CHAPTER a

15

BUDGETS & BUDGETARY

CONTROL

LEARNING OUTCOMES
 State the meaning of budget and budgetary control
 Essentials of budget.
 Discuss the objectives and importance of budget and
budgetary control.
 Describe the process of preparing budgets.
 State the motivation in budget process.
 List the different types of budgets.
 Differentiate between fixed and flexible budget.
 Prepare fixed and flexible budget.

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CHAPTER OVERVIEW

Essentials of Budget
Capacity-wise
Objectives of
Budgets & Budgetary Control

Budgeting
Functions-wise
Types of Budgets
Period-wise
Zero-based
Budgeting (ZBB)
Master Budget
Performance
Budgeting

Budget Ratio

1. INTRODUCTION
An organization has its long-term objectives to achieve. The objectives are broken
down into achievable goals and targets. When these goals and targets are
translated into business plans, it is necessary to express the plans into quantifiable
terms to make it achievable. Budget is a commonly used business language that
expresses the business plans in quantifiable terms. When the targets are monitored
and compared with the actual results with the objective to narrow down the
deviations, make participants responsible and implement the preventive and
corrective actions, is known as budgetary control.
Meaning of Budget and Budgeting
Budget: A budget is an instrument of management used as an aid in the planning,
programming and control of business activity. The Chartered Institute of
Management Accountants (CIMA), UK defines budget as “A financial and/or
quantitative statement, prepared and approved prior to a defined period of time
of the policy to be pursued during that period for the purpose of attaining a given
objective. It may include income, expenditure and employment of capital” The
budget is a blue-print of the projected plan of action expressed in quantitative
terms for a specified period of time.

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Budget and Forecast

There is some similarity between the budget and forecast as both relate to a
defined period of time. A forecast is an assessment of probable future events.
Budget a financial/quantitative plan of a business enterprise to be pursued over a
period of time. Therefore, at the planning stage it is necessary to forecast a
probable course of action for the business. Budget is a commitment or a target
which the management seeks to attain on the basis of the forecasts made. Forecasts
are made regarding sales, production cost and financial requirements of the
business. A forecast denotes some degree of flexibility while a budget denotes a
definite target.
Budgeting: Budgeting is the process of designing, implementing and operating of
budget. The main emphasis in budgeting process is the provision of resources to
support plans which are being implemented. It is a means of coordinating the
combined intelligence of an entire organisation into a plan of action based on past
performance and governed by rational judgment of factors that will influence the
course of business in the future.

2. ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BUDGET

The main characteristics of budget are as follows:
1. A budget is concerned for a definite future period.
2. A budget is a written document.
3. A budget is a detailed plan of all the economic activities of a business.
4. All the departments of a business unit should co-operate for the preparation
of a business budget.

5. Budget is a means to achieve business objectives and it is not an end in itself.

6. Budget needs to be updated, corrected and controlled every time
circumstances change. Therefore, it is a continuous process.

7. Budget helps in planning, coordination and control.

8. Different types of budgets are prepared by industries according to business
requirements.

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9. A budget acts as a business barometer.

10. Budget is usually prepared in the light of past experiences.

11. Budget is a constant endeavour of the Management.

3. ESSENTIAL STEPS FOR PREPARING BUDGET

Essential steps for preparing a budget are as follows:
1. Organisational structure must be clearly defined and responsibility should be
assigned to identifiable units within the organisation.
2. Setting of clear objectives and reasonable targets. Objectives should be in
consonance with the long-term plan of the organisation.
3. Objectives and responsibility should be clearly stated and communicated to
the management or person responsible.

4. Budgets are prepared for the future periods based on expected course of
actions.
5. Budgets are updated for the events that were not kept into the mind while
establishing budgets. Hence, budgets should flexible enough for mid- term
revision.
6. The entire organisation must be committed to the preparation and
implementing budgeting.
7. Budgets should be quantifiable and master budget should be broken down
into various functional budgets.

8. Budgets should be monitored periodically. Variances of the actual outcomes

should be compared with the actuals and variances analysed and
responsibility should be fixed.

9. Budgetary performance needs to be linked effectively to the reward system.

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Specification of Setting goals Preparation of

Objectives and targets Budgets

Taking
preventive and Identifying the Monitoring the
corrective deviations actual results
actions

4. OBJECTIVES OF BUDGETING
Direction and Co-
Planning Controlling
ordination

Planning
Planning is the beginning of any activity. Planning establishes the objectives of the
firm and decides the course of action to achieve it. It is concerned with formulating
short-term and long-term plans to achieve a particular end. Planning is a statement
of what should be done, how it should be done and when it should be done. The
process of preparing budget begins with the establishment of specific targets of
performance and is followed by devising plans to achieve such desired goals. These
targets include both the overall business targets as well as the specific targets for
the individual units within the business. Establishing specific targets for future
operations is part of the planning function of management, while executing actions
to meet the goals is the directing function of management. It may be explained as

• Budget is prepared in synchronisation with the overall objectives of the

organisation, keeping mission and corporate strategy into account. Individual
plans at unit level should be in consonance with organisational plan.

• Budget reflects plans. Therefore, planning should precede the preparation of

budget.
• Budgeted plans are quantified and responsibility is assigned to the persons
who are responsible for execution of plan.

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• Communication of business objectives through budget has helped many a

company to reduce expenses during business recession.

• Planning not only motivates employees to attain goals but also improves
overall decision making. During the planning phase of the budget process,
all viewpoints are considered, options identified, and cost reduction
opportunities assessed. This process may reveal opportunities or threats that
were not known prior to the budget planning process.
Directing and Coordinating
• Once the budget plans are in place, these can be used to direct and
coordinate operations in order to achieve the stated targets.
• A business, however, is much more complex and requires more formal
direction and coordination.

• The budget offers an important tool to direct and coordinate business

activities and units to achieve stated targets of performance.
• The budgetary units in an organisation are called responsibility centers. Each
responsibility center is led by a manager who has the authority over and
responsibility for the unit’s performance.
• Objectives of each responsibility centre and degree of performance expected
from them are separately communicated.
Controlling
• Control is the process of monitoring, measuring, evaluating and correcting actual
results to ensure that a firm’s goals and plans are achieved. Control is achieved
through the process of feedback.

• As time passes, the actual performance of an operation can be compared

against the planned targets. This provides prompt feedback to
employees about their performance. If necessary, employees can use such
feedback to fine-tune their activities in the future.
• Feedback received in the form of budget report from the responsibility centre
is helpful to know the performance of the concerned unit.

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• Any unforeseen changes into the conditions which were prevailing at the time
of preparing budget are taken into account and budgets are revised to show
true performance.
• Comparing actual results to the plan helps prevent unplanned expenditures.
The budget helps employees to regulate their spending priorities.
The main objective of Budgeting is to help in achieving the overall objective
of the organization.

5. BUDGETARY CONTROL
CIMA has defined the terms ‘budgetary control’ as the establishment of budgets
relating to the responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a policy and the
continuous comparison of actual with budgeted results, either to secure by
individual action, the objective of that policy or to provide a basis for its revision.
It is the system of management control and accounting in which all the
operations are forecasted and planned in advance to the extent possible and
the actual results compared with the forecasted and planned results.

5.1 Budgetary Control Involves

1. Establishment of budgets
2. Continuous comparison of actuals with budgets for achievement of targets.
3. Revision of budgets after considering the changes in the circumstances.

4. Fixation of the responsibility for failure to achieve the budget targets.

5.2 Objectives of Budgetary Control System

1. Portraying with precision the overall aims of the business and determining
targets of performance for each section or department of the business.
2. Laying down the responsibilities of each of the executives and other
personnel so that everyone knows what is expected of him and how he will
be judged. Budgetary control is one of the few ways in which an objective
assessment of executives or department is possible.

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3. Providing a basis for the comparison of actual performance with the

predetermined targets and investigation of deviation, if any, of actual
performance and expenses from the budgeted figures. This naturally helps in
adopting corrective measures.
4. Ensuring optimum use of available resources to maximise profit or
production, subject to the limiting factors. Since budgets cannot be properly
drawn up without considering all aspects, usually there is good co-ordination
when a system of budgetary control operates.

5. Co-ordinating various activities of the business, and centralising control

and yet enabling management to decentralise responsibility and delegate
authority in the overall interest of the business.

6. Engendering a spirit of careful forethought, assessment of what is possible

and an attempt at it. It leads to dynamism without being reckless. Of course,
much depends on the objectives of the firm and the dynamism r of its
management.
7. Providing a basis for revision of current and future policies.
8. Drawing up long range plans with a fair measure of accuracy.

9. Providing a yardstick against which actual results can be compared.

5.3 Steps for establishing Budgetary Control

The following steps are necessary for establishing a good budgetary control
system:
1. Determining the objectives to be achieved, over the budget period, and
the policy or policies that might be adopted for the achievement of these
objectives.
2. Determining the activities that should be undertaken for the achievement
of the objectives.

3. Drawing up a plan or a scheme of operation in respect of each class of

activity, in quantitative as well as monetary terms for the budget period.
4. Laying out a system of comparison of actual performance by each person, or
department with the relevant budget and determination of causes for the
variation, if any.

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5. Ensuring that corrective action will be taken where the plan has not been
achieved and, if that is not possible, for the revision of the plan.

In brief, it is a system to assist management in the allocation of responsibility and

authority, to provide it with aid for making, estimating and planning for the future
and to facilitate the analysis of the variation between estimated and actual per -
formance.
In order to ensure effective functioning of budgetary control, it is necessary that
the firm should develop a proper basis of measurement or standards with which to
evaluate the efficiency of operations, i.e., the firm should have in operation, a
system of standard costing.
The organisation should be so integrated that all lines of authority and
responsibility are properly defined. This is essential since the system of budgetary
control postulates separation of functions and division of responsibilities and thus
requires that the organisation shall be planned in such a manner that everyone,
from the Managing Director down to the Shop Foreman, will have his duties
properly defined.

5.4 Feedback and Feedforward Control

Budgetary
Control System

Feedforward
Feedback Control
Control

There are two types of budgetary control system based on timing of action:
Feedback Control: The feedback system of budgetary control, the actual results
for the budgeted period are collected and compared with the budgeted figures.
The exercise of variance identification is done after the completion of the budget
period. The variances are reported and based on the report corrective actions are
taken, responsibility is fixed and based on experience, modification in future targets
is implemented. As the name suggests, it is an Ex-post Corrective control system of
budget.

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This system of budgetary control is common in organistions where Management

Information System (MIS) is not so robust and where data is obtained only after the
finalisation of books of account. Though this type of control system is less
expensive to maintain but has limitations. Organisation has to remain on looser
side in today’s age of data warfare.
Feedforward Control: This the opposite of feedback control system of
budgetary control. It is Ex-Ante Preventive control mechanism of budgetary control.
The budgets are set at the inception of the budgeted period and the actual results
are continuously monitored and compared. The targets are kept realistic as far as
possible and the targets are reviewed and reset if necessary.
This budgetary control system requires a robust MIS supported by integrated ERP
system enabling an entity to get data as and when desired basis. This system is very
expensive and beneficial for the organisations where the business environment is
dynamic and information has important role in getting edge in competition and
todays data warfare.

5.5 Budget Committee and Budget Officer

The budget committee is a group of representatives of various functions in an
organisation. As all functions are inter-related and as any change in one’s target
will have its impact on that of the other, it is necessary to discuss the targets so
that a mutually agreed programme is finally decided. This is called coordination in
budget-making. It is a powerful force in knitting together various activities of the
business and enforcing real control over operations.
The Chief Executive is ultimately responsible for the budget programme but it will
be better if the large part of the supervisory responsibility is delegated to an official
designated as Budget Officer The budget Officer should have knowledge of the
technical side of the business and should report to the president or CEO of the
business entity.
The responsibility for successfully introducing and implementing Budgetary Control
System rests with the Budget Committee acting through the Budget Officer. The
Budget Committee would be composed of all functional heads and a member from
the Board to preside over and guide the deliberations.

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The main responsibilities of the Budget Committee/Budget Officer are to:

1. Assist in the preparation of the separate budget for various departments
by coordinating the work of the accounts department, which is normally
responsible to compile the budgets—with the relevant functional
departments like Sales, Production, Plant maintenance etc.;

2. Forward the budget to the individual departments heads who are re-
sponsible to implement the budget. The Budget Officer should guide them
in overcoming any practical difficulties, in its working;

3. Prepare the periodical budget reports for circulation to the individuals

concerned;
4. Follow-up action to be taken on the budget reports;

5. Prepare an overall budget working report for discussion at the Budget

Committee meetings and to ensure follow-up on the lines of action
suggested by the Committee;

6. Prepare periodical reports for the Board meeting. Comparing budgeted

Profit and Loss Account and the Balance Sheet with the actual results attained.
It is necessary that every budget should be thoroughly discussed with the
functional heads before it is finalised.
It is the duty of the Budget Officer to see that the periodical budget reports are
supplied to the recipients at regular intervals so as to enable them to take remedial
action.
The efficiency of the Budget Officer, and through him of the Budget Committee,
will be judged more by the smooth working of the system and the agreement
between the actual figures and the budgeted figures.
Budgets provides basis for giving an incentive for better performance,; It is up to
the Budget Officer to see that attention of the different functional heads is drawn
to the deviations so as to face the challenge in a successful manner.

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5.6 Advantages of Budgetary Control System

Points Description
1. Efficiency The use of budgetary control system enables the
management of a business entity to conduct its
business activities in an efficient manner.
2. Control on It is a powerful instrument used by business
expenditure entity for the control of their expenditure. It
provides a yardstick for measuring and
evaluating the performance of individuals and
their departments.
3. Finding deviations Budget reveals the deviations of the actual from
the budgeted figures after making a comparison
and communicating the deviation to
management.
4. Effective utilisation of Effective utilisation of various resources like—
resources men, material, machinery and money—is made
possible, as the production is planned after
taking these into account.
5. Revision of plans Budget helps in the review of current trends and
framing of future policies.
6. Implementation of Budget creates suitable conditions for the
Standard Costing implementation of standard costing system in a
system business organisation.
7. Cost Consciousness Budgetary control system encourages cost
consciousness and maximum utilisation of
available resources.
8. Credit Rating Management which has developed a well-ordered
budget plans and which operate accordingly,
receive greater favour from credit agencies.

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5.7 Limitations of Budgetary Control System

Points Description
1. Based on Estimates Budgets are based on a series of estimates, which
are based on the conditions prevalent or expected
at the time budget is established. It requires revision
in plan if conditions change.
2. Time factor Budgets cannot be executed automatically. Some
preliminary steps are required to be accomplished
before budgets are implemented. It requires proper
attention and time of management. Management
must not expect too much during the initial
development period.
3. Co-operation Staff co-operation is usually not available during the
Required initial budgetary control exercise. In a decentralised
organisation, each unit has its own objective and
these units enjoy some degree of discretion. In this
type of organisation structure, coordination among
different units is required. The success of the
budgetary control depends upon willing co-
operation and teamwork,
4. Expensive The implementation of budget is somewhat
expensive. For successful implementation of the
budgetary control, proper organisation structure
with responsibility is prerequisite. Budgeting
process start from the collection of information to
for preparing the budget and performance analysis.
It consumes valuable resources (in terms of
qualified manpower, equipment, etc.) for this
purpose; hence, it is an expensive process.
5. Not a substitute for Budget is only a managerial tool and must be
management intelligently applied for management to get
benefited. Budgets are not a substitute for good
management.

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6. Rigid document Budgets are sometime considered as rigid

documents. But in reality, an organisation is
exposed to various uncertain internal and external
factors. Budget should be flexible enough to
incorporate ongoing developments in the internal
and external factors affecting the very purpose of
the budget.

5.8 Components of Budgetary Control System

The policy of a business for a defined period is represented by the master budget,
the detailed components of which are given in a number of individual budgets
called functional budgets. These functional budgets are broadly grouped under the
following heads:
1. Physical budgets: Those budgets which contain information in quantitative
terms such as the physical units of sales, production etc. This may include
quantity of sales, quantity of production, inventories, and manpower
budgets are physical budgets.
2. Cost budgets: Budgets which provides cost information in respect of
manufacturing, administration, selling and distribution, etc. for example,
manufacturing costs, selling costs, administration cost, and research and
development cost budgets are cost budgets.
3. Profit budgets: A budget which enables the ascertainment of profit. For
example, sales budget, profit and loss budget, etc.
4. Financial budgets: A budget which facilitates in ascertaining the financial
position of a concern, for example, cash budgets, capital expenditure
budget, budgeted balance sheet etc.

6 BUDGETS AND MOTIVATION

When pursuing some target, the end result of achieving the goal should be
motivating one. Motivation is a factor which works like fuel to get hope lighted and
ignites the aspirations. Therefore, motivation is the driving force which converts the
efforts into results and thus the long-term objectives of the any person whether it
would be an individual or a corporate.

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The same principle of motivation also applies to a business entity to achieve its
objectives in the course of pursuing its mission. Budget is a planning exercise which
quantifies the desired results into targets. The budget targets are communicated
to the executives at different levels and they are asked to strive to get the targes
achieved. But the whole exercise is not so simple as it seems in script,
implementation it in practicality has bumpy rides. The behavioural aspect of human
being comes into character, and it is not so difficult to guess why an executive put
his/ her best efforts to achieve the communicated targets. There must be
something motivating in achieving the targets, therefore, a budgeting process
should have the following consideration to make it motivating one:
(a) Performance measurement: The budget, at first be communicated to all
executives so that everybody must be informed the desired performance
expected from each of them. Secondly, the achievement of targets should
have consideration in measurement and evaluation of performance an
executive at individual level and at departmental level. Rewards such as
promotion, increment, Performance related pay (Pay), bonus may be
appropriate motivation factors.
(b) Achievable Targets: While setting targets, the practical aspects such as
availability of resources and realism of figures must be considered. The targes
should be balance one, it neither be very easy nor too tough, means it should
be realistic one. An unrealistic target has reverse impact and may be
demotivate the executives.
(c) Optimum utilisation of resources: A budget targets which is easily
achievable may underutilise the resources such as potential skills of
executives. Pressure sometime forcing to explore innovative ways to get
things done. Thus, to keep motivation alive, a balanced approach should be
applied for optimum utilisation of resources upto its effort zone, though
beyond the comfort zone.
(d) Involvement in budgeting process: The budgets which involves the
executives from all department can capture the requirement of all the users.
The participative budgeting motivates the executives and give them a sense
of ownership. Involvement at planning stage of budget can take care of the
requirements of the executives and force them accept the targets. However,
involvement at every stage of budgeting process may distort the objective of
budget and lands nowhere., thus, a balance approach may be followed.

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7. PREPARATION OF BUDGETS
1. Defining business or organisational objectives: A budget is a plan for the
achievement of certain organisational objectives. It is therefore desirable that
these objectives are defined precisely. The organisational objectives should
be written down; the areas of control demarcated; and items of revenue and
expenditure to be covered by the budget clearly stated. This will give a clear
understanding of the plan and its scope to all those who must cooperate to
make it successful.

2. Identification of the key budget factor: There are usually one or two key
budget factors (sometimes there may be more than two) which set a limit to
the total activity. For instance, in India sometimes non-availability of power
does not allow production to increase in spite of heavy demand. Similarly,
lack of demand may limit production. Such a factor is known as key factor.
For proper budgeting, it must be identified and its influence on production
on sales estimated properly while preparing the budget.

3. Appointment of controller/officer: Formulation of a budget usually

requires service of a whole time senior executive.; He must be assisted in this
work by a Budget Committee, consisting of all the heads of departments
along with the Managing Director as the Chairman. The Budget
Controller/Officer is responsible for coordinating and development of budget
programmes and preparing the manual of instruction, known as Budget
manual.

4. Budget Manual: The budget manual is a booklet specifying the objectives of

an organisation in relation to its strategy. The budget is made to decide how
much an organisation would earn and spend and in what manner. In the
budget, the organisation sets its priorities too.

CIMA, London, defines budget manual as, “A document which sets out the
responsibilities of the persons engaged in, the routine of, and the forms and
records required for, budgetary control.”

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Effective budgetary planning relies on the provision of adequate information

to the individuals involved in the planning process. Many of these information
needs are contained in the budget manual. A budget manual is a collection
of documents that contains key information for those involved in the
planning process.
Contents of a Budget Manual

Typical budget manual may include the following:

(i) A statement regarding the objectives of the organisation and how they
can be achieved through budgetary control;

(ii) A statement about the functions and responsibilities of each executive,

both regarding preparation and execution of budgets;
(iii) Procedures to be followed for obtaining the necessary approval of
budgets. The authority of granting approval should be stated in explicit
terms. Whether, one two or more signatures are required on each
document should be clearly stated;

(iv) A form of organisation chart to show who are responsible for the
preparation of each functional budget and the way in which the budgets
are interrelated.
(v) A timetable for the preparation of each budget.
(vi) The manner of scrutiny and the personnel to carry it out;
(vii) Reports, statements, forms and other record to be maintained;
(viii) The accounts classification to be employed. It is necessary that the
framework within which the costs, revenue and other financial accounts
are classified must be identical both in the accounts and budget
department;
(ix) The reporting of the remedial action;
(x) The manner in which budgets, after acceptance and issuance, are to be
revised or the matter amended these are included in budgets and on
which action can be taken only with the approval of top management

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(xi) This will prevent the formation of a ‘bottleneck’ with the late
preparation of one budget holding up the preparation of all others.

(xii) Copies of all forms to be completed by those responsible for preparing

budgets, with explanations concerning their completion.

(xiii) A list of the organization’s account codes, with full explanations of how
to use them.

(xiv) Information concerning key assumptions to be made by managers in

their budgets, for example the rate of inflation, key exchange rates, etc.

5. Budget period: The period covered by a budget is known as budget period.

There is no general rule governing the selection of the budget period. In
practice the Budget Committee determines the length of the budget period
suitable for the business. Normally, a calendar year or a period co-terminus
with the financial year is adopted. The budget period for the calendar or
financial year is then divided into shorter periods; it may be monthly or
quarterly or for such periods as coincide with period of trading activity of the
business.

6. Standard of activity or output: For preparing budgets for the future, past
statistics, though important, cannot be completely relied upon. The past
usually represents a combination of good and bad factors. Therefore, though
results of the past should be studied, but these should only be applied when
there is a likelihood of similar conditions repeating in the future. Also, while
setting the targets for the future, it must be remembered that in a progressive
business, the achievement of a year should normally exceed those of earlier
years. Therefore, what was good in the past is only fair for the current year
and should work for much better in the future.

In budgeting, fixing the budget of sales, expenses, and of capital expenditure is

important since these budgets determine the extent of development activity. For
budgeting sales, one must consider the trend of economic activity of the country,
recommendations of salesmen, customers and employees, effect of price changes
on sales, the provision for advertisement campaign plan capacity etc.

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8. DIFFERENT TYPES OF BUDGETS

BUDGET

Capacity Wise Function Wise Master Budget Period Wise

Sales Budget Long-term

Fixed Budget Budget
Production Budget
Plant utilisation Budget Short-term
Flexible Budget
Direct-material usage Budget
Budget
Direct-material purchase Budget Current Budget
Direct-labour (personnel) Budget
Factory overhead Budget
Production cost Budget
Ending inventory Budget
Cost of gooods-sold Budget
Selling and distribution cost Budget
Administration expenses Budget
Research and development cost Budget
Capital expenditure Budget
Cash Budget

8.1 Classification on the basis of Capacity or Flexibility

These types of budgets are prepared on the basis of activity level or utilization of
capacity. These are also known as “Budgets on the basis of flexibility”.
(i) Fixed Budget: A budget prepared on the basis of standard or fixed level of
activity is known as fixed budget. It does not change with a change in the level of
activities. According to CIMA, “a fixed budget is a budget designed to remain
unchanged irrespective of the level of activity actually attained”. A fixed
budget shows the expected results of a responsibility center for only one activity
level.
Once the budget is prepared, it is not changed, even if the level of activity changes.
Fixed budgeting is used by many service companies and for some administrative

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functions of manufacturing companies, such as purchasing, engineering, and

accounting.

Fixed Budget is used as an effective tool of cost control. In case, the level of activity
attained is different from the level of activity for budgeting purposes, the fixed
budget becomes ineffective. Fixed budget is suitable for fixed expenses. It is also
known as a static budget.
Essential conditions:
1. When the nature of business is not seasonal.
2. There is no impact of external factors on the business activities.

3. The demand of the product is certain and stable.

4. Supply orders are received and issued regularly.
5. The market of the product is normally domestic but it can also apply in
respect of service export, where fairly regular export orders are received
6. There is no need of special labour or material in the production of the
products.

7. Supply of production inputs is regular.

8. There is a trend of price stability.
Generally, all above conditions are not found in practice. Hence fixed budget is not
suitable in business concerns.
Merits and Demerits of fixed budgets are tabulated below:

Merits Demerits
1. Very simple to understand 1. It does not suite a dynamic organization
2. Less time consuming and may give misleading results. A poor
or good performance may remain un-
noticed.
2. It is not suitable for long period.
3. It is also found unsuitable particularly
when the business conditions are
changing constantly.
4. Accurate estimates are not possible.

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(ii) Flexible Budget: A flexible budget is a budget which, by recognising the

difference in behaviour between fixed and variable costs in relation to fluctuations
in output, turnover, or other variable factors, is designed to change appropriately
with such fluctuations. According to CIMA, “a flexible budget is defined as a
budget which, by recognizing the difference between fixed, semi-variable and
variable costs is designed to change in relation to the level of activity
attained.” Unlike static (fixed) budgets, the flexible budgets show the expected
results of a responsibility center for different activity levels.

One can view a flexible budget as a series of static budgets for different levels of
activity. Such budgets are especially useful in estimating and controlling factory
costs and operating expenses. It is more realistic and practicable because it gives
due consideration to behaviour of revenue and cost at different levels of activity.
While preparing a flexible budget, the expenses are classified into three categories
viz.

(i) Fixed,
(ii) Variable, and
(iii) Semi-variable.

Semi-variable expenses are further segregated into fixed and variable expenses.
Flexible budgeting may be resorted to under the following situations:
(i) In the case of new business venture, due to its typical nature, it may be
difficult to forecast the demand of a product accurately.
(ii) Where the business is dependent upon the fluctuations of nature e.g., a
person dealing in wool trade may have enough market demand, if
temperature goes below the freezing point and much less demand if the
weather is relatively warm.
(iii) In the case of labour-intensive industry where the production of the entity is
dependent upon the availability of labour.
Suitability for flexible budget:
1. Seasonal fluctuations in sales and/or production, for example in soft drinks
industry;

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15.22 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

2. a company which keeps on introducing new products or makes changes in

the design of its products frequently;

3. industries engaged in make-to-order business like ship building;

4. an industry which is influenced by changes in fashion; and
5. general changes in sales.
Merits and Demerits of flexible budgets are tabulated below:

Merits Demerits
1. With the help of flexible budget, the 1. The formulation of flexible
sales, costs and profit may be budget is possible only when
calculated easily by the business at there is proper accounting
various levels of production capacity. system maintained, perfect
2. In flexible budget, adjustment is very knowledge about the factors of
simple according to change in production and various
business conditions. business circumstances is
available.
3. It also helps in determination of
production level as it shows 2. Flexible Budget also requires
budgeted costs with classification at the system of standard costing
various levels of activity along with in business.
sales. Hence the management can 3. It is very expensive and labour
easily select the level of production oriented.
which shows the profit
predetermined by the owners of the
business.
4. It also shows the quantity of product
to be produced to earn determined
profit.

Difference between Fixed and Flexible Budgets:

Sl. No. Fixed Budget Flexible Budget

1. It does not change with actual It can be re-casted on the basis of
volume of activity achieved. activity level to be achieved. Thus, it
Thus, it is known as rigid or is not rigid.
inflexible budget.

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2. It operates on one level of It consists of various budgets for

activity and under one set of different levels of activity.
conditions. It assumes that
there will be no change in the
prevailing conditions, which
is unrealistic.
3. Here as all costs like - fixed, Here analysis of variance provides
variable and semi-variable useful information as each cost is
are related to only one level analysed according to its behaviour.
of activity so variance
analysis does not give useful
information.
4. If the budgeted and actual Flexible budgeting at different levels
activity levels differ of activity facilitates the
significantly, then the aspects ascertainment of cost, fixation of
like cost ascertainment and selling price and tendering of
price fixation do not give a quotations.
correct picture.
5. Comparison of actual It provides a meaningful basis of
performance with budgeted comparison of the actual
targets will be meaningless performance with the budgeted
specially when there is a targets.
difference between the two
activity levels.

ILLUSTRATION 1
A factory which expects to operate 7,000 hours, i.e., at 70% level of activity, furnishes
details of expenses as under:
Variable expenses `1,260
Semi-variable expenses `1,200
Fixed expenses `1,800
The semi-variable expenses go up by 10% between 85% and 95% activity and by 20%
above 95% activity. PREPARE a flexible budget for 80, 90 and 100 per cent activities.

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SOLUTION

Head of Account Control basis 70% 80% 90% 100%

Budgeted hours 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Variable expenses Variable 1,260 1,440 1,620 1,800
Semi-variable expenses Semi-variable 1,200 1,200 1,320 1,440
Fixed expenses Fixed 1,800 1,800 1,800 1,800
Total expenses 4,260 4,440 4,740 5,040
Recovery rate per hour:
Total expenses/Bud hours 0.61 0.55 0.53 0.50

Conclusion:
We notice that the recovery rate at 70% activity is ` 0.61 per hour. If in a particular
month the factory works 8,000 hours, it will be incorrect to estimate the allowance
as `4,880 @ `0.61. The correct allowance will be `4,440 as shown in the table. If the
actual expenses are `4,500 for this level of activity, the company has not saved any
money but has over-spent by `60 (`4,500 – `4,440).
ILLUSTRATION 2
A department of Company X attains sale of ` 6,00,000 at 80 per cent of its normal
capacity and its expenses are given below:

Administration costs: (`)

Office salaries 90,000
General expenses 2 per cent of sales
Depreciation 7,500
Rates and taxes 8,750
Selling costs:
Salaries 8 per cent of sales
Travelling expenses 2 per cent of sales
Sales office expenses 1 per cent of sales

General expenses 1 per cent of sales

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Distribution costs:
Wages 15,000

Rent 1 per cent of sales

Other expenses 4 per cent of sales
PREPARE flexible administration, selling and distribution costs budget, operating at
90 per cent, 100 per cent and 110 per cent of normal capacity.
SOLUTION
Flexible Budget of Department....of Company ‘X’
80% (`) 90% (`) 100%(`) 110%(`)
Sales 6,00,000 6,75,000 7,50,000 8,25,000
Administration Costs:
Office Salaries (fixed) 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000
General expenses (2% of Sales) 12,000 13,500 15,000 16,500
Depreciation (fixed) 7,500 7,500 7,500 7,500
Rent and rates (fixed) 8,750 8,750 8,750 8,750
(A) Total Adm. Costs 1,18,250 1,19,750 1,21,250 1,22,750
Selling Costs:
Salaries (8% of sales) 48,000 54,000 60,000 66,000
Travelling expenses (2% of sales) 12,000 13,500 15,000 16,500
Sales office (1% of sales) 6,000 6,750 7,500 8,250
General expenses (1% of sales) 6,000 6,750 7,500 8,250
(B) Total Selling Costs 72,000 81,000 90,000 99,000
Distribution Costs:
Wages (fixed) 15,000 15,000 15,000 15,000
Rent (1% of sales) 6,000 6,750 7,500 8,250
Other expenses (4% of sales) 24,000 27,000 30,000 33,000
(C) Total Distribution Costs 45,000 48,750 52,500 56,250
Total Costs (A + B + C) 2,35,250 2,49,500 2,63,750 2,78,000

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Note: In the absence of information, it has been assumed that office salaries,
depreciation, rates and taxes and wages remain the same at 110% level of activity
also. However, in practice some of these costs may change if present capacity is
exceeded.
ILLUSTRATION 3
Action Plan Manufacturers normally produce 8,000 units of their product in a month,
in their Machine Shop. For the month of January, they had planned for a production
of 10,000 units. Owing to a sudden cancellation of a contract in the middle of
January, they could only produce 6,000 units in January.

Indirect manufacturing costs are carefully planned and monitored in the Machine
Shop and the Foreman of the shop is paid a 10% of the savings as bonus when in any
month the indirect manufacturing cost incurred is less than the budgeted provision.
The Foreman has put in a claim that he should be paid a bonus of ` 88.50 for the
month of January. The Works Manager wonders how anyone can claim a bonus when
the Company has lost a sizeable contract. The relevant figures are as under:
Indirect manufacturing Expenses for a Planned for Actual in costs
normal month January January
(` ) (` ) (` )
Salary of foreman 1,000 1,000 1,000
Indirect labour 720 900 600
Indirect material 800 1,000 700
Repairs and maintenance 600 650 600
Power 800 875 740
Tools consumed 320 400 300
Rates and taxes 150 150 150
Depreciation 800 800 800
Insurance 100 100 100
5,290 5,875 4,990

Do you agree with the Works Manager? Is the Foreman entitled to any bonus for the
performance in January? Substantiate your answer with facts and figures. EXPLAIN.

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SOLUTION
Flexible Budget of “Action Plan Manufacturers”
(for the month of January)
Indirect Nature Expenses Planned Expenses Actual Difference
manufacturing of cost for a expenses as per expenses
cost normal flexible
month budget
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)=(5)–
(4)
Salary of foreman Fixed 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 Nil
Indirect labour Variable 720 900 540 600 60
(WN 1)
Indirect material Variable 800 1,000 600 700 100
(WN 2)
Repair and Semi- 600 650 550 600 50
maintenance variable
(WN 3)
Power (WN 4) Semi- 800 875 725 740 15
variable
Tools consumed Variable 320 400 240 300 60
(WN 5)
Rates and taxes Fixed 150 150 150 150 Nil
Depreciation Fixed 800 800 800 800 Nil
Insurance Fixed 100 100 100 100 Nil
5,290 5,875 4,705 4,990 285

Conclusion: The above statement of flexible budget shows that the concern’s
expenses in the month of January have increased by `285 as compared to flexible
budget. Under such circumstances, assuming the expenses are controllable and
based on the financial perspective the Foreman of the company should not be
entitled for any performance bonus for the month of January.

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Working notes:

` 720
1. Indirect labour cost per unit = ` 0.09
8,000
Indirect labour for 6,000 units = 6,000 × ` 0.09 = `540.

`800
2. Indirect material cost per unit = `0.10
8,000
Indirect material for 6,000 units = 6,000 × `0.10 = `600
3. According to high and low point method of segregating semi-variable cost
into fixed and variable components, following formulae may be used.

Change in expenselevel
Variable cost of repair and maintenance per unit=
Change in output level

`650 -` 600
= = ` 0.025
2,000

For 8,000 units

Total Variable cost of repair and maintenance = `200
Fixed repair & maintenance cost = `400
Hence at 6,000 units output level, total cost of repair and maintenance should
be
= ` 400 + ` 0.025 × 6,000 units= `400 + ` 150 = ` 550

`875-`800
4. Variable cost of power per unit = = 0.0375
2,000 units
For 8,000 units

Total variable cost of power = `300

Fixed cost = `500
Hence, at 6,000 units output level, total cost of power should be
= `500 + `0.0375 × 6,000 units = `500 + `225 =`725

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5. Tools consumed cost for 8,000 units = `320

Hence, tools consumed cost for 6,000 units = (`320/8,000 units) × 6,000 units

= `240

8.2 Classification on the basis of Function

A functional budget is one which is related to function of the business as for
example, production budget relating to the manufacturing function. Functional
budgets are prepared for each function and they are subsidiary to the master
budget of the business.
The various types of functional budgets to be prepared will vary according to the
size and nature of the business.
The various commonly used functional budgets are:
(i) Sales Budget
(ii) Production Budget
(iii) Plant Utilisation Budget

(iv) Direct-Material Usage Budget

(v) Direct-Material Purchase Budget
(vi) Direct Labour (Personnel) Budget

(vii) Production or Factory Overhead Budget

(viii) Production Cost Budget
(ix) Ending Inventory Budget

(x) Cost of Goods Sold Budget

(xi) Selling and Distribution Cost budget
(xii) Administration Expenses Budget

(xiii) Research and Development Cost Budget

(xiv) Capital Expenditure Budget
(xv) Cash Budget

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The important functional budgets (also known as schedules to Master Budget) and
the master budget are discussed and illustrated below:
(i) Sales Budget:
• Sales forecast is the commencement of budgeting and hence sales
budget assumes primary importance. The quantity which can be sold
may be the principal budget factor in many business undertakings. In
any case in order to chalk out a realistic budget programme, there must
be an accurate sales forecast.
• The sales budget is prepared for each product. This includes:
1. the quantity of estimated sales and

2. the expected unit selling price. These data are often reported by
regions or by sales representatives.
• In estimating the quantity of sales for each product, past sales volumes
are often used as a starting point. These amounts are adjusted
(increased or decreased) for factors that are expected to affect future
sales. Such as the factors listed below.
(i) Backlog of unfulfilled sales orders
(ii) Planned advertising and promotion
(iii) Expected industry and general economic conditions
(iv) Productive capacity
(v) Projected pricing
(vi) Findings of market research studies
(vii) Relative product profitability.
(viii) Competition.
• Once an estimate of the sales volume is obtained, the expected sales
revenue can be determined by multiplying the volume by the
expected unit sales price. The sales budget represents the total sales
in physical quantities and values for a future budget period. Sales
managers are constantly faced with problems like anticipation of
customer requirements, new product needs, competitor strategies and
various changes in distribution methods or promotional techniques.

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• The purposes of sales budget are not to attempt to estimate or guess

what the actual sales will be, but rather to develop a plan with clearly
defined objectives towards which the operational effort is directed in
order to attain or exceed the objective. Hence, sales budget is not
merely a sales forecast. A budget is a planning and control document
which shows what the management intends to accomplish. Thus, the
sales budget is active rather than passive document.
• A sales forecast, , is a projection or estimate of the available customer
demand. A forecast reflects the environmental or competitive situation
facing the company whereas the sales budget shows how the
management intends to react to this environmental and competitive
situation.
• A good budget hinges on aggressive management control rather than
on passive acceptance of whatever the market appears to offer. If the
company fails to make this distinction, the budget will remain more a
figure-work exercise than a working tool of dynamic management
control.
The sales budget may be prepared under the following classification or
combination of classifications:
1. Products or groups of products.
2. Areas, towns, salesmen and agents.
3. Types of customers as for example: (i) Government, (ii) Export, (iii) Home
sales, (iv) Retail depots.
4. Period—months, weeks, etc.
The illustrative format of a sales budget is as under:
Last Year Budgeted Northern Southern Central
Total Year Total Region Region Region
Qty. Value Qty. Value Qty. Value Qty. Value Qty. Value
Product X
1st Qtr.
2nd Qtr.
3rd Qtr.
4th Qtr.

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Product Y
1st Qtr.

Total

Example of sales budget:

XYZ COMPANY
Sales Budget for the year ending March, 20....
Units Selling price Per unit (`) Total (`)
Product A 5,000 75 3,75,000
Product B 10,000 80 8,00,000
11,75,000

(ii) Production Budget:

Production Budget is a forecast of the production for the budget period of
an organisation. Production budget is prepared in two parts, viz. production
volume budget for the physical units of the products to be manufactured and
the cost of production or manufacturing budget detailing the budgeted cost
under material, labour, and factory overhead in respect of the products.
Production budget shows the production for the budget period based upon:
1. Sales budget,
2. Production capacity of the factory,
3. Planned increase or decrease in finished stocks, and
4. Policy governing outside purchase.
Production budget is normally stated in units of output. Production
should be carefully coordinated with the sales budget to ensure that pro-
duction and sales are kept in balance during the period. The number of units
to be manufactured to meet budgeted sales and inventory needs for
each product is set forth in the production budget.
The production facility available and the sales budget will be compared and
coordinated to determine the production budget. If production facilities are
not sufficient, consideration may be given to such factors as working
overtime, introducing shift working, sub-contracting or purchasing of

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additional plant and machinery. If, however, the production facilities are
surplus, consideration should be given to promote advertising, reduction of
prices to increase the sales, sub-contracting of surplus capacity, etc.
One of the conditions to be considered in all the compilation of production
budget is the level of stock to be maintained.
• The level of stocks will depend upon the following three factors viz.:
1. Seasonal industries in which stocks have to be built up during off season
to cater to the peak season,
2. A steady and uniform level of production to utilise the plant fully and
to avoid retrenchment or lay-off of the workers, and
3. To produce in such a way that minimum stocks are maintained at any
time to avoid locking up of funds in inventory.
• Production budget can, therefore, show:
1. Stabilised production every month, say, the maximum possible
production or
2. Stabilised minimum quantity of stocks which will reduce inventory
costs.
3. In the case of stabilised production, the production facility will be fully
utilized, but the inventory carrying costs will vary according to stocks
held. In the case of stabilised stocks method, however, the inventory
carrying will be the lowest, but there may be under-utilisation of
capacity.
Example of production budget:
XYZ COMPANY
Production budget in units for the year ending March 31, 20....

Products
A B
Budgeted sales 5,000 10,000
Add : Desired closing stock 500 1,000
Total quantity required 5,500 11,000

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Less : Opening stock 1,500 2,000

Units to be produced 4,000 9,000

(iii) Plant Utilisation Budget:

Plant utilisation budget represents, in terms of working hours, weight or other
convenient units of plant facilities required to carry out the programme laid
down in the production budget.
The main purposes of this budget are:
1. To determine the load on each process, cost or groups of machines for the
budget period.
2. To indicate the processes or cost centres which are overloaded so that
corrective action may be taken such as: (i) working overtime (ii) sub-
contracting (iii) expansion of production facility, etc.
3. To dovetail the sales production budgets where it is not possible to
increase the capacity of any of the overloaded processes.
4. Where surplus capacity is available in any of the processes, to make
effort to boost sales to utilise the surplus capacity.
(iv) Direct Material usage Budget:

The steps involved in the compilation of direct materials usage budget are as
under:
1. The quality standards for each item of material have to be specified. In
this connection, standardisation of size, quality, colour, etc., may be
considered.
2. Standard requirement of each item of materials required should also be
set. While setting the standard quality, consideration should be given
to normal loss in process. The standard allowance for normal loss may
be given on the basis of past performance, test runs, technical estimates
etc.
3. Standard prices for each item of materials should be set after giving
consideration to stock and contracts entered into.

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After setting standards for quality, quantity and prices, the direct materials
cost budget can be prepared by multiplying each item of material required
for the production by the standard price.
Example of direct material usage budget is as under:
XYZ COMPANY
Direct material usage in units and in amount
for the year ending March 31, 20...
Direct Materials
Type of Product Product B Total direct Material Total
material A (9,000 material cost per cost of
(4,000 units) usage unit (`) material
units) (Units) used (`)

X (12 units per 48,000 1,08,000 1,56,000 1.50 2,34,000

finished
product)
Y (4 units per 16,000 18,000 34,000 2.50 85,000
product A & 2
units per
product B)
Total 3,19,000

(v) Direct Material Purchase Budget:

• The production budget is the starting point for determining the
estimated quantities of direct materials to be purchased.
• Multiplying these quantities by the expected unit purchase price
determines the total cost of direct materials to be purchased.

Two important considerations that govern purchase budgets are as

follows:
(i) Economic order quantity.
(ii) Re-order point with safety stocks to cover fluctuations in demand.
• The direct material purchases budget helps management maintain
inventory levels within reasonable limits. For this purpose, the timing of
the direct materials purchases should he coordinated between the
purchasing and production departments.

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An example of material purchase budget is as under:

XYZ Company
Direct material purchase budget
for the year ending March 31, 20.....
Material X Material Y Total
Desired closing stock (units) 3,000 500
Units required for production 1,56,000 34,000
Add:
Total Requirement 1,59,000 34,500
Less: Opening stock (units) 4,000 300
Units to be purchased 1,55,000 34,200
Unit price (`) 1.50 2.50
Purchase cost (`) 2,32,500 85,500 3,18,000

(vi) Direct Labour (Personnel) Budget:

• Once sales budget and Production budget are compiled and plant
utilisation budget is decided detailed amount of the various machine
operations involved and services required can be calculated. This will
facilitate preparation of an estimate of different grades of labour
required.
From this, the standard hours required to be worked can be calculated the
total labour component thus budgeted can be divided into direct and indirect
labour. Standard rates of wages for each grade of labour can be introduced
and then the direct and indirect labour cost budget can be prepared.
Merits/advantages:

1. It defines the direct and indirect labour force required.

2. It enables the personnel department to plan ahead in recruitment and
training of workers so that labour turnover can be reduced to the
minimum.
3. It reveals the labour cost to be incurred in the manufacture, to facilitate
preparation of manufacturing cost budgets and cash budgets for
financing the wage bill.

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Example of direct-labour cost budget:

XYZ COMPANY
Direct-labour cost budget
for the year ending March 31, 20...
Units to be Direct labour Total Total budget cost ( ` )
produced hour, per unit hours @ ` 2 per hour
Product A 4,000 7 28,000 56,000
Product B 9,000 10 90,000 1,80,000
1,18,000 2,36,000
(vii) Production or Factory Overhead Budget:
• Production overheads consist of all items such as indirect materials,
indirect labour and indirect expenses. Indirect expenses. These include
expenditures on factors such as power, fuel, fringe benefits,
depreciation etc. The estimated overheads which are necessary for
production in the factory are called factory overhead costs and included
in the factory overhead budget.
• Factory overhead budget usually includes the total estimated cost for
each item of factory overhead.
• The production overhead budget is useful for working out the pre-
determined overhead recovery rates.
• A business may prepare supporting departmental schedules, in which
the factory overhead costs are separated into their fixed and variable
cost elements. Such schedules enable department managers to direct
their attention to those costs for which they are responsible and to
evaluate performance of each department.

• A careful study and determination of the behaviour of different types

of costs will be essential in preparation of overhead budget.
• A few examples are given below to show how the expenses are
estimated.
1. Fixed expenses are normally policy costs and hence they are
based on policy matters.
2. For estimating indirect labour, work study is resorted to and a

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15.38 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

estimate of number of indirect workers required for each level of

direct workers employed is made—for example, one supervisor
for every twenty direct workers.
3. In regard to the estimate of consumption of indirect materials, the
age and condition of the plant and machinery are taken into
consideration.
Example of factory overhead budget:
XYZ COMPANY
Factory overhead budget for the year ending March 31, 20....
(Anticipated activity of 1,18,000 direct labour hours)
(` ) (` )
Supplies 12,000
Indirect labour 30,000
Cost of fringe benefits 10,000
Power (variable portion) 22,000
Maintenance cost (variable portion) 15,000
Total variable overheads 89,000
Depreciation 10,000
Property taxes 2,000
Property insurance 1,000
Supervision 12,000
Power (Fixed portion) 800
Maintenance (Fixed portion) 3,200
Total fixed overheads 29,000
Total factory overheads 1,18,000
Factory overhead recovery rate is:
`1,18,000
= `1 per direct labour hour
1,18,000 labour hours
(viii) Production Cost Budget:
Production Cost Budget is a forecast of the production for the budget period
of an organisation. Production budget is prepared in two parts, viz.
production volume budget for the physical units of the products to be
manufactured and the cost of production or manufacturing budget detailing
the budgeted cost under material, labour, and factory overhead in respect of
the products.

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Production cost budget covers direct material cost, direct labour cost and
manufacturing expenses. After preparing direct material, direct labour and
production overhead cost budget, one can prepare production cost budget.
(ix) Ending Inventory Budget:
This budget shows the cost of closing stock of raw materials and finished
goods, etc. required to be maintained by the business entity. This information
is required to prepare cost-of-goods-sold budget and budgeted financial
statements i.e., budgeted income statement and budgeted balance sheet.
Example of end of the year (or closing) inventory budget:
XYZ Company end of the year inventory budget March 31, 20....
Units Unit cost Amount Total
(` ) (` ) (` )
Direct material
X 3,000 1.50 4,500
Y 500 2.50 1,250 5,750
Finished goods
A 500 49.00* 24,500
B 1,000 53.00* 53,000 77,500
Total 83,250
* Unit cost of finished goods have been computed as below:
Unit cost Product A Product B
of input Units Amount Units Amount
(` ) (` ) (` )
Material X 1.50 12 18.00 12.00 18.00
Material Y 2.50 4 10.00 2.00 5.00
Direct labour 2.00 7 14.00 10.00 20.00
Factory overhead 1.00 7 7.00 10.00 10.00
49.00 53.00
(x) Cost of Goods Sold Budget:
This budget covers direct material cost, direct labour cost and manufacturing
expenses. This is adjusted by addition of the cost of the opening inventory
and reducing therefrom the cost of closing inventory of finished products.

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We present below the cost-of-goods-sold budget on the basis of the data

taken from the various budgets already illustrated:
XYZ Company cost-of-goods-sold budget for the year ending
March 31, 20....
Amount
(` )
Direct materials used 3,19,000
Direct labour 2,36,000
Factory overhead 1,18,000
Total manufacturing costs 6,73,000
Add : Finished goods (opening) 1,79,500*
8,52,500
Less : Finished goods (closing) 77,500*
Total cost of goods sold 7,75,000
*Assumed figure
In the above budget if adjustments for opening and closing inven tory of finished
goods are not shown. The budget will be called production cost budget.
(xi) Selling and Distribution Cost Budget:

Selling and distribution are the essential aspects of the profit earning
function. At the same time, the pre-determination of these costs is very
difficult. Selling & Distribution Cost Budget is a forecast of the cost of selling &
distribution of goods during the budget period. Selling cost is defined as the
cost of seeking to create and stimulate demand and of securing orders.
These costs are, therefore, incurred to maintain and increase the level of sales.
All expenses connected with advertising, sales promotion, sales office,
salesmen, credit collection, market research, after sales service, etc. are
generally grouped together to form part of the responsibility of the sales
manager.
While making a budget, selling costs are divided into fixed and variable. Semi-
variable costs should also be separated into variable and fixed elements.

The problems faced in the preparation of selling cost budgets are:

1. Heavy expenditure on selling and sales promotion may have to be
incurred when the volume of sales is falling off. This will increase the
percentage of such costs to total sales, and

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2. Sometimes intensive sales and promotion efforts are called for in one
year and the benefit of such efforts accrue in the subsequent years. This
makes it difficult to establish a proportion of selling cost to sales.
3. In spite of these problems, some relationship between selling cost and
volume of sales has to be established and it is the duty of the Budget
Controller to determine the amount of selling costs to be incurred to
achieve the desired level of sales volume.
Using the past experience as a guide, consideration should be given to the
future trend of sales, possible changes in competition etc., in pre-
determination of selling costs.
• Distribution cost has been defined as the cost of the sequence of
operations which begins with making the packet of product avail-
able for dispatch and ends with making the re-conditioned return
of empty package, if any available for re-use. It includes transport
cost, storage and warehousing costs, etc.
• Preparation of the advertising cost budget is the responsibility of the
sales manager or advertisement manager. When preparing the
advertisement cost budget, consideration should be given to the
following factors:
1. The best method of advertisement must be selected; costs will
vary according to the method selected.
2. The maximum amount to be spent in a period, say one year, has
to be decided.
3. Advertising and sales should be co-ordinated. It means that
money should be spent on advertisement only when sufficient
quantities of the product advertised are ready for sale.
4. An effective control over advertisement expenditure should be
exercised and the effectiveness of the advertisement should be
measured.
5. The choice of the method of advertising a product is based on the
effectiveness of the money spent on advertisement in increasing or
maintaining sales. If the output sold increases, the production cost
will come down because of the economies of large-scale production.

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15.42 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

• The amount to be spent on advertisement may be decided on the basis

of the following factors:

1. A percentage on the total sales value of the budget period or on

the expected profit may be fixed on the basis of past experience.
2. A sum which is expected to be incurred by the competitors may
be fixed to be spent during the budget period.
3. A fixed sum per unit of output can be fixed and added to cost.
4. An amount is fixed on the basis of the ability of the company to
spend on advertising.
5. An advertisement plan is decided upon and the amount to be
spent is determined.

• Depending upon the nature of the product and the effectiveness of the
media of the advertising the company prepares a schedule of various
methods of advertisement, to be used for effective sales promotion. The
number of advertisements (insertions) are determined and the cost
calculated as per the rates applicable to each of the media selected.
This is a sound method.

Example of selling and distribution cost budget:

XYZ Company selling and distribution cost budget
for the year ending March 31, 20....
Amount
Direct selling expenses: (` )
Salesmen’s salaries 14,500
Salesmen’s commission 7,000
Travelling expenses 19,000
40,500
Distribution expenses:
Warehouse wages 6,000
Warehouse rent, rates, electricity 4,500

Lorry expenses 11,000

21,500

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Sales office expenses:

Salaries 16,000
Rent, rates, electricity 12,000
Depreciation 2,000
Stationery, postage and telephone 12,500
General expenses 3,000
45,500
Advertising:
Press 4,500
Radio and television 18,500
Shop window displays 4,000
27,000
Total 1,34,500
(xii) Administrative Expenses Budget:
The administrative expenses are mostly policy costs and are, therefore, fixed
in nature. The most practical method to follow in preparing estimate of
these expenses is to follow the past experience with due regard to antic-
ipated changes either in general policy or the volume of business. To
bring such expenses under control, it is necessary to review them frequently
and to determine at regular intervals whether or not these expenses continue
to be adjusted. Examples of such expenses are: board meeting expenses,
expenditure incurred on staff employed in human resources and finance
departments, audit fees, depreciation of office equipment, insurance,
subscriptions, postage, stationery, telephone, telegrams, office supplies, etc.
XYZ Company administrative expenses budget
for the year ending March 31, 20...
(` )
Salaries of clerical staff 28,000
Executives’ salaries 8,000
Audit fee 600
Depreciation on office equipment 800
Insurance 250
Stationery 1,250

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15.44 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Postage and telegrams 950

Telephones 850
Miscellaneous 5,300
Total administrative expenses 46,000
(xiii) Research and Development Cost Budget:
Research and development expenditure is to be incurred so that the products or
methods of production do not become obsolete. The research and development
budget is the forecast of all such expenses. Research is required in order to
develop and/or improve products and methods. When research results in
definite benefit to the company, development function begins. After
development, formal production can commence on commercial scale and then
production function starts. Since the areas of research and development cannot
be precisely defined, the costs incurred under both the functions are clubbed
together as research and development costs. Research and Development (R &
D) plays a vital role in maintaining the business. For example, automobile
manufacturers, and those who produce drugs, spend considerable sums on R &
D to improve their products.
Research may be either pure research or applied research. Pure research
increases knowledge whereas applied research aims at producing definite
results like improved methods of production, etc.
Research and development expenses should be controlled carefully and
hence a limit on the spending is placed, i.e., the amount to be spent is
carefully determined or allocated.
• The following are the methods of allocation of R & D expenses.
1. A percentage based on total sales value. This method is good if
sales value is steady from year to year.
2. A percentage based on net profit.
3. A total sum is estimated on the basis of past experience and future
R & D plans and policies.
4. A sum is fixed on the basis of cash resources available with the
company.

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All factors which affect the importance of R & D are considered. For
example, factors like demand for existing products, competition,
economic conditions, etc., are considered carefully and a sum is set
aside as R& D budget.
(xiv) Capital Expenditure Budget:

The capital expenditure budget represents the planned outlay on fixed

assets like land, building, plant and machinery, etc. during the budget period.
This budget is subject to strict management control because it entails large
amount of expenditure. The budget is prepared to cover a long period of
years and it projects the capital costs over the period in which the expenditure
is to be incurred and the expected earnings.
The preparation of capital budget is based on the following
considerations:
1. Capital Budget is a budget prepared for capital receipts and expenditure
such as investment on land and building, plant and machinery obtaining
loans, issue of shares, purchase of assets etc.
2. Future development plans to increase output by expansion of plant
facilities.
3. Replacement requests from the concerned departments.
4. Factors like sales potential to absorb the increased output, possibility
of price reductions, increased costs of advertising and sales promotion
to absorb increased output, etc.
5. Overhead on production facilities of certain departments as indicated
by the plant utilisation budget.
Merits/Advantages of capital budgeting
1. Capital budget outlines the capital development programme and
estimated capital expenditure during the budget period.
2. It enables the company to establish a system of priorities. When there
is a shortage of funds, capital rationing becomes necessary.
3. It serves as a tool for controlling expenditure.

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15.46 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

4. It provides the amount of expenditure to be incorporated in the future

budget summaries for calculation of estimated return on capital
employed.
5. This enables the cash budget to be completed. With other cash
commitments capital expenditure commitment should also be
considered for the completion of the budget.
6. It facilitates cost reduction programme, particularly when
modernisation and renovation is covered by this budget.
ILLUSTRATION 4
A single product company estimated its quarter-wise sales for the next year as
under:
Quarter Sales (Units)
I 30,000
II 37,500
III 41,250
IV 45,000

The opening stock of finished goods is 6,000 units and the company expects to
maintain the closing stock of finished goods at 12,250 units at the end of the
year. The production pattern in each quarter is based on 80% of the sales of
the current quarter and 20% of the sales of the next quarter. The company
maintains this 20% of sales of next quarter as closing stock of current quarter.
The opening stock of raw materials in the beginning of the year is 10,000 kg.
and the closing stock at the end of the year is required to be maintained at
5,000 kg. Each unit of finished output requires 2 kg. of raw materials.
The company proposes to purchase the entire annual requirement of raw
materials in the first three quarters in the proportion and at the prices given
below:

Quarter Purchase of raw materials % to total annual Price per

requirement in quantity kg. ( ` )
I 30% 2
II 50% 3
III 20% 4

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The value of the opening stock of raw materials in the beginning of the year is
` 20,000. You are required to PREPARE the following for the next year, quarter
wise:
(i) Production budget (in units).
(ii) Raw material consumption budget (in quantity).

(iii) Raw material purchase budget (in quantity and value).

(iv) Priced stores ledger card of the raw material using First in First out method.
SOLUTION
Working Note:
Calculation of total annual production

(Units)
Sales in 4 quarters 1,53,750
Add: Closing balance 12,250
1,66,000
Less: Opening balance (6,000)
Total number of units to be produced in the next year 1,60,000

(i) Production Budget (in units)

Quarters I II III IV Total
Units Units Units Units Units
Sales 30,000 37,500 41,250 45,000 1,53,750
Production in current 24,000 30,000 33,000 36,000
quarter
(80% of the sale of current
quarter)
Production for next 7,500 8,250 9,000 12,250
quarter
(20% of the sale of next
quarter)
Total production 31,500 38,250 42,000 48,250 1,60,000

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15.48 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(ii) Raw material consumption budget in quantity

Quarters I II III IV Total
Units to be 31,500 38,250 42,000 48,250 1,60,000
produced in each
quarter: (A)
Raw material 2 2 2 2
consumption p.u.
(kg.): (B)
Total raw material 63,000 76,500 84,000 96,500 3,20,000
consumption (Kg.)
: (A × B)

(iii) Raw material purchase budget (in quantity)

Qty. (kg.)
Raw material required for production 3,20,000
Add : Closing balance of raw material 5,000
3,25,000
Less : Opening balance (10,000)
Material to be purchased 3,15,000

Raw material purchase budget (in value)

Quarters % of annual Qty. of material Rate Amount (`)

requirement per kg.
(`)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)=(3×4)
I 30 94,500 2 1,89,000
(3,15,000 kg. × 30%)
II 50 1,57,500 3 4,72,500
(3,15,000 kg. × 50%)
III 20 63,000 4 2,52,000
(3,15,000 kg. × 20%)
Total 3,15,000 9,13,500

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 (iv) Priced Stores Ledger Card
(of the raw material using FIFO method)
Quarters
I II III IV
Kg. Rate Value Kg. Rate Value Kg. Rate Value Kg. Rate Value
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
Opening 10,000 2 20,000 41,500 2 83,000 1,22,500 3 3,67,500 38,500 3 1,15,500
balance
(A) 63,000 4 2,52,000

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India

Purchases: (B) 94,500 2 1,89,000 1,57,500 3 4,72,500 63,000 4 2,52,000 – – –
Consumption: 63,000 2 1,26,000 41,500 2 83,000 84,000 3 2,52,000 38,500 3 1,15,500
(C)
35,000 3 1,05,000 58,000 4 2,32,000
Balance: (D) 41,500 2 83,000 1,22,500 3 3,67,500 38,500 3 1,15,500 5,000 4 20,000
(D) = (A) +(B)– 63,000 4 2,52,000
BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL

(C)
a
15.49
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15.50 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

ILLUSTRATION 5
A company is engaged in the manufacture of specialised sub-assemblies
required for certain electronic equipment. The company envisages that in the
forthcoming month, December, the sales will be in the ratio of 3 : 4 : 2
respectively of sub-assemblies, ACB, MCB and DP.
The following is the schedule of components required for manufacture:

Component requirements

Sub-assembly Selling Price Base board IC08 IC12 IC26

ACB 520 1 8 4 2
MCB 500 1 2 10 6
DP 350 1 2 4 8
Purchase price (`) 60 20 12 8

The direct labour time and variable overheads required for each of the sub -
assemblies are:
Labour hours Variable overheads (`)

Grade A Grade B

ACB 8 16 36
MCB 6 12 24
DP 4 8 24
Direct wage rate per hour (`) 5 4 —
The labourers work 8 hours a day for 25 days a month.
The opening stocks of sub-assemblies and components for December are as
under:
Sub-assemblies Components
ACB 800 Base Board 1,600
MCB 1,200 IC08 1,200
DP 2,800 IC12 6,000
IC26 4,000
Fixed overheads amount to ` 7,57,200 for the month and a monthly profit
target of ` 12 lacs has been set.

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.51 a

The company is eager for a reduction of closing inventories for the month of
December of sub-assemblies and components by 10% of quantity as compared
to the opening stock. PREPARE the following budgets for the month of
December:
(a) Sales budget in quantity and value.
(b) Production budget in quantity
(c) Component usage budget in quantity.
(d) Component purchase budget in quantity and value.

(e) Manpower budget showing the number of workers and the amount of
wages payable.
SOLUTION
Working Note:
1. Statement showing contribution:
Sub- assemblies ABC MCB DP Total
(` ) (` ) (` ) (` )

Selling price per unit (p.u.) : (A) 520 500 350

Marginal Cost per unit.
Components
- Base board 60 60 60
- IC08 160 40 40
- IC12 48 120 48
- IC26 16 48 64
Labour
- Grade A 40 30 20
- Grade B 64 48 32
Variable production overhead 36 24 24
Total marginal cost per unit. : (B) 424 370 288

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15.52 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Contribution per unit. : (C) = (A) – 96 130 62

(B)
Sales ratio : (D) 3 4 2
Contribution × Sales ratio: [(E) = 288 520 124 932
(C) × (D)]

2. Desired Contribution for the forthcoming month December

( `)
Fixed overheads 7,57,200
Desired profit 12,00,000
Desired contribution 19,57,200
3. Sales mix required i.e. number of batches for the forthcoming month
December
Sales mix required = Desired contribution/contribution × Sales ratio
= `19,57,200/932 (Refer to Working notes 1 and 2)
= 2,100 batches
Budgets for the month of December
(a) Sales budget in quantity and value

Sub-assemblies ACB MCB DP Total

Sales (Qty.) 6,300 8,400 4,200
(2,100×3) (2,100×4) (2,100×2)
Selling price p.u. (`) 520 500 350
Sales value (`) 32,76,000 42,00,000 14,70,000 89,46,000

(b) Production budget in quantity

Sub-assemblies ACB MCB DP

Sales 6,300 8,400 4,200
Add : Closing stock 720 1,080 2,520

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.53 a

(Opening stock less 10%) ____ ____ ____

Total quantity required 7,020 9,480 6,720
Less : Opening stock (800) (1,200) (2,800)
Production 6,220 8,280 3,920

(c) Component usage budget in quantity

Sub-assemblies ACB MCB DP Total
Production 6,220 8,280 3,920 —
Base board (1 each) 6,220 8,280 3,920 18,420
Component IC08 (8:2:2) 49,760 16,560 7,840 74,160
(6,220 × 8) (8,280 × 2) (3,920 × 2)
Component IC12 24,880 82,800 15,680 1,23,360
(4:10:4) (6,220× 4) (8,280 × 10) (3,920 × 4)
Component IC26 (2:6:8) 12,440 49,680 31,360 93,480
(6,220× 2) (8,280 × 6) (3,920 × 8)

(d) Component Purchase budget in quantity and value

Sub-assemblies Base IC08 IC12 IC26 Total
board
Usage in production 18,420 74,160 1,23,360 93,480
Add: Closing stock 1,440 1,080 5,400 3,600
(Opening stock less
10%)
19,860 75,240 1,28,760 97,080
Less: Opening stock (1,600) (1,200) (6,000) (4,000)
Purchase (Qty.) 18,260 74,040 1,22,760 93,080
Purchase price (`) 60 20 12 8
Purchase value (`) 10,95,600 14,80,800 14,73,120 7,44,640 47,94,160

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15.54 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(e) Manpower budget showing the number of workers and the amount
of wages payable
Sub- Budgeted Direct labour Total
assemblies Production Grade A Grade B
Hours Total Hours Total
p.u. hours p.u. hours
ACB 6,220 8 49,760 16 99,520
MCB 8,280 6 49,680 12 99,360
DP 3,920 4 15,680 8 31,360
(A) Total hours 1,15,120 2,30,240
(B) Hours per man per month 200 200
(C) Number of workers per month: 576 1,152
(A/B)
(D) Wage rate per month (`) 1,000 800
(E) Wages payable (`) : (C × D) 5,76,000 9,21,600 14,97,600
(xv) Cash Budget:
Cash Budget is a detailed budget of cash receipts and cash payments
incorporating both revenue and capital items for the budget period. This
budget is usually of two parts giving detailed estimates of (i) cash receipts
and (ii) cash disbursements. Estimates of cash-receipts are prepared on a
monthly basis and depend upon estimated cash-sales, collections from
debtors and anticipated receipts from other sources such as sale of assets,
borrowings, etc. Estimates of cash disbursements are based on estimated
cash purchases, payments to creditors, employees’ remuneration, bonus,
advances to suppliers, budgeted capital expenditure for expansion, etc.
Cash budget represents the cash requirements of the business during the
budget period. It is the plan of receipts and payments of cash for the
budget period, analysed to show the monthly flow of cash drawn up in such
a way that the balance can be forecasted at regular intervals.

The cash budget is one of the most important elements of the budgeted
balance sheet. Information from the various operating budgets, such as the
sales budget, the direct materials purchases budget, and the selling and
administrative expenses budget, affects the cash budget.

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In addition, the capital expenditures budget, dividend policies, and plans for
equity or long-term debt financing also affect the cash budget.
The main objectives of preparing cash budget are:
(i) The probable cash position, as a result of planned operation, is
assessed; and thus, the excess or shortage of cash becomes clear. This
helps in arranging short-term borrowings in advance to meet the
situations of shortage of cash or making investments when cash is in
excess.
(ii) Cash can be coordinated in relation to total working capital, sales
investment and debt.
(iii) A sound basis for credit for current control of cash position is
established.
(iv) The effect of sudden and seasonal requirements, large stocks, delay in
collection of receipts, etc., on the cash position of the organization is
revealed and things become under to the management.
Advantages of cash budget
(i) It aids in securing option working capital need for smooth running of
the operation and planning for payments to the shareholders.
(ii) It eases strains of a cash shortage
(iii) It facilitates temporary cash investment wherever, and to whatever
extent, found in excess
(iv) It provides for normal growth

8.3 Master Budget

CIMA, London, defines it as “the summary budget, incorporating its component
functional budgets, which is finally approved, adopted and employed.” When all
the necessary functional budgets have been prepared, the budget officer will
prepare the master budget which may consist of budgeted profit and loss account
and budgeted balance sheet. These are in fact the budget summaries. When the
master budget is approved by the board of directors, it represents a standard for
the achievement of which all the departments will work. On the basis of the various

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15.56 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

budgets (schedules) prepared earlier in this study, we prepare below budgeted

income statement and budgeted balance sheet.
Example of budgeted income statement:
XYZ Company Budgeted Income Statement
For the Year Ending March 31, 20....
Amount
(` ) (` )
Sales 11,75,000
Less: Cost of goods sold 7,75,000
Gross margin 4,00,000
Less: Selling and distribution expenses 1,36,500
Less: Administrative expenses 46,000 1,82,500
Profit before interest and taxes 2,17,500
Interest expenses (assumed) 50,000
Profit before tax 1,67,500
Income-tax (30% assumed) 50,250
Net profit 1,17,250
Example of budgeted balance sheet:
XYZ Company Budgeted Balance Sheet
March 31, 20....
(` ) (` ) (` )
Share capital 3,50,000
Retained income 1,29,000 4,79,000
Represented by:
Plant and machinery 3,40,000
Less: Provision for depreciation 60,000 2,80,000
Raw materials 5,750
Finished goods 77,500
Debtors 1,10,000
Cash 37,750 2,31,000
Less: Creditors 32,000 1,99,000
4,79,000
Note: Information not available in respect of share capital, opening balance of retained
earnings, current assets and current liabilities, etc., has been assumed to complete the above
balance sheet.

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ILLUSTRATION 6
Float glass Manufacturing Company requires you to PREPARE the Master budget for
the next year from the following information:

Sales:
Toughened Glass ` 6,00,000
Bent Glass ` 2,00,000
Direct material cost 60% of sales
Direct wages 20 workers @ ` 150 per month
Factory overheads:
Indirect labour –
Works manager ` 500 per month
Foreman ` 400 per month
Stores and spares 2.5% on sales
Depreciation on machinery ` 12,600
Light and power ` 3,000
Repairs and maintenance ` 8,000
Others sundries 10% on direct wages
Administration, selling and distribution ` 36,000 per year
expenses

SOLUTION
Master Budget for the year ending _____

Sales: (`)
Toughened Glass 6,00,000
Bent Glass 2,00,000
Total Sales 8,00,000
Less: Cost of production:
Direct materials (60% of `8,00,000) 4,80,000

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15.58 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Direct wages (20 workers × `150 × 36,000

12months)
Prime Cost 5,16,000
Fixed Factory Overhead:
Works manager’s salary (500 × 12) 6,000
Foreman’s salary (400 × 12) 4,800
Depreciation 12,600
Light and power (assumed fixed) 3,000 26,400
Variable Factory Overhead:
Stores and spares 20,000
Repairs and maintenance 8,000
Sundry expenses 3,600 31,600
Works Cost 5,74,000
Gross Profit (Sales – Works cost) 2,26,000
Less: Adm., selling and distribution expenses 36,000
Net Profit 1,90,000

8.4 Classification on the basis of Time Period

These types of Budgets are classified on the basis of time periods. These types of
budgets reflect the planning period of the organization.
Long term Budget: - Long Term Budget is a budget prepared covering a period of
more than a year. The Budgets are prepared to depict long term planning of the
business. The period of long-term Budgets varies between three to ten years.
These budgets are useful for those industries where gestation period is long i.e.,
the business entities manufacturing machinery, electricity etc.
1. Short term Budget: - These budgets are generally for one or two years and
are in the form of monetary terms. The consumer’s good industries like
Sugar, Cotton, and textile use short term budgets.

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2. Current Budgets: - The period of current budgets is generally of months and

weeks. These budgets relate to the current activities of the business.
According to CIMA London “Current budget is a budget which is created which
is established for use over a short period of time and is related to current
conditions”.

9. ZERO – BASED BUDGETING (ZBB)

Zero-based Budgeting (ZBB) is defined as a method of budgeting which requires
each cost element to be specifically justified, though the activities to which the
budget relates are not being undertaken for the first time. The cost of each activity
has to be justified and without justification, the budget allowance is zero.
Zero based budgeting differs from the conventional system of budgeting because
it mainly starts from scratch or zero and not on the basis of trends or historical
levels of expenditure. In the customary budgeting system, the last year’s figures are
accepted as they are, or cut back or increases are granted. Zero based budgeting
on the other hand, starts with the premise that the budget for next period is zero
so long the demand for a function, process, project or activity is not justified for
each rupee from the first rupee spent.

Zero-based Budgeting (ZBB) is an emergent form of budgeting which arises to

overcome the limitations of incremental (traditional) budgeting system.
ZBB is an activity-based budgeting system where budgets are prepared for
each activity rather than functional department. Justification in the form of cost
benefits for the activity is required to be given. The activities are then evaluated
and prioritized by the management on the basis of factors like synchronisation with
organisational objectives, availability of funds, regulatory requirement etc.
ZBB is suitable for both corporate and non-corporate entities. In case of non-
corporate entities like Government department, local bodies, not for profit
organisations, where these entities need to justify the benefits of expenditures on
social programmes like mid-day meal, installation of street lights, provision of
drinking water etc.

In case of corporate entities, ZBB is best suited for discretionary costs like
research and development cost, training programmes, advertisement etc.

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15.60 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

9.1 Stages in Zero-based Budgeting

ZBB involves the following stages:
(i) Identification and description of Decision packages
(ii) Evaluation of Decision packages

(iii) Ranking (Prioritisation) of the Decision packages

(iv) Allocation of resources
(i) Identification and description of Decision packages: Decision packages
are the programmes or activities for which decision is required to be taken.
The programmes or activities are described for technical specifications,
financial impact in the form of cost benefit analysis and other issues like
environmental, regulatory, social etc.
(ii) Evaluation of Decision packages: Once Decision packages are identified
and described, it is evaluated against factors like synchronisation with
organisational objectives, availability of funds, regulatory requirement etc.
(iii) Ranking (Prioritisation) of the Decision packages: After evaluation of the
decision packages, it is ranked on the basis priority of the activities. Because
of this prioritization feature ZBB is also known as Priority-based
Budgeting.
(iv) Allocation of resources: After ranking of the decision packages, resources
are allocated for decision packages. Budgets are prepared like it is done first
time without taking reference to previous budgets.

9.2 Advantages of Zero-based Budgeting

The advantages of zero-based budgeting are as follows:
• It provides a systematic approach for the evaluation of different
activities and rank them in order of preference for the allocation of scarce
resources.
• It ensures that the various functions undertaken by the organization are
critical for the achievement of its objectives and are being performed in the
best possible way.

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• It provides an opportunity to the management to allocate resources for

various activities only after having a thorough cost-benefit-analysis. The
chances of arbitrary cuts and enhancement are thus avoided.
• The areas of wasteful expenditure can be easily identified and
eliminated.
• Departmental budgets are closely linked with corporation objectives.
• The technique can also be used for the introduction and implementation
of the system of ‘management by objective.’ Thus, it cannot only be used
for fulfillment of the objectives of traditional budgeting but it can also be
used for a variety of other purposes.
Zero-based budgeting is superior to traditional budgeting: Zero based
budgeting is superior to traditional budgeting in the following manner:
• It provides a systematic approach for evaluation of different activities.
• It ensures that the function undertaken are critical for the achievement of the
objectives.
• It provides an opportunity for management to allocate resources to various
activities after a thorough – cost benefit analysis.

• It helps in the identification of wasteful expenditure and then their

elimination. If facilitates the close linkage of departmental budgets with
corporate objectives
• It helps in the introduction of a system of Management by Objectives.

9.3 Difference between Traditional Budgeting and Zero-

based budgeting
Following are the points of difference between traditional budgeting and zero-
based budgeting:

• Traditional budgeting is accounting oriented. Main stress happens to be on

previous level of expenditure. Zero-based budgeting makes a decision-
oriented approach. It is very rational in nature and requires all programmes,
old and new, to compete for scarce resources.

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• In traditional budgeting, first reference is made to past level of spending and

then demand for inflation and new programmes. In zero- based budgeting,
management focuses attention to only on decision packages, which enjoy
priority to others.
• In tradition budgeting, some managers deliberately inflate their budget
request so that after the cuts they still get what they want. In zero-based
budgeting, a rationale analysis of budget proposals is attempted. The
managers, who unnecessarily try to inflate the budget request, are likely to
be caught and exposed. Management accords its approval only to a carefully
devised result-oriented package.
• Traditional budgeting is not as clear and as responsive as zero-base
budgeting.
• In traditional budgeting, it is for top management to decide why a particular
amount should be spent on a particular decision unit. In Zero-based
budgeting, this responsibility is shifted from top management to the manager
of decision unit.
• Traditional budgeting makes a routine approach. Zero-based budgeting
makes a very straightforward approach and immediately spotlights the
decision packages enjoying priority over others.

9.4 Limitations of Zero-based Budgeting

• The work involves in the creation of decision-making and their subsequent
ranking has to be made on the basis of new data. This process is very tedious
to management.
• The activities selected for the purpose of ZBB are on the basis of the
traditional functional departments. So, the consideration scheme may not be
implemented properly.

10. PERFORMANCE BUDGETING (PB)

Performance budgeting (PB) involves evaluation of the performance of an
organisation in the context of both specific as well as overall objectives of the
organisation. This requires complete clarity about both the short-term as well as

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long-term organisational objectives. The responsibility of the various levels of

management should be predetermined in terms of results expected from them and
the authority vested in them. In other words, performance budgeting requires fixing
of the responsibility of each executive in organisation and the continuous appraisal
of his performance. It is, therefore, considered to be synonymous with
responsibility accounting.
Performance Budgeting provide a meaningful relationship between estimated
inputs and expected outputs as an integral part of the budgeting system. A
performance budget is one which presents the purposes and objectives for
which funds are required, the costs of the programmes proposed for achieving
those objectives, and quantitative data measuring the accomplishments and work
performed under each programme. Thus, PB is a technique of presenting budgets
for costs and revenues in terms of functions. Programmes and activities are
correlating the physical and financial aspect of the individual items comprising the
budget.

10.1 Traditional Budgeting vs. Performance Budgeting

• The traditional budgeting gives more emphasis on the financial aspect than
the physical aspects or performance. PB aims at establishing a relationship
between the inputs and the outputs.

• Traditional budgets are generally prepared with the main basis towards the
objects or items of expenditure i.e., it highlights the items of expenditure,
namely, salaries, stores and materials, rates, rents and taxes and so on. In the
PB emphasis is more on the functions of the organisation, the programmes
to discharge this function and the activities which will be involved in
undertaking these programmes.

10.2 Steps in Performance Budgeting

According to the Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC, the following steps are
the basic ones in PB:

• Establishing a meaningful functional programme and activity classification of

government operations.

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15.64 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

• Bring the system of accounting and financial management in accordance with

this classification.
• Evolving suitable norms, yardsticks, work units of performance and units
costs, wherever possible under each programme and activity for their
reporting and evaluation.
The Report of the ARC use the following terms in an integrated sequence:

Functions Programme Activity Project

The team ‘function’ is used in the sense of ‘objective’. For achieving objectives
‘programmes’ will have to be evolved. In respect of time horizon, it is essentially a
replacement of traditional annual fiscal budgeting by a more output-oriented, but
still an annual, exercise.
For an enterprise that wants to adopt PB, it is thus imperative that:
• the objectives of the enterprise are spelt out in concrete terms.
• the objectives are then translated into specific functions, programmes,
activities and tasks for different levels of management within the realities of
fiscal; constraints;
• realistic and acceptable norms, yardsticks or standards and performance
indicators should be evolved and expressed in quantifiable physical units.

• a style of management based upon decentralised responsibility structure

should be adopted, and
• an accounting and reporting system should be developed to facilities
monitoring, analysis and review of actual performance in relation to budgets.
Performance Reporting at various levels of management:
Report : A major part of the management accountant’s job
consists of preparing reports to provide information
for purposes of control and planning.
The important consideration in drawing up of
reports and determining their scope are the
following:

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Significance : Are the facts in the reports reliable? Does it either

called for action or demonstrate the effect of action?
It is material enough.
Timeliness : How late can the information be and still be of use?
What is the earliest moment at which it could be used
if it were available? How frequently is it required?
Accuracy : How small should be an inaccuracy which does not
alter the significance of the information?
Appropriateness : Is the recipient the right person to take any action that
is needed? Is there any other information which is
required to support the information to anyone else
jointly interested?
Discrimination : Will anything be lost by omitting the item? Will any of
the items gain from the omission? Is the responsibility
for suppressing the item acceptable?
Presentation : Is the report clear and unbiased? Is the form of it is
suitable to the subject? Is the form of it suitable to the
recipient?
The following are certain types of reports which are to be prepared and
submitted to management regularly at predetermined time interval:
1. Top Management: (Including Board of Directors and financial managers)
(i) Balance Sheet
(ii) Profit & Loss Statement
(iii) Position of stocks
(iv) Disposition of funds or working capital;
(v) Capital expenditure and forward commitments together with progress
of projects in hands;
(vi) Cash-flow statements;
(vii) Sales, production, and other appropriate statistics.

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2. Sales Management:
(i) Actual sales compared with budgeted sales to measure performance by:
- Products,
- Territories
- Individual salesmen, and
- Customers.
(ii) Standard profit and loss by product:
- For fixing selling prices, and
- To Concentrate on sales of most profitable products.
(iii) Selling expenses in relation to budget and sales value analyzed by:
- Products,
- Territories
- Individual salesmen, and
- Customers.
(iv) Bad debts and accounts which are slow and difficult in collection.
(v) Status reports on new or doubtful customers.
3. Production Management:
(i) To Buyer: Price variations on purchases analysed by commodities.
(ii) To Foreman:
- Operational efficiency for individual operators duly summarized
as departmental average;
- Labour utilization report and causes of lost time and controllable
time;

- Indirect shop expenses against the standard allowed; and

- Scrap report.
(iii) To Works Managers:

- Departmental operating statement;

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- General works operating statements (Expenses relating to all works

expenses not directly allocable or controllable by departments);
- Plant utilization report;
- Department Scrap report; and
- Material usage report.
4. Special Reports:
These reports may be prepared at the request of general management or at
the initiative of the management accountants. The necessity for them may, in
some cases, arise on account of the need for more detailed information on
matters of interest first revealed; by the routine, reports. These reports may
range over a very wide area. Some of the matters in respect of which such
reports may be required can be:
(i) Taxation legislation and its effect on profits.
(ii) Estimates of the earning capacity of a new project.
(iii) Break-even analysis
(iv) Replacement of capital equipment.
(v) Special pricing analysis
(vi) Make or buy certain components
(vii) Statement of surplus available for payment of bonus under the labour
appellate tribunal formula.

15.11. BUDGET RATIO

Ratio is a mathematical relationship between two or more related figures. Budget
ratios provide information about the performance level, i.e., the extent of deviation
of actual performance from the budgeted performance and whether the actual
performance is favourable or unfavorable. If the ratio is 100% or more, the
performance is considered as favourable and if ratio is less than 100% the
performance is considered as unfavourable.
The following ratios are usually used by the management to measure development
from budget.

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15.68 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Capacity Usage Ratio: This relationship between the budgeted number of working
hours and the maximum possible number of working hours in a budget period.
Standard Capacity Employed Ratio: This ratio indicates the extent to which
facilities were actually utilized during the budget period.
Level of Activity Ratio: This may be defined as the number of standard hours
equivalent to work produced expressed as a percentage of the budget of standard
hours.
Efficiency Ratio: This ratio may be defined as standard hours equivalent of work
produced expressed as a percentage of the actual hours spent in producing the
work.
Calendar Ratio: This ratio may be defined as the relationship between the number
of working days in a period and the number of working as in the relative budget
period.

Budget Ratios:

Standard Hours
(i) Efficiency Ratio = ×100
Actual Hours

Standard Hours
(ii) Activity Ratio = ×100
Budgeted Hours

Available working days

(iii) Calendar Ratio = ×100
Budgeted working days

(iv) Standard Capacity Usage Ratio =

Budgeted Hours
×100
Max. possible hours in the budgeted period

(v) Actual Capacity Usage Ratio =

Actual Hours worked
×100
Max. possible working hours in a period

Actual working Hours

(vi) Actual Usage of Budgeted Capacity Ratio = ×100
Budgeted Hours

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ILLUSTRATION 7
Following data is available for DKG and Co:
Standard working hours 8 hours per day of 5 days per week

Maximum capacity 50 employees

Actual working 40 employees
Actual hours expected to be worked per four week 6,400 hours

Std. hours expected to be earned per four weeks 8,000 hours

Actual hours worked in the four- week period 6,000 hours
Standard hours earned in the four- week period 7,000 hours.

The related period is of 4 weeks. In this period there was a one special day holiday
due to national event. CALCULATE the following ratios:
(1) Efficiency Ratio, (2) Activity Ratio, (3) Calendar Ratio, (4) Standard Capacity Usage
Ratio, (5) Actual Capacity Usage Ratio. (6) Actual Usage of Budgeted Capacity Ratio.
SOLUTION
Maximum Capacity in a budget period
= 50 Employees × 8 Hrs. × 5 Days × 4 Weeks = 8,000 Hrs.
Budgeted Hours
40 Employees × 8 Hrs. × 5 Days × 4 Weeks = 6,400 Hrs.
Actual Hrs. = 6,000 Hrs. (given)

Standard Hrs. for Actual Output = 7,000 Hrs.

Budget No. of Days = 20 Days = 20 Days (4 Weeks x 5 Days)

Actual No. of Days = 20 – 1 = 19 Days

Standard Hrs 7,000 hours

1. Efficiency Ratio = ×100 = ×100 = 116.67%
Actual Hrs 6,000 hours

Standard Hrs 7,000 hours

2. Activity Ratio = ×100 = ×100 = 109.375%
Budgeted Hrs 6, 400 hours

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15.70 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Available working days 19days

3. Calendar Ratio = ×100 = ×100 = 95%
Budgeted working days 20days

4. Standard Capacity Usage Ratio =

Budgeted Hours 6,400 hours
×100 = ×100 = 80%
Max. possible hours in the budgeted period 8,000 hours

Actual Hoursworked
5. Actual Capacity Usage Ratio = ×100
Max. possible working hours in a period

6,000 hours
= ×100 = 75%
8,000 hours

Actual working Hours

6. Actual Usage of Budgeted Capacity Ratio = ×100
Budgeted Hours

6,000 hours
= ×100 = 93.75%
6,400 hours

SUMMARY
 Budget: Budget is a quantitative expression of a plan of action to be pursued
over a defined period of time. It is statement of an estimated performance to
be achieved in given time, expressed in monetary or quantitative or both terms.
 Budget Centre: A Budget Centre is a section of an organisation developed
for the purpose of budgetary control, and is intended to facilitate formulation
of various budgets with the help of head of the department.
 Budgetary Control: Budgetary Control is the establishment of budgets,
relating the responsibilities of executives to the requirements of a policy, and
the continuous comparison of actual with budgeted results, either to secure by
individual action the objective of that policy or to provide a basis for its revision.
 Budget Manual: The Budget manual is a document or booklet which Contain
guidelines for the preparation of budget in an organization.
 Budget Period: The period of time for which a budget is prepared and used. It
may be a year, quarter or a month.
 Classification of Budgets:

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Capacity based - Fixed and Flexible

Content based - Monetary and Physical/quantitative
Functional based - Purchase, Sale, Production Cost, Administrative,
Selling & Distribution, Research & Development,
Plant Capital Expenditure, Cash, Plant Utilization.
 Fixed Budget: a fixed budget, is a budget designed to remain unchanged
irrespective of the level of activity actually attained
 Flexible Budget: a flexible budget is defined as a budget which, by recognizing
the difference between fixed, semi-variable and variable costs is designed to
change in relation to the level of activity attained.
 Zero-based Budgeting (ZBB): Zero-based Budgeting (ZBB) is defined as ‘a
method of budgeting which requires each cost element to be specifically
justified, although the activities to which the budget relates are not being
undertaken for the first time, without approval, the budget allowance is zero
 Performance Budgeting (PB): Performance Budgeting means that budget in
which the responsibility of various levels of management is predetermined in
terms of output or result keeping in view the authority vested with them.

 Budget Ratios: Ratio is a mathematical relationship between two or more

related figures. Budget ratios provide information about the performance level,
i.e., the extent of deviation of actual performance from the budgeted
performance and whether the actual performance is favourable or unfavorable.

TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE

Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. If a company wishes to establish a factory overhead budget system in which
estimated costs can be derived directly from estimates of activity levels, it
should prepare a:

(a) Master budget

(b) Cash budget

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15.72 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(c) Flexible budget

(d) Fixed budget
2. The classification of fixed and variable cost is useful for the preparation of:
(a) Master budget
(b) Flexible budget
(c) Cash budget
(d) Capital budget
3. Budget manual is a document:
(a) Which contains different type of budgets to be formulated only.
(b) Which contains the details about standard cost of the products to be
made.
(c) Setting out the budget organization and procedures for preparing a
budget including fixation of responsibilities, formats and records required
for the purpose of preparing a budget and for exercising budgetary
control system.
(d) None of the above
4. The budget control organization is usually headed by a top executive who is
known as:
(a) General manager
(b) Budget director/budget controller
(c) Accountant of the organization
(d) None of the above
5. “A favourable budget variance is always an indication of efficient performance”.
Do you agree, give reason?
(a) A favourable variance indicates, saving on the part of the organization
hence it indicates efficient performance of the organization.

(b) Under all situations, a favourable variance of an organization speaks

about its efficient performance.

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(c) A favourable variance does not necessarily indicate efficient performance,

because such a variance might have been arrived at by not carrying out
the expenses mentioned in the budget.
(d) None of the above.
6. A budget report is prepared on the principle of exception and thus-
(a) Only unfavourable variances should be shown
(b) Only favourable variance should be shown
(c) Both favourable and unfavourable variances should be shown

(d) None of the above

7. Purchases budget and materials budget are same:
(a) Purchases budget is a budget which includes only the details of all
materials purchased
(b) Purchases budget is a wider concept and thus includes not only purchases
of materials but also other item’s as well
(c) Purchases budget is different from materials budget; it includes purchases
of other items only
(d) None of the above
8. Efficiency ratio is:
(a) The extent of actual working days avoided during the budget period
(b) Activity ratio/ capacity ratio
(c) Whether the actual activity is more or less than budgeted activity
(d) None of the above
9. Activity Ratio depicts:

(a) Whether actual capacity utilized exceeds or falls short of the budgeted
capacity
(b) Whether the actual hours used for actual production were more or less
than the standard hours
(c) Whether actual activity was more or less than the budgeted capacity

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(d) None of the above

10. Which of the following is usually a short-term budget:
(a) Capital expenditure budget
(b) Research and development budget
(c) Cash budget
(d) Sales budget

Theoretical Questions
1. EXPLAIN briefly the concept of ‘flexible budget’.
2. DISCUSS the components of budgetary control system.
3. LIST the eight functional budgets prepared by a business.

4. DISTINGUISH between Fixed and flexible budget.

5. EXPLAIN the Essentials of budget.
6. STATE the considerations on which capital expenditure budget is prepared.

7. DESCRIBE the steps involved in the budgetary control technique.

8. DESCRIBE the salient features of budget manual.

Practical Problems
1. B Ltd manufactures two products viz., X and Y and sells them through two
divisions, East and West. For the purpose of Sales Budget to the Budget
Committee, following information has been made available for the year
2022-23:

Budgeted Sales Actual Sales

Product
East Division West Division East Division West Division
800 units at 1,200 units at 1,000 units at 1,400 units at
X
`18 `18 `18 `18
600 units at 1,000 units at 400 units at 800 units at
Y
`42 `42 `42 `42

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Adequate market studies reveal that product X is popular but underpriced. It is

expected that if the price of X is increased by ` 2, it will, find a ready market.
On the other hand, Y is overpriced and if the price of Y is reduced by ` 2 it will
have more demand in the market. The company management has agreed for
the aforesaid price changes. On the basis of these price changes and the reports
of salesmen, following estimates have been prepared by the Divisional
Managers:
Percentage increase in sales over budgeted sales

Product East Division West Division

X + 12.5% + 7.5%
Y + 22.5% + 12.5%

With the help of intensive advertisement campaign, following additional sales

(over and above the above-mentioned estimated sales by Divisional Mangers)
are possible:

Product East Division West Division

X 120 units 140 units
Y 80 units 100 units

You are required to PREPARE Sales Budget for 2022-23 after incorporating
above estimates and also SHOW the Budgeted Sales and Actual Sales of
2021-22.
2. During the FY 2021-22, P Limited has produced 60,000 units operating at 50%
capacity level. The cost structure at the 50% level of activity is as under:
(`)
Direct Material 300 per unit
Direct Wages 100 per unit
Variable Overheads 100 per unit
Direct Expenses 60 per unit
Factory Expenses (25% fixed) 80 per unit
Selling and Distribution Exp. (80% variable) 40 per unit
Office and Administrative Exp. (100% fixed) 20 per unit

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15.76 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

The company anticipates that in FY 2022-23, the variable costs will go up by

20% and fixed costs will go up by 15%.
The selling price per unit will increase by 10% to ` 880
Required:
(i) CALCULATE the budgeted profit/ loss for the FY 2021-22.
(ii) PREPARE an Expense budget on marginal cost basis for the FY 2022-23
for the company at 50% and 60% level of activity and FIND OUT the
profits at respective levels.

3. K Ltd. produces and markets a very popular product called ‘X’. The company is
interested in presenting its budget for the second quarter of 2022-23.
The following information are made available for this purpose:
(i) It expects to sell 1,50,000 bags of ‘X’ during the second quarter of 202 2-
23 at the selling price of ` 1,200 per bag.
(ii) Each bag of ‘X’ requires 2.5 mtr. of raw – material ‘Y’ and 7.5 mtr. of raw
– material ‘Z’.
(iii) Stock levels are planned as follows:

Particulars Beginning of End of Quarter

Quarter
Finished Bags of ‘X’ (Nos.) 45,000 33,000
Raw – Material ‘Y’ (mtr) 96,000 78,000
Raw – Material ‘Z’ (mtr) 1,71,000 1,41,000
Empty Bag (Nos.) 1,11,000 84,000

(iv) ‘Y’ cost `160 per mtr., ‘Z’ costs `30 per mtr. and ‘Empty Bag’ costs `110
each.

(v) It requires 9 minutes of direct labour to produce and fill one bag of ‘X’.
Labour cost is ` 70 per hour.
(vi) Variable manufacturing costs are ` 60 per bag. Fixed manufacturing
costs ` 40,00,000 per quarter.

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(vii) Variable selling and administration expenses are 5% of sales and fixed
administration and selling expenses are ` 3,75,000 per quarter.
Required
(i) PREPARE a production budget for the said quarter in quantity.
(ii) PREPARE a raw – material purchase budget for ‘Y’, ‘Z’ and ‘Empty Bags’
for the said quarter in quantity as well as in rupees.
(iii) COMPUTE the budgeted variable cost to produce one bag of ‘X’.
4. ABC Ltd. is currently operating at 75% of its capacity. In the past two years, the
levels of operations were 55% and 65% respectively. Presently, the production
is 75,000 units. The company is planning for 85% capacity level during 2022-
23. The cost details are as follows:

55% 65% 75%

(`) (`) (`)
Direct Materials 11,00,000 13,00,000 15,00,000
Direct Labour 5,50,000 6,50,000 7,50,000
Factory Overheads 3,10,000 3,30,000 3,50,000
Selling Overheads 3,20,000 3,60,000 4,00,000
Administrative Overheads 1,60,000 1,60,000 1,60,000
24,40,000 28,00,000 31,60,000

Profit is estimated @ 20% on sales.

The following increases in costs are expected during the year:
In percentage
Direct Materials 8
Direct Labour 5
Variable Factory Overheads 5
Variable Selling Overheads 8
Fixed Factory Overheads 10
Fixed Selling Overheads 15
Administrative Overheads 10

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PREPARE flexible budget for the period 2022-23 at 85% level of capacity. Also
ascertain profit and contribution.
5. The accountant of manufacturing company provides you the following details
for year 2021-22:

(` ) (` )

Direct materials 1,75,000 Other variable costs 80,000

Direct Wages 1,00,000 Other fixed costs 80,000
Fixed factory overheads 1,00,000 Profit 1,15,000
Variable factory overheads 1,00,000 Sales 7,50,000

During the year, the company manufactured two products A and B and the
output and costs were:

A B
Output (units) 2,00,000 1,00,000
Selling price per unit ` 2.00 ` 3.50
Direct materials per unit ` 0.50 ` 0.75
Direct wages per unit ` 0.25 ` 0.50

Variable factory overhead is absorbed as a percentage of direct wages. Other

variable costs have been computed as: Product A ` 0.25 per unit; and B ` 0.30
per unit.
During 2022-23, it is expected that the demand for product A will fall by
25 % and for B by 50%. It is decided to manufacture a further product C, the
cost for which is estimated as follows:

Product C

Output (units) 2,00,000

Selling price per unit ` 1.75
Direct materials per unit ` 0.40
Direct wages per unit ` 0.25

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It is anticipated that the other variable costs per unit will be the same as for
product A.
PREPARE a budget to present to the management, showing the current position
and the position for 2022-23. Comment on the comparative results.
6. TQM Ltd. has furnished the following information for the month ending 30th
June:

Master Budget Actual Variance

Units produced and sold 80,000 72,000
Sales (`) 3,20,000 2,80,000 40,000 (A)
Direct material (`) 80,000 73,600 6,400 (F)
Direct wages (`) 1,20,000 1,04,800 15,200 (F)
Variable overheads ( `) 40,000 37,600 2,400 (F)
Fixed overhead ( `) 40,000 39,200 800 (F)
Total Cost 2,80,000 2,55,200

The Standard costs of the products are as follows:

Per unit (`)

Direct materials (1 kg. at the rate of `1 per kg.) 1.00
Direct wages (1 hour at the rate of ` 1.50) 1.50
Variable overheads (1 hour at the rate of ` 0.50) 0.50
Actual results for the month showed that 78,400 kg. of material were used and
70,400 labour hours were recorded.
Required:

(i) PREPARE Flexible budget for the month and compare with actual results.
(ii) CALCULATE Material, Labour, Variable Overhead and Fixed Overhead
Expenditure variances.

7. Jigyasa Ltd. is drawing a production plan for its two products Minimax (MM)
and Heavyhigh (HH) for the year 2022-23. The company’s policy is to hold
closing stock of finished goods at 25% of the anticipated volume of sales of the

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succeeding month. The following are the estimated data for two products:

Minimax (MM) Heavyhigh (HH)

Budgeted Production units 1,80,000 1,20,000
(` ) (` )

Direct material cost per unit 220 280

Direct labour cost per unit 130 120
Manufacturing overhead 4,00,000 5,00,000

The estimated units to be sold in the first four months of the year 2022-23 are
as under

April May June July

Minimax 8,000 10,000 12,000 16,000
Heavyhigh 6,000 8,000 9,000 14,000

PREPARE production budget for the first quarter in month-wise.

8. Concorde Ltd. manufactures two products using two types of materials and one
grade of labour. Shown below is an extract from the company’s working papers
for the next month’s budget:

Product- Product-
A B
Budgeted sales (in units) 2,400 3,600
Budgeted material consumption per unit (in kg):
Material-X 5 3
Material-Y 4 6
Standard labour hours allowed per unit of product 3 5

Material-X and Material-Y cost ` 4 and ` 6 per kg and labours are paid
` 25 per hour. Overtime premium is 50% and is payable, if a worker works for
more than 40 hours a week. There are 180 direct workers.
The target productivity ratio (or efficiency ratio) for the productive hours
worked by the direct workers in actually manufacturing the products is 80%. In

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addition the non-productive down-time is budgeted at 20% of the productive

hours worked.
There are four 5-days weeks in the budgeted period and it is anticipated that
sales and production will occur evenly throughout the whole period.
It is anticipated that stock at the beginning of the period will be:

Product-A 400 units

Product-B 200 units
Material-X 1,000 kg.
Material-Y 500 kg.

The anticipated closing stocks for budget period are as below:

Product-A 4 days sales
Product-B 5 days sales
Material-X 10 days consumption
Material-Y 6 days consumption

Required:
CALCULATE the Material Purchase Budget and the Wages Budget for the direct
workers, showing the quantities and values, for the next month.

Case Scenarios
1. M Ltd. is a public sector undertaking (PSU), produces a product A. The company
is in process of preparing its revenue budget for the year 2024. The company
has the following information which can be useful in preparing the budget:
(i) It has anticipated 12% growth in sales volume from the year 2023 of
4,20,000 tonnes.
(ii) The sales price of ` 23,000 per tonne will be increased by 10% provided
Wholesale Price Index (WPI) increases by 5%.
(iii) To produce one tonne of product A, 2.3 tonnes of raw material are
required. The raw material cost is ` 4,500 per tonne. The price of raw
material will also increase by 10% if WPI increase by 5%.
(iv) The projected increase in WPI for 2022 is 4%

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15.82 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(v) A total of 6,000 employees works for the company. The company works
26 days in a month.
(vi) 85% of employees of the company are permanent and getting salary
as per 5- year wage agreement. The earnings per manshift (means an
employee cost for a shift of 8 hours) is ` 3,000 (excluding terminal
benefits). The new wage agreement will be implemented from 1 st July
2024 and it is expected that a 15% increase in pay will be given.
(vii) The casual employees are getting a daily wage of ` 850. The wages in
linked to Consumer Price Index (CPI). The present CPI is 165.17 points
and it is expected to be 173.59 points in year 2024.
(viii) Power cost for the year 2021 is ` 42,00,000 for 7,00,000 units (1 unit
= 1 Kwh). 60% of power is used for production purpose (directly related
to production volume) and remaining are for employee quarters and
administrative offices.
(ix) During the year 2023, the company has paid ` 60,00,000 for safety
and maintenance works. The amount will increase in proportion to the
volume of production.
(x) During the year 2023, the company has paid ` 1,20,000 for the
purchase of diesel to be used in car hired for administrative purposes.
The cost of diesel will increase by 15% in year 2024.
(xi) During the year 2023, the company has paid ` 6,00,000 for car hire
charges (excluding fuel cost). In year 2024, the company has decided
to reimburse the diesel cost to the car rental company. Doing this will
attract 5% GST on Reverse Charge Mechanism (RCM) basis on which
the company will not get GST input credit.
(xii) Depreciation on fixed assets for the year 2023 is ` 80,40,00,000 and it
will be 15% lower in 2024.
You being an associate to the budget controller of the company is expected to
answer the following question:
(i) What would be the sales volume for the FY 2024?
(a) 4,70,400 tonnes
(b) 4,70,000 tonnes
(c) 4,70,600 tonnes
(d) 4,70,200 tonnes

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(ii) What would be quantity of raw material in FY 2024?

(a) 9,66,000 tonnes
(b) 1,81,000 tonnes
(c) 10,81,900 tonnes

(d) 10,81,920 tonnes

(iii) What would be the car hire charges for the FY 2023?
(a) ` 6,00,000
(b) ` 6,50,000
(c) ` 6,40,000
(d) ` 6,20,000
(iv) What would be the car hire charges for the FY 2024?
(a) ` 6,00,000
(b) ` 7,74,900
(c) ` 6,83,000
(d) ` 6,20,000
(v) What would be the budgeted profit/ loss for the year 2024?
(a) ` 1273.043 lakhs
(b) (` 5142 lakhs)
(c) ` 5142 lakhs
(d) ( ` 1273.043 lakhs)

ANSWERS/ SOLUTIONS
Answers to the MCQs
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (c)

7. (b) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (c)

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15.84 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Answers to the Theoretical Questions

1. Please refer paragraph 8.1
2. Please refer paragraph 5.7
3. Please refer paragraph 8.2
4. Please refer paragraph 8.1
5. Please refer paragraph 2
6. Please refer paragraph 8.2
7. Please refer paragraph 5.3
8. Please refer paragraph 7

Answers to the Practical Problems

1. Statement Showing Sales Budget for 2022-23

Product X Product Y Total

Division Qty. Rate Amt. Qty. Rate Amt. Amt.
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
East 1,020 1 20 20,400 815 3 40 32,600 53,000
West 1,430 2 20 28,600 1,225 4 40 49,000 77,600
Total 1,200 49,000 1,000 81,600 1,30,600

Workings
1. 800 × 112.5% +120 = 1,020 units
2. 1,200 × 107.5% + 140 = 1,430 units
3. 600 × 122.5% + 80 = 815 units

4. 1,000 × 112.5% + 100 = 1,225 units

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 BUDGETS AND BUDGETARY CONTROL 15.85 a

Statement Showing Sales Budget for 2021-22

Product X Product Y Total

Division
Qty. Rate Amt. Qty. Rate Amt. Amt.
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
East 800 18 14,400 600 42 25,200 39,600
West 1,200 18 21,600 1,000 42 42,000 63,600
Total 2,000 36,000 1,600 67,200 1,03,200

Statement Showing Actual Sales for 2021-22

Product X Product Y Total

Division Qty. Rate Amt. Qty. Rate Amt. Amt.
(`) (`) (`) (`) (`)
East 1,000 18 18,000 400 42 16,800 34,800
West 1,400 18 25,200 800 42 33,600 58,800
Total 2,400 43,200 1,200 50,400 93,600

2. (i) Calculation of Budgeted profit for the FY 2021-22

60,000 units
Per unit Amount
(`) (`)
Sales (A) 800.00 4,80,00,000
Variable Costs:
- Direct Material 300.00 1,80,00,000
- Direct Wages 100.00 60,00,000
- Variable Overheads 100.00 60,00,000
- Direct Expenses 60.00 36,00,000
- Variable factory expenses 60.00 36,00,000
(75% of `80 p.u.)
- Variable Selling & Dist. exp. 32.00 19,20,000
(80% of `40 p.u.)
Total Variable Cost (B) 652.00 3,91,20,000
Contribution (C) = (A – B) 148.00 88,80,000

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15.86 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Fixed Costs:
- Office and Admin. exp. (100%) -- 12,00,000
- Fixed factory exp. (25%) -- 12,00,000
- Fixed Selling & Dist. exp. (20%) -- 4,80,000
Total Fixed Costs (D) -- 28,80,000
Profit (C – D) -- 60,00,000

(ii) Expense Budget of P Ltd. for the FY 2022-23 at 50% & 60% level

60,000 units 72,000 units

Per unit Amount Per unit Amount
(`) (`) (`) (`)
Sales (A) 880.00 5,28,00,000 880.00 6,33,60,000
Variable Costs:
- Direct Material 360.00 2,16,00,000 360.00 2,59,20,000
- Direct Wages 120.00 72,00,000 120.00 86,40,000
- Variable Overheads 120.00 72,00,000 120.00 86,40,000
- Direct Expenses 72.00 43,20,000 72.00 51,84,000
- Variable factory 72.00 43,20,000 72.00 51,84,000
expenses
- Variable Selling & Dist. 38.40 23,04,000 38.40 27,64,800
exp.
Total Variable Cost (B) 782.40 4,69,44,000 782.40 5,63,32,800
Contribution (C) = (A – B) 97.60 58,56,000 97.60 70,27,200
Fixed Costs:
- Office and Admin. exp. -- 13,80,000 -- 13,80,000
(100%)
- Fixed factory exp. -- 13,80,000 -- 13,80,000
(25%)
- Fixed Selling & Dist. -- 5,52,000 -- 5,52,000
exp. (20%)
Total Fixed Costs (D) -- 33,12,000 -- 33,12,000
Profit (C – D) -- 25,44,000 -- 37,15,200

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3. (i) Production Budget of ‘X’ for the Second Quarter

Particulars Bags (Nos.)

Budgeted Sales 1,50,000
Add: Desired Closing stock 33,000
Total Requirements 1,83,000
Less: Opening stock (45,000)
Required Production 1,38,000

(ii) Raw–Materials Purchase Budget in Quantity as well as in ` for

1,38,000 Bags of ‘X’

‘Y’ ‘Z’ Empty Bags

Particulars
Mtr. Mtr. Nos.
Production 2.5 7.5 1.0
Requirements
Per bag of ‘X’
Requirement for 3,45,000 10,35,000 1,38,000
Production
(1,38,000 × 2.5) (1,38,000 × 7.5) (1,38,000 × 1)
Add: Desired 78,000 1,41,000 84,000
Closing Stock
Total 4,23,000 11,76,000 2,22,000
Requirements
Less: Opening (96,000) (1,71,000) (1,11,000)
Stock
Quantity to be 3,27,000 10,05,000 1,11,000
purchased
Cost per `160 `30 `110
mtr./Bag
Cost of 5,23,20,000 3,01,50,000 1,22,10,000
Purchase (`)

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15.88 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

(iii) Computation of Budgeted Variable Cost of Production of

1 Bag of ‘X’

Particulars (`)
Raw – Material
Y 2.5 mtr @160 400.00
Z 7.5 mtr @30 225.00
Empty Bag 110.00
Direct Labour (`70× 9 minutes / 60 minutes) 10.50
Variable Manufacturing Overheads 60.00
Variable Cost of Production per bag 805.50

4. ABC Ltd.
Budget for 85% capacity level for the period 2022-23

Budgeted production (units) 85,000

Per Unit (`) Amount (`)
Direct Material (note 1) 21.60 18,36,000
Direct Labour (note 2) 10.50 8,92,500
Variable factory overhead (note 3) 2.10 1,78,500
Variable selling overhead (note 4) 4.32 3,67,200

Variable cost 38.52 32,74,200

Fixed factory overhead (note 3) 2,20,000

Fixed selling overhead (note 4) 1,15,000

Administrative overhead 1,76,000

Fixed cost 5,11,000

Total cost 37,85,200

Add: Profit 20% on sales or 25% on total cost 9,46,300

Sales 47,31,500

Contribution (Sales – Variable cost) 14,57,300

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Working Notes:
1. Direct Materials:

(`) (`)

75% Capacity 15,00,000 65% Capacity 13,00,000

65% Capacity 13,00,000 55% Capacity 11,00,000

10% change in 2,00,000 10% change in capacity 2,00,000

capacity

For 10% increase in capacity, i.e., for increase by 10,000 units, the total
direct material cost regularly changes by ` 2,00,000
Direct material cost (variable) = ` 2,00,000 ÷ 10,000 = ` 20

After 8% increase in price, direct material cost per unit = ` 20 × 1.08

= ` 21.60
Direct material cost for 85,000 budgeted units = 85,000 × ` 21.60
= ` 18,36,000
2. Direct Labour:
(`) (`)

75% Capacity 7,50,000 65% Capacity 6,50,000

65% Capacity 6,50,000 55% Capacity 5,50,000
10% change in 1,00,000 10% change in 1,00,000
capacity capacity

For 10% increase in capacity, direct labour cost regularly changes by

` 1,00,000.
Direct labour cost per unit = ` 1,00,000 ÷ 10,000 = ` 10
After 5% increase in price, direct labour cost per unit = ` 10 × 1.05
= ` 10.50
Direct labour for 85,000 units = 85,000 units × ` 10.50 = ` 8,92,500.

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15.90 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

3. Factory overheads are semi-variable overheads:

(`) (`)

75% Capacity 3,50,000 65% Capacity 3,30,000

65% Capacity 3,30,000 55% Capacity 3,10,000
10% change in 20,000 10% change in 20,000
capacity capacity

Variable factory overhead = ` 20,000 ÷ 10,000 = ` 2

Variable factory overhead for 75,000 units = 75,000 × ` 2 = `1,50,000
Fixed factory overhead = `3,50,000 – ` 1,50,000 = ` 2,00,000.

Variable factory overhead after 5% increase = ` 2 × 1.05 = ` 2.10

Fixed factory overhead after 10% increase = ` 2,00,000 × 1.10
= ` 2,20,000.

4. Selling overhead is semi-variable overhead:

(`) (`)

75% Capacity 4,00,000 65% Capacity 3,60,000

65% Capacity 3,60,000 55% Capacity 3,20,000
10% change in 40,000 10% change in capacity 40,000
capacity

Variable selling overhead = ` 40,000 ÷ 10,000 units = ` 4

Variable selling overhead for 75,000 units = 75,000 × ` 4 = ` 3,00,000.
Fixed selling overhead = ` 4,00,000 – ` 3,00,000 = ` 1,00,000

Variable selling overhead after 8% increase = ` 4 × 1.08 = ` 4.32

Fixed selling overhead after 15% increase = ` 1,00,000 × 1.15
= ` 1,15,000

5. Administrative overhead is fixed:

After 10% increase = ` 1,60,000 × 1.10 = ` 1,76,000

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5.

Budget Showing Current Position and Position for 2022-23

Position for 2021-22 Position for 2022-23

A B Total A B C Total
(A+B) (A+B+C)

Sales (units) 2,00,000 1,00,000 – 1,50,000 50,000 2,00,000 –

(`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`) (`)

(A) Sales 4,00,000 3,50,000 7,50,000 3,00,000 1,75,000 3,50,000 8,25,000

Direct Material 1,00,000 75,000 1,75,000 75,000 37,500 80,000 1,92,500

Direct wages 50,000 50,000 1,00,000 37,500 25,000 50,000 1,12,500

Factory 50,000 50,000 1,00,000 37,500 25,000 50,000 1,12,500

overhead
(variable)

Other variable 50,000 30,000 80,000 37,500 15,000 50,000 1,02,500

costs

(B) Marginal Cost 2,50,000 2,05,000 4,55,000 1,87,500 1,02,500 2,30,000 5,20,000

(C) Contribution 1,50,000 1,45,000 2,95,000 1,12,500 72,500 1,20,000 3,05,000

(A-B)

Fixed costs –
Factory 1,00,000 1,00,000

– Others 80,000 80,000

(D) Total fixed 1,80,000 1,80,000

cost

Profit 1,15,000 1,25,000

(C – D)

Comments: Introduction of Product C is likely to increase profit by ` 10,000 (i.e.

from ` 1,15,000 to ` 1,25,000) in 2022-23 as compared to 2021-22. Therefore,
introduction of product C is recommended.

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15.92 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

6. (i) Statement showing Flexible Budget and its comparison with actual

Flexible Budget
Master (at standard Actual
Budget cost) for
Variance
80,000 72,000
units Per 72,000 units
unit units
A. Sales 3,20,000 4.00 2,88,000 2,80,000 8,000 (A)
B. Direct material 80,000 1.00 72,000 73,600 1,600 (A)
C. Direct wages 1,20,000 1.50 1,08,000 1,04,800 3,200 (F)
D. Variable 40,000 0.50 36,000 37,600 1,600 (A)
overhead
E. Total variable 2,40,000 3.00 2,16,000 2,16,000 −
cost
F. Contribution 80,000 1.00 72,000 64,000 −

G. Fixed overhead 40,000 0.50 40,000 39,200 800 (F)

H. Net profit 40,000 0.50 32,000 24,800 7,200 (A)

(ii) Variances:
Direct Material Cost Variance = Standard Cost for Actual output
–Actual cost

= ` 72,000 – ` 73,600 = ` 1,600 (A)

Direct Material Price Variance = Actual Quantity (Standard rate
– Actual Rate)
 ` 73, 600 
= 78,400 units  ` 1.00 − 
 78, 400 units 

= ` 4,800 (F)
Direct Material Usage Variance = Standard Rate (Std. Qty. –
Actual Quantity)
= ` 1 (72,000 units – 78,400 units)
= ` 6,400 (A)

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Direct Labour Cost Variance = Standard Cost for actual

output – Actual cost
= ` 1,08,000 – `1,04,800 = `3,200 (F)
Direct Labour Rate Variance = Actual Hour (Std Rate – Actual
Rate)
 ` 1,04, 800 
= 70,400 hours  ` 1.5 − 
 70, 400 units 

= ` 800 (F)

Direct Labour Efficiency = Standard Rate (Standard Hour –

Actual Hour)
= ` 1.5 (72,000 – 70,400) = ` 2,400 (F)
Variable Overhead = Recovered variable overhead –
Actual variable overhead
= (72,000 units  ` 0.50) – ` 37,600
= ` 1,600(A)
Fixed Overhead Expenditure = Budgeted fixed overhead –
Actual fixed overhead
= ` 40,000 – ` 39,200 = ` 800 (F)
7. Production Budget of Product Minimax and Heavyhigh (in units)

April May June Total

MM HH MM HH MM HH MM HH
Sales 8,000 6,000 10,000 8,000 12,000 9,000 30,000 23,000
Add: Closing Stock 2,500 2,000 3,000 2,250 4,000 3,500 9,500 7,750
(25% of next
month’s sale)
Less: Opening Stock 2,000* 1,500* 2,500 2,000 3,000 2,250 7,500 5,750
Production units 8,500 6,500 10,500 8,250 13,000 10,250 32,000 25,000

* Opening stock of April is the closing stock of March, which is as per company’s policy
25% of next month’’ sale.

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15.94 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Production Cost Budget

Element of cost Rate (`) Amount (`)

MM HH MM HH
(32,000 (25,000
units) units)

Direct Material 220 280 70,40,000 70,00,000

Direct Labour 130 120 41,60,000 30,00,000

Manufacturing Overhead

(4,00,000 ÷ 1,80,000 × 32,000) 71,111

(5,00,000 ÷ 1,20,000 × 25,000) 1,04,167

1,12,71,111 1,01,04,167

8. Number of days in budget period = 4 weeks × 5 days = 20 days

Number of units to be produced

Product-A Product-B
(units) (units)

Budgeted Sales 2,400 3,600

Add: Closing stock

 2,400 units   3,600 units  480 900

 20 days × 4 days   × 5 days 
   20 days 

Less: Opening stock 400 200

2,480 4,300

(i) Material Purchase Budget

Material-X (Kg.) Material-Y (Kg.)

Material required:

Product-A 12,400 9,920

(2,480 units × 5 kg.) (2,480 units × 4 kg.)

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Product-B 12,900 25,800

(4,300 units × 3 kg.) (4,300 units × 6 kg.)

25,300 35,720

Add: Closing stock

 25,300kgs. 
 ×10days 
 20days  12,650 10,716
 35,720kgs. 
 ×6days 
 20days 

Less: Opening stock 1,000 500

Quantity to be purchased 36,950 45,936

Rate per kg. of Material `4 `6

Total Cost ` 1,47,800 ` 2,75,616

(ii) Wages Budget

Product-A (Hours) Product-B (Hours)

Units to be produced 2,480 units 4,300 units

Standard hours allowed per

3 5
unit

Total Standard Hours

7,440 21,500
allowed

Productive hours required 7, 440hours 21,500hours

=9,300 =26,875
for production 80% 80%

Add: Non-Productive down 1,860 hours. 5,375 hours.

time (20% of 9,300 hours) (20% of 26,875 hours)

Hours to be paid 11,160 32,250

Total Hours to be paid = 43,410 hours (11,160 + 32,250)

Hours to be paid at normal = 4 weeks × 40 hours × 180 workers
rate = 28,800 hours

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15.96 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

Hours to be paid at premium

= 43,410 hours – 28,800 hours = 14,610 hours
rate
Total wages to be paid = 28,800 hours × ` 25 + 14,610 hours × ` 37.5
= ` 7,20,000 + ` 5,47,875
= ` 12,67,875

Answers To The Case Scenarios

1.
i. (a) ii. (d) iii. (a) iv. (b) v. (d)

(i) (a) 4,70,400 tonnes

(ii) (d) 10,81,920 tonnes
(iii) (a) ` 6,00,000
(iv) (b) `7,74,900
(v) (d) (`1273.043 lakhs)
Revenue Budget (Flexible Budget) of M Ltd. for the Year 2024

Particulars PY 2023 CY 2024

A Sales Volume (Tonnes) 4,20,000 4,70,400

[112%×4,20,000]

B Selling Price per tonne 23,000 23,000

(`)

(` in lakh) (` in lakh)

C Sales value [A×B] 96,600 1,08,192

D Raw material Cost:

(i) Qty. of Material [2.3 9,66,000 10,81,920

tonnes × A] (tonnes)

(ii) Price per tonne (`) 4,500 4,500

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(iii) Total raw material 43,470 48,686.40

cost (` in lakh)
[(i)×(ii)]

E Wages & Salary Cost:

(i) Wages to casual 2,386.80 2,508.47

employees [900×26×12×`850] [900×26×12×`893.33]
(15%×6,000 = 900
employees)

(ii) Salary to permanent 47,736 51,316.20

employees [5100×26×12×`3,000] [(5100×26×6×`3,000)+
(85%×6,000 = 5,100 (5100×26×6×`3,450)]
employees)

(iii) Total wages & salary 50,122.80 53,824.67

[(i)+(ii)+(iii)]

F Power cost:

(i) For production (units) 4,20,000 4,70,400

[60%×7,00,000] [112%×4,20,000]

(ii) For employees & 2,80,000 2,80,000

offices (units)
[40%×7,00.000]

(iii) Total Power 7,00,000 7,50,400

consumption (units)
[(i)+(ii)]

(iv) Power rate per unit (`) 6.00 6.00

[`42,00,000÷7,00,000]

(v) Total power cost 42 45.024

[(iii)×(iv)]

G Safety and 60 67.20

maintenance Cost [112%×4,20,000]

H Diesel cost 1.2 -

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15.98 COST AND MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTING

I Car Hire charge:

(i) Car hire charge 6 6

(ii) Fuel reimbursement - 1.38

cost [115%×1.2]

(iii) GST@5% on RCM basis - 0.369

[5%×(i+ii)]

(iv) Total Car hire charge 6 7.749

cost [(i)+(ii)+(iii)]

J Depreciation 8,040 6,834

[85%×8040]

K Total Cost [Sum of D to 1,01,742 1,09,465.043

J]

L Profit/ (Loss) [C-L] (5,142) (1,273.043)

© The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India