CHAPTER

Chapter Objectives
8 CELL-THE UNIT
OF LIFE
a n d cell as the basic unit of life: Structure of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, Plant cell and animal

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Cellh eory Cell nmembrane, cell wall, Cell organelles: Structure andfunction, endoplasmicreticulam, gol
Cell envelope:
omes, vacuoles; mitochondria, ribosomes, plastids, microbodies; cytoskeleton, cilia, flagella, centrioles

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bodies,
cell
(ultrastructure and function), Nucleus, nuclear membrane,chromatirn, nucleolus

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STUDY MATERIAL
.Concept Clarified

CELL AS
THE BASIC UNIT
OF LIFE
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1.
structure and functions of all living organisms. Some
are composed of a single cell and are called
Cell forms the
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Paramecium etc.
unicellular organisms such as Euglena, Amoeba,
are the examples of multi-cellular organisms.
The large sized organisms do not
Higher animals and plants
number of cels.
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instead they possess more

have large sized cells;
cell has a cell wall as its boundary
cell have a different outermost boundary. A typical plant
Plant and Animal
membrane and no cell wall. Inside each
the cell membrane. The animal cell has only the
and just within it is the
The genetic material DNA is present in the chromosome of
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cell, membrane bound nucleus is present.

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nucdeus.
whereas cell that lacks a membrane
bound nuclei are eukaryotic (modified nucleus),
Cells with membrane the space bound by
bound nuclei are prokaryotic (primitive
nucleus). In both cells, the cytoplasm occupies
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main area of cellular activities.

the membrane, which is the
cells lack such membrane bound
membrane bound cell organelles and prokaryotic
Eukaryotic cells have other
non-membrane boundorganelles of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
cell organelles. Ribosomes are
cell of an ostrich egg. The size of
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from a smallestbacterial cell to the largest

T h e size and shape of the cell vary be of 1-2 um in size.
is about 0.1 um. A typical bacterial cell may
PPLO (Pleuro- Pneumonia Like Organisms)
RBCis 7.0 um. The largest sized
-0.3 um in length. The size of human
The smallest cell of Mycoplasma
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measures
cell such
nerve cells are the longest
and branched cells. A typical eukaryotic
single cell is the Ostrich egg. The
between 10-20 um.
as, the yeast cell ranges
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2. CELL THEORY
Robert Brown (1831) discovered the nucleus
in the cells of Orchid root. formulated the
Theodore Schwann together
Matthias Schleiden and British Zoologist,
The German Botanist, defined the cell as
new cells are formed by
division of pre-existing cells. They
Cell Theory. According to them,
the structural and functional unit of all living beings.
3. MODERN CELL THEORY
and cells are formed from pre-existing cells. He
explained that cells divided
new
Rudolf Virchow (1855) first were:
a final shape. His postulates
modified the hypothesis to give the cell theory
of cells and products of cels.
(2) All living organisms are composed
(b) All cells arise from pre-existing cells
units of life.
(c) Cells are the smallest and fundamental
(d) Each cel is capable of regulating its activities independently.
metabolic activities within the living organisms.
(e Cells are responsible for all the
4. PROKARYOTIC CELL ORGANIZATION For more de
Bacterial cell is one of the common prokaryotic cell, which differ in shape and size There are four sCan the code

basicshapes ofbacterial cell: bascillus (rod ike), coccus(spherical), vibrio (comma shaped)and
spirillum (spiral).
Mycoplasma:
They are the simplest prokaryotes. They are also called Pleuro Pneumonia Like Organisms (PPLO) They lacka ce
wall and hence are pleomorphic.
is
ven though prokaryotes exhibit a wide variety of shapes and functions their organisation fundamental,
similar
Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell:
he vanous parts of a prokaryotic cell are glycocalyx cell wall (except mycoplasma), cell membrane, genes

material, cytoplasm, ribosomes, inclusion bodies, pili, fimbriae and flagella.

Cell Envelope:

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It is composed of glycocalyx, cell wall and cell membrane.

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) Glycocalyx
the cell and helps in cell adhesion.
it is the outermost layer of the cell, which protects
Its chemical composition differ in different prokaryotes.

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Some bacteria have loose slime layer as glycocalyx while others have a thick and tough covering
called capsule as glycocalyx. Slime layer and capsule are mainly made of polysaccharides and ma
contain proteins.

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(i) Cell wall:
It is present below the glycocalyx and is made up of peptidoglycan or murein.
Peptidoglycan is composed of N-acetyl muramic acid (NAM) and N-acetyl glucosamine (NAG) COS
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linked by short peptide chains.
It maintains shape, strength and also prevents bursting or collapsing of cells.
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Gram Staining Procedure in Bacteria:
Christian Gram, 1884 based on a staining technique classified bacteria into (Gram +ve) and (Gram
-ve).
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All bacteria which stain blue with weak alkaline solution of crystal violet are Gram +ve.
On treatment with 0.5% potassium iodide solution and washing with acetone or alcohol a few
bacteria retain the blue colour (Gram-positive) while others lose it (Gram-negative).
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In Gram-ve bacteria the stain is washed off due to high lipid contents in the cell wall, which ge
dissolved in alcohol. They can then be counterstained with safranin. In Gram-positive bactera the
lipid content is less.
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(iii) Plasma Membrane or Cell Membrane:

It is composed of lipids, proteins and oligosaccharides.
The main lipid components are phospholipids, glycolipids and cholestero.
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The plasma membrane is semi-permeable in nature and similar structurally to that of the eukaryotes
Functions of Plasma Membrane:
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a) The most important function of plasma membrane is to provide passage for various substances, into an
out of the cell.
b) Plasma membrane is selectively permeable, i.e., allows some solute particles (1-15 Å in size) to puss
through it readily along with all solvents.
I t not only provides mechanical strength but also acts as a protective layer.
(d) Mesosome is formed by the extensions of plasma membrane into the cell. These extensions are in tne
form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae. They help in cell wall formation, DNA replication and distribubon
to daughter cells. They also help in respiration, secretion processes, to increase the surtace area or
plasma membrane and enzymatic content.
Nucleoid:
Prokaryotes do not have a membrane bound nucleus (true nuceus absent).
The genetic material is a circular double stranded DNA molecule called nucleoid, incipient nucleusor

genophore.
 The nucleoid is connected to
plasma membrane through mesosome
Nucleoid is not associated with nudear
membrane and histone proteins.
Cytoplasm:
It is the semi-fiuid
ground substance or matrix present internal to the cell membrane and it does not show
cytoplasmic streaming or cyclosis.
All the major organelles such as mitochondria, endoplasmic
absent in it. reticulum, golgi bodies, lysosomes etc., are

Chromatophores:
These are internal membrane
systems in prokaryotic cells like
These store pigments photosynthetic forms such as,
in
cyanobacteria.
Plasmids:
cyanobacteria and purple bacteria.
These are
extra-chromosomal double stranded circular DNA in bacterial cells.

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These can
replicate independent of the nucleoid and is involved in the transformation.

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These carry important genes such as antibiotic
resistant genes and fertility factor genes.
Inclusion Bodies: Reserve material in prokaryotic cells are stored in the cytoplasm in the form of inclusion
bodies. These lie free in the cytoplasm, e.g,
phosphate granules, cyanophyceae granules and glycogen

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granules
Ribosomes: These are associated with the plasma membrane of the cell and are made of two subunits -50s
and 30s units. These subunits when present
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together from 70s ribosomes. Ribosomes are the
synthesis. Ribosome may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain called polyribosomes.
Pili and Fimbriae:
site of protein
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Pili are elongated tubular structures made up of pilin proteins.
These are seen in Gram-negative bacteria.
Pili are involved in
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mating process.
Fimbriae are small bristle-like fibres which help the bacterña to attach to solid surfaces.
These structures do not help in bacterial locomotion.
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S. EUKARYOTIC CELL ORGANIZATION

Eukaryotic cells are with true nucleus which is associated with nuclear membrane and histone
For more details,
proteins. scan the code
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lt consists of different type of single and double membrane bound bodies.

The different parts associated with a eukaryoticcellare:
A. Cell Wall:
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All the plant cells possess an outer thick cell wall, but it is absent in animal cells.
In most of the plants, cell wall is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins and proteins
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Algal cell wall is formed of cellulose, galactans, mannans and minerals like calcium carbonate
etc.

The cell wall is provided with minute pores containing cytoplasmic strands known as plasmodesmata
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between
(cytoplasmic connection between two cells), Plasmodesmata establishes cytoplasmic continuity
cells.
The cell wall also provides barrier to undesirable macromolecules and it gives shape to the cell and protect

the cell from mechanical damage and infection.

Structure of a Cell Wal:

A typical wall is made up of 4 layers, namely:

(a) Middle iamella: It is the cementing layer between the cells. It is made up of Ca and Mg pectates. The rip-
dissolution of middle lamella.
ened fruits become softened due to
on both the sides of middle lamella. Primary wall is elastic in nature. It is
b) Primary wall: It is laid down
and pectic substances, etc. It is about 1 -3 mm thick.
made up of cellulose, hemicellulose,
(c) Secondary wall: Itis laid down on the inner side of primary wall after the growth of cell stops (at maturity).
It is thick, rigid and non-elastic, made up of cellulose (sometinmes hemicellulose) and lhgnin.
 B. Plasma Membrane:
Chemical studies showed that the cell membrane is composed of lipids that are arranged in a bilayer The

outer sides and the hydrophobie

lipids a r e arranged within the membrane with the polar head towards the
tails towards the inner side. The lipid component of the membrane mainly consists of phosphoglycerides
Later biochemical investigation revealed that the cell membranes also possess protein and carbohydrate

The ratio of protein and lipid varies considerably.

be categorised as integral
or
peripheral
Depending on the ease of extraction, membrane proteins can
are partially or totaly
Peripheral proteins lie on the surface of membrane while the integral proteins
buried in the membrane.
cell membrane that is widely
model of the structure of
Singer and Nicolson (1972) proposed the improved
accepted as fluid mosaic model within the overall
enables lateral movement of proteins
According to this, the quasi-fluid nature of lipid
bilayer.

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Membrane:
of Molecules/lons Across Plasma
Transportation the outside and it is selectively permeable

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Plasma membrane regulates the m o v e m e n t substances from the cell to
of such as,
membrane through various processes
Substances through the plasma
pass
(differentially permeable).
Passive transport:

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a.
concentrations to lower
concentrations without
Substances cross the plasma membrane
fromregion of higher
a

is 'down hill' transport o r passive transport.

spending energy. This
a
m o v e s across it and then dissolves
molecule dissolves in the phospholipid bilayer,

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(i) In simple diffusion,
a The passive
other side of the membrane.
It is a non-selective process.
in the aqueous solution of the
membrane is called osmosis.
molecules through a semipermeable
diffusion of water o r solvent
molecules do not dissolve in the phospholipid
bilayer. But, this passage is
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facilitated diffusion, the in both the
(ii) In called permeases. Permeases
will facilitate the transport
facilitated by special carrier proteins
concentration gradient.
directions depending upon the
concentration to higher
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movement of molecules o r ions

from a region of lower
b. Active transport: It is the a n active process.
this is a n "'up hill' transport and
concentration. Energy (ATP) is spent for this process. Hence,
Na /K* pump is a n example for this.
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C. Cytoplasm: it.
throughout in
cytosol. It contains all the cell-organelles dispersed
It is also called
the plasma membrane is called ectoplasm.
Cytoplasm present just below
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Cytoplasm which is internal is called endoplasm.

amino acids, t-RNA, nucleotides,
vitamins, proteins and
contains water, minerals, sugars,
Cytoplasm
enzymes etc.
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d. Cell Organelles: organelles are non-

subunit present in a cell. It has a specific function. Prokaryotic
An organelle is specialized
a membrane-bound
lack nuclear membrane. Eukaryotic organelles
are
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membrane bound organelles i.e., they

double-membrane bound.
that may be a single o r a
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(i) Endomembrane System:

and vacuoles co-ordinate
Membranous organelles like endoplasmic
reticulum, golgi complex, lysosomes
endomembrane system (ES).
functionally and forms
(ii) Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Reticulum (ER)".
the term "Endoplasmic
first observed by Porter in 1945 and coined
It was

ER is absent in prokaryotic cels. cells.

mammalian RBC, o v a and embryonic
in all eukaryotic celils except mature
ER is present extraluminal (cytoplasm) regions.
cellular space into luminal (inside
ER) and
ER differentiates the smooth
reticulum is of two main types,
nature of its membranes, endoplasmic membrane and
nuclear
Depending upon the continuous with o n e another, plasma
of ER may be
and rough. The two types
to its
not attached
envelope. smooth walls because
ribosomes are

reticulum possess
Smooth endoplasmic
membranes.
 SER is found
abundantly in cells which are actively engaged in lipid metabolism and By en
metabolism.
SERspresent in muscles are called sarcoplasmic reticulum
to he
the
Kough endoplasmic reticuhum have rough surface because ribosomes are
cytoplasmic face of the membrane. These ribosomes are concerned with protein synthesis.
attached
Structure:
ER may exist in three forms: Cisternae (lamellae), Vesicles and tubules.
Functions of Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER):
I t is specialised in the synthesis of steroids. lipids and
Synthesis of glycogen as well as glycogenolysis (hydrolysis of glycogen) in liver cels.

As sarcoplasmic reticulum, it stores Ca2 for release during muscle contraction

Functions of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER);:

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It provides enzyme precursors for the formation of lysosomes by golgi complex.

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Ribosomes are the sites of protein synthesis.
(ii) Golgi Complex: of smoot
structure up made
suggests, is a complex cytoplasmic

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Golgi Complex as the name
vesicles and vacuoles, which takes part n
membrane saccules or cisternae, a network of tubules with
biochemicals.
membrane transformation, secretion and production of complex

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It was discovered by Camillo Golgi (1898).
called dictyosomes.
Golgi apparatus of plants and lower invertebrates
are
and
of clear cytoplasnm, which is
devoid of cell organelles
Golgi complex by
is surrounded a zone
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glycogen. This is called zone of exclusion.
Structure:
distinct regions:
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Golgi complex consists of three functionally

The flattened sac or cisternae
cisternae.
membrane bound saccules or
It consists of a stack of generally 4-8 (range 3-20)
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thickness.
cisternae are smooth but of variable
T h e membranes of the saccules or
One face of the
a definitive polarity
to the golgi apparatus.
The saccules are frequently curved to give while
concave. The convex side is
called forming face (cis-face)
while the other is
apparatus is convex
face (trans-face).
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the c o n c a v e side is known as the maturing

Functions: secretion to the
for concentrating and pouring their
All glandular cells depend upon golgi complex
outside.
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of formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Golgi apparatus is the important with
Acrosome a n important
constituent of the tip of animal sperms, is synthesized by golgi complex
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the help of its vesicles.

absorbed by intestinal epithelium are transferred as fat to lacteals through
Fatty acids and glycerol
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golgi complex.
(iv) Lysosomes:
Christian de Duve discovered lysosomes in 1949.
Iwsosomes occur in all eukaryotic cells except in mammalian RBC. They are abundant in cells which
Derform digestive functions such as macrophages, liver cells, pancreatic cels, kidney cells etc. Thesee
are filled with digestive enzymes concerned with intracellular digestion.
Sometimes it dissolves its own cell. Hence it is called suicidal bag.

The isolated lysosomal vesicles have been tound to be ich in almost all type of hydrolytic enzvmes

(hvdrolases lipases, proteases, carbonydrase) optimally active at the acidic pH. These enzvmes are
capable of digesting proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and nucleic acids.
Polymorphism in Lysosomes:
. Ivsosomes pass through various stages the same cell. I his phenomenon is called as
in

e of more than one morphological form.

hro four types of lysosomes-pimary, secondary,
are
Depending upon their morphologypolymorphism
and function,
residual bodies and
autophagic vacuoles.
 Functions:
ysosomes seem to essential for cell division perhaps by overcoming agents that cause represnion
mitotic cycle
Lysosomes take part in digestion of food obtained through phagosomes. It is known asintraceli

digestion.
(vVacuoles:
Fluid sap filled vesicles found in the cytopiasm of plant cells.
Vacuole is covered by a membrane called tonoplast.
contains water, minerals, colouring pigments aand
Vacuole contains a solution called cell sap. It

excretory products.
water soluble pigments, and waste products etc
Cell sap contains minerals, amino acids, proteins,

Functions is helpful in absorption of water, etetc.

maintain osmotic relation of cells which

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Its main function is to
food particles.
vacuoles are formed by engulfing the
I n many protistan cell, food

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between the cytoplasm and adjoining fiuids.
It exchange of solutes and gases
helps rapid
In Amoeba contractile vacuoles perform excretion.

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(vi) Mitochondria:
in all eukaryotes except mature RBCs of mammalk
Mitochondria are hollow, sac-like structures present
absent in all prokaryotes.
and sieve tubes of phloem. These are
Structure:

A mitochondrion is
measuring about 60
a

in thickness. ita
double membrane bound structure
with outer and inner membrane each
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and inner membrane is called outer
chamber or perimitochondrial
The space between the outer

space known as cristae.

out certain finger-like projections
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The inner mitochondrial membrane gives

which are the sites for ATP synthesis.
Cristae bears certain projection called oxysomes
ribosome and different enzymes for Kreb's cycle.
Mitochondrial matrix consists of DNA, 70S and 55S
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DNA, it is regarded as a semi-autonomous cell organelle. The mitochondra

Due to the presence of
divide by fission.
(vi) Ribosomes:
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mammaian
and eukaryotes (absent in mature
These are the only cell organelle found in both prokaryotes
RBCs). These are the sites of protein synthesis.
are the smallest organelle in the body
and are non-membrane bound cell organelle.
They
Ribosomes were observed by George Palade by means of Electron Microscope.
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either in the cytoplasm or attached to the outer surface of endoplasmic

Ribosomes occur freely
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reticulum.
Ribosomes seen within organelles like mitochondria and plastids are named as organellarribosomes
it is called 70 S and in
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Two basic types of ribosomes are recognized in the cells. In prokaryotes,

sedimentation coefficient.
eukaryotes it is 80 S. This distinction is based on size and
(vii) Plastids:
Plastids are distinct and double-membrane bound organelles of the plant cells.
is coined by Schimper in 1885. They are associated with the biosynthesis ot
The term "plastid"
carbohydrates and storage of reserve materials.
Types of Plastids:
Plastids contain a stack of thylakoids and stoma, which is an aqueous fluid.
Based on the structure, pigments and function, the plastids are classified into chloroplasts, chrormoplast5
and leucoplasts.
(1) Chloroplasts found in the cells of green parts of plants. They contain the green
are pigmen
chlorophyll associated with carotenoids. They are associated with photosynthesis.
 (2) Chromopiasts are coloured plastids because of the abundance of carotenoids. They are found in the
coloured parts of plant such as flowers, pericarps of fruits etc.
(3) Leucoplasts are colourless plastids, not associated with any pigment. They are found in storage
organs e.g underground stem and roots. Depending on storage material, they are classified into
amyloplasts (starch), elaioplasts (lipid and found in seeds) and aleuroplasts (proteins are found in
seeds).
(ix) Chloroplast:
Green in colour and involved in photosynthesis and contains chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments.
Structure of Chloroplast:
It is a double membrane organelle
The inner membrane encioses a space filled with proteinaceous fluid cailed stroma.
reaction.
Stroma contains DNA, ribosomes and enzymes for dark
Membrane bound sac-like structures embedded in the stroma forms the thylakoids.

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At certain piaces thylakoids get arranged in stacks or groups called grana (singular: granum) Adjacent

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grana by frets or stromal thylakoids.
are interconnected
membrane.
Photosynthetic pigments are located in the lipid part of thylakoid
takes place in the thylakoid membrane. Dark reaction place in

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takes
Light phase of photosynthesis
stroma.
Carotenoids are carotene and xanthophylls, which are collectively known as accessory pigments.

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(x) Microbodies

Microbodies are tiny, ovoid or spherical membrane bound vesicles, found in close association with

endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria

and chloroplast.
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take part in oxidation rather than those involved in respiration.
These absorb molecular oxygen and
Microbodies are of two types-peroxisomes and glyoxysomes.
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a. Peroxisomes:
bodies.
Single membrane bound
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Found in both plant and animal cells.

metabolism and detoxification.
Help in hydrogen peroxide
These are the sites of photorespiration in plants.
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b. Glyoxysomes:
for beta-oxidation of fatty acids and glyoxylate
Seen only in plant cell and contain enzymes
pathway
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(ix) Cytoskeletal Elements:

the movement, shape and
I t is a complex set of protein fibres found in the cytoplasm. These control
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structural characteristics of a cell.

slime moulds and a few others possess the
All eukaryotic cells except mature mammalian RBC,
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cytoskeleton.
fibres:
There are three major classes of cytoskeletal bodies of
centrioles
and flagella and basal
a) Microtubules: 24 nm diameter e.g., in cilia -

b) Microfilaments: 7 nm diameter - e-g, actin, myosin

CIntermediate filaments: 7- 1 nm diameter e.g., keratinfilaments

u Locomotory and attachment structures -
Cilia and Flagella
from that in eukaryotes.
prokaryotes, structure of Cilia and Flagella is different
Prokaryotic Cilia and Flagella:
hook and basal body.
flagellum is composed of filament,
Dacterial made up of flagelin proteins.
is a hollow, rigid, cylindrical cell to the cell by the basal
anent hook, which is
anchored
into curved tubular
lament is inserted a

body
Flagella are locomotory organs in motile bacteria.
 Eukaryotic Cilia and Flagella:
The cilia is numerous and shorter while flagella are longer
Both flagellum and cilium are embedded in a basal body and is made up ot a central axial
fibre
(or axoneme) covered by an outer membrane.
single central microtubules. Thi.
his is
pairs of peripheral and
two
Each axoneme consists of nine
cilia and flagella.
is universal for all eukaryotic
the 9+2 arrangement. This arrangement
and connected to each other by a
bridge.
The two central ones are covered by a sheath
are

Each peripheral microtubule is a doublet.

(xii) Centrosome and Centrioles:
Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called centrioles. Both #the

centrioles in a centrosome lie perpendicular to each other.

fibrils of tubulin protein. Each of the periphel
They are made up of nine evenly spaced peripheral
also linked.
fibril is a triplet. The adjacent triplets are

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and called the nub which is
of the centriole is proteinaceous
The central part of the proximal region

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radial spokes made of protein.
connected with tubules of the peripheral triplets by
fibres are formed of centrioles.
The basal body of cilia, flagella and spindle

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xiv) Nucleus:

Structure:
cells.
The nucleus was first discovered by Robert Brown in 1883 in orchid
It is made up of following parts:
(a) Nuclear Membrane:
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Double membrane sheath; Two membranes are separated by perinuclear space.
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Outer membrane is in contact with endoplasmic reticulum at certain points and contains
ribosomes on its outer surface making it rough.
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Perinuclear space is filled with a fluid.

(b) Nucleoplasm:
It is chemically formed of water, sugar, minerals, nucleotides, enzymes, (DNA polymerases
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and RNA polymerases), m-RNA and RNA molecules.

It is transparent, homogenous, semi-fluid ground substance present inside the nuclear
membrane in which nuclear chromatin and nucleoli are embedded.
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(c) Nucleolus:
Nucleolus was discovered by Fontana in 1781.
They are spherical structures present in the nucleoplasm and is non-membranous structure
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It is often associated with secondary constriction of a chromosome called nucleolar

organizer regions. Such chromosomes are called nucleolar chromosomes.
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(d) Chromatin:
It is a condensed structure made up of a complex of DNA and protein. It is found in eukaryotic
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cells. It helps the long double helical DNA strands to become more compact, For more details,
Scan the code
thereby preventing DNA damage during cell division.
Its protein component is called as histones, which binds to DNA.
Every chromosome has a primary constriction or the centromere on the
sides of which disc shaped structures called kinetochores are present.
Based on the position of the centromere the chromosomes can be classified

as
centromere in the middle forming two equal arms.
a) Metacentric chromosome with
chromosome with centromere slightly away from the middle of the
i) Sub-metacentric
chromosome.
chromosome with centromere situated close to its end forming one short
(ii) Acro-centric
and one long arm.
with a terminal centromere
Telocentric chromosome
(iv)