Vol. 9(2), pp.

143-154, February, 2015

DOI: 10.5897/AJEST2014.1794
Article Number: 3CF5D6349858
ISSN 1996-0786
African Journal of Environmental Science and
Copyright © 2015 Technology
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article
http://www.academicjournals.org/AJEST

Full Length Research Paper

Physico-chemical characteristics of borehole water

quality in Gassol Taraba State, Nigeria
Olalekan Adekola*, Abubakar Bashir and Abdul-Mumini Kasimu
Department of Geography, School of Environmental Sciences, Modibbo Adama University of Technology, P.M.B 2076,
Yola, Adamawa State, Nigeria.
Received 22 September, 2014; Accepted 8 January, 2015

Many people in Africa depend on water from borehole, but purity of the drinking water from this source
remains questionable. In a bid to ascertain the health risk local people are exposed to, this study
analyses the physico-chemical characteristics of borehole water in Gassol Local Government Area
(LGA), Nigeria. For this purpose, water samples were collected from the 12 administrative wards in the
LGA. Two samples were collected from each ward, one in the rainy season (March) and another in the
dry season (November), a total of 24 water samples in all. The water samples were analyzed for 18
different physical and chemical parameters to ascertain their comparability with the guideline levels
recommended by the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) and World Health Organization (WHO).
Results show that most parameters were within the guideline values in both seasons except for
turbidity, pH, fluoride (F-), chlorine (Cl+), iron (Fe2+), ammonia (NH4+) and manganese (Mn2+). Overall, all
of the wards had at least one instance in which a parameter falls outside recommended guideline. A
further analysis using the mean value test approach to assess level of contamination relative to
guideline values showed that the upper bound value (US95) of turbidity, iron, pH and chlorine are greater
than their guideline values. This indicates that these are the parameters for which the most urgent
action is needed. The high concentration of iron and turbidity outside the prescribed limits in the rainy
season suggests that water managers need pay more attention to borehole water quality in the rainy
season. There is need for further research across the region to better understand the quality and the
contaminants (natural and anthropogenic) of borehole water so as to be able to proffer appropriate
remediation strategy.

Key words: Groundwater, guideline value, mean value test, standard organisation of Nigeria (SON), World
Health Organisation (WHO).

INTRODUCTION

Water is the most important nutrient essential to the Shryer, 2007). The lack of this essential mineral can lead
survival of all humanity because it is involved in every to serious implications such as hypertension, high chole-
bodily function, and makes up about 75% of total body sterol, and heart disease. Recent studies have also
weight (Mack and Nadel, 2011; Offei-Ansah, 2012; linked the lack of water to headaches, arthritis, and

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel:+234(0)8023315216.

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
International License
144 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

heartburn (Batmanghelidj and Page, 2012). Therefore, it knowledge of the composition and properties of water
is recommended that one should drink at least 64 ounces that is significant for the evaluation of its potential use
per day (Bellisle et al., 2010). However, despite the need and management. Knowing the water's physical, chemical
to ensure sufficient water quantity, one of the biggest and biological characteristics allows experts to determine
development challenge is ensuring sufficient water quality whether it is suitable for drinking and other domestic
(Gundry et al., 2003). uses. On a global scale, World Health Organisation (WHO)
Providing safe drinking water is one of the most produces international norms on water quality and human
complex challenges facing African rural communities. health in the form of guidelines that are used as the basis
The continent has the highest number of people lacking for regulation and standard setting, in developing and
access to safe, drinkable water. According to World Health developed countries world-wide. Various countries have
Organization (2008), more than 3.4 million people die each also enforced drinking water standards for the maximum
year from water sanitation and hygiene-related causes permissible levels of different constituents. In United
and majority of these are in Africa. The impact of the States, guidance to ensure that drinking water standards
consumption of unsafe drinking water in Africa has been are in place to protect human health is set by United
likened to “death of children at a rate equivalent of a States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) while
jumbo jet crashing every 4 h” (The United Nations Children's the Standards Organisation of Nigeria (SON) has this
Fund, 2010). In a bid to stem the tide, programs such as responsibility in Nigeria.
the Millennium Development Goals (MDG) which aims at Nigeria is one of many African countries facing problems
improving the quality of water are widely adopted (World of accessibility to clean drinking water. Although it is
Health Organization, 2006). Emphasis has also been reported that 27 million new Nigerians have gained
placed on diversifying water sources from reliance on access to clean drinking water since 1990, only 47% of
surface water to include rain water and groundwater. the population can access safe water (The United
Traditionally many societies have depended on surface Nations Children's Fund, 2007). The biggest population
water; however with increasing challenges of contaminated facing water shortages in Nigeria come in rural Northern
surface water resulting in diseases such as bilharzia, Eastern region where over 70% of the population cannot
sleeping sickness, river blindness and guinea worm, access clean water (Voices, 2013). In a bid to stem the
many societies have adopted digging of boreholes tide individuals, public and private entities have dug
(Carpenter et al., 1998; Chigor et al., 2012). Digging of boreholes without any effort to ascertain their safety. The
borehole is encouraged by local, national and international Nigerian government even launched a National Borehole
organisations as alternative to polluted surface drinking Programme to supply water through a motorized system
water sources. A lot of funds is been allocated into of boreholes to rural communities (Onugba and Sara). As
building boreholes even though sometimes the purity of far as North Eastern Nigeria is concerned, borehole water
the drinking water from the boreholes is questionable is popular in a region which is entirely within savannah
(Ncube and Schutte, 2005). The quality of borehole water zone. Due to this increased consumption of borehole
depends upon several factors including local geology, water in the region, there has been a growing concern
hydrology and geochemical characteristics of the aquifers about the quality of water from this source. It is against
(Bhattacharya et al., 1997). Apart from these factors, the this background that the physical properties and chemical
activities of microorganisms, temperature and pressure contents in borehole water in Gassol Local Government
are also responsible for the chemical characteristic of Area of Taraba State are investigated with the aim of
groundwater (Fournier and Truesdell, 1973).. Therefore, assessing the portability of borehole water and
borehole water often contains dissolved mineral ions generating information that can serve as a guide in
whose type and concentration can affect their quality . If monitoring water contamination in the region. The data
certain mineral constituent are present in excessive generated from this study will be used to create a
amounts, some type of treatment may be necessary baseline database of borehole drinking water quality in
before the water can be used for the intended purpose. the region.
Water should be free from any physical, chemical or
bacteriological contaminant. But unfortunately water is
not always found pure. It is for such reason that drinking MATERIALS AND METHODS
water quality standard is set up to ensure the safety of
Study area
drinking water supplies and the protection of public
health. This is even more important now because the Gassol Local Government Area (LGA) is one of the 16 LGA’s in
chemical quality of drinking water during recent years has Taraba State, Nigeria (Figure 1). It covers a total land area of about
deteriorated considerably due to the presence of toxic 5,500 km2 and extends between latitude 8°38′00″ north of the
elements, which even in trace amounts can cause equator and 10°46′00″ east of the Greenwich meridian (Taraba
serious health hazards (Ikem et al., 2002). Therefore, State Government, 2015). The area is generally underlined by
sedimentary rocks which are very good aquifers (reservoir) for
there is need to ensure that the water people drink and water. The River Taraba which takes its source from the Mambilla
use for household activities is reliable and safe. If not, plateau in the South is a source of water for domestic uses, fishing
adequate remedial measures can be put in place. It is the and also for irrigation farming during the dry season. The
 Adekola et al. 145

Figure 1. Map of Taraba State showing Local Government Areas (Including Gassol Local Government Area).

temperature regime is warm to hot throughout the year with a slight Gassol is an important economic centre because of its cattle
cool period between November and February. Temperature ranges market which is well linked to other part of Nigeria. The population
between 23 to 40C. There is a gradual increase in temperature of the local government is 245,086 (National Population
from January to April, which also increases the demand of water for Commission, 2006) in twelve (12) administrative wards, namely,
domestic uses in the area. Sansani, Sendirde, Wuryo, Sabon Gida, Namnai, Yarima, Gassol,
146 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

Shira, Tutare, Gunduma, Mutum Biyu "A" andMutum Biyu "B". (v) Compare the upper bound value, (US95) with the guideline value
(G).

Water sample collection and analysis

Water samples were collected from randomly selected boreholes. A

RESULTS
borehole is selected from each of the 12 administrative wards within
Gassol Local Government Area. Water samples were collected The results of the borehole water analysis for samples
from each borehole twice. The first set of samples was collected in collected in the rainy and dry seasons are presented in
May corresponding with the rainy season and the second set in Tables 1 and 2. The concentration of each parameter
November corresponding with the dry season. In total, 24 water varies from one sample point to the other. This is then
samples were collected for the study. The borehole water samples
were collected in prewashed (with detergent, diluted HNO3 and
compared to the SON and WHO acceptable values to
doubly de-ionized distilled water, respectively) polyethylene bottles. determine and compare the suitability and effect of
The determinations of the physical and chemical properties of the continual consumption of such water.
water samples were performed on the same day of sample were
taken. This was done at the United Nations Children's Fund
(UNICEF) assisted Rural Water Supply and Environmental
Water quality evaluation: parameters within guideline
Sanitation Agency. Analytical water test tablets (photometer grade)
reagents for specific test were used for the preparation of all levels
solutions. Water samples from the boreholes were analysed using a
Palintest Photometer 5000, following the procedures set out in the The results showed that all of the boreholes tested were
instruction booklet (Palintest, 1980). Each sample was analyzed for well within the limits prescribed by SON and WHO both in
18 parameters. These were turbidity, conductivity, temperature, pH, the wet and dry seasons for electrical conductivity (EC),
total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrate (NO3), fluoride (F-), chlorine (C1-
), iron (Fe2+), ammonia (PO43-), hardness (CaCO3), sulphate (SO42-
temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), nitrate (NO3-),
), manganese (Mn2+), copper (Cu), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium total hardness (CaCO3), sulphate (SO42-), Copper (Cu),
(Ca2+), total alkalinity and total salinity. magnesium (Mg+) and Calcium (Ca2+). Conductivity
The resultant levels of the parameters were compared with the ranged between 392 Ω/cm in Shira to 818 Ω/cm in
World Health Organization (WHO) (World Health Organization, Gassol. Temperature ranged between 25.0C in
2011) and the Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON) (Standards
Gunduma and Mutum Biyu "A" in the rainy season to
Organisation of Nigeria, 2007) guideline values to ascertain their
compliance with the prescribed recommended limits. These 38.0C in Tutare and Gunduma in the dry season. Total
guideline values set maximum allowable limits in drinking water. dissolved solids ranged between 180 ppm in Shira and
While the WHO provides a general global guideline the SON is 428 ppm in Gassol. Nitrate ranged from 0.17 mg/L in
specific to Nigeria. However, while the WHO standards is constantly Sendirde to 32 mg/L in Shira. Total hardness varied from
been updated, the SON standard has not been updated for almost 22 mg/L in Tutare and Mutum Biyu “B” in the dry season
a decade.
to 75 mg/L in Gunduma in the rainy season. Sulphate
varied between 2.4 mg/L in Sendirde to 6.7 mg/L in Shira.
Mean value test Copper ranged between 0.01 mg/L in Sansani, Sendirde,
Shira, Mutum Biyu "A", and Mutum Biyu "B" to 0.5 mg/L
The mean value test is a statistical method used to guide decision- in Gassol. Magnesium was highest at 1.02 mg/L in
making in many regulatory contexts such as in assessment of
Tutare, and Gunduma and lowest at 0.06 mg/L in Sabon
contaminated land, soil and water quality. This approach which is
defined in Appendix A of Contaminated Land Report 7 by Gida. Calcium varied between 2.1 mg/L in Gunduma to
Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs and The 11.5 mg/L in Wuryo. At these levels, these parameters do
Environment Agency (Department for Environment Food and Rural not pose any health impact and are within the SON and
Affairs and The Environment Agency, 2002), assess contaminated WHO guideline values. As such it will be sufficient to
sites relative to guideline values. This is based on the estimation of conclude that these parameters are unlikely to be
the 95% Upper Confidence Limit of the mean concentration of a
contaminant (95%UCL, also referred to as US95) and its use as the
sources of water contamination in Gassol LGA of Taraba
appropriate value to be compared with the relevant guideline value State, North Eastern Nigeria. On the other hand, there
or site-specific assessment criterion. This 95%UCL is meant to were incidences in which Turbidity, pH, fluoride, chlorine,
provide a reasonably conservative estimate of whether the iron and manganese are outside guideline values
measured concentration is acceptable, considering the uncertainty (Appendixes 1 to 7).
and variability associated with site investigations.
The necessary calculation involves five steps (Dean, 2007) as
follows:
Water quality evaluation: parameters outside
(i) Calculate the arithmetic sample mean, X. guideline levels
(ii) Calculate the (unbiased) sample standard deviation, s.
(iii) Select an appropriate t value e.g. 95th percentile confidence Turbidity
limit, t. The tabulated “t value” can be obtained from four figure
mathematical table.
(iv) Calculate the upper 95th percentile bound of sample as: Turbidity is a physical parameter, which is a measure of
the cloudiness of water. It is caused by particles
US95 =X + (ts /√n) suspended or dissolved in water that scatter light making
 Adekola et al. 147

Table 1. Chemical and Physical concentration of water samples from wards of Gassol Local Government Area in Rainy Season.

Mutum Mutum
Parameters Sansani Sendirde Wuryo Sabon Gida Namnai Yarima Gassol Shira Tutare Gunduma SON WHO
Biyu "A" Biyu "B"
Turbidity (NTU) 45.00 6.12 55.00 60.00 25.00 26.00 16.00 20.00 15.00 35.00 25.00 20.00 45.00 6.12
Conductivity (Ω/cm) 778.00 651.00 742.00 627.00 667.00 657.00 818.00 392.00 415.00 720.00 518.00 620.00 778.00 651.00
Temperature (C) 27.90 27.90 27.90 27.90 27.90 27.90 27.90 27.90 26.00 25.00 25.00 26.00 27.90 27.90
pH 6.97 6.78 6.60 7.04 6.40 7.11 7.88 7.10 6.50 6.51 6.70 6.20 6.97 6.78
TDS (PPM) 375.00 328.00 371.00 317.00 329.00 330.00 428.00 180.00 210.00 410.00 250.00 310.00 375.00 328.00
Nitrate (NO3-) (mg/L) 0.91 0.17 0.28 0.29 0.21 0.79 0.41 32.00 25.00 15.00 16.00 15.000 0.91 0.17
Fluoride (F-) (mg/L) 1.30 0.79 1.02 0.77 0.34 0.03 1.50 1.48 2.50 0.20 0.80 0.50 1.30 0.79
Chlorine (Cl-) (mg/L) 2.60 3.20 2.80 3.30 3.30 3.50 2.20 2.90 35.00 20.00 16.00 25.00 2.60 3.20
Iron (Fe2+) (mg/L) 0.80 0.45 0.75 0.63 0.62 0.67 0.45 0.30 0.20 0.01 0.20 0.20 0.80 0.45
Ammonia (PO43-) (mg/L) 0.19 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.50 0.20 0.50 0.70 0.19 0.03
Hardness (CaCO3) (mg/L) 59.00 41.00 37.00 59.10 60.10 65.00 49.10 60.10 72.00 75.00 65.00 62.00 59.00 41.00
Sulphate (SO42-) (mg/L) 2.80 2.40 3.50 6.20 6.00 4.50 3.50 6.70 3.20 3.40 5.30 6.20 2.80 2.40
Manganese (Mn2+)(mg/L) 0.01 0.18 0.13 0.14 0.03 0.07 0.11 0.18 0.02 0.20 0.30 0.20 0.01 0.18
Copper (Cu) mg/L 0.01 0.01 0.21 0.19 0.25 0.02 0.50 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 1 2
Magnesium (Mg2+) (mg/L) 0.13 0.09 0.11 0.06 0.53 0.62 0.15 0.25 1.02 1.02 1.00 1.00 100
Calcium (Ca2+) (mg/L) 4.70 9.40 11.5 6.50 4.90 6.80 9.60 2.50 3.20 2.10 2.20 2.20 150
Total Alkalinity (mg/L)) 40.00 37.00 42.00 54.00 47.50 50.20 40.10 49.10 29.00 15.00 0.02 2.30
Total salinity (mg/L) 41.00 45.00 33.00 14.00 31.50 6.80 10.50 7.20 3.40 15.00 19.00 19.00
Bold values indicate incidences where parameters are outside guideline values.

the water appear cloudy or murky. The particulate values outside the SON and WHO guideline value washed into underground water will suggest the
matters can include sediment - especially clay and of 5 NTU. In the rainy season, turbidity value need to constantly measure this parameter
silt, fine organic and inorganic matter, soluble ranged between 6.12 NTU in Sendirde to 60 NTU especially in the rainy season.
coloured organic compounds, algae, and other in Sabon Gida. The concentration was generally
microscopic organisms (Nemade et al., 2009). better in the dry season with only Sansani (45
Turbidity generally has no direct health effects; NTU) and Sendirde (6.1 NTU) having turbidity pH
however, it can interfere with disinfection and levels above the guideline value. On the average
provide a medium for microbial growth (Akoto and of both seasons, all the boreholes have turbidity pH is a measure of hydrogen ions (H+) and
Adiyiah, 2007). This may indicate the presence of level above permissible level. The source of negative hydroxide ions (OH-) in water. It indicates
disease causing organisms such as bacteria, turbidity in Gassol is most likely due to those whether the water is acidic or alkaline (World
viruses, and parasites that can cause symptoms generated as water moves through the loose soils Health Organization, 2006). In pure water, the
such as nausea, cramps, diarrhoea, and of the area into the ground water supply. The high concentration of positive hydrogen ions is in
associated headaches (Payment et al., 2003). concentrations of turbidity in the rainy season equilibrium with the concentration of negative
In this study, all the boreholes had turbidity when there is high likelihood of mud and silt been hydroxide ions, and the pH measures exactly 7 on
148 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

Table 2. Chemical and Physical concentration of water samples from wards of Gassol Local Government Area in Dry Season.

Parameters Sansani Sendirde Wuryo Sabon Gida Namnai Yarima Gassol Shira Tutare Gunduma Mutum Biyu "A" Mutum Biyu "B" SON WHO
Turbidity (NTU) 45.00 6.10 5.00 4.60 2.50 2.60 1.60 2.10 1.50 3.50 2.20 2.10 5 5
Conductivity (Ω/cm) 778.00 651.00 742.00 627.00 667.00 657.00 818.00 392.00 415.00 720.00 518.00 620.00 1000 2500
Temperature (C) 30.90 37.00 27.90 35.90 30.90 30.90 37.00 32.00 38.00 38.00 35.00 36.00 23 – 40 23 - 40
pH 6.97 6.78 6.60 7.04 6.40 7.11 7.88 7.10 6.50 6.51 6.70 6.20 6.5 - 8.5 6.5 - 8.5
TDS (PPM) 375.00 328.00 371.00 317.00 329.00 330.00 428.00 180.00 210.00 410.00 250.00 310.00 500 1000
Nitrate (NO3-) (mg/L) 0.91 0.17 0.28 0.29 0.21 0.79 0.41 32.00 25.00 15.00 16.00 15.00 50 50
Fluoride (F-) (mg/L) 1.30 0.79 1.02 0.77 0.34 0.03 1.50 1.48 2.50 0.20 0.80 0.50 1.5 1.5
Chlorine (Cl-) (mg/L) 2.60 3.20 2.80 3.30 3.30 3.50 2.20 2.90 35.00 20.00 16.00 25.00 5
Iron (Fe2+) (mg/L) 0.10 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.02 0.02 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.01 0.20 0.30 0.3 0.3
Ammonia (PO43-) (mg/L) 0.19 0.03 0.03 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.10 0.50 0.20 0.50 0.70 0.5
Hardness (CaCO3) (mg/L) 45.00 41.00 37.00 59.10 50.00 45.00 39.00 30.00 22.00 35.00 25.00 22.00 150 500
Sulphate (SO42-) (mg/L) 2.80 2.40 3.50 6.20 6.00 4.50 3.50 6.70 3.20 3.40 5.30 6.20 100 250
Manganese (Mn2+) (mg/L) 0.01 0.18 0.13 0.14 0.03 0.07 0.11 0.18 0.02 0.20 0.30 0.20 0.2 0.4
Copper (Cu) (mg/L) 0.01 0.01 0.21 0.19 0.25 0.02 0.50 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 1 2
Magnesium (Mg2+) (mg/L) 0.13 0.09 0.11 0.06 0.53 0.62 0.15 0.25 1.02 1.02 1.00 1.00 100
Calcium (Ca2+) (mg/L) 4.70 9.40 11.50 6.50 4.90 6.80 9.60 2.50 3.20 2.10 2.20 2.20 150
Total Alkalinity (mg/L) 40.00 37.00 42.00 54.00 47.50 50.20 40.10 49.10 29.00 15.00 0.02 2.30
Total salinity (mg/L) 41.00 45.00 33.00 14.00 31.50 6.80 10.50 7.20 3.40 15.00 19.00 19.00
Bold values indicate incidences where parameters are outside guideline values.

a pH scale ranging from 1 - 14. The SON and pH if widespread could also be an indication of crystalline rocks containing fluorine-rich minerals,
WHO set a pH guideline value of between 6.5 and acidic rain in the area. especially granites and volcanic rocks, shallow
8.5 as generally considered satisfactory for aquifers in arid areas experiencing strong
drinking water. evaporation, sedimentary aquifers undergoing ion
The pH of borehole water of our study area was Fluoride exchange and inputs of geothermal water.
generally within the guideline value except in Fluoride has long been found to have a beneficial
Mutum Biyu “B” where pH value was 6.2 and The concentration of fluoride in Tutare ward both effect on dental health as such it is an additive in
Namnai where pH was 6.4. The highest pH value in the rainy and dry season when concentration toothpastes and food. However, when present in
of 7.88 was recorded in Gassol. pH is generally was up to 2.5 mg/L deviate from the 1.5 mg/L drinking water at concentrations much above the
considered to have no direct impact on humans. suggested as guideline value by SON and WHO. guideline value of 1.5 mg/L, long term use can
However, long-term intake of acidic water can In the study area, fluoride concentrations ranged result in development of dental fluorosis or at its
invariably lead to mineral deficiencies (Fairweather- between 0.03 mg/L in Yarima to 2.5 mg/L in worst, crippling skeletal fluorosis. Although, the
Tait and Hurrell, 1996). Because virtually all Tutare. incidence of Fluoride concentration outside guid-
groundwater comes from precipitation that soaks High concentration of fluoride contaminant in eline value in our study is only restricted to one
into the soil and passes down to the aquifer, high ground waters tend to be found in association with ward, it is important for water managers to
 Adekola et al. 149

constantly monitor this parameter as other studies in the the environment, ammonia originates from metabolic,
region have also revealed high incidences of water agricultural activities especially from the intensive rearing
samples showing high F concentrations (Waziri et al., of farm animals. Ammonia in water is an indicator of possible
2012). bacterial, sewage and animal waste pollution.

Chlorine Manganese

The use of chlorine in drinking water as a disinfectant has Manganese occurs naturally in groundwater sources and
played a critical role in the prevention of waterborne in soils. However, human activities such as automobile
diseases. According to the (World Health Organization, emission are also responsible for manganese concen-
1993), the adoption of drinking water chlorination has trations in the environment (Loranger et al., 1996).
been one of the most significant advances in public In this study, manganese is well within WHO standard
health protection. However, when concentration of chlorine but the level in Mutum Biyu A (0.3 mg/L) is outside
in water is above the guideline value of 5 mg/L, it could permissible level for manganese under the SON standard
result in irritation of the oesophagus, a burning sensation of 0.2 mg/L, but within the WHO standard of 0.4 mg/L.
in the mouth and throat, and spontaneous vomiting. It has
also been suggested that episodes of dermatitis and
asthma can be triggered by exposure to chlorinated water Water quality across the wards
(Eun et al., 1984; Watson and Kibler, 1933). In this study,
there are four wards in which chlorine concentration was All the wards in Gassol LGA has at least one incidence of
outside the guideline values of 5 mg/L. These are Tutare water contamination. This is not helped by the fact that all
(22 mg/L), Gunduma (35 mg/L), Mutum Biyu "A" (25 the boreholes had levels of turbidity outside guideline
mg/L) and Mutum Biyu "B" (22 mg/L). values in the rainy season. The result show that water
samples from Shira ward is of the best quality only falling
outside the guideline values which was for turbidity in the
Iron rainy season. Mutum Biyu “B” appear to have the worst
water quality having four parameters (turbidity, pH,
Similar to turbidity, the concentration of iron was Chlorine and Ammonia) falling outside guideline values in
generally found to be within guideline values of 0.3 mg/L the rainy season alone. Water quality improved in the dry
in the dry season. However the concentration of iron in season with five wards (Wuryo, Sabon Gida, Yarima,
seven wards was well outside the guideline value in the Gassol and Shira); free from any incidence of water
rainy season. These wards are Sansani (0.8 mg/L), contamination.
Sendirde (0.45 mg/L), Wuryo (0.75 mg/L), Sabon Gida
(0.63 mg/L), Namnai (0.62 mg/L), Yarima (0.67 mg/L)
and Gassol (0.45 mg/L). Iron concentration range Mean value test
between 0.01 and 0.8 mg/L in the rainy season; and 0.01
and 0.3 mg/L in the dry season. The mean concentration The mean value test was conducted using data from
in the rainy season is 0.42 and 0.15 mg/L in the dry each season and then the average value over the two
season. season. The essence of the mean value test as earlier
It has been suggested that high rainfall is essential in pointed out is to assess the level of water contamination
increasing iron concentration in boreholes (Abubakar and relative to guideline values.
Adekola, 2012). Rainwater as it infiltrates the soil and The test to evaluate human health risk of water conta-
underlying geologic formations dissolves iron, causing it mination in Gassol reveals that there is significant
to seep into aquifers that serve as sources of ground difference in mean concentration of contamination indi-
water for borehole. Therefore it is not surprising that iron cator and their guideline for turbidity, iron and chlorine
concentration is highest in the rainy season. (Table 3). The upper bound value (US95) of these
parameters are above the guideline value (G) suggested
by SON and WHO. Thus, it can be concluded that action
Ammonia is needed to control these contaminants in the area
based on the mean value test.
Concentration of ammonia in water samples from our In this circumstance, it is suggested that there should
study ranges from 0.03 to 0.7 mg/L with an average value be further sampling to gain a more representative picture
of 0.21 mg/L both in the dry and rainy seasons. The value of the site. However, precaution will suggest that
of 0.7 mg/L which is the only one above the 0.5 mg/L remedial action is encouraged. This implies that overall;
guideline value was recorded in Mutum Biyu “B”. borehole water in Gassol is within guideline values for the
Ammonia can occur naturally in ground water, while in majority of the parameters except for these four.
150 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

Table 3. Mean Value Test of water samples.

Upper bound value (US95) Guideline value

Parameters
Rainy Season Dry Season Average SON WHO
Turbidity (NTU) 37.60 12.89 23.94 5
Conductivity (Ω/cm) 702.92 702.92 702.92 1000 2500
Temperature (C) 27.73 35.90 31.38 23 - 40
pH 7.05 7.05 7.05 6.5 - 8.5
TDS (PPM) 358.86 358.86 358.86 500 1000
Nitrate (NO3-) (mg/L) 14.73 14.73 14.73 50 50
Fluoride (F-) (mg/L) 1.29 1.29 1.29 1.5
Chlorine (Cl-) (mg/L) 15.79 15.79 15.79 5
2+
Iron (Fe ) (mg/L) 0.57 0.18 0.35 0.3
Ammonia (PO43-) (mg/L) 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.5
Hardness (CaCO3) (mg/L) 64.58 43.46 51.69 150 500
Sulphate (SO42-) (mg/L) 5.27 5.27 5.27 100 250
Manganese (Mn2+) (mg/L) 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.2 0.4
Copper (Cu) (mg/L) 0.19 0.19 0.19 1 2
Magnesium (Mg2+) (mg/L) 0.71 0.71 0.71 100
Calcium (Ca2+) (mg/L) 7.17 7.17 7.17 150
Total Alkalinity (mg/L) 43.44 43.44 43.44
Total salinity (mg/L) 27.67 27.67 27.67
Bold values indicate incidences where parameters are outside guideline values.

However, this analysis is made with great caution, as it is water managers to promote efficient water treatment/
not possible to aggregate boreholes from different wards management techniques. One approach that might come
that are distinct even if it is possible, the presence of a handy and prove to be easily accessible, low cost and
contaminant is enough concern. environmentally friendly is the use of natural supplement
such as Moringa oleifera seeds as natural absorbent and
antimicrobial agent for purification of ground water for
DISCUSSION drinking purpose. A recent study by (Mangale Sapana et
al., 2012) showed that Moringa oleifera seed powder has
This study assessed some physical and chemical conta- the potential to be used as treatment for turbidity, TDS,
mination indictors in borehole water in Gassol Local hardness, chlorides, alkalinity and acidity. This is recom-
Government Area of Taraba State, Nigeria. The study mended for eco-friendly, nontoxic, simplified water treat-
reveals that borehole water in the area is not of the best ment where rural and peri-urban people living in extreme
quality as far as the WHO and SON guidelines are con- poverty are presently drinking highly turbid and microbio-
cerned. especially considering the fact three para-meters, logically contaminated water. We therefore, advocate for
namely turbidity, chlorine and iron has upper bound value water agencies to partner with local communities and
(US95) that are above guideline values. This study like researchers to ascertain the sustainability of this method.
similar studies carried out in the North Eastern region of North Eastern Nigeria is the poorest region in the
Nigeria, showed that there are incidences of conta- country where majority lack access to qualitative water
mination of borehole water. For instance, Abubakar and for consumption. The region is also the worst hit in terms
Adekola (2012) found borehole water from Yola-Jimeta of access to quality water. The poor water supply in the
metropolis to have levels of chloride (Cl-), iron (Fe2+), region has been blamed for causing typhoid fever,
nitrate (NO3-), pH, sodium (Na+) and total hardness cholera and bilharzias especially where water source are
(CaCO3) which are the main sources of borehole water not appropriately or sufficiently treated (Alexander, 2010,
contamination in the study area. In that study the upper Uzomah and Scholz, 2002).
bound value (US95) of pH was found to be above the It is also noteworthy to point out that while the WHO
guideline value. However, this was not the case in the guideline is been constantly updated, the SON guideline
current study. has never been updated since the first version in 2007.
The presence of these contaminants at levels above Although the SON report stated that “the standard shall
guideline values in borehole water poses serious health be reviewed every three years” (Standards Organisation
effect to the population. This underscores the need for of Nigeria, 2007), yet this has not happened since the
 Adekola et al. 151

first edition. The lacklustre attitude to updating water Loranger S, Tétrault M, Kennedy G, Zayed J (1996). Manganese and
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by local and national government on delivering qualitative humans. Comprehensive Physiology.
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(drumstick) seed as natural absorbent and an antimicrobial agent for
Standard for Drinking Water Quality will speed up the
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improving the management of all drinking water systems Census of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 2006 Census: Priority
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system. Ecological Engineering 35(8): 1152-1157.
The authors did not declare any conflict of interest.
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Appendix 1. Graph of analytical values of Turbidity (NTU) in the various wards with SON and WHO guideline values.

Appendix 2. Graph of analytical values of pH in the various wards with SON and WHO guideline values.

Fig 1c: Gr aph of analyti cal values of Fl uoride (F‐) mg/L in the various war ds with SON and WHO g uideline val ues

Appendix 3. Graph of analytical values of Fluoride (F-) (mg/L) in the various wards with SON and WHO guideline values
 Adekola et al. 153

Appendix 4. Graph of analytical values of Chlorine (Cl-) mg/L in the various wards with SON and WHO guideline values.

Appendix 5. Graph of analytical values of Iron (Fe2+) mg/L in the various wards with SON and WHO guideline values.

Appendix 6. Graph of analytical values of Ammonia (PO43-) mg/L in the various wards with SON and WHO guideline
values.
154 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

Appendix 7. Graph of analytical values of Manganese (Mn2+) mg/L in the various wards with SON and WHO
guideline values.