of (Ti,W)C in C2 heightens the
the two tools. In the cutting conditions studied, C1 predominantly

Fig. 9. Rake wear morphology of (a) C1 and (b) C2 (v = 40 m/min, L = 21 m).

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B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

likelihood of material chipping induced by crack propagation during significant at a cutting speed of 20 m/min than at 40 m/min. At lower
cutting. Consequently, the flank face of C2 exhibits more substantial cutting speeds, the reduced cutting temperature restricts workpiece
adhesion-flaking behavior compared to C1. element diffusion, thereby preserving a solid connection at the grain
Mechanical and thermal shocks primarily cause notch wear at a boundaries of the tool materials. Simultaneously, the adequate strength
depth of cut due to chip flow and work hardening. The cutting edge of C1 between the adhesion layer and the tool materials shields it from being
has excellent wear resistance and deformation resistance due to the extruded by chips or workpieces. Consequently, at a cutting speed of 20
single hard phase of WC, tiny grain size, and high hardness, which result m/min, the flank face of C1 exhibits a substantial adhesion layer and no
in less notch wear than C2, as evident in Figs. 6 and 9. evident tool material chipping. In contrast, at a 40 m/min cutting speed,
the diffusion wear intensifies due to the increased cutting temperature.
3.3. Tool life and failure mode The grain boundary strength of the tool materials becomes insufficient
to withstand the friction and extrusion encountered on the flank face.
Fig. 10 illustrates the relationship between flank wear width and This leads to the flaking of tool materials and adhesion layers.
cutting length for C1 and C2 milling of Inconel 718. One notable finding Fig. 12 shows SEM images of the tool surface when C2 fails at various
is that cutting speed substantially impacts the flank wear width. The cutting speeds. The observed wear includes wear craters, adhered
flank wear width is relatively small at a 20 m/min cutting speed and workpieces, and notch wear on the flank face of C2, while the rake face
gradually increases with higher cutting speeds. As shown in Fig. 10(a), exhibits a significant amount of material chipping. This combination of
the flank wear width of C1 increases slowly as the cutting length in­ wear mechanisms contributes to cutting edge breakage and tool failure.
creases. For instance, at a cutting speed of 20 m/min, the VB value of C1 The tool undergoes alternating high heat and mechanical loads in the
measures approximately 0.302 mm after cutting 781 m. However, with a milling process, characterized by intermittent cutting. Consequently,
higher cutting speed of 40 m/min, the VB value of C1 reaches 0.317 mm micro cracks begin to form and propagate in the tool material, partic­
after cutting 575 m. In Fig. 10(b), it is evident that C2 exhibits a different ularly when the stress exceeds the material’s strength [3,42]. Analyzing
behavior. At a cutting speed of 20 m/min, the VB value of C2 is about the wear mechanism, it becomes evident that C2 experiences more
0.288 mm after cutting 82 m. As the cutting speed increases to 40 m/ substantial adhesive wear and diffusion wear than C1. The adhesion
min, the VB value of C2 also increases significantly, reaching 0.325 mm. layer on C2 is notably unstable during cutting. With the accumulation
A key observation from the comparison of Fig. 10(a) and (b) is that and linking of microcracks, the bonding capacity between the diffusion
the VB value of C2 is consistently more considerable than that of C1 at layer and the tool material becomes insufficient to maintain the tool’s
the same cutting speed and cutting length. Moreover, C1 demonstrates a integrity. This results in the loss of tool materials from the wear surface
longer tool life compared to C2. It is worth noting that C2 experiences a due to repeated adhesion and removal of workpiece materials. The
rapid increase in flank wear width under all cutting conditions. C2 diminished transverse rupture strength observed in C2, in comparison to
reaches the wear criterion at lower cutting lengths and wears out rela­ C1, renders its cutting edge more susceptible to chipping in the wear
tively quickly. Conversely, C1 maintains its cutting performance for stage.
longer due to its favorable wear characteristics. The wear resistance, As a consequence of the above wear processes, deep wear craters
anti-adhesion properties, and notch resistance of C1 contribute to its form on the flank face of C2 due to repeated adhesion and flaking. These
extended tool life. deep wear craters negatively impact the tool geometry, leading to
Fig. 11 shows SEM images of the tool surface when C1 fails at various reduced cutting edge performance, cutting edge chipping, and prema­
cutting speeds. The primary failure mode of C1 is flank wear. Specif­ ture tool failure. To sum up, the severe adhesive and diffusive wear
ically, as depicted in Fig. 11(a) at a cutting speed of 20 m/min, the flank experienced by C2 contribute to the deterioration and failure of its tool
face of C1 exhibits a considerable number of adhered workpieces, along performance. This is manifested in flank wear and cutting edge chip­
with relatively uniform rake wear. In Fig. 11(b), when the cutting speed ping, ultimately leading to the shorter lifespan of C2.
increases to 40 m/min, C1 displays several features. Apart from adhered Table 7 summarizes the primary wear forms, failure modes, and tool
workpieces, rough scratches and wear craters resulting from tool ma­ life of C1 and C2 during the milling of Inconel 718. Notably, when the
terial chipping are observed on the flank face, and there is also a small cutting speeds range from 20 to 40 m/min, C1 performs significantly
amount of flaking of the tool material on the rake face. better than C2, boasting a tool life of approximately 7.4–9.5 times longer
The findings from the EDS analysis indicate that point D has a higher than C2. The presence of (Ti,W)C in C2 increases adhesion, flaking, and
concentration of Ni, Cr, and Fe than point E. However, the content of the notch wear during machining. Consequently, C2 experiences severe
tool components W and Co at point D is significantly lower (0.36 and flank wear and cutting edge chipping, contributing to its reduced tool
0.23 wt%, respectively) than that at point E (11.19 and 1.44 wt%). This life compared to C1. According to findings by Thakur et al. [43], the
suggests that the adhesion layer thickness on the flank face of C1 is more cutting temperature of cemented carbide tools does not exceed 500 ◦ C

Fig. 10. Flank wear width of (a) C1 and (b) C2 at various cutting speeds.

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B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

Fig. 11. SEM images showing the failure morphology of C1 at (a) 20 m/min and (b) 40 m/min.

Fig. 12. SEM images showing the failure morphology of C2 at (a) 20 m/min and (b) 40 m/min.

when milling Inconel 718 at a 40 m/min cutting speed. As a result, the

Table 7
cutting temperature used in this investigation remains insufficient to
Wear and tool life of C1 and C2.
oxidize the tool materials significantly. The oxidation behavior of the
No. C1 C2 tool surface is deemed insignificant under the specific cutting conditions
v = 20 m/ v = 40 m/ v = 20 m/min v = 40 m/min employed in the study.
min min Fig. 13 shows the machined surface roughness obtained while mill­
Primary tc = 2.4 tc = 1.2 tc = 2.4 min; tc = 1.2 min; ing Inconel 718 using C1 and C2. In Fig. 13(a), when employing C1, the
wear min; min; Adhesion and Adhesion, crater, surface roughness is concentrated between 0.1 and 0.2 μm at various
form Adhesion Adhesion slight notch notch and chipping cutting speeds. As the cutting length increases, the surface roughness
Failure Flank wear Flank wear Cutting edge breakage induced by
mode chipping
exhibits a fluctuating pattern before gradually rising. At a cutting length
Cutting 781 m 493 m 82 m 66 m of 100–200 m, the sharp cutting edge causes an increase in surface
length, L roughness. However, once the cutting length reaches 400 m, the cutting
Tool life, T 89.5 min 28.2 min 9.4 min 3.8 min process stabilizes, and the cutting edge gradually wears down, resulting
in a steady change in surface roughness. Beyond a cutting length of 400
m, the escalating flank wear of C1 leads to severe friction between the
tool and the workpiece, consequently increasing the surface roughness.

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B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

Fig. 13. Machined surface roughness of Inconel 718 at various cutting speeds, (a) C1, (b) C2.

Hence, a characteristic pattern emerges wherein the surface roughness roughness, which varies between 0.1 and 0.25 μm. Notably, the surface
fluctuates initially and then experiences a steady increase as the flank roughness following C1 machining stays at a relatively low level when
wear of C1 progresses. Additionally, it is noteworthy that when the the cutting length is smaller than 400 m.
cutting length is smaller than 400 m, there is little difference in surface Fig. 15 presents the flank wear patterns observed in various end
roughness between cutting speeds. The increase in cutting speed causes mills. Notably, when the cutting length exceeds 20 m, signs of wear
an increase in surface roughness, nevertheless, when the cutting length become apparent on the flank face of the tools. At this stage, the degree
is more than 400 m. Due to the rapid wear rate and the lack of a stable of wear at the tool nose is influenced by the geometric angle of the tools.
wear stage in C2, cutting edge chipping impairs the stability of the Material chipping occurs at the tool noses of MAG and ZCC. As the
cutting process. As a result, when C2 is utilized, the surface roughness cutting length gradually increases, all the tools enter the steady wear
tends to increase as the cutting length increases, as depicted in Fig. 13 stage. During this phase, the cutting edge gradually becomes blunter as
(b). the cutting process continues, but no visible cutting edge breakage is
observed. Consequently, C1, SAND, SGS, and MAG primarily experience
normal wear on the tool nose and flank face until reaching the tool wear
3.4. Performance comparison with commercial tools threshold.
Fig. 16 shows the SEM images of the failure morphology of the
Fig. 14 shows the flank wear width and machined surface roughness SAND, SGS, and MAG. These commercially available tools exhibit wear
for various end mills milling Inconel 718 (v = 30 m/min, fz = 0.02 mm/ and failure patterns analogous to those exhibited by the C1 tool. Spe­
z, ap = 0.1 mm, ae = 2 mm). The cutting performance of SAND and SGS cifically, the predominant manifestations include adhesive wear leading
end mills appears comparable, as shown in Fig. 14(a). For SAND, the VB to wear craters on the flank face, as well as uniform wear and the
value reaches 0.28 mm after cutting 355 m, while for SGS, the VB value adhered workpiece on the rake face. There is no observable significant
reaches 0.276 mm after cutting 329 m. SAND and SGS exhibit maximum cutting edge chipping in any of these tools. A comparison between Ta­
cutting lengths of 355 m and 349 m, respectively. However, the MAG bles 2 and 6 reveals that the C1 tool possesses a notably higher hardness,
end mill’s cutting length is shorter, and its VB value reaches 0.295 mm measured at 2110 HV, in contrast to the commercially available tools.
after cutting 226 m. Compared to commercially available tools, C1 This elevated hardness characteristic of the C1 tool equates to superior
demonstrates a slower wear rate and a more considerable cutting length. wear resistance. Such resistance is efficacious in mitigating tool surface
The VB value of C1 is substantially lower than that of other commer­ wear and sustaining the overall geometry and sharpness of the cutting
cially available tools at the same cutting length. Consequently, the order edge. Consequently, it ensures the sustained cutting performance of the
of wear resistance of end mills can be ranked as follows: C1 > SAND > tool. Due to these attributes, when conducting milling operations on
SGS > MAG. As shown in Fig. 14(b), when the cutting length increases, Inconel 718 under identical cutting conditions, the C1 tool demonstrates
the various tools cause a slight variation in the machined surface

Fig. 14. Cutting performance of different end mills, (a) flank wear width, (b) machined surface roughness.

11
B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

Fig. 15. Optical images showing the change in flank wear with the cutting length.

Fig. 16. SEM images showing the failure morphology of (a) SAND, (b) SGS, and (c) MAG.

superior performance compared to the commercially available tools. As

Table 8
delineated in Table 8, the tool life of the C1 tool is approximately
Tool life comparison of different end mills.
1.7–3.5 times longer than that of the SAND, SGS, and MAG tools,
highlighting its enhanced durability in machining applications. No. C1 SAND SGS MAG

v = 30 m/min, fz = 0.02 mm/z, ap = 0.1 mm, ae = 2 mm

4. Conclusions Cutting length, L 698 m 355 m 349 m 226 m
Tool life, T 53.4 min 30.2 min 26.7 min 15.1 min
In this study, ultrafine WC-8Co-0.4VC-0.4Cr3C2 and WC-40(Ti,W)–
8Co-0.4VC-0.4Cr3C2 cemented carbide end mills were prepared by spark

12
B. Wang et al. Wear 546-547 (2024) 205359

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