PAMANTASAN NG LUNGSOD NG MUNTINLUPA

University Road, Poblacion, Muntinlupa City

COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES

REVIEWER
INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology- It is a scientific study of human behavior and mental processes.

scientific method system of gathering data so that bias and error in measurement are reduced
hypothesis tentative explanation of a phenomenon based on observations
objective introspection the process of examining and measuring one’s own thoughts and
mental activities
structuralism early perspective in psychology associated with Wilhelm Wundt and Edward
Titchener, in which the focus of study is the structure or basic elements of the mind.
functionalism early perspective in psychology associated with William James, in which the focus
of study is how the mind allows people to adapt, live, work, and play.
Gestalt psychology early perspective in psychology focusing on perception and sensation,
particularly the perception of patterns and whole figures
psychoanalysis the theory and therapy based on the work of Sigmund Freud.
behaviorism the science of behavior that focuses on observable behavior only
psychodynamic perspective modern version of psychoanalysis that is more focused on the
development of a sense of self and the discovery of motivations behind a person’s behavior
other than sexual motivations.
Behavioral - focuses on how behavioral responses are learned through classical or operant
conditioning based on early work of Watson and later B. F. Skinner
cognitive perspective modern perspective that focuses on memory, intelligence, perception,
problem solving, and learning.
sociocultural perspective -perspective that focuses on the relationship between social behavior
and culture
biopsychological perspective that attributes human and animal behavior to biological events
occurring in the body, such as genetic influences, hormones, and the activity of the nervous
system.
evolutionary perspective -perspective that focuses on the biological bases of universal mental
characteristics that all humans share.
psychologist a professional with an academic degree and specialized training in one or more
areas of psychology.
psychiatrist a medical doctor who has specialized in the diagnosis and treatment of
psychological disorders.
psychiatric social worker a social worker with some training in therapy methods who focuses
on the environmental conditions that can have an impact on mental disorders, such as poverty,
overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse.
replicate in research is repeating a study or experiment to see if the same results will be
obtained in an effort to demonstrate reliability of results.
observer effect tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they
know they are being observed.
participant observation a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant
in the group being observed.
observer bias tendency of observers to see what they expect to see.
case study- study of one individual in great detail.
representative sample randomly selected sample of subjects from a larger population of
subjects.
population the entire group of people or animals in which the researcher is interested in.
correlation a measure of the relationship between two variables.
correlation coefficient a number derived from the formula for measuring a correlation and
indicating the strength and direction of a correlation.
experiment a deliberate manipulation of a variable to see if corresponding changes in behavior
result, allowing the determination of cause-and-effect relationships.
operational definition -definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured.
independent variable -variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the experimenter.
dependent variable -variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or
behavior of the subjects in the experiment.
experimental group subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the independent variable.
control group subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the independent variable and
who may receive a placebo treatment
random assignment process of assigning subjects to the experimental or control groups
randomly, so that each subject has an equal chance of being in either group.
nervous system an extensive network of specialized cells that carries information to and from
all parts of the body.
Natural Section - The key idea is that traits that increase an organism's fitness (its ability to
survive and reproduce) are more likely to be passed on to future generations, leading to the
evolution of species over time.
Applied science involves the application of scientific knowledge, principles, and methods to
address real-world issues and solve specific problems.
Critical thinking is a cognitive process that involves analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing
information, arguments, or ideas in a thoughtful and systematic manner.
culture is the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of
people and transmitted from one generation to the next are collectively referred to as "
neuron the basic cell that makes up the nervous system and that receives and sends messages
within that system.
dendrites -branchlike structures that receive messages from other neurons.
Soma- the cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell.
axon -tubelike structure that carries the neural message to other cells.
glial cells -cells that provide support for the neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients
to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products and dead neurons,
influence information processing, and, during prenatal development, influence the generation
of new neurons.
nerves -bundles of axons coated in myelin that travel together through the body
resting potential -the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse
action potential the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical
charge within the axon
all-or-none referring to the fact that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.
synaptic knob rounded areas on the end of the axon terminals.
axon terminals- branches at the end of the axon
synaptic vesicles saclike structures found inside the synaptic knob containing chemicals.
neurotransmitter chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on
the next cell
receptor sites 3-dimensional proteins on the surface of the dendrites or certain cells of the
muscles and glands, which are shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters
antagonists chemical substances that block or reduce a cell’s response to the action of other
chemicals or neurotransmitters.
agonists chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the
receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell.
reuptake process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles.
central nervous system (CNS) part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal
cord.
peripheral nervous system (PNS) all nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and
spinal cord but that run through the body itself.
sympathetic division (fight-or-flight system) part of the ANS that is responsible for reacting to
stressful events and bodily arousal
parasympathetic division part of the ANS that restores the body to normal functioning after
arousal and is responsible for the day-to-day functioning of the organs and glands.
endocrine glands -glands that secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
hormones chemicals released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands
pituitary gland -gland located in the brain that secretes human growth hormone and influences
all other hormone secreting glands (also known as the master gland).
pineal gland endocrine gland located near the base of the cerebrum; secretes melatonin.
deep lesioning is an insertion of a thin, insulated wire into the brain through which an electrical
current is sent that destroys the brain cells at the tip of the wire.
computed tomography (CT) brain-imaging method using computer controlled X-rays of the
brain.
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic
fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain
electroencephalograph machine designed to record the electroencephalogram.
electroencephalogram (EEG) a recording of the electrical activity of large groups of cortical
neurons just below the skull, most often using scalp electrodes.
positron emission tomography (PET) brain-imaging method in which a radioactive sugar is
injected into the subject and a computer compiles a color-coded image of the activity of the
brain
single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) neuroimaging method that is similar to
PET but uses a different radioactive tracer and can be used to examine brain blood flow.
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) MRI-based brain-imaging method that allows
for functional examination of brain areas through changes in brain oxygenation.
medulla the first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the
brain, which is responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart
rate.
pons the larger swelling above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom
and that plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left–right body coordination, and arousal.
reticular formation (RF) an area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the
pons and slightly beyond that is responsible for general attention, alertness, and arousal.
cerebellum part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates
involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement.
thalamus part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain, this structure relays
sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex and
processes some sensory information before sending it to its proper area.
olfactory bulbs two bulb-like projections just under the front of the brain that receive
information from the receptors in the nose.
hypothalamus small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the
pituitary gland, responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex
hippocampus curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the
formation of long-term memories and the storage of memory for location of objects.
amygdala brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses and
memory of fear.
cortex outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for
higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.
frontal lobes areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher
mental processes and decision making as well as the production of fluent speech
sensation the process that occurs when special receptors in the sense organs are activated,
allowing various forms of outside stimuli to become neural signals in the brain
Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to
recognize meaningful objects and events.
psychophysics is the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such
as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
transduction the process of converting outside stimuli, such as light, into neural activity.
just noticeable difference ( JND or the difference threshold) the smallest difference between
two stimuli that is detectable 50 percent of the time.
absolute threshold the lowest level of stimulation that a person can consciously detect 50
percent of the time the stimulation is present.
habituation tendency of the brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information.
sensory adaptation tendency of sensory receptor cells to become less responsive to a stimulus
that is unchanging.
visual accommodation the change in the thickness of the lens as the eye focuses on objects
that are far away or close.
rods visual sensory receptors found at the back of the retina, responsible for noncolor
sensitivity to low levels of light.
cones visual sensory receptors found at the back of the retina, responsible for color vision and
sharpness of vision
dark adaptation the recovery of the eye’s sensitivity to visual stimuli in darkness after exposure
to bright lights
light adaptation the recovery of the eye’s sensitivity to visual stimuli in light after exposure to
darkness.
pitch psychological experience of sound that corresponds to the frequency of the sound waves;
higher frequencies are perceived as higher pitches.
gustation the sensation of a taste.
olfaction (olfactory sense) the sensation of smell
somesthetic senses the body senses consisting of the skin senses, the kinesthetic sense, and
the vestibular senses.
skin senses the sensations of touch, pressure, temperature, and pain.
kinesthetic sense is the sense of the location of body parts in relation to the ground and each
other
vestibular senses the sensations of movement, balance, and body position
depth perception the ability to perceive the world in three dimensions.
bottom-up processing the analysis of the smaller features to build up to a complete perception.
top-down processing the use of preexisting knowledge to organize individual features into a
unified whole.

perceptual constancy is where objects are perceived as unchanging in their properties like
shape, size, brightness, and color despite changes in illumination and retinal images.

consciousness a person’s awareness of everything that is going on around him or her at any
given moment, which is used to organize behavior.
altered state of consciousness state in which there is a shift in the quality or pat tern of mental
activity as compared to waking consciousness.
sleep deprivation any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and
irritability.
sleepwalking (somnambulism) occurring during deep sleep, an episode of moving around or
walking around in one’s sleep.
night terrors relatively rare disorder in which the person experiences extreme fear and screams
or runs around during deep sleep without waking fully.

Insomnia characterized by persistent difficulties in falling or staying asleep.

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter that affects moods, hunger, sleep, and arousal.

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, which is a chemical messenger that plays a crucial role in

various physiological and psychological processes in the brain and body.

cognitive neuroscience is the interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition,
including perception, thinking, memory, and language.

Hypnosis is a state of focused attention, heightened suggestibility, and deep relaxation, in

which one person (the hypnotist) guides another person (the subject or participant) into a
trance-like state.

behavioral genetics the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental
influences on behavior.
Heritability the proportion of variation among individuals in a particular trait or characteristic
that can be attributed to genetic factors.
Developmental psychology is the branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and
social change throughout the life span.

cognition encompasses all mental activities associated with thinking, remembering, knowing,
and communicating.

Stimulus generalization is the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli
similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a
reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it is called
"latent learning
observational learning" or "social learning is learning by observing others. This type of learning
occurs when an individual acquires new behaviors, skills, or knowledge by watching and
imitating the actions and behaviors of others, often without direct instruction or reinforcement.
memory is the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of
information.
punishment any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less
likely to happen again.
fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in which the number of
responses required for reinforcement is always the same.
variable ratio schedule of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in which the number of
responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event.
variable interval schedule of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of
time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event
fixed interval schedule of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of
time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same
iconic memory is the momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli, often referred to as a
"photographic" or "picture-image" memory that lasts for only a very brief duration (typically no
more than a few tenths of a second).
retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory storage. Retrieval is a cognitive
process that involves the recovery and access of stored information from memory when it is
needed.
Working memory is a cognitive system that is responsible for the temporary storage,
manipulation, and processing of information necessary for various cognitive tasks. It is often
considered an updated and expanded understanding of short-term memory, as it involves more
than just passive storage of information and instead emphasizes active, conscious processing.
mnemonics is a kind of memory aid that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
encoding the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert
that information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage systems.
eidetic imagery the ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more
selective attention the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input
hindsight bias is the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include
newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event.
priming is the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory. Priming is
a cognitive phenomenon in which exposure to a stimulus (the "prime") influences an
individual's subsequent perception, memory, or behavior related to a related or semantically
associated stimulus (the "target").
GOOD LUCK!!

“However difficult life may seem, there is always something you can do and
succeed at.”
― Stephen Hawking,