Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga

Classical free electron theory:

Lorentz and Drude proposed the classical free electron theory to explain the
electrical and thermal properties of the metal. According to this, the good
conductivity observed in metals is due to the presence of free electrons. (free
electrons are the valence electrons and can move within the metal).
Assumptions
1. Valence electrons are the free electrons to move inside the metal
2. These electrons confined to move inside the metal by apotential
barrier
3. The electrostatic force of attraction between free electron and the +ve ion
core is neglected
4. Similarly the electrostatic force of repulsion between
freeelectronsneglected
Using this theory. the electrical conductivity of a metal is given by
 ne 2
 
m

Where n = number of free electrons per unit volume

e = charge on the electron
τ = Mean collision time of electrons
m = mass of electron.

Failures of Classical free electron theory

A) Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity

According to the assumptions of classical free electron theory

3 1
KT  mVTh2
2 2

Where VTh is the thermal velocity

Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga

Hence VThα T

The mean collision time τ is inversely proportional toVTh

1
τ α 1/VTh or τ α
T

Thus from the conductivity equation it follows that

1
 α T

But the experimental studies shows that

α

Hence Classical free electron theory fails to explain dependence of conductivity on

temperature

B) Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration

According to classical free electron theory , the conductivity

ne 2 
 
m

From this equation  α n, the number of free electrons per unit volume.

If this is true, then

Zn and Al have higher values of ‘n’ meaning that they must have better conductivity
compared to Cu and Ag. But Cu and Ag are better conductors compared to Zn and Al.
This indicates the correction is needed in the conductivity equation derived from
classical free electron theory.
Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga

3. Specific Heat
When heat is supplied to a solid, the free electrons also absorbs thermal energy which
contribute for specific heat of a given material.
Thus by considering distribution of atoms in a metal is similar to a gaseous assembly,
we have
Cv = (3/2)R.
But experimentally, we get Cv = 3R
Thus classical free electron theory fails to give the correct result of specific heat.

Quantum free electron theory

This theory was developed by Sommerfield to provide correct equations and the
correct explanation for conductivity in solids. It is based on the following
assumptions
1. Valence electrons are the free electrons to move inside the metal
2. These electrons confined to travel inside the metal by a potential barrier
3. The electrostatic force of attraction between free electron and the +ve ion core is
neglected
4. Similarly, the electrostatic force of repulsion between free electrons is also
neglected
5. The electrons cannot have continuousenergy but will have discrete energy
n2h2
according to the equation, E showing that energy values are
8mL2
quantised

6. The distribution of electrons in various allowed energy levels takes place as per
Pauli’s exclusion principle

Density of States
• When the material assumes solid state, the overlapping of energy
levels takes place forming the energy bands
• Within this band a large number of energy levels are closely situated
• Hence, we refer density of states instead of energy levels.
• Density of states is defined as the “number of available electronic
energy states per unit energy range in a valence band of a material of unit
volume”
Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga

E2

dE
E1

Consider a material having energy band, spread between E1 and E2. This band
contains several number of energy levels. Assume a small portion of the band
having width dE. This small portion also encloses certain number of energy levels.
If the lower part of the small portion has the energy E then upper portion has the
energy E+dE. Thus the number of energy states within the energy range E and
E+dE is

8 2m 3 / 2
g ( E )dE  E dE
h3

This shows the number of energy states in the interval dE is proportional to E.

The graph of g(E) v/s E show parabolic curve

g(E)

E
Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga

Fermi Energy : In a metal there are N number of energy levels and each energy
level can have maximum of two electrons, one with spin up and other with spin down.
This occupancy of electrons in various energy levels is shown in fig.

In the absence of external field, the energy corresponding to highest occupied level at
absolute zero temperature is called Fermi energy and the corresponding energy level
is called Fermi level. In other words, Fermi level is the highest occupied level by
the electrons at absolute zero temperature.
Thus at T = 0 K, all the energy levels below fermi level are filled with electrons and
above fermi level are vacant.

Significance : Fermi level measures the Energy of least tightly held electrons within a
solid, and this is an important data to determine the thermal and electrical properties
of solids.

F - D statistics
Consider a metal with N number of energy levels. Out of this, let (N-x) number of
levels are filled with electrons. Hence there are huge number of empty Energy
levels are available. When external energy is supplied, the free electrons gains
energy and occupy the empty energy levels in a orderly manner obeying rule called as
Fermi-Dirac statistics. This rule is applicable only to those particles which have spin
1/2. Thus electrons are grouped under Fermions and they obey pauli’s exclusion
principle and hence Fermi -Dirac statistics.

Fermi Factor :
Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga

Fermi factor or Fermi function is the number that represents the probability of
occupancy of a given energy level by an electron under thermal equilibrium. It has
the value between 0 to 1 and depends on temperature and energy, by the equation

1
f (E) 
e[( E  E F ) / KT ]
1
Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga
Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga
Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga
Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga
Dept of Physics J N N College of Engineering, Shivamogga

CONCEPT OF PHONONS
• It is the Quantum of vibrational energy arises due to vibration of atoms in a
crystal
• Each phonon has the momentum of ħK and energy of ħ
• It is like photon in the electromagnetic radiation.
• Quantum of acoustic energy in a solid represents a phonon, whereas that of
optical energy represents a photon
Variation of Resistivity with Temperature and impurity
OR
Contribution of Phonons on Resistivity
1. Scattering of electrons due to lattice vibration

• Electron suffers from scattering effect by the vibrating ions. This is

referred as phonon scattering.
• This leads to opposition for the flow of electron and hence Resistance
increases
• As the temperature increases, amplitude of the vibrating ions increases
leading to more number of scattering.
Dept of Physics
hysics J N N College of Enginee
Engineering, Shivamogga

• Thus with the increase in temperature, resistivity of the metal also

increases.
• Assuming that the given metal is pure, we have

gives the expression for resistivity due to phonons.

is the mean collision time due to phonons

2. Scattering of electrons due to impurities

The presence of impurities, dislocations, defects and grain boundaries in the
metal will scatters
ters the electron and hence increases the resistivity. Thus, the metal
will show a finite resistivity even at 0 K

is the resistivity due to impurities and

is the mean collision time due to the presence of impurities

Mathiessen’s Rule
• “Total resistivity of a metal is the sum of the resistivity due to phonon
scattering which is temperature dependent and resistivity due to
scattering by impurities in the metal which is temperature independent”.
Dept of Physics
hysics J N N College of Enginee
Engineering, Shivamogga

Thus = +

= +

At low temperature, = 0 and hence  =

At highertemperature,
temperature, = 0and hence =