1.

What is the role of Lubrication in Tribology:

Lubrication is fundamental in tribology, which is the study of friction, wear, and lubrication. The
primary roles of lubrication include:

o Reducing Friction: Lubricants create a film between surfaces, lowering the coefficient of
friction and enabling smoother motion.
o Minimizing Wear: By preventing direct contact between surfaces, lubricants reduce material
loss due to wear.
o Heat Dissipation: Lubricants help transfer heat away from contact surfaces, preventing
overheating and maintaining optimal operating conditions.
o Corrosion Protection: Lubricants can form a barrier against moisture and corrosive agents,
protecting metal surfaces from rust and degradation.
o Contamination Control: Lubricants can trap particles and contaminants, preventing them
from causing damage to the surfaces.
2. Name two Industrial Lubricants and Their typical Applications:
o Servogem EP [Indian Oil] greases are lithium-base greases having extreme pressure
properties. They are recommended for both plain and anti-friction bearing in a wide variety of
application such as automotive, earth moving equipment and general industrial machinery.
o ISO VG 220 is a mono grade oil that can be used in industrial gearboxes, automobiles and
industrial equipment
3. Functions of lubricants

i. Reducing friction: Lubricants create a film between two surfaces to reduce friction.
ii. Preventing wear: Lubricants prevent machine wear.
iii. Protecting against corrosion: Lubricants protect equipment from corrosion.
iv. Controlling temperature: Lubricants dissipate heat from surfaces.
v. Controlling contamination: Lubricants carry contaminants to a filter or sump.
vi. Transmitting power: Lubricants can transmit power in hydraulics.
vii. Providing a fluid seal: Lubricants can provide a fluid seal

4. Difference Between Friction and Wear:

Friction is a force that resists relative motion between two surfaces in contact. Friction refers
to the resistance encountered when surfaces slide or roll over each other, which can lead to
energy loss and heat generation. It can be categorized into:

 Static Friction: The friction that must be overcome to start moving an object.
 Kinetic Friction: The friction experienced once the object is in motion.

Wear, on the other hand, is the process of material loss from a surface due to mechanical
action, typically influenced by friction. Wear is the gradual removal or deformation of material
from surfaces due to contact, causing deterioration over time. Types of wear include:

 Abrasion: Material loss due to contact with harder materials.

 Adhesive Wear: Material transfer between surfaces in contact.
 5. Erosive Wear

Erosive wear is the type of wear in which material degradation takes place due to the impact of external
particles either solids or liquids on the surface of the material. The erosive wear can also be expressed
as the destruction or the damage on the surface of the material when an object impinges at a very high
velocity. The erosive wear formation on the surface is due to the impact of the eroding particle on the
surface, the way how this eroding particle impact the surface plays an important role in the formation
of the erosive wear. The impact angle of the eroding particle, the velocity of the impact, the material,
and size the of the eroding particle are the influencing parameters on which the erosive mechanisms
can be explained.

i. Abrasion by erosive wear: This is caused when the eroding particle impacts the surface with a low
angle causing the tearing of the surface of the material on which the eroding particle has impacted.
The abrasion of the material takes place at the region of impact causing the crack on the surface leading
to wear debris formation.

ii. Fatigue by erosive wear: This is caused when the eroding particle impacts the surface of the material
at a very high impact angle and low velocity. The region of the impact by the eroding particle has
experienced stresses that are not suitable for the plastic deformation due to the low impact velocity of
the eroding particle leading to surface fatigue.

iii. Plastic deformation by erosive wear: This mechanism occurs when the impact of the eroding particle
is at medium velocity and high impact angle. In the case of ductile materials, this impact causes plastic
deformation on the surface forming the wear debris, however, in the case of brittle materials, there will
be crack formation with large wear debris on the surface.

iv. Surface melting by erosive wear: This mechanism is caused when the eroding particle impacts the
material’s surface at a very high velocity and high impact angle. This leads to the condition where the
melting point of the material surface is lesser than the impact temperature leading to severe damage
on the surface.
6. Explain the importance of wear imaging and data acquisition in tribology.

Image acquisition captures microscopic images of wear surfaces, allowing detailed analysis of wear
patterns, surface damage, and particle characteristics, which are crucial for evaluating material
performance. Techniques such as optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and 3D
profilometry capture detailed images of worn surfaces, allowing researchers to analyze wear
mechanisms, such as abrasion, adhesion, or fatigue, at a microstructural level. Data acquisition systems
record parameters like friction force, temperature, and wear rate over time, providing continuous data
that can be used to model material behavior and predict service life.

7. Name any three ASTM Standards for Corrosion Testing:

 ASTM B117: outlines the method for conducting salt spray tests, which simulate corrosive
environments to evaluate the corrosion resistance of materials and coatings.
 ASTM G31: provides guidance on laboratory immersion corrosion testing, allowing for the
assessment of corrosion resistance in various media at different temperatures.
 ASTM G5: is the standards for electrochemical test
 ASTM G48: focuses on testing for pitting and crevice corrosion, particularly in stainless steels,
helping to predict material behaviour in harsh environments.

8. Dry corrosion vs wet corrosion

Dry corrosion occurs when a metal oxidizes in the presence of gases, while wet corrosion occurs when
a metal comes into contact with an aqueous solution:

Dry corrosion

Also known as chemical corrosion, dry corrosion occurs when a metal is exposed to gases like oxygen,
causing it to oxidize. The chemical affinity between the metal and the environment, and the protective
value of any film formed, are factors that affect dry corrosion.

Wet corrosion

Also known as electrochemical corrosion, wet corrosion occurs when a metal comes into contact with
an aqueous solution. This process involves the transfer of electrons, which occurs in two stages:
oxidation and reduction. In oxidation, the metal atoms lose electrons, and in reduction, the surrounding
environment gains the electrons. The metal that loses electrons is called the anode, and the other metal,
liquid, or gas that gains the electrons is called the cathode.

9. What is stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC):

Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a type of corrosion that occurs when a material is exposed to a
corrosive environment and tensile stress at the same time. It can cause a material to fail
 catastrophically, and is often difficult to detect in its early stages because it can occur without any
visible deformation. The combination of stress and corrosive agents leads to localized attack on the
material, initiating cracks that can propagate rapidly.

SCC can occur in different ways, including:

 Intergranular stress corrosion cracking (IGSCC): Cracks form along the grain boundaries of
the material
 Transgranular stress corrosion cracking (TGSCC): Cracks form through the grains of the
material

Metals such as stainless steels, aluminum alloys, and some nickel-based alloys are particularly
susceptible.

Prevention strategies include stress relief, material selection, and the use of corrosion inhibitors.

10. Why is High-Temperature Corrosion Testing important?

High-temperature environments, such as those in turbines or engines, can lead to unique corrosion
challenges. Testing is crucial because:

 Material Behavior: At high temperatures, materials may react differently with corrosive
agents, leading to accelerated degradation.
 Design Safety: Understanding how materials perform under extreme conditions helps
engineers design safer and more reliable components.
 Longevity and Reliability: High-temperature testing aids in predicting the service life of
components in demanding applications.

……………………………………………………………………

11. Analyse the types of lubricants used in industrial applications, including the importance of
grades and classifications.

Lubricants are essential for reducing friction and wear between moving parts, improving efficiency,
and prolonging equipment life. Industrial lubricants are available in various forms, including oils,
greases, solid lubricants, and specialized synthetic fluids.

A lubricant's grade indicates its viscosity, or how thick it is and how easily it flows. Lubricants are
graded by viscosity and performance under standard conditions, with systems like SAE (for
automotive oils) and ISO VG (for industrial oils) providing classifications based on viscosity range.
Higher-viscosity lubricants are used in high-load or high-temperature conditions, while lower-
viscosity oils are suitable for high-speed, low-load applications. Proper selection and application of
lubricants are critical for ensuring smooth operation, minimizing energy loss, and reducing
maintenance costs in industrial settings.

The grade of industrial lubricant you use is important because it affects the performance of your
equipment and the cost of maintenance:

Viscosity: The viscosity of a lubricant determines how well it can carry heat away and maintain a
protective film. The right viscosity grade depends on the operating temperature, load, speed, and
 equipment manufacturer recommendations. For example, high-viscosity oils are used for heavy-load
or high-temperature applications, while low-viscosity oils are used for high-speed applications.

Pour point: The pour point is the lowest temperature at which a lubricant can still flow. This is
important for applications like engines that start in cold conditions or gravity-fed lubricators.

Cloud point: The cloud point is the temperature at which the wax in the lubricant starts to separate
and become visible. Wax can cause filter blockages, so this temperature is important to know.

Maintenance: Using the right lubricant can reduce the frequency of repairs and maintenance, which
can save money and increase productivity.

Equipment lifespan: High-quality lubricants can extend the lifespan of your equipment.

Sustainability: Using high-grade lubricants can help reduce CO2 emissions.

Classification of Industrial Lubricants

Industrial lubricants can be broadly classified into several types, including mineral oils, synthetic oils,
greases, and solid lubricants.

 Mineral Oils are derived from refining crude oil and are the most commonly used lubricants.
They are classified based on viscosity grades, which are essential for determining their flow
characteristics at different temperatures. This classification is particularly important in
applications like automotive engines, where oils need to maintain viscosity under varying
operational conditions to ensure effective lubrication.
 Synthetic Oils, on the other hand, are man-made and can be engineered to provide superior
performance compared to mineral oils. They often exhibit better thermal stability, lower
volatility, and enhanced lubricating properties, making them ideal for extreme conditions such
as high temperatures and pressures.
 Greases are semi-solid lubricants that combine oil with a thickening agent. They are
particularly useful in applications where a lubricant needs to stay in place, such as in bearings
and gears. Greases are also graded for consistency and performance, which is vital for ensuring
long-lasting protection against wear and contamination.
 Solid Lubricants like graphite and molybdenum disulfide are used in high-load applications
where traditional liquid lubricants may fail. They are often employed in environments where
extreme temperatures or vacuum conditions exist.

12). Describe the different methods used for measuring friction and wear, including at least one
standardized testing method.

Measuring friction and wear is crucial for understanding the performance and durability of materials and
components under operational conditions. Friction and wear are measured using several standardized testing
methods, each designed to simulate specific conditions and stresses. Different tests include:

i. Pin-on-disk test – A pin slides against a rotating disk to assess friction and wear properties
ii. Block-on-ring test - evaluates wear under rotary motion; and
iii. Reciprocating wear test - mimics back-and-forth sliding
Each method is designed to capture data on friction coefficients, wear rates, and material loss under controlled
conditions, allowing researchers to understand how different materials and lubricants behave. These tests are
standardized under bodies like ASTM and ISO to ensure consistency and reliability in wear and friction
assessment.

One of the most common methods is the pin-on-disk test, which evaluates the friction and wear characteristics
of materials. It is a widely used method in tribology for evaluating the friction and wear properties of materials.
This test simulates sliding contact between two materials, typically a stationary pin (or ball) is pressed against
a rotating disk, under controlled conditions. It is used to measure the coefficient of friction, wear rate, and
other wear characteristics of materials under various operating parameters. In this test, the pin is pressed
against a rotating disk. In this test, the force required to maintain the motion is measured, along with the mass
loss of the pin over time. This method is standardized by ASTM G99, which provides guidelines for
conducting the test under controlled conditions to ensure repeatability and reliability.

Test Setup and Components

1. Pin and Disk Configuration:

o Pin: The pin is usually a cylindrical or hemispherical sample made from the test material. It
may also have a spherical end, as with a ball-on-disk configuration.
o Disk: The disk, often made from the counter-material or testing material, rotates against the
pin. Both the pin and disk materials can vary depending on the specific application being
simulated.
2. Load Application:
o A controlled normal load is applied to the pin, pressing it against the rotating disk. This load is
typically constant but can be varied to simulate different contact stresses. Load values range
from a few grams to several kilograms, depending on the test requirements.
3. Rotational Speed:
o The rotational speed of the disk is controlled to simulate different sliding velocities. Speeds
can range from low (10–100 rpm) to high (up to several thousand rpm) depending on the
application.
o Sliding Speed (Velocity): The linear sliding speed depends on the rotational speed and the
distance from the center of the disk where the pin contacts the surface. For a disk rotating at a
given rpm, the sliding speed (v) can be calculated as: v=2πr⋅RPM/60, where r is the radius of
contact from the center of the disk.
4. Stroke Length:
 oFor a pin-on-disk test, the motion is continuous, meaning there is no specific “stroke length”
as in reciprocating tests. However, the distance from the disk center where the pin contacts
the disk (i.e., the radius of the wear track) is a critical parameter that affects the test results.
o Larger radii result in higher linear velocities for the same rotational speed.
5. Temperature and Environment:
o Tests can be conducted at ambient temperature or in a controlled environment where the
temperature can be increased to simulate operational conditions. The chamber can also be filled
with specific gases, or the test can be conducted under vacuum or in lubricated conditions to
replicate different environments.
6. Duration:
o The duration of the test depends on the desired wear depth or the number of cycles required.
Test durations can range from a few minutes to several hours, with longer tests revealing more
about the long-term wear characteristics of the material.

Parameters Measured in the Pin-on-Disk Test

1. Coefficient of Friction:
o The coefficient of friction (CoF) is calculated by measuring the tangential frictional force
generated between the pin and the disk. Sensors record this force, and the coefficient of friction
is given by: μ=Ft/Fn, where Ft is the tangential (friction) force and Fn is the normal load applied
to the pin.
2. Wear Rate:
o The wear rate can be determined by measuring the mass loss of the pin or disk before and after
the test. It is also calculated by measuring the wear volume of the wear scar. Wear rate W can
be expressed as: W=ΔV/(Fn⋅s), where ΔV is the volume loss, Fn is the normal load, and s is
the sliding distance.
3. Wear Scar Analysis:
o After the test, the wear scar on the pin and the wear track on the disk are examined using optical
microscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), or 3D profilometry to assess wear
mechanisms like abrasive, adhesive, or oxidative wear.

As can be seen form the figure, at the start of the test, the measured coefficient of friction (COF) is high and
with further progress drops. This behavior is typical friction measurements and is attributed to a running-in
phenomenon. During the running-in, the surface topography changes, chemical reactions takes place until the
system comes to a steady-state state. This steady state COF is then usually reported.
Testing Standards

Standards such as ASTM G99 and ISO 20808 provide guidelines for conducting pin-on-disk tests. These
standards specify parameters, procedures, and data reporting requirements to ensure consistency and
reproducibility.

13). Briefly discuss the tribocorrosion test principle and working procedure with neat sketch.

1. Sample Preparation:
o Samples are prepared to ensure uniformity, often by polishing and cleaning.
o Coatings or surface treatments are applied if the material is being tested for protective
effectiveness.
o Samples are then measured and weighed to record their baseline properties.
2. Setup of Tribocorrosion Test Cell:
o The test is performed in an electrochemical cell that holds the test sample, electrolyte solution,
and electrode setup.
o A common tribometer (e.g., pin-on-disk or reciprocating tribometer) is used to apply controlled
mechanical wear.
o The test cell typically contains an electrolyte that simulates the corrosive environment, such as
saline solution for biomedical applications or acidic solutions for industrial applications.
3. Application of Mechanical and Electrochemical Loading:
o The tribometer applies a controlled force and motion (e.g., linear, circular, or reciprocating) to
simulate wear, using a pin or counter-body in contact with the sample.
o Simultaneously, an electrochemical measurement system (potentiostat) monitors the corrosion
potential and current of the sample, providing data on real-time corrosion.
o Tests can be run under specific environmental conditions, such as controlled temperature,
humidity, and oxygen levels, to simulate real application scenarios.
4. Monitoring and Data Collection:
o Wear rates are measured by monitoring the amount of material removed over time, typically
quantified by the wear volume or wear scar depth.
o Electrochemical data, such as corrosion potential (Ecorr) and current density (Icorr), are
collected throughout the test to monitor changes in corrosion rate.
o The synergy between wear and corrosion is analyzed by comparing the tribocorrosion rate to
the individual rates of wear and corrosion observed when they occur separately.
5. Post-Test Evaluation:
o After testing, samples are examined for wear scars, corrosion pits, and surface degradation.
o Weight loss, surface morphology, and depth of wear are recorded, often using optical or
scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
 o Additional analyses, such as energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) or X-ray diffraction
(XRD), may be conducted to examine any chemical changes or corrosion by-products formed
during testing.

Advantages of Tribocorrosion Testing

 Realistic Simulation: Provides a more accurate assessment of materials that will face both wear and
corrosion in service conditions.
 Predictive Value: Allows for better prediction of material lifespan and the effectiveness of protective
measures, such as coatings and inhibitors.
 Identification of Synergy: Quantifies the combined effects of wear and corrosion, highlighting
materials that can resist these effects better.

Limitations of Tribocorrosion Testing

 Complex Interpretation: Results can be challenging to interpret due to the complex interaction
between wear and corrosion processes.
 Time-Intensive: Tests can require long durations to produce meaningful data, especially for materials
with high wear and corrosion resistance.
 Specialized Equipment: Requires both tribological and electrochemical equipment, which can be
costly and complex to operate.

14). List the various types of corrosion that occur in metals and discuss its preventive measures.

The primary types of corrosion include;

 Uniform corrosion: Occurs evenly across the surface of a material. Uniform Corrosion. It is an even
attack across the surface of a material and is the most common type of corrosion. It is also the most
benign as the extent of the attack is relatively easily judged, and the resulting impact on material
performance is fairly easily evaluated due to an ability to consistently reproduce and test the
phenomenon. This type of corrosion typically occurs over relatively large areas of a material’s surface
 Pitting corrosion: Localized corrosion forming small pits on the material’s surface. It can be hard to
predict, detect and characterize. Once a pit has initiated, it grows into a “hole” or “cavity” that takes
on one of a variety of different shapes. Pits typically penetrate from the surface downward in a vertical
direction. Pitting corrosion can be caused by a local break or damage to the protective oxide film or a
protective coating; it can also be caused by non-uniformities in the metal structure itself. Pitting is
dangerous because it can lead to failure of the structure with a relatively low overall loss of metal.

 Crevice corrosion: Occurs in confined spaces where a corrosive agent becomes trapped. Crevice
corrosion occurs in shielded areas such as those under washers, bolt heads, gaskets, etc. where oxygen
is restricted. These smaller areas allow for a corrosive agent to enter but do not allow enough
circulation within, depleting the oxygen content, which prevents re-passivation. As a stagnant solution
builds, pH shifts away from neutral. This growing imbalance between the crevice (microenvironment)
and the external surface (bulk environment) contributes to higher rates of corrosion. Crevice corrosion
can often occur at lower temperatures than pitting. Proper joint design helps to minimize crevice
corrosion.
  Stress corrosion cracking (SCC): Caused by the combined effects of tensile stress and corrosive
environment. Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is a result of the combination of tensile stress and a
corrosive environment, often at elevated temperatures. Stress corrosion may result from external stress
such as actual tensile loads on the metal or expansion/contraction due to rapid temperature changes. It
may also result from residual stress imparted during the manufacturing process such as from cold
forming, welding, machining, grinding, etc. In stress corrosion, the majority of the surface usually
remains intact; however, fine cracks appear in the microstructure, making the corrosion hard to detect.
The cracks typically have a brittle appearance and form and spread in a direction perpendicular to the
location of the stress. Selecting proper materials for a given environment (including temperature and
management of external loads) can mitigate the potential for catastrophic failure due to SCC.
 Galvanic corrosion: Galvanic corrosion is the degradation of one metal near a joint or juncture that
occurs when two electrochemically dissimilar metals are in electrical contact in an electrolytic
environment; for example, when copper is in contact with steel in a saltwater environment. Choosing
metals that are as close together as practicable on the galvanic series helps reduce the risk of galvanic
corrosion.
 Intergranular corrosion: affects the boundaries between grains in the metal. Intergranular corrosion can
be caused by impurities present at these grain boundaries or by the depletion or enrichment of an
alloying element at the grain boundaries. Intergranular corrosion occurs along or adjacent to these
grains, seriously affecting the mechanical properties of the metal while the bulk of the metal remain
intact.
 High-Temperature Corrosion: Occurs at elevated temperatures, usually in oxidizing environments.

Corrosion prevention methods

i. Barrier Protection: The purpose of barrier protection is to create barriers between the metal
surface and the moisture of water drops containing dissolved impurities so that they do not come
in contact with each other.
 By keeping the surface of the metal smooth.
 Painting the surface of the metal will also help.
 By coating the metal surface with a thin film of oil or grease.
 By coating iron with some non-corroding metal, such as copper, nickel, chromium, aluminium,
etc.

ii. Sacrificial Protection: In this method, the surface of the metal to be protected (for example, iron)
is coated with a more reactive metal.
iii. Electrical protection: In this method, by connecting the surface of iron to some more active metals
(such as aluminium, magnesium, or zinc), their exposed surfaces can be protected.
iv. Use of Anti-rust Solution: The alkaline solution of some phosphate and chromate salts acts as an
anti-rust solution. For example, when iron articles are dipped into the boiling and strongly alkaline
solution of sodium phosphate, a protective insoluble film of iron phosphate is formed on them.
This film protects the articles from rusting.

15). Various losses encountered in industry due to friction and wear.

Friction and wear can cause a variety of losses in industry, including:

Energy loss: Friction and wear are responsible for about one-quarter of the world's total energy losses. In
industry, friction can account for up to 29% of energy use. For example, in paper mills, friction accounts for
15–25% of the energy used.

Economic losses: In mineral mining, friction and wear can cause economic losses of around 210,000 million
Euros annually. These losses are distributed as follows:
  40% for overcoming friction
 27% for production of replacement parts and spare equipment
 26% for maintenance work
 7% for lost production

Environmental losses: Friction and wear can also lead to environmental losses, such as increased carbon
dioxide emissions. In mineral mining, friction and wear can result in 970 million tonnes of CO2 emissions
annually.

Component damage: Wear can lead to performance degradation or damage to components. For example, in
IC engines, frictional losses are nearly 50% in the piston-cylinder system, with 70–80% of those losses
occurring in the piston rings.

Some ways to reduce friction and wear include:

 Using textured surfaces to trap wear debris and improve hydrodynamic lubrication
 Using tribocharge mitigation methods, such as corona discharging or solvent treatment
 Using new tribological technologies