Geology and wine: a review

Jennifer M. Huggett

HUGGETT, J.M. 2005. Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 117,239-247. The geology
of wine is important to the wine-maker, but of very little importance to the drinker. However,
a geologist with an interest in wine is almost inevitably going to take more than a passing
interest in what lies beneath vineyards. This may have resulted in the importance of the geology
being over-rated. Many wine writers who are not geologists have dutifully described the geology
associated with particular wine regions without actually stating how the geology is important.
Jake Hancock was quick to realize that a lot of what is written about geology in wine books is
at best misguided and at worst utterly wrong, and set about putting this to rights at every
opportunity. Vines derive most of their nourishment from a depth extending down to 0.6 m, but
will, most of the time, rely on water from down as far as 2 m for transpiration. Only during
periods of drought will they draw significant water from >2 m. Clearly then, in areas where
there is a deep cover of drift or a deep soil horizon, geological influence on vines will be
minimal. Even where the soil is thin, geology will, in many areas where vines are grown , only
control the quality of the grapes indirectly through influence on soil composition, geomorphol-
ogy and water retention. These factors will be examined, together with examples of instances
where geology does have a direct influence on wine quality.

Key words: viticulture, terroir, soil, slope

Department of Mineralogy, the Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD,
UK and Petroclays, 15 Gladstone Road, Ashtead, Surrey KT21 2NS, UK

1. INTRODUCTION It is difficult to think of another country where it

could have started, since it has features so charac-
The role of the underlying rock in viticulture is at least teristic of second-class French thinkers, a combi-
four-fold. It influences the soil type (except where the nation of the obvious (e.g. the quality of a plant
soil is alluvial), it permits penetration of vine roots to depends where you grow it) and the mystical.
varying degrees depending upon the nature of the rock,
it controls geomorphology (slope) and it assists or Hancock has not been the only person to criticize
hinders drainage of rainwater. This review will con- terroir. The Australian wine expert Busby stated:
sider the importance of each of these to viticulture, but 'Where there is a perceived marketing advantage in
as they are all tied up in the French concept of terroir associating a wine with soil in a specific region the
this will be examined first. terroir concept is being exploited' (Busby, 1825). It
was Jake's view (Hancock, 1999) that when Henri
Coquand published a correlation of cognac quality
2. THE CONCEPT OF TERROIR
with the chalkiness of the ground in which it is grown
(Coquand, 1857) it was a deliberate hoax rather than
Terroir is a concept that originated in France. When
poor science: the quality zonation is circular, the
lecturing on wine, Jake Hancock defined terroir as 'A
geology approximately linear (see also Selley, 2004,
delimited area with its own characteristic geology,
2005). At the time it is probable that it was gener-
climate and methods of viticulture'. However, Jake
ally known to be a hoax, but subsequently became
Hancock (1999) stated:
accepted as a serious explanation of cognac quality
which no one bothered to check. Consequently, the
hoax persisted for a remarkably long time, even
A version of this paper was presented orally at a joint meeting being quoted and 'explained' in Wilson (1998). More
of the Geological Society of London, the Geologists' Associ-
recently, Australian soil scientist White wrote 'Most
ation and the Palaeontological Association: The life and work
of Jake Hancock (1928-2004) held at the Geological Society, scientists admit they cannot express quantitatively the
Burlington House, London, 14 October 2004. The meeting relationship between terroir and the characteristics of
was convened by Professor John C.W. Cope, who has also wine produced from that terroir' (White, 2003). It
been Guest Editor for the manuscripts arising from the might also be said that the concept of terroir is
meeting, now published in the Proceedings. essential to the Appellation d'Origine Controlee system

Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, 117, 239-247. 0016-7878/06 $15.00 © 2006 Geologists' Association
240 J. M. HUGGETT

that effectively acts (often quite rightly) as agricultural 1995). Potassium (essential for fruit development in all
protectionism in France. flowering plants) is most abundant in soils formed on
The concept of terroir is also implicit in the tendency volcanic rocks (e.g. Madeira, and the Kaiserstuhl in
to associate wine flavours with aspects of the soil or southern Germany), slate (e.g. Mosel and Porto) and
bedrock. There are some instances where this may, shale (e.g. Porto). However, too much of the essential
indeed, be the case, as with the perceived slight salti- nutrients can also be bad for vines. In Burgundy in
ness of wines produced where there is a high salt the 1950s over-zealous use of chemical fertilizers was
content in the soil. The Manzanilla of southern Spain responsible for loss of wine quality that was corrected
is often described as having a saltiness derived from its only slowly by a return to more traditional methods of
proximity to the sea (though I have not been able to soil maintenance (Hanson, 1995). Exceptionally, par-
locate any chemical analyses that might confirm this). ticular soils may be depleted in essential elements due
While Peynaud (1996) described Cabernet Sauvignon to a natural deficiency of them in the underlying rock.
grown in the Golf du Lyon sand flats as having Soils formed on limestone generally contain less iron
seaweed flavours, that may in fact be due to the high than soils on other rock types, hence they are more
concentration of sodium chloride found in the sand likely to be used for growing white grapes, which
flats compared with that found further inland. This is require less iron than do red grapes. In Bourgueil,
conceivable because salt is highly soluble in water. in the central Loire region of France, most of the
Perhaps the most widely stated association of wine Cabernet Franc is grown on alluvial sands and con-
flavour with a mineral is the supposed 'flinty' character glomerates with a low iron content that can lead to
of Chablis wine. To a geologist it is difficult to imagine chlorosis of the leaves. The better Bourgueil vineyards
how a material as insoluble in normal groundwater as are on middle Turonian Tuffeau Blanc (a fine-grained
flint could contribute to the flavour of any wine, let limestone) which contains a small amount of glauco-
alone what the flavour of anything so hard and insolu- nite (Voss, 1995). The vines may obtain the iron
ble could be. Equally fanciful is the suggestion that directly from the glauconite, though it is more prob-
flint, shale and slate-bearing soils impart a 'gunflint' ably that this mineral weathers in the soil profile
character to Riesling (Berry, 1989). to form kaolinite and iron oxyhydroxides, before it
becomes available to the vines.
Vines derive most of their nourishment from a depth
3. SOIL AND WINE QUALITY extending down to 0.6 m, but will, most of the time,
rely on water from as far down as 2 m for transpira-
Soil chemistry is influenced strongly by the underlying tion. Only during periods of drought will they draw
rock, except in alluvial soils. Vines require all the usual significant water from >2 m. At these times high
plant nutrients (mainly N, P, K, Mg, Fe) that are porosity and low permeability (in both the soil and the
present in well-maintained soil on any rock, hence the underlying rock) will be an advantage. Soil thickness is
parent rock type has little direct influence on wine an important factor in wine quality; in general, leaner
quality. Of these components, N, Mg and Fe are wines are produced on thin soils and, on deep alluvial
principally required for leaf growth, while K and Pare soils, wines can be 'flabby' if yields are not rigorously
essential for flower and fruit production. Nitrogen controlled. In Australia, because of the prevalence of
deficiency is the most widespread problem in vine- summer drought in many wine-making regions, vine-
yards; however, this is a factor controlled almost yards have been planted on thick alluvial soils with
entirely by artificial addition of nitrogen in the form of greater water retention than on many in situ soils. Soil
manure and artificial fertilizers, and by the actions of texture varies with the proportions of clay, silt, sand
soil bacteria. Phosphorus is obtained as phosphate and pebbles. The more sand and pebbles the more
from fluorapatite, apatite and francolite, which may be free-draining, the more clay the greater the water
in the soil or the underlying rock. A deficiency of retention. Swelling clays (smectite and vermiculite) are
apatite is rare in vines, despite its low solubility. This is able to expand and hold weakly bonded water layers in
because vines belong to the group of plants that have a the interlayer sites. On a macroscopic scale, this means
symbiotic association with mycorrhizal fungi, which that pores can become blocked and the flow of water
enables them to absorb sufficient phosphate. Geology restricted, leading to water logging. In most vine
is a major factor in the abundance of K+ in soils - it is cultivars this can lead to root damage; some cultivars
present chiefly in potassium feldspar, mica and illite, are able to withstand some water logging, but high soil
though the exchangeable K + found in smectite and moisture invariably accentuates berry cracking and
vermiculite is the most accessible to plants. Smectite subsequent rotting (Jackson, 1995). Another property
and vermiculite are found mostly in soils and in of clay-rich soils is that they lose heat faster than stony
Mesozoic and Tertiary sediments, while mica and soils. Much of the heat (solar radiation) absorbed is
K-feldspar are present in a wide range of igneous, transferred to water as it evaporates, thus cooling the
metamorphic and sedimentary rock-types. K+ and soil.
PO/+ tend to be concentrated near the surface, In Bordeaux, ranking of cru classe estates has been
especially in clay-rich soils, while Ca 2+ and Mg 2+ tend correlated with the presence of deep, gravel- and
to be concentrated lower in the soil profile (Jackson, sand-rich soils located on small rises close to rivulets or
 GEOLOGY AND WINE 241

South North

Elc vatiou i n m
100

~
80
60

40 River o 0 0 0 0 0 o ·~
20 Dordogne 0 0 0 0 0 00

000 000000

Vertical exnggeratiou = 27.8

r----l
o I km

Tertiary Sediments Quaternary Sediments

~ Unconformity ~ Gravel facies

~ Ca lcaire aAstcrics 1:::':-:1 Sandy facies

1:::3 Argile de Castillon

t~ .7.j Sandy. argillaceous facies

~ Molasse du Fronsadais
EJ Limonitic-argillaceous facies
Fig. 1. Cross-section through Saint Emilion. Eight out of thirteen of the first growths are grown on the slope formed by the
Molasse du Fronsadais (adapted from Van Leeuwen, 1989).

drainage channels (Seguin, 1986). These features pro- the soil contains both 'clay' (which in this context
mote rapid drainage and are thought to encourage probably includes silt and some sand, as Gadille (1967)
deep root penetration. In these coarse-textured soils, does not mention either size fraction) and pebbles. The
water occasionally can percolate through soil to a explanation given for this is that pebbles improve
depth of 20 m within 24 hours. Deep-rooted vines are, drainage while clays do the reverse (or, more optimis-
therefore, better able to survive damage from heavy tically, clay improves water retention) and also add
rain or drought than are shallow-rooted vines. In Saint fertility in the form of exchangeable cations. Clearly,
Emilion eight out of thirteen of the first growths the presence of sand will also improve drainage, so
are grown on the slope formed by the Molasse du that soils formed by weathering of clay-bearing sand-
Fronsadais, between the plateau alluvium and the stone would also provide a favourable physical
limestone known as the Calcaire it Asteries (Fig. I). environment for viticulture. An example of this is the
These soils, which are thicker than those on the three Montrachet vineyards in Burgundy. At Chevalier
Calcaire it Asteries and thinner than the plateau Montrachet (Fig. 2), at the top of the slope, the soil is
alluvium, have been enriched with calcium-rich loess 20% clay and 80% pebbles, of the three vineyards this
silt derived from Jurassic and Cretaceous limestones, is considered to make the most elegant wines. Batard
and blown there during the late Pleistocene (Van Montrachet, at the base of the slope is described as rich
Leeuwen, 1989; White, 2003). On the Calcaire it and fat and has a soil with 50% clay and 50% pebbles.
Asteries the soils are very thin and the water table very Le Montrachet, between the other two vineyards is
deep; to compensate, the vines have developed very considered to produce the finest wines, has a soil with
deep roots, but are still prone to water shortage during 32-36% clay and 64-68% pebbles. While this might be
periods of drought. Generally speaking though, the inferred to indicate the ideal pebble and clay propor-
underlying geology of Tertiary marls and sandstones tions for making fine wine, the position of the vine-
is of less significance to wine quality throughout yards on the slope and soil thickness may also be
Bordeaux than are soil depth, drainage and micro- important. The importance of slope is discussed below.
climate. Re-radiation of heat from the ground can be an
It has been concluded from a major study of the soils effective mechanism for minimizing the overnight
of Burgundy that vines produce the best wine where drop in air temperature around vines. The diffuse
242 J. M. HUGGETT

Fig. 2. The soils of the three Montrachet Crus: (a) Chevalier Montrachet, the top of the slope, with 20°;', clay and 80% pebbles;
(b) Le Montrachet, the mid-slope, with 32-36% clay and 64-68'1"0 pebbles; (c) Batard Montrachet, with 50% clay and 50%
pebbles.

reflectance, known as the albedos, of most rocks is in 4. SLOPE AND WINE QUALITY
the range 0.1-0.3, i.e. 10-30% of radiation from the
Sun is reflected (Hancock, 2005). Stony soils, and dark Hanson (1995) quoted R. Gadille as saying that slope
ones in particular, retain most of the heat absorbed by has a greater influence on the quality of wine than does
day and are able to radiate it back to the air around bedrock. In the higher latitude wine regions of the
the vines by night. In climates marginal for viticulture, world, this is probably true, as the amount of sunshine
the presence of dark pebbles (such as the slate of the
Mosel) is a highly advantageous soil property. In
Australia it has been found that grapes ripen earlier
on Red Brown Earths than on the paler Solonised
Solonetz soils (Rankine et aI., 1971). However, it
should be noted that the strength of re-radiation is
inversely proportional to the square of height above
ground - doubling the height of the grapes above the
ground results in a four-fold reduction in energy
reaching them (Jackson, 1995).
In Chateauneuf-du-Pape stream-rolled cobbles,
derived from Alpine Molasse and known locally as
galets are viewed as a sign of quality (Fig. 3). No
explanation of how the cobbles affect quality has been
found and there is no correlation between the presence
of these stones and wine quality. Wilson (1998) sug-
gested that it is, in fact, the red clay soil and ferrugi-
nous sands of the better vineyards that are important Fig. 3. The soil of Chateauneuf-du-Papc, with Alpine
to wine quality. molasse-derived cobbles known as galets.
 GEOLOGY AND WINE 243

,\/
-0-
/1'

Fig. 4. Illustration of the relationship between slope and solar radiation (after Hancock, 1999).

reaching the vines and the drainage will be controlled grown anywhere else within the 20 communes of
largely by slope. Hancock (2005) expressed this math- Chablis. This was opposed strongly by some growers
ematically as I=Ksin(a+fJ), where I is the intensity of who argued, probably correctly, that orientation, slope
radiation received on the slope, K is a constant, a is the and altitude are as important as sub-soil and, more-
angular elevation of the Sun and jJ is the angle of over, some quality Chablis had always been grown on
inclination of the slope to the horizontal along a Portlandian limestone. Figure 5 shows that, in Chablis,
meridian (to the south in the Northern Hemisphere, the mid-slope favoured for quality vineyards through-
to the north in the Southern Hemisphere). This is out Europe, coincides with the Kimmeridgian outcrop.
illustrated in Figure 4. The relatively soft Kimmeridgian carbonate-rich
It follows from this relationship that slope will be of mudrock is capped by Portlandian Barrois limestone
greatest importance early and late in the growing and underlain by the Calcaires a Astartes (both true
season when the Sun is lower in the sky than it is in limestone). The Serrein River has cut down through
summer. Hence, slope is particularly important for the Barrois, which forms the caps of hills, and
avoiding frost in spring and assisting with ripening in the softer Kimmeridgian carbonate-rich mudrock,
autumn. Thermal belts on slopes comprise a layer of which now forms the slopes. The south-facing slopes
cold air at the bottom of a valley and another near the naturally receive the most Sun, which in such a north-
ground over the plateau above the slope (Hancock, erly wine region as Chablis is important. It is on these
2005). As a result of this, the temperature difference slopes that the Grand Cru Chablis is grown. In 1976
between sites no more than 3 km apart horizontally, the reference to Kimmeridgian limestone was dropped
may be as much as 8 C over height differences of
0
from the definition of Chablis and it was acknowl-
<100 m (Hancock, 2005). Germany, the most north- edged tacitly that slope and orientation are of greater
erly wine growing region in mainland Europe, is importance to wine quality in Chablis.
renowned for its steeply sloped, south-facing vineyards Subsequently, the geological misunderstanding has
in the fault-controlled valleys of the Mosel and the crossed the Channel, with English wine growers mak-
Rhine. However, in wine regions with regular summer ing much of planting on the Kimmeridgian, while not
drought the enhanced amount of sunshine reaching realizing that in this country the Kimmeridgian is clay,
slopes facing the Sun (south-facing in the Northern not limestone as in France.
Hemisphere, north-facing in the Southern Hemisphere) In Burgundy the best vineyards are frequently on the
and the enhanced drainage on slopes will be a mid-slope. This is not just because this is where the soil
disadvantage rather than an advantage. composition is ideal, but because the mid-slope is
The importance of geology has been argued most where the greatest amount of sunshine is received on
vociferously in Chablis (northern Burgundy, France), the SE-SW-facing slopes. In Champagne the mid-slope
but has now been officially abandoned. It is generally is also the preferred site for vineyards (Fig. 6). It was
acknowledged that chardonnay, the grape of Chablis, formerly erroneously thought that this was due to a
produces the finest wines on alkaline soils formed special property of the Chalk in this part of the
on limestone and carbonate-rich mudrocks (marls). slope. According to Chappaz (1955): 'The winegrowers
Chablis, as a defined region, was recognized by the of old, although ignorant of the geology, always
wine tribunals in 1923 as being grown on a sub-soil of stopped their vineyards right at the contact of the two
Kimmeridgian limestone (actually a carbonate-rich Chalk formations' - the Belemnite (Campanian) and
mudrock in this region), while Petit Chablis could be Micraster (Santonian) biozones. This was repeated in
 t

~
J:
c:
o
c
m
~
300m X Cross-section shown above
x· (b)
~remi er Crus -I • Premier Cru

200 m Kimmeridgi an Chablis

ChablisR. Serein
""r..Jz. .-7. ' ~' . ..
\ \ Pet it Chablis
C,jl(.lft.A\t.ttts' l.
100 m
C.ICA,rtdtTonnt,,'t

• Built land
Ver ti cal exaggerat ion = 3.6
Port landian

(a)
I
o
I
1 Km •~
Kimmeridg ian
a
Calcaire Ast art es, Calcaire
River Alluvium
aTonnerre
Fig. 5. (a) Geo logy o f the a rea arou nd C ha blis, with cro ss section X-X' (adapted from Wilso n, 1998). (b) Map of the Premier C ru, C hablis and Petit C hab lis
vineya rds (ad apt ed from the French Geo logical Sur vey map a nd drawn to the same sca le as the geo logica l map in (a».
 GEOLOGY AND WINE 245

Elevation in rn
300 East - -

250

200
Brie Limestone

+
Tertiary
,
.,
Loa m __ ._ · _

= ,- .?
~~\
-_. "-
\,
. .. .. ... ,
r Grand Crus

' ''~'--t' -- '- '''-~'-- ~ - '~l :' : -:~

150
Upper Cam panian
. ::
, .. ~~\-).
~ ; ..: 1
Crarnant-Avize

.~ . •

100 crer' B::g~~;':'k~ . .~. ~ :'~ - -CC~ -

Vertical exaggeration =8.2
o \ ~

Fig. 6. Cross-section through Cramant-Avizee, Champagne (adapted from Wilson, 1998).

Table 1. Approximate porosity, matrix permeability and mass permeability ranges for the rock types on which most vines are
grown.

Rock type Porosity Matrix permeability Mass permeability

(%) (mO) (mO)
Sandstone & conglomerate <40 30-400 50-3000
Shale 8-20 <0.3 10-10 000
Limestone (other than chalk) <25 very variable very variable
Chalk 30-45 2-3 30-JOOO
Granite & schist <0.1 <0.01 variable, often high

subsequent literature (e.g. Forbes, 1967) and became permeability range (c. 1-100 mD). The porosity and
an accepted 'fact', without any questioning as to why permeability characteristics of the range of rock types
to vines should perform so differently in adjacent chalk on which vines are grown most commonly are shown
zones of similar mineralogy. The real reason for the in Table 1. This shows that chalk most consistently
difference is the soil. The Chalk hills in Champagne are provides the ideal porosity and permeability for viti-
capped by soft, Paleocene sands and muds, which are culture. However, moderately cemented, fractured
locally lignitic. These sediments have been washed limestones other than chalk, sandstone and conglom-
down the chalk slope, as far as the base of the erate will also frequently fulfil the criteria for the ideal
Belemnite zone (Wilson, 1998). Wilson (1998) argued water balance, as can deeply weathered and fractured
that it is the lignite that is critical to the soil quality schist or granite. Where the slope bedrock is impervi-
because it contains inclusions of pyrite and thus pro- ous, e.g. shale, drainage through the rock is extremely
vides iron and sulphur, elements in short supply in slow and most water will move down slope as surface
chalk. However, it is as likely that the soil is enriched runoff, taking soil with it.
by the clay minerals and pyrite (probably weathered to Geology is only one of many factors in wine quality
other ferric iron minerals and sulphate by the time it and, in most cases, the influence of the bedrock is only
reaches the Belemnite zone) not derived from the indirect. There are wine regions where only one rock
lignite. type is present, yet the quality of the wine produced
varies enormously due to other factors. Examples are
5. BEDROCK CONTROLS ON WINE QUALITY Champagne (chalk) and Mosel (schist), where the
viticultural methods are probably the most important
The ideal water balance for vines is provided by a control. There are equally famous wine regions where
bedrock with medium to high porosity (c. 15-45%), the soils are derived from a variety of rock types
high fracture permeability (> 100 mD) and low matrix without any associated variation in quality, examples
246 J. M. HUGGETT

Fig. 7. Terra Rossa laterite on limestone solution-breccia profile at Rouge Homme, Coonawarra. The measuring pole is 1 m.

are Bordeaux, Rheingau and Beaujolais (Wallace, what remains now is a collapsed limestone solution-
1972; Seguin, 1986). However, there are a few wine- breccia (Fig. 7). Hancock & Huggett (2004) estimated
making areas of the world where the underlying rock from visual observation that the overall porosity is
has a real influence on wine quality and a selection of high, perhaps ~ 30%. This is a much higher porosity
these is discussed below. The Coonawarra district is than should be encountered in the unaltered limestone.
discussed in most detail, because this is the region that The matrix permeability is inferred to be highly vari-
the author was working on with Jake Hancock at the able. Some of the pebbles and boulders of unaltered
time of his death. limestone with limited solution porosity will have very
In the Douro, a bedrock of schist (rich in K) is low matrix permeability, probably no more than
preferred over granite (also rich in K) because the 5 mD, while the patches of limestone-sand will have
schist rock is much more fractured than the granite, high matrix permeabilities, possibly> 100 mD. How-
permitting greater penetration of rainfall and of ever, this contrast is minor compared with the antici-
the vine roots. In contrast, the great vineyards of pated permeability of major vertical joints and sub-
Beaujolais are on both granite (Chiroubles, Fleurie, horizontal bedding planes, all enlarged by solution.
Moulin-a-Vent, Chenas) and schist (Morgon, Brouilly, Gaps of several centimetres are common, and per-
Julienas, Saint Amour). This is because in Beaujolais meabilities of> 1 D are anticipated. Thus, the drainage
the granite is intensely fractured and deeply weathered conditions at Coonawarra are ideal for vines and are
(Pomerol, 1984). Professor Leneuf and Dr Lautel of remarkably similar to those in true chalks, as described
Dijon University believe that the particular character by Hancock & Price (1990). The Terra Rossa has a
and robustness of Moulin-a-Vent wines may be due to high mass-permeability and will allow any excess rain-
the presence in the granite of a seam rich in manganese fall to penetrate the underlying, also highly permeable,
minerals (Wilson, 1998). limestone. Hence, after even very heavy rainfall, excess
Coonawarra is an area where there is, indeed, a water will drain away. It follows from this that the
geological explanation for the success of vineyards in limestone solution-breccia will hold moisture for the
that area (Hancock & Huggett, 2004). The principal vines, during even months of no rainfall. The annual
feature to which the quality of the best Coonawarra rainfall in Coonawarra is around 650-660 mm. It falls
wines has been widely attributed (e.g. Mayo, 1991; between April and December, particularly during the
White, 2003) is a narrow strip of Terra Rossa winter months, while the harvest coincides with a dry
laterite soil. This soil overlies the Upper Pleistocene period (Kidd, 1983; John, 1990). Although some grow-
Padthaway Formation. This formation is composed of ers do irrigate, it is clear from the above that irrigation
lacustrine and lagoonal dolomites, limestone, claystone should only be necessary in Coonawarra for the estab-
and sandstone. The Padthaway Limestone beneath the lishment of new vines and possibly to ensure the
Terra Rossa has undergone extensive solution so that take-up of nitrogenous manure.
 G EOLOGY AND WIN E 247

6. SUMMARY ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Being asked to write thi s paper and to give the talk that
In hot climates, prone to sum mer drought, so il may be preceded it meant pay-back time for the a utho r. Pa y-
the most important factor aft er viticulture, while in back for the many bottles of excellent wine that Jake
cooler clim ates, slo pe and slo pe a spect are probably shared with the author at his kitchen table - usually
th e seco nd most important factors. Slope and slope preceded by con sultation as to which would be the best
aspect a re co ntro lled by a combination of geom orpho- va riety of potato to serve with the chose n wine. The
logi cal a nd geo logical fa ctors. Only ra rely, as in the author would also like to thank Andy Gale and Dick
Coonaw a rr a a nd the Douro, is the bedrock an import- Selle y, wh ose comments on an earlier dr aft much
a nt fact o r in wine quality. improved the manuscript.

REFERENCES
Berry, E. 1989. The Wines of Alsace. The Bodley Head, Proceedings of a seminar by the Australian Society of
London. Viticulture and Oenology, Coonawarra, June. Publisher?,
Busby, J. 1825. A treatise on the culture of the vine and the art Place?, 5- 6.
of making wine. R. Howe, Governm ent Printer, Australia. Mayo, O. 1991. The wines of Australia. Faber & Faber,
Chappaz, G. 1955. Le Vignoble et le Vin de Champagne. Louis London .
Larnat, Paris. Peynaud, E. 1996. The Taste of Wine. John Wiley and Sons,
Coquand, H. 1857. Reunion extrordin aire a Angouleme du 6 Inc, New York.
au 14 septembre 1857. Bulletin de la Societee Geologique de Pomerol, C. 1989. Terroirs & vins de France. Bureau de
la France. 14, 841- 903. Recherches geologiques et minieres, Orleans (English
For bes, P. 1967. Champagne the Wine, the Land and the translation printed by R. McCarta).
People. William Morrow and Co, New York.
Rankine, B.C., Farnachon, J.C.M. , Boehm, E.W. & Cellar,
Gad ille, R. 1967. Le Vignoble de la Cote bourguignonne. Les K.M. 1971. Influence of grape variety, climate and soil on
Belles Lettres, Publications de l' Universite de Dijon, Paris. grape composition and quality of table wines. Vitis, 10,
Hancock, J.M. 1999. Feature Review - "Terroir; The role of 33-50.
Geo logy, Climate and Culture in the making of French Seguin, G . 1986. "Terroirs" and pedology of wine growing.
Wines" by James E. Wilson 1998. Journal of Wine Experientia, 42, 861-873.
Research. 10, 43-49.
Hancock, J.M. & Price, M. 1990. Real chalk balances the Selley, R.C. 2004. The winelands of Britain; past, present and
prospective. Petravin, Dorking.
water supply. Journal of Wine Research, 1,45- 60.
Hancock, J.M. 2005. Geology of wine. In (Selley, R.C., Van Leeuwen, C. 1989. Carte des sols du vignoble de
Cocks, L.R.M. & Plimer, l.R .; eds) The Encyclopaedia of Saint-Emilion. Syndicat Viticole Saint-Emilion,
Geology Volume lII. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 85-90. Saint-Emilion.
Hancock, J.M. & Huggett, J.M. 2004. The geological contro ls Voss, R. 1995. Wines of the Loire. Faber and Faber, London.
in Coonawar ra. Journal of Wine Research. 15, 115-1 22. Wallace, P. 1972. Geology of wine. 24th International
Hanson, A. 1995. Burgundy- Faber and Faber, London. Geological Congress ( IGC). Publisher?, Place?, Section 6,
Jackson, R.S. 1995. Wine Science principles and applications. 359-365.
Academic Press, London. White, R.E. 2003 . Soils f or fi ne Wines. Oxford University
John, P.G. 1990. Wine making expectations for premium Press, Oxford.
Coo nawarra dry red styles. Proceedings of the 7th Wilson, J.E. 1998. Terroir, the role of Geology, Climate and
Australian Wine Industry Technical Confe rence. Publisher?, Culture in the Makin g of French Wines. Mitchell Beazley,
Place", 11-15. London.
Kidd, C.H. 1983. General description of Coonawarra. In
(Lester, D.C. & Lee, T.H.; eds) Coonawarra Viticulture.

Manuscript received 4 March 2005; revised typescript accepted 11 June 2005