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The Oxford History of World War II
The twelve historians who contributed to The Oxford History of
World War II are all distinguished authorities in their field.
They are:

RICHARD BESSEL, University of York

PATRICIA CLAVIN, University of Oxford
DAVID EDGERTON, Imperial College London
DAVID FRENCH, University College London
ERIC GROVE, Liverpool Hope University
NICOLA LABANCA, University of Siena
STEVEN HUGH LEE, University of British Columbia
EVAN MAWDSLEY, University of Glasgow
RICHARD OVERY, University of Exeter
GEOFFREY ROBERTS, University College Cork
MICHAEL SNAPE, University of Birmingham
DAVID WELCH, University of Kent
The Oxford History
of World War II
Edited by
RICHARD OVERY
 Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
© Oxford University Press 2023
The text of this edition was first published in
The Oxford Illustrated History of World War Two in 2015
The moral rights of the author have been asserted First published 2015
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2023930054
ISBN 978–0–19–288408–4
DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192884084.001.0001
Printed and bound in the UK by
Clays Ltd, Elcograf S.p.A.
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
 Editor’s Preface

The Second World War is now three generations away, the anniver-
sary of its end in 2015 seventy years since the conflict formally ended.
The war has left a long shadow across the second half of the twentieth
century. Memorialization of its victims continues and popular fascin-
ation with its history is unabated. Unlike the Great War of 1914–18,
the second conflict affected literally the whole world; it resulted in
around five times as many deaths; and it was punctuated by remark-
able moments of drama and sacrifice, all of which explains that
persistent interest. The chronological distance from the war has,
however, allowed historians to think differently about how to describe
and define it, how to explain its course, and above all what subjects
should now concern us when considering wartime experience. The
Oxford History of World War II follows a proud tradition in the Press in
producing up-to-date and volumes on a range of historical subjects.
The current volume is designed to introduce a range of themes that
are less commonly found in general histories of the war and which
reflect current developments in historical scholarship. My task as
General Editor has been made easier thanks to the quality of the
different contributions and the helpfulness and patience of the con-
tributors during the editorial process. I am grateful to the team at
Oxford University Press for all their help in turning this into a
successful volume, in particular to Matthew Cotton, Kim Behrens,
Kizzy Taylor-Richelieu, and Paul Simmons, who drew the maps. The
result is, I hope, a fitting way to re-examine a conflict that with the
passage of time remains a lived experience for only a few but which
has become in the interval a vibrant example of living history.
RICHARD OVERY
Exeter and London, 2014
 Contents

List of Maps ix

Introduction: Total War—Global War 1

Richard Overy
1. The Genesis of World War 9
Patricia Clavin
2. The Japanese Empire at War, 1931–1945 31
Steven Hugh Lee

3. The Italian Wars 68

Nicola Labanca
4. The German Wars 104
Richard Overy
5. The West and the War at Sea 125
Eric Grove
6. The Allies from Defeat to Victory 157
Evan Mawdsley
7. Fighting Power: War-Making and Military Innovation 190
David French

8. Economies in Total War 219

Richard Overy

9. Front Line I: Armed Forces at War 241

Michael Snape
10. Front Line II: Civilians at War 275
Richard Overy
11. Unnatural Deaths 301
Richard Bessel
viii Contents
12. Brains at War: Invention and Experts 322
David Edgerton

13. The Culture of War: Ideas, Arts, and Propaganda 347

David Welch
14. From World War to Cold War 372
Geoffrey Roberts

Maps 399
Further Reading 421
Index 441
 List of Maps

1. Axis territorial expansion, 1938–42 399

2. Japanese territorial expansion, 1931–42 400
3. The German campaign in Poland, September 1939 402
4. German invasion in the West, May 1940 403
5. The Battle of Britain 404
6. Japan’s campaigns in China, 1937–45 405
7. Japan’s advance in the Pacific War, 1941–2 406
8. The Battle of the Atlantic, 1943 408
9. Operation Barbarossa, 1941 409
10. The bombing campaigns in Europe, 1940–5 410
11. The war in Italy, 1943–5 412
12. German defeat in the East, 1943–5 413
13. The Holocaust in Europe, 1941–5 414
14. The Allied invasion of France 415
15. The defeat of Germany in the West 416
16. The defeat of Japan in the Pacific War 417
17. The campaigns in Burma, 1942–5 418
18. The Cold War division of Europe 419
19. The Korean War 420
World War II was the most devastating conflict in recorded human
history. It was both global in extent and total in character. It has
understandably left a long and dark shadow across the decades. Yet
it is three generations since hostilities formally ended in 1945 and
the conflict is now a lived memory for only a few. And this growing
distance in time has allowed historians to think differently about
how to describe it, how to explain its course, and what subjects to
focus on when considering the wartime experience.

For instance, as World War II recedes ever further into the past,
even a question as apparently basic as when it began and ended
becomes less certain. Was it 1939, when the war in Europe
began? Or the summer of 1941, with the beginning of Hitler’s
war against the Soviet Union? Or did it become truly global only
when the Japanese brought the USA into the war at the end of
1941? And what of the long conflict in East Asia, beginning with
the Japanese aggression in China in the early 1930s and only
ending with the triumph of the Chinese Communists in 1949?

In The Oxford History of World War II a team of leading historians

reassesses the conflict for a new generation, exploring the course of
the war not just in terms of the Allied response but also from the
viewpoint of the Axis aggressor states. Under Richard Overy’s
expert editorial guidance, the contributions take us from the genesis
of war, through the action in the major theatres of conflict by land,
sea, and air, to assessments of fighting power and military and
technical innovation, the economics of total war, the culture and
propaganda of war, and the experience of war (and genocide) for
both combatants and civilians, concluding with an account of the
transition from World War to Cold War in the late 1940s. Together,
they provide a stimulating and thought-provoking new interpretation
of one of the most terrible and fascinating episodes in world history.

Richard Overy is Honorary Research Professor at the University

of Exeter. He is the author of more than thirty books on the history
of twentieth-century war and dictatorship, including the highly
acclaimed Why the Allies Won (1995) and the prize-winning The
Dictators: Hitler’s Germany and Stalin’s Russia (2004). He is a Fellow of
the British Academy and a member of the European Academy of
Sciences and Arts. His book on The Bombing War: Europe 1939–1945
(2013) won a Cundill Prize award for Historical Literature in 2014.
His latest book Blood and Ruins: The Great Imperial War 1931–1945
won the 2022 Duke of Wellington Medal for Military History.
 Praise for The Oxford History of
World War II

‘The Oxford History of World War II is a thoughtful and thought-

provoking volume, which succeeds very well in bringing at least
a taste of the wealth of current Second World War scholarship
to a wider audience. There is much here to admire; not least the
erudition of the contributors . . . an excellent, concise and
enlightening volume. As such, it is a worth addition to the library
of every student and every scholar of the conflict.’
Roger Moorhouse, History Today

‘A stimulating and thought-provoking new interpretation of one

of the most terrible episodes in world history.’
Military History

‘The Oxford History of World War II is an exemplary book that . . .

provides an insightful and in-depth analysis of the war from both
sides’
Ireland’s Eye

‘combines a breadth and depth not seen in much military history

writing. The skillful analysis of each chapter does not sacrifice
narrative ability to address topics ranging from the German,
Italian, and Japanese conduct of the land, sea, and air wars to
the political intricacies of the Grand Alliance, scientific innov-
ation, and the cultural history of the war . . . Astounding.’
M. A. Mengerink, CHOICE
 Introduction
Total War—Global War
Richard Overy

It is a commonplace that the Second World War was both global in

extent and total in character. And yet with the passage of time since
the end of the war in 1945 both of these realities seem more difficult to
explain than they did at the time. That almost the entire surface of the
earth, and the skies above, should be engulfed by war is an extraor-
dinary, unique phenomenon. Even those nations that could remain
neutral or were distant from the actual fighting were profoundly
touched by war. Volunteers from neutral Spain went off to fight
against ‘Bolshevism’ in Hitler’s war on the Soviet Union; neutral
Swiss banks stockpiled gold melted down from the dental fillings and
jewellery of murdered European Jews; faraway Brazil declared war on
Germany and Italy in 1942 and sent two divisions to fight in the last
stages of the European war in northern Italy. From the Aleutian
Islands in the northern Pacific Ocean to the jungle-coated island of
Madagascar, from the deserts of North Africa to the harsh Arctic
Ocean, states fought a desperate war for what they regarded as just
causes. The sheer geographical scale of the war is a challenge to any
history of the conflict, and demands its own explanation.
The geography of the Second World War was dictated by the
ambitions of the aggressor states—Germany, Italy, and Japan (and
the Soviet Union in 1939–40 in Poland and Finland)—in a world
where global and regional security systems could no longer effectively
function, as the opening chapter shows, either through the operation
of self-restraint or through coercion. Each of these states pursued a
number of distinctly separate wars to try to create new security
2 Introduction
regimes to protect and secure their international status. Although the
ambitions of the three so-called ‘Axis’ states were confined to their
own spheres of interest or ‘new orders’ in Europe, the Mediterranean,
and Asia (defined in the Tripartite Pact signed in Berlin in September
1940), the conflicts eventually coalesced into world war principally
because of the global reach of the Western Allies—Britain, the British
Commonwealth and Empire, and the United States—and the global
nature of the aggregate threat that they perceived.
The territorial spread of conflict from the mid-1930s was literally
worldwide. Italy fought wars against Ethiopia in 1935–6, in Spain to
help Franco, briefly against France in June 1940, and then against the
British Commonwealth in Africa, before invading Greece in October
1940 and opening a Balkan front. Germany began with a war against
Poland on 1 September 1939 that grew immediately into a war with
Britain and France; in February 1941 German forces set up a Medi-
terranean front; in June 1941 another war was launched against the
Soviet Union, distinct from the war in the West; in December 1941
war was declared on the United States. Japan began aggression in
China in 1931–2, escalated the conflict into full-scale war in July
1937, fought briefly against Soviet forces in 1938 and 1939 on the
Manchurian border, and finally added a major conflict in the Pacific
Ocean theatre against the United States, Britain, The Netherlands,
Australia, and New Zealand. Though at times these aggressive wars
were linked—for example, German help for the failing Italian army in
North Africa and Greece—they were generally fought as separate
contests, which is why they are dealt with in this volume as three sets of
wars, one each for Japan, Italy, and Germany.
The geography of the war was also shaped by the search for
economic security. Japanese aggression was largely fuelled by the
belief that the resources of mainland China and South-East Asia
were necessary to provide Japan’s people with long-term economic
benefits that could no longer be obtained from the conventional world
trading economy. Hitler’s war against the Soviet Union, for all its
emphasis on a clash of ideologies, was supposed to engross the raw
material and agricultural resources of Eurasia to support an econom-
ically independent and wealthy German imperial centre. Italy’s war
against British Commonwealth forces in Egypt had the Suez Canal
and the oil of the Middle East as a probable prize. Since modern
Another random document with
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 Koulumestari: Haluat siis tulla?

Maiju: Jos herra Koulumestari niin tahtoo…

Koulumestari: Näytät hiukan vastenmieliseltä… enhän minä sinua

pakottamaan rupea… saat tietysti oman vapaan tahtosi mukaan
tehdä…

Maiju: Niin ymmärränhän minä sen, ettei herra Koulumestari

ketään väkipakolla… Voihan siellä olla hauskaakin… ja saanhan sitten
myös kuulla herra Koulumestarin esitelmän…

Koulumestari: No no, ei siitä vielä mitään! — Se on siis päätetty.

Lyömme kättä päälle. (Lyövät kättä. Maiju niiaa syvään.) Se on siis
päätetty, ja jos, ja jos… tuota… jos tahdot, Maiju, olen hyvin
onnellinen saadessani tanssia kanssasi muutaman kierroksen
valssia… tuota…

Maiju: Mutta herra Koulumestari!…

Koulumestari: Niin, niin!… Mene sitten vaan laittamaan itseäsi

kuntoon, että pääsemme lähtemään hyvissä ajoin. (Katsoo
kelloansa.) Kello on nyt puoli viisi.

Maiju: Kohta olen valmis. (Menee, herttaisimmasti hymyillen.)

Koulumestari (Jää paikallansa seisten katselemaan hänen

jälkeensä): Harvinaisen kiltti lapsi! Sanon minä sen vieläkin kerran.
Olen lopun lopultakin mielistynyt häneen. Kun oikein ajattelee ja
visusti harkitsee, on hän sittenkin aivan toista kuin pappilan Katri-
neiti. Työtä tekee tyttö kuin muurahainen, aina on hän altis ja valmis
vaikeampaankin tehtävään nurkumatta ryhtymään… Mitä enemmän
häntä katselen, sitä enemmän häneen mielistyn… ja taidanpa
puhtaalla omallatunnolla sanoa senkin asian, että vaimoa ei mistään
saa mies parempaa, aviopuolisoa taitavampaa ja kunnollisempaa ei
ole itse kuninkaallakaan… sen uskallan vannoa. Kymmenen vuotta
on hän palvellut minua, tunnen hänet prikkua myöten; (Kävelee
kauan edestakaisin miettien; pitkä äänettömyys.) Hm! Se ei olisi
hullummaksi… Hm!… On ihmeellistä, etten ennemmin ole tätä
seikkaa nimeksikään huomannut ja joka päivä olemme olleet
yhdessä… Hm! Niinhän se käy usein… oikein kuumottaa poskia…
Minnehän se Maiju lie mennyt? Mitäpä jos niinkuin kautta rantain
tekisi hänelle tiedoksi, koettaisi ensin vaikka vertauksen muodossa…
taitaisi olla helpompaa… (Käy pellin eteen järjestelemään pukuaan.)
Ja kun nyt kaiken lisäksi olen juhlapuvussakin… (Kääntyy ovea kohti,
luo vielä silmäyksen peiliin, raottaa ovea ja kutsuu sitten värisevällä
äänellä): Saanko minä vielä kerran vaivata Maijua tänne.

Maiju (Kyökissä): Tulen aivan heti, herra Koulumestari. (Pieni

paussi. Koulumestari kävelee edestakaisin merkillinen hymyily
huulillaan. Hetken kuluttua tulee Maiju.)

Koulumestari: Niin, asia on nyt sillä tavalla… Ehkä Maiju on hyvä ja

tulee istumaan…

Maiju: Herra Koulumestarilla on sitten varmaan hyvin tärkeää

kerrottavaa?

Koulumestari: Tavallaan on se hyvin tärkeää… kuinka sen kukin

ottaa. Tapahtuuhan usein, että vakavimmistakin asioista lasketaan
kevyttä pilaa… välinpitämättömät ihmiset tietystikin tällä lailla
tekevät. Mutta kerranpa saavat he kumminkin vastata töistään.

No niin. Istukaamme tänne, (istuvat arasti kumpikin. Tuskallinen

äänettömyys.) Tämä on vertaus, Maiju. Tiedätkö sinä mikä on
vertaus?

Maiju: Kyllä minä tiedän, herra Koulumestari. Olen oppinut sen

kirjoista.

Koulumestari: Aivan oikein: Raamatussa esimerkiksi puhutaan

paljon vertauksista. Minullakin on nyt vertaus, Maiju. Katsohan: oli
kerran kaksi ihmistä — näin alkavat vertaukset —, mutta nämä
ihmiset eivät olleet kaikessa toistensa kaltaisia, sillä olipa toinen
heistä mies ja toinen heistä oli vaimo. En tarkoita suinkaan Aatamia
enkä Eevaa. Ihmiset, joista kerron, eivät asuneet paratiisissa, vaan
asuivat he eräässä maalaiskylässä lähellä kaupunkia… siis aivan
niinkuin me, Maiju, täällä.

Maiju: Aivan niinkuin me täällä, herra Koulumestari.

Koulumestari: Ja se ihminen, joka mies oli, halusi armaakseen ja

omakseen sen ihmisen, joka oli vaimoksi luotu, sillä hyvä ja siviä oli
tämä vaimonpuolinen ihminen eikä hänestä yhtäkään pahuutta eikä
saastaa löytynyt…

Maiju: Mutta tämähän on perin ihmeellistä, herra Koulumestari!

Koulumestari: No no, tavallista tämä on, ehkäpä liiankin tavallista.

— Mutta se mies ei tietänyt, rakastiko häntä se vaimonpuolinen
ihminen.

Maiju: Eikö hän sitten uskaltanut kysyä sitä koskaan?

Koulumestari: Mutta nyt tapahtuu käänne vertauksessa.

Ajatteleppas, kiltti Maijuseni — voithan sinä ainakin ajatella tällä
tavalla! —, että minä olisin tuo mies… niin, että olisin tuo mies ja
sinä tuo vaimo…
 Maiju: Voi voi teitä kumminkin, herra Koulumestari!…

Koulumestari: Ja kun sitten kysyisin sinulta tuon kysymyksen,

minkä vastauksen antaisit sinä? (Pekkola tulee kiireesti.)

Pekkola: Herra Koulumestari, teidän esitelmänne…

Koulumestari (Hypähtää äkisti ylös): Minun esitelmäni? (Vilkasee

kelloonsa.) Ei liene enää aivan pitkiä aikoja — —

Pekkola: Luulen että olette nukkunut, herraseni…

Koulumestari: Nukkunut? Kuinka? Mitä te oikeastaan tarkoitatte?

(Vilkasee uudelleen hermostuneena kelloonsa.) Tai käykö kelloni
mahdollisesti jäljessä…? Pyydän teitä nöyrimmästi, että selitätte
mistä on kysymys. Kellohan on vasta neljännestä vailla viisi… ja
viideltä se alkaa se iltama… Nukkunut?

Pekkola: Minä sanon teille yhden asian. Juhlan ohjelma on aikoja

mennyt menojaan. Kello löi äsken puoli yhdeksän.

Maiju (itsekseen): Puoli yhdeksän!!

Koulumestari: Mutta…? Hyvä jumala! Puoli yhdeksän! Sehän on

suorastaan — — Minä olen siis my-my-my-myöhästynyt! Minä olen
siis — — Onhan tämä aivan hulluutta!… Minun esitelmäni…

Pekkola: Herraseni, tämä on anteeksi antamatonta: lupautua eikä

täyttää lupaustaan. Älkää lupautuko silloin, kun ette luule
kykenevänne. Hyvästi! (Menee.)

Koulumestari: Kykeneväni! Hyvä jumala! Tämä voi tehdä hulluksi!

Tämä vie järjen päästä! Mitä sanovat kyläIäiset, mitä sanoo lukkari!
Odotin paljon tästä tilaisuudesta… tämä olisi ollut ensimäinen suuri
hetki minun elämässäni… Nyt on kaikki mennyttä… Minä onneton,
minä onneton! (Vaipuu väsyneenä sohvalle.)

Maiju (Kyyneleet silmissä): Mutta, herra Koulumestari, eiköhän

tästä sentään jollakin lailla — —

Koulumestari: Vaiti! Tämä on kaikki sinun tähtesi, Maiju. Tämä on

sinun työtäsi. Iloitse siitä! Älä kumminkaan koskaan luule, että minä
sinua rupeisin rakastelemaan!

Maiju (Itkien ääneensä): Se olikin siis vain valhetta, herra

Koulumestari… Se olikin siis vain… Ja minä kun pidin teistä niin
paljon…

(Esirippu.)
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