The Ultrasonic Pulse

Velocity Method

8.1 Historical Background

8.2 Theory of Wave Propagation
8.3 Pulse Velocity Test Instrument
8.4 The Pulse Velocity Method
8.5 Factors Affecting Pulse Velocity
Effects of Concrete Properties • Other Effects • Temperature of
Tarun R. Naik Concrete
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee 8.6 Standardization of the Pulse Velocity Method
8.7 Applications
V. Mohan Malhotra Estimation of Strength of Concrete • Establishing Homogeneity
Depaitment of Natural Resources of Concrete • Studies on the Hydration of Cement • Studies on
Canada, Ottawa Durability of Concrete • Measurement of Surface Crack Depth
• Determination of Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity
John S. Popovics
University of Illinois at 8.8 Advantages and Limitations
Urbana-Champaign Appendix 8.1

The ultrasonic pulse velocity method has been used successfully to evaluate the quality of concrete for
more than 60 years. This method can be used for detecting interna! cracking and other defects as well
as changes in concrete such as deterioration due to aggressive chemical environment and freezing and
thawing. By using the pulse velocity method it is also possible to estimate the strength of concrete test
specimens and in-place concrete.
The pulse velocity method is a truly nondestructive method, as the technique uses mechanical waves
resulting in no damage to the concrete element being tested. A test specimen can be tested again and
again at the sarne location, which is useful for monitoring concrete undergoing internai structural changes
over a long period of time.

8.1 Historical Background

Concrete technologists have been interested in determining the properties of concrete by nondestructive
tests for decades. Many test methods have been proposed for laboratory test specimens using vibrational
methods beginning in the l 930s. Powers,1 Obert,2 Hornibrook, 3 and Thomson4 were the first to conduct
extensive research using vibrational techniques such as the resonant frequency method (see Chapter 7).
World War II accelerated research regarding nondestructive testing using stress wave propagation
methods (see also Chapter 14 by Carino on stress wave propagation methods). The development of the
pulse velocity method began in Canada and England at about the sarne time. ln Canada, Leslie and
Cheesman5 developed an instrument called the soniscope. While in England, Jones6 developed an

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 TCL
A Direct

T l~lllll R
B Semidirect

e lndirect

T = Transmitter
R = Receiver

FIGURE 8.3 Pulse velocity measurement configurations. (A) Direct method. (B) Semidirect method. (C) Indirect
surface method.

arrangement because maximum energy of the pulse is transmitted and received with this arrangement. The
semidirect transmission method, Figure 8.3B, can also be used quite satisfactorily. However, care should be
exercised that the transducers are not too far apart; otherwise the transmitted pulse might attenuate and a
pulse signal might not be detected. This method is useful in avoiding concentrations of reinforcements.
The indirect or surface transmission method, Figure 8.3C, is least satisfactory because the amplitude of the
received signal is significantly lower than that received by the direct transmission method. This method is
also more prone to errors and a special procedure may be necessary for determining the pulse velocity. 12
First, the location of the transmitting transducer is fixed and the receiver location is changed in fixed
increments along a line, and a series of transit time readings are taken. The direct distance between the two
transducers is plotted on the X-axis and the corresponding pulse transit time is plotted on the Y-axis (Figure
8.4). The inverse of the slope of this plot is the pulse velocity along the line.
When this surface method is used, the pulse propagates in the concrete layer near the surface. The
near-surface concrete is sometimes of a composition slightly different from the concrete in the lower
layer. For example, the concrete near the surface of a slab has higher amounts of fine materiais than
the concrete in the lower portion of the slab. Thus, velocities measured by the surface transmission
method are typically lower than those measured with direct transmission. This behavior, however, can
be turned into a means to detect and estimate the thickness of a layer of different quality material. A
layer of lower quality concrete may occur due to improper construction practices (e.g., poor vibration
and finishing, poor curing, cold joints dueto delay, incorrect placement), damage dueto weathering
action (e.g., freezing and thawing, sulfate attack, and corrosion of reinforcement and other embedded
items), and damage by fire. The layer thickness can be estimated by using the surface transmission
procedure. When the two transducers are closer together, the fastest travel path is through the upper
layer of concrete, and as the transducers are moved further apart, the fastest travel path is the combined
path through both layers. The pulse velocity through the upper layer (V1) and the lower layer (V2 )
will be indicated on the plot by the different slopes of the two straight lines fitted to the data (Figure
8.4). The distance X in Figure 8.4 at which the change in these slopes occurs is measured and the
thickness of the upper layer, t, is estimated from the following equation: 9

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 The degree of saturation of the concrete affects the pulse velocity, and this factor must be considered
when evaluating test results. ln addition, the pulse velocity in saturated concrete is less sensitive to
changes in its relative quality.
NOTE 1 - The pulse velocity of saturated concrete may be up to 5% higher than in dry concrete.
The pulse velocity is independent of the dimensions of the test object provided reflected waves from
boundaries do not complicate the determination of the arrival time of the directly transmitted pulse.
The least dimension of the test object must e.xceed the wavelength of the ultrasonic vibrations.
[NOTE 2 is omitted because it is not relevant to the significance and use of the pulse velocity method.]
The accuracy of the measurement depends upon the ability of the operator to determine precisely the
distance between the transducers and of the equipment to measure precisely the pulse transit time.
The received signal strength and measured transit time are affected by the coupling of the transducers
to the concrete surfaces. Sufficient coupling agent and pressure must be applied to the transducers to
ensure stable transit times. The strength of the received signal is also affected by the travei path length
and by the presence and degree of cracking or deterioration in the concrete tested.
NOTE 3 - Proper coupling can be verified by viewing the shape and magnitude of the received
waveform. The waveform should have a decaying sinusoidal shape. The shape can be viewed by means
of outputs to an oscilloscope or digitized display inherent in the <levice.
The results obtained by the use of this test method are not to be considered as a means of measuring
strength noras an adequate test for establishing compliance ofthe modulus of elasticity of field concrete
with that assumed in the design. The longitudinal resonance method in Test Method C 215 is recom-
mended for determining the dynamic modulus of elasticity of test specimens obtained from field
concrete because Poisson's ratio does not have to be known.
NOTE 4 -When circumstances permit, a velocity-strength (or velocity-modulus) relationship may
be established by the determination of pulse velocity and compressive strength (or modulus of elas-
ticity) on a number of samples of a concrete. This relationship may serve as a basis for the estimation
of strength (or modulus of elasticity) by further pulse-velocity tests on that concrete. Refer to ACI
228. lR for guidance on the procedures for developing and using such a relationship.
The procedure is applicable in both field and laboratory testing regardless of size or shape of the
specimen within the limitations of available pulse-generating sources.
Since the pulse velocity in steel could be up to double that in concrete, the pulse velocity measured
in the vicinity of the reinforcing steel wil1 be higher than in plain concrete of the sarne composition.
Where possible, avoid measurements dose to steel parallel to the direction of pulse propagation.

8.7 Applications
The pulse velocity method has been applied successfully in the laboratory as well as in the field. 31-48
Furthermore, it can be used for quality control, as well as for the analysis of deterioration. Figure 8.6
illustrates the application of the pulse velocity method on a concrete structure.

8.7.1 Estimation of Strength of Concrete

The pulse velocity method may provide a means of estimating the strength of both in situ and precast
concrete although there is no physical relation between the strength and velocity. The strength can be
estimated from the pulse velocity by a pre-established graphical correlation between the two parameters,
an example of which is shown in Figure 8. 7. The relationship between strength and pulse velocity is not
unique, and is affected by many factors, e.g., aggregate size, type, and content; cement type and content;

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FIGURE 8.6 Application of pulse 'Yelocity technique on a concrete structure. (Courtesy of James Instruments,. Inc.)

·:···········:·······--··:···········:······--···:·········
.. .. .. .. ..
20._............................................................._._._.._._............_....
4000 4100 4200 4300 4400 4500 4t!OO
Pulae Veloclty, rrJa

FIGURE 8.7 E:umple stm:igth vs. ~ocity rclationship fur cmmation of strcngth of concrm.

water-cement ratio; and moisture content. The effect of such factors has been studied by many research-
ers.15·17.20.23 They have clearly pointed out that no attempts should be made to estimate compressive
strength ofconcrete from pulse velocityvalues unless similar correlations have been previously established
for the type of concrete under investigation. Ril.EM,24 the British Standard,22 and American Concrete
Institute (ACI)49 provide recommended practices to develop the relationslúp between pulse veloclty and
compressiw strength. whkh can be later used for estimating the in situ strength based on the pulse
velocity. Phoon et al.50 recently proposed a probabilistic model to predict compres.sive strength from
ultrasonic pulse velocity. By using the model together with field data, a consistent statistical quality
assurance criterion may be established.

8.7.2 Establishing Homogeneity of Concrete

The pulse velocity method is suitable for the study of homogeneity of concrete. and. therefore. for relative
assessment ofquality of concrete. Heterogeneity is defined as interior cradcing, deterioration, honeyoombing,
and v.ariations in núxture proportions. Heterogeneities in a concrete member wiil cause v.ariations in the
pulse wlocity. For example, the diffraction of a wave pulse around an internal air void will cause an inaease
in 1he time of propagation for an assumed path through 1he 'YOid center. Thus. the apparent velocity will
decrease. However, only Iarge voids, generally larger than the transducer contact face, will cause measurable
reduction in velocity. 10 Also, in situ concrete strength v.aries in a structure beca.use of the variations in soun::e
and proportion.s of materiais. uniformity of mixin.g, and due to inadequate or variable consolidation. The

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 T1 = transit time around the crack
T2 = transit time along the surface of the sarne type of concrete without any crack (note that
the surface path length for T1 and T2 must be equal)
It should be pointed out that for Equation 8.5 to be valid, the crack must be perpendicular to the
concrete surface. A check should be made to determine if the crack is perpendicular to the surface or
not. This can be done as follows.24 Place both transducers equidistant from the crack and obtain the
transit time. Move each transducer, in tum, away from the crack. If the transit time decreases, then the
crack slopes toward the direction in which the transducer was moved.

8.7.6 Determination of Dynamic Modulus of Elasticity

The velocity of a compressional wave traveling through an elastic material is uniquely defined by the
elastic constants and density of the material by wave propagation theory (see Equation 8.1). Therefore,
it is possible to compute the modulus of elasticity of a material if the ultrasonic pulse velocity is measured
where the values of Poisson's ratio and density are known or assumed. This approach has an advantage
over other standardized techniques, which make use of vibration frequencies, in that the testing is not
restricted to specially shaped laboratory specimens. Several researchers report the estimation of dynamic
(low-strain) modulus of elasticity from pulse velocity measurements in concrete. 5•7•31 •32 Nevertheless, the
estimation of the dynarnic modulus of elasticity in concrete from ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements
is not normally recommended for two reasons: (1) the error resulting from inaccurate estimation of
Poisson's ratio is not insignificant and (2) Equation 8.1 is appropriate for homogeneous materials only,
leaving the validity for inhomogeneous composite materials, such as concrete, in doubt.31 •57 Usually, the
dynarnic modulus of elasticity estimated from pulse velocity measurements is higher than that obtained
from vibration measurements, even when the value of Poisson's ratio is known.31

8.8 Advantages and Limitations

The pulse velocity method is an ex.cellent means for investigating the uniformity of concrete. The test
procedure is simple and the available equipment in the market is easy to use in the laboratory as well as
in the field.
The testing procedures have been standardized by ASTM and other organizations, and test equipment
is available from several commercial sources. With the availability of small portable digital instruments,
which are relatively inexpensive and easy to operate, ultrasonic testing adds a new dimension to quality
control of concrete in the field.
Ultrasonic pulse velocity tests can be carried out on both laboratory-sized test specimens and concrete
structures. This fact, combined with the knowledge that ultrasonic techniques provide an effective means
of delineating both surface and interna! cracks in concrete structures, enhances the usefulness of these tests.
Inasmuch as a large number ofvariables affect the relations between the strength pararneters of concrete
and its pulse velocity, the use of the latter to estimate the compressive and/or flexural strengths of concrete
is not recommended unless previous correlation testing has been performed.

Appendix 8.1: Effect of Reinforcing Bars

The pulse velocity measured in reinforced concrete in the vicinity of reinforcing bars is often higher than
in plain concrete of the sarne composition. This is because the compressional pulse velocity in steel is
1.4 to 1.7 times that in plain concrete and, under certain conditions, the first pulse to arrive at the
receiving transducer traveis partly in concrete and partly in steel. The apparent increase in pulse velocity
depends on the proximity of the measurements to the reinforcing bar, the dimensions and number of
the reinforcing bars, their orientation with respect to the propagation path, and the pulse velocity in the
surrounding concrete. n,24.i9

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 18. Jones, R, Testing of concrete by an ultrasonic pulse technique, RILEM Int. Symp. on Nondestruc-
tive Testing of Materiais and Structures, Paris, Vol. 1, Paper No. A-17 January 1954, 137. RILEM
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19. Popovics, S., Rose, J.L., and Popovics, J.S. The behavior of ultrasonic pulses in concrete, Cem.
Concr. Res., 20, 259, 1990.
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