Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 13 (2022) 100548

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/transportation-
research-interdisciplinary-perspectives

Risk perceptions of COVID-19 transmission in different travel modes

Niaz Mahmud Zafri a, *, Asif Khan a, Shaila Jamal b, Bhuiyan Monwar Alam c
a
Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh
b
School of Earth, Environment & Society, McMaster University, 1280 Main St. West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
c
Department of Geography & Planning, University of Toledo, OH 43606, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: COVID-19 pandemic has caused adverse impacts on different aspects of life around the globe, including travelers’
Travel mode mode choice behavior. To make their travel safe, transportation planners and policymakers need to understand
Risk perception people’s perceptions of the risk of COVID-19 transmission in different travel modes. This study aimed to estimate
COVID-19
mode-wise perceived risk of viral transmission and identify the factors that influenced the perceived risk in
Psychology
Modal shift
Bangladesh. The study used a five-point Likert scale to measure the perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission in
each travel mode. Using ordinal logistic regression models, the study explored the factors that influenced the
perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission in different travel modes. The study found that people perceived a very
high risk of viral transmission in public transport (bus), moderate risk in shared modes (rickshaw, auto-rickshaw,
ridesharing), and very low risk in private modes (private car, motorcycle/scooter, walking, cycling). Such high-
risk perception of viral transmission in public transport and shared modes might lead to a modal shift to private
modes, which would worsen urban transport problems and undermine sustainable transportation goals. The
study also found that socio-economic factors (gender, age, income) significantly influenced perceived risks in all
travel modes. Contrarily, psychological factors (worry, care, and trust) were significant only for public and
shared modes, but not for private modes. Lastly, travel behavior-related factors influenced perceived risk in
shared and private modes.

Background of 18 June 2021, approximately 178 million people worldwide have

been infected by COVID-19, resulting in 3.86 million deaths (World­
Contagious diseases have been impacting the world for many cen­ ometer, 2020).
turies (Zafri et al., 2021). The Spanish Flu, a particular type of influenza, Climate change and other human-induced factors, including
emerged in 1918, resulting in around 500 million people being infected encroachment into the forests, have increased the frequencies of the
and ten percent of the infected people died (CDC, 2009). Severe Acute epidemic and pandemic events and their intensities (Boukerche and
Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) is an ongoing worldwide pandemic that Mohammad-Roberts, 2020; Stanford, 2020). It seems that even if we
emerged in Hong Kong in 2003, resulting in about 8,500 infections; manage to curb COVID-19 at some point, new pandemics will emerge.
more than one-tenth of whom died so far (WHO, 2003). The H1N1, also People’s response to different incidences of pandemic outbreaks has
known as Influenza A, was a short-lived pandemic between 2009 and been quite similar (Muley et al., 2020). Therefore, we should be pre­
2010, mainly affecting the U.S. and Mexico (Al-Muharrmi, 2010). pared to minimize the effects of pandemics by taking lessons from past
Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), caused by the novel Coro­ and present experiences. Research on the COVID-19 pandemic covering
navirus MERS-CoV, affected more than 27 countries after starting from various aspects will be helpful to fight this and future emerging
Saudi Arabia in 2012 (Killerby et al., 2020). Besides these, some other pandemic situation.
contagious diseases, such as Seasonal Dengue and Chikungunya, Dip­ Previous studies suggest that a confined space has a higher proba­
theria, Plague, Foot and Mouth Disease, Bird Flu, Swine Flu, Ebola, Zika bility of COVID-19 transmission (Tirachini and Cats, 2020). The impli­
Virus, Cholera, and Yellow Fever have impacted locally and regionally cation for transportation is that the modes in which passengers ride with
(WHO, 2020). The latest and devastating one, named COVID-19, con­ others in a confined space are likely to be unsafe compared to the modes
tinues to profoundly impact the world in all aspects of people’s lives. As in which people travel alone or share with a small number of people

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (N.M. Zafri), [email protected] (A. Khan), [email protected] (S. Jamal), [email protected] (B.M. Alam).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trip.2022.100548
Received 24 June 2021; Received in revised form 14 January 2022; Accepted 16 January 2022
Available online 20 January 2022
2590-1982/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N.M. Zafri et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 13 (2022) 100548

known to them (De Vos, 2020). The virus can also spread by touching Literature review
the surface contaminated by Coronavirus germs from infected people
and touching the nose or mouth afterward (ECDC, 2020). There is high People’s perception and travel behavior
chance of this occurrence in public and shared transport modes.
Therefore, a large number of people reduced their travel by public and The relationships among people’s perception, attitude, and behavior
shared transport modes and shifted towards active and private transport have received attention from different disciplines (Reibstein et al.,
modes since the detection of COVID-19 (Bhaduri, 2020; Shakibaei et al., 1980). From the social psychology perspective, the “Theory of Planned
2021; Zhang, 2021; Zafri et al., 2021). Researchers assumed that peo­ Behaviour” by Ajzen (Ajzen et al., 1985) has been widely used to explain
ple’s perception of risk in different travel modes could influence their mode choice behavior. According to the theory, an individual’s behavior
decision regarding mode choice (Tirachini and Cats, 2020; De Vos, and action are guided by the perceptions and attitudes they possess.
2020; Budd and Ison, 2020). Therefore, it is necessary to understand Beliefs about a factor or phenomena can control the decision regarding
people’s perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission in different modes. furthering or hindering a particular behavior (Ajzen et al., 1985).
This understanding would also be helpful to predict mode choice Therefore, if perception and attitude dictate behavior, then behavior
behavior during the COVID-19 pandemic as well as for the future towards an entity can be changed by altering people’s perception of that
emerging pandemic. entity (Reibstein et al., 1980). This can be done by altering its traits or
Muley, Shahin (Muley et al., 2020) systematically reviewed the sci­ persuading people to change their perceptions. Another study concluded
entific literature on the relationship between transportation and pan­ that “choice of travel mode is largely a reasoned decision”, and if cir­
demics to understand transportation’s role in controlling infectious cumstances remain unchanged, the travel mode choice also will remain
diseases and the impacts of these events on different transportation as­ relatively stable or unchanged [Bamberg et al., 2003, p. 175]. There
pects. Through their comprehensive review, they were in a well-placed might be a possibility that this pandemic might change travel behavior
position to identify future research areas on these topics. According to circumstances by changing people’s perception of the risk of viral
them, there is limited research on the change in travel behavior due to transmission in different travel modes (Muley et al., 2020).
pandemics and recommended examining travelers’ perception of the Before the pandemic, in general, it was found that there were dif­
risk of infection and their attitude towards different transportation ferences in the perception of public transport users and non-users
modes. To the best of our knowledge, no existing empirical study has regarding characteristics of travel by public transport and car (Reib­
examined people’s perceptions about the risk of COVID-19 transmission stein et al., 1980). It indicates that users of different transportation
in different travel modes. To address this gap, we conducted a ques­ modes perceive a set of attributes differently. Therefore, it is likely that
tionnaire survey in Bangladesh to explore individuals’ perceived risk of perceptions of particular attributes associated with modes can lead
COVID-19 transmission in different modes and identify factors that people to prefer one mode over the others.
influenced their perceived risks. A study that examined the influence of a few factors contributing to
Bangladesh experienced health emergencies at different scales in the choosing a travel destination found that perception of risks and safety
last two decades, but none was more devastating than the COVID-19 played an important role in avoiding certain destinations (Sönmez and
(Zafri et al., 2021). The first confirmed COVID-19 case in Bangladesh Graefe, 1998). The study also found that the level of safety perceptions
was recorded on 8 March 2020 (GoB, 2021). The number of registered varied from person to person. These findings imply that the perception
infected people stood at 844,970 , including 13.5 thousand casualties, of risk and safety is likely to be an important determinant of travel
till 18 June 2021 (GoB, 2021). The actual number of infections is likely behavior. These findings are also consistent with the findings of Spears,
to be higher due to underreporting of COVID-19 cases in Bangladesh Houston (Spears et al., 2013). They found that personal safety concern is
(Biswas et al., 2020). In the initial period, government responses a strong predictor of travel by public transport even after controlling
included border control, closure of offices, businesses, educational in­ other factors such as road network permeability and public transport
stitutions, lockdown of places, and restrictions on inter-city and intra- service quality.
city movements from 26 March 2020 (Zafri et al., 2021). This state
continued for about two months, after which all the activities were COVID-19 and travel behavior
gradually resumed, except the educational institutions (Zafri et al.,
2021). The perceived risk of COVID-19 was a significant factor that dictated
The educational institutions are still closed as Bangladesh experi­ human mobility and risk-taking behaviors. Human mobility signifi­
enced the second wave from early-March 2021, despite starting the cantly declined even before lockdowns were declared and other
vaccination drive from 7 February 2021 (The Daily Star, 2021). The restrictive measures were imposed to confine viral transmission in the
highest number of COVID-19 infection cases per day was recorded on 7 regions where people had more risk-averse attitudes (Chan et al., 2020).
April 2021, when the number reached 7,626 (The Daily Star, 2021). A Lockdowns and restrictive measures declared by governments and the
new record was created when 112 people died of Coronavirus in severity of local outbreaks considerably influenced human mobility
Bangladesh on 19 April 2021 (The Daily Star, 2021). behavior during the COVID-19 (Zafri et al., 2021; Pan et al., 2020). Day-
Regarding the country’s overall transportation system, different sizes to-day travel reduced significantly due to these governmental measures
of buses make up the public transport system in Bangladesh (DTCA, (Tirachini and Cats, 2020; Zafri et al., 2021; Bucsky, 2020). For example,
2015). The public transport service was allowed to resume from 1 June only one-tenth of the people in Karachi, Pakistan, made outdoor trips
2020 after the first wave, on the condition of following some strict (Balkhi, 2020). Businesses, offices, and educational institutions were
hygiene-related and safety guidelines (Zafri et al., 2021; The Daily Star, closed down while the places providing essential services kept running
2020). The services were temporarily suspended again from 5 April (Mahase, 2020). Non-essential activities were performed virtually on a
2021 for a month as the country gradually went under strict lockdown limited scale (Astroza et al., 2020). Enormous economic damage resul­
following the second wave (Zafri et al., 2021). Since 6 May 2021, public ted in the world. The GDP growth rate reduced from 3% to 2.4% in 2020
transport services have been running again at 50% capacity and (Duffin, 2020). One of the main reasons behind this was the immobility
charging 60% extra fare under new directives. However, due to the lack of individuals and goods due to the pandemic.
of enforcement of the rules, the directives are hardly being followed Due to the negative pressure on the economic sector, restrictive
(Shafiq, 2021). measures were gradually lifted, and the volume of trips started to in­
crease, although it has not reached the pre-COVID-19 levels (Zafri et al.,
2021). Some companies are functioning virtually, and quite a high
proportion of educational institutions remain closed or are operating

2
N.M. Zafri et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 13 (2022) 100548

online (Holmes, 2020). Those who needed to travel were encouraged following the literature review. It was revised after pilot testing. Once
and compelled in some countries to adopt personal safety measures the questionnaire was finalized, we hired five surveyors to disseminate
outdoors and in public places (Al Jazeera, 2020). Within a few months of the questionnaire through electronic means. The survey was promoted
the pandemic’s arrival, there was an indication of travel behavior in social media pages and groups through Facebook advertisements,
change. Apart from reduced travel, people have changed their trip using personal and professional networks, as well as by contacting the
purpose, travel mode, destination, and travel distance (Abdullah, 2020; administrators of social media pages and groups to share the survey
Bhaduri, 2020; Muley et al., 2020; Shakibaei et al., 2021; Tokey,; Zafri questionnaire. Facebook advertisements and all other steps helped
et al., 2021). For instance, the modal share of public transport in collect data from a diverse sample by reaching a broader audience of
Budapest, Hungary dropped from 43% to 18% (Bucsky, 2020). The main Bangladesh. To inform the respondents about the survey, we mentioned
beneficiaries of the COVID-19 were private cars and cycles. Their share the purpose of the study, the information to be collected, and the
rose from 43% to 65% and from 2% to 4%, respectively (Bucsky, 2020). confidentiality of the collected information in the questionnaire. The
While this scenario was observed in Budapest during mobility re­ questions and instructions were written in English and Bengali–the local
strictions, similar situations were experienced in other countries in the language–so that, people were clear about what to do and felt
post-lockdown period during the pandemic. For example, a study con­ comfortable while responding. Participation in the survey was volun­
ducted by Abdullah, Dias (Abdullah, 2020), based on a questionnaire tary. We used non-random sampling techniques to select samples for the
survey of 1,203 people across more than fifteen countries, found that the survey as this technique was the most feasible sampling technique
modal share of private vehicles increased from 32% to 39%. At the same during the early pandemic (Shakibaei et al., 2021; Zafri et al., 2021). We
time, for public transport, it decreased from 36% to 13% for primary trip received 804 responses from all over Bangladesh, and all of them were
purposes during COVID-19. Considerable reductions in travel by public complete and valid. The spatial distribution of the collected samples is
transport are likely to be related to perceptions of transmission risks on presented in Fig. 1.
board (Tirachini and Cats, 2020). Studies conducted during the pre­ Conducting a face-to-face survey was impractical and unsafe during
liminary days of COVID-19 had hypothesized that people were likely to the COVID-19 pandemic and would violate the physical/social
avoid public transport owing to the difficulty in ensuring a safe physical distancing restrictions. Therefore, we conducted an online survey, for
distance inside the vehicle (De Vos, 2020; Zafri et al., 2021). which our study has some limitations like other COVID-19 related
studies conducted in the same way [e.g., Abdullah, 2020; Bhaduri, 2020;
COVID-19 and risk perception Shakibaei et al., 2021; Zafri et al., 2021]. Our online survey might not
have covered people from all socio-economic groups, especially people
Risk perception refers to the instinctive evaluation of the people who did not have internet access. A large portion of the respondents
regarding a hazard they might be exposed to (Cori et al., 2020). were young adults and belonged to the higher socio-economic groups of
Analyzing risk perception and identifying factors influencing risk Bangladesh (Table 1), similar to other online survey-based studies
perception are important for understanding people’s risk-taking (Bhaduri, 2020). We acknowledge this limitation of our survey.
behavior. People who perceive lower risk tend to take more risky
behavior and less preventive measures to protect them from the hazard
(Adefuye et al., 2009). Only a few studies have analyzed public risk
perceptions of the COVID-19 pandemic (Bruine de Bruin, 2020; Dry­
hurst, 2020; He et al., 2021; Ding et al., 2020). In summary, risk per­
ceptions of COVID-19 are influenced by several individual factors,
which can be categorized into two broad categories—socio-economic
factors and psychological factors.
Among the socio-economic factors, gender and age of the people are
the most important determinants of risk perceptions of the COVID-19
pandemic. Females and older people perceive higher risk than males
and younger people, respectively (Bruine de Bruin, 2020; Ding et al.,
2020). People from higher-income groups perceive higher risk than
lower-income groups (He et al., 2021). People with more knowledge
who regularly keep themselves updated on pandemic information have a
higher risk perception than others (Ding et al., 2020; Abir et al., 2020;
Chen et al., 2020). People living with children or having household
members with chronic diseases perceive a higher risk of COVID-19 (He
et al., 2021).
Among the psychological factors, trust and concerns (worries)
significantly influence the risk perception of COVID-19 (Dryhurst, 2020;
Khosravi, 2020). People with higher trust in preventive strategies and
government and medical professionals have lower risk perceptions of
COVID-19. People who worry much about the impact of COVID-19
perceive a higher level of risk. The rest of the significant psychological
predictors of risk perception are personal experience with the virus,
individualistic and prosocial values, and individual and collective effi­
cacy (Cori et al., 2020; Dryhurst, 2020).

Methodology

Data collection

We administrated a web-based survey between July and August Fig. 1. Distribution of the collected sample across eight administrative di­
2020. The method started with constructing a draft questionnaire visions of Bangladesh.

3
N.M. Zafri et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 13 (2022) 100548

Table 1 retire before they are 60 years (for example, the retirement age for
Summary statistics of the independent variables. government employees is 59 years). In addition, young and middle-aged
Variable Note % Mean people are students and working-age people, and they have the most
travel demand. On the other hand, older people have limited travel
Socio-economic variables
Gender Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent is 67.0 demand, and due to the pandemic, their travel demand has decreased
male; 0 otherwise more. In conclusion, it could be said that although 804 samples collected
Age group 1 Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent is 83.6 through non-random sampling might not describe the risk perception of
young (aged < 30 years); 0 otherwise the people with the highest level of precision, it was sufficient to get an
Age group 2 Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent is 16.0
middle-aged (aged 30–60 years);
overall idea by achieving a decent precision and discuss the conse­
0 otherwise quences and formulate policy recommendations.
Age group 3 Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent is old 0.4 We collected the data on ‘perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission in
(aged greater than 60 years); 0 otherwise different modes’ on a five-point Likert scale ranging from ‘extremely
Income group 1 Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent is 19.7
low = 1′ to ‘extremely high = 5′ covering the usual modes used in
from the low-income group (<20000
BDT); 0 otherwise Bangladesh—bus, private car, motorcycle/scooter, cycling, rickshaw
Income group 2 Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent is 55.8 (three-wheeler non-motorized human paddled mode carrying 1–2 pas­
from the middle-income group sengers), auto-rickshaw (three-wheeler motorized mode carrying 1–4
(20000–60000 BDT); 0 otherwise passengers, locally known as CNG), ridesharing, and walking. Travel
Income group 3 Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent is 24.3
from the high-income group (>60000
behavior-related data such as regular transport mode and vehicle
BDT); 0 otherwise ownership (e.g., car, motorcycle, bicycle) and respondents’ socio-
Household size Number of people in the household 4.55 demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, income, and living ar­
Place of living Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent is 64.7 rangements) were collected as well. We also asked a set of perception-
from a divisional district; 0 otherwise
based questions to understand how the respondents perceived the
Psychological variables
Confidence in one’s Agreement with the statement (Five-point 2.35 COVID–19 transmission risks while using different transport modes.
immune system Likert scale: 1 = Strongly disagree, 5 =
Strongly agree): “I feel that my immune Data analysis
system is very strong, and I am less likely
to be affected by the COVID19.”
First, we conducted a descriptive analysis (e.g., preparing graphs and
Trust in preventive Agreement with the statement (Five-point 4.13
strategies Likert scale: 1 = Strongly disagree, 5 = tables) to estimate the perceived risk scores of COVID-19 transmission in
Strongly agree): “The more we take different travel modes and identify possible reasons behind those results.
precautions and follow the health We also conducted a one-way ANOVA test and Games-Howell post-hoc
guidelines, the less is the risk of being
test to reveal any significant difference among mean risk perception
affected by the COVID-19.”
Worry about the Agreement with the statement (Five-point 4.04 scores of different travel modes. Finally, we ran separate ordinal logistic
health impact Likert scale: 1 = Strongly disagree, 5 = regression models to identify the contributory factors of the perceived
Strongly agree): “I am worried about the risk of COVID-19 transmission in each travel mode. Ordinal logistic
health impacts of COVID-19 in regression attempts to model the relationship between an ordinal
Bangladesh.”
dependent variable and one or more independent variables (Harrell and
Care about risk Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent does 14.8
not care; 0 otherwise Harrell, 2015). In this study, the perceived risk of COVID-19 trans­
Keeping updated Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent keeps 75.2 mission of each travel mode was the dependent variable, which was
about pandemic 1 update regularly (at least once a day); measured on a five-point Likert scale. So, the dependent variable is an
0 otherwise
ordinal variable in nature. Therefore, ordinal logistic regression models
Keeping updated Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent keeps 11.6
about pandemic 2 update occasionally (at least once a week);
were the appropriate method for this study. The socio-economic char­
0 otherwise acteristics of the respondents, their psychological perceptions about
Keeping updated Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent keeps 13.2 COVID-19, as well as their travel behavior-related variables were used as
about pandemic 3 update rarely; 0 otherwise independent variables to develop the model (Table 1). Description and
Travel behavior-related variables
summary statistics of the independent variables are presented in Table 1.
Car ownership Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent’s 29.7
household owned any private car; The ordinal regression model estimates coefficient (β), odds ratio
0 otherwise (OR), and p-value for each independent variable. P-value shows which
Motorcycle Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent’s 30.5 independent variables have a statistically significant impact on the
ownership household owned any motorcycle;
perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission. In addition, a positive coeffi­
0 otherwise
Bicycle ownership Dummy variable: 1 if the respondent’s 67.4
cient (β) of an independent variable indicates that the perceived risk of
household owned any bicycle; 0 otherwise COVID-19 transmission increases with an increase in that variable, and a
Regular use travel Dummy variable: 1 if public transport; 30.8 negative coefficient (β) indicates the opposite. OR is the exponential of
mode 1 0 otherwise the coefficient (β). For positive coefficient (β), OR value is found to be
Regular use travel Dummy variable: 1 if walking; 0 otherwise 19.5
greater than one; whereas, OR value becomes less than one when the
mode 2
Regular use travel Dummy variable: 1 if shared mode (e.g., 26.9 coefficient is negative. For a categorical independent variable, if the OR
mode 3 CNG (auto-rickshaw), rickshaw, value is found X for one outcome of that variable, then the perceived risk
ridesharing); 0 otherwise of COVID-19 transmission is X times lower or higher for that outcome
Regular use travel Dummy variable: 1 if private mode (e.g., 22.8 compared to the second outcome of that independent variable. For ­
mode 4 cycling, motorcycle, car); 0 otherwise
continuous/ ordinal (Likert scale type) independent variables, if the OR
value is found X, a single unit increase in that variable will increase/
However, from Table 1, the sample characteristics of the respondents decrease the perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission X times.
show that we were able to collect the sample from a diverse group of
people of Bangladesh despite facing some challenges. Also, a large
sample from young and middle-aged groups for a study like this should
not be a significant concern in the case of Bangladesh, as people mostly

4
N.M. Zafri et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 13 (2022) 100548

Results and discussion travel modes. Mean scores varied between 1.56 and 4.24 on a 5-point
scale, indicating a mode-wise enormous difference in perceived risks
Mode-wise perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission of viral transmission. The perceived risk was found to be the highest for
the bus (4.24), followed by ridesharing (3.51), auto-rickshaw (CNG)
Fig. 2 shows the distribution as well as the mean and standard de­ (3.34), rickshaw (3.07), motorcycle/scooter (1.92), cycling (1.81),
viation scores of the perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission for eight walking (1.80), and private car (1.56). One-way ANOVA confirmed a

Fig. 2. Mode-wise perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission (5-point Likert scale: 1 = extremely low, 5 = extremely high).

5
N.M. Zafri et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 13 (2022) 100548

significant difference in the perceived risk levels (F(7, 6424) = 669.45, Table 3
p = 0.000) (Table 2). A Games-Howell post-hoc test revealed significant Descriptive statistics of supplementary questions.
differences among the modes (p < 0.01), except walking, motorcycle/ Question Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly
scooter, and cycling (Table 2). The eight travel modes could be cate­ disagree (%) agree nor (%) agree
gorized under three broad categories, based on the mean scores and (%) disagree (%)
(%)
mean difference of perceived risk as well as mode characteristics. These
three broad categories are public transport (bus), shared mode/ para- Social/physical 37.7 35.6 10.4 12.1 4.2
transit (CNG, rickshaw, and ridesharing), and private modes (private distancing is
possible in public
car, motorcycle/scooter, cycling, and walking). The perceived risk was transport.
the lowest for private modes and the highest for public transport modes. Social/physical 7.6 8.5 14.9 44.8 24.3
The risk level was found as ‘moderate’ for the shared modes. distancing is
A set of supplementary questions was asked to identify the reasons possible in
private modes.
behind the mode-wise perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission of the
The bus is a suitable 10.2 6.1 7.6 31.2 44.9
respondents on a five-point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ mode for
to ‘strongly agree’. The percentages of the responses to those statements spreading
are presented in Table 3. Results show that more than 70% of the re­ infectious
spondents disagreed with the statement that it is possible to maintain diseases like
COVID-19.
social/physical distancing in public transport modes, while about the Since multiple 8.5 12.3 13.1 43.5 22.6
same portion of respondents agreed that it is possible to maintain it in passengers use
private modes. In addition, around 76% of the respondents agreed that share modes,
the bus was a suitable transport mode for spreading infectious diseases there will be less
possibility of
like COVID-19. About 66% agreed that the probability of maintaining
disinfecting
hygiene (or disinfecting) in shared modes was less as multiple passen­ them.
gers use them. Furthermore, 75% of the respondents agreed that it was Maintaining 7.5 7.8 9 36.6 39.2
easier to maintain hygiene (e.g., sanitizing, and wearing gloves and hygiene in
masks) in personal vehicles than public transport and shared modes. private modes is
easier compared
Lastly, around 60% of respondents agreed that using a helmet in a
to public and
motorcycle/scooter would help to prevent the spread of COVID-19. shared modes of
Public transport can be considered a transmission ground for a virus. transportation.
It could bring infected and non-infected passengers close to each other, Wearing a helmet in 9.5 11.7 19 41.8 18
a motorcycle/
where it might be difficult to avoid contact with the infected passenger
scooter will
(Troko et al., 2011). In Bangladesh, ensuring personal hygiene and provide
maintaining social distancing in public transport is very difficult because additional
of extreme overcrowding inside the bus, human-to-human interactions, protection from
fare payment by cash, vehicles’ limitations (e.g., entering and exiting the spread of
COVID-19.
using a single door, insufficient space between two rows of seats), and
lack of effort for disinfecting the bus regularly (Islam, 2020). Therefore,
it is reasonable that the perceived risk of viral transmission was the modal shift from bus/metro to private cars due to the pandemic, are
highest for public transport modes. If an infected passenger uses a shared consistent with this speculation (Ipsos, 2020). Also, in India, 35% of
mode, its exposed surfaces become transfer points of the virus to other people were likely to change their travel mode for work trips during the
passengers who will touch the same surfaces. On the other hand, people post-COVID-19 period, and they would mostly shift from public trans­
could use private modes in the way they wanted and could take any port to private modes (Thakur et al., 2020). This modal shift might bring
preventive measures anytime to protect them from being infected by the an unprecedented negative impact on the urban transportation system in
virus (De Vos, 2020; Bucsky, 2020). Therefore, people perceived private Bangladesh in a short period. One of the major problems that urban
modes safer than shared and public transport modes. areas in Bangladesh have already started facing is the high number of
Modal shift from public transport and shared modes to private modes private cars operating on the road (RAJUK, 2015). An increase in the
might be a probable outcome of the COVID-19 pandemic since people number of private cars might worsen the traffic congestion problem in
perceived that the risk of viral transmission in public transport and share urban Bangladesh. Besides, an increase in the number of motorcycles
modes is more than private modes. In Bangladesh, studies showed that might deteriorate traffic safety and complicate traffic management
the use of public buses and shared modes was likely to decrease, and the (DTCA, 2015; Zafri et al., 2021). Furthermore, the Government of
use of private modes (motorcycle, car) and active modes was likely to Bangladesh has been planning to improve the country’s public trans­
increase due to the pandemic (Abdullah, 2020; Anwari, 2021; Zafri portation system, including developing a mass transit system in Dhaka
et al., 2021; Zafri et al., 2021). Lessons from China, where there was a (e.g., MRT, BRT), which is under construction (DTCA, 2015; RAJUK,

Table 2
One-Way ANOVA test and Games-Howell (post-hoc) test results: Mean difference (p-value).
Private car Bus Rickshaw CNG Walk Motorcycle/scooter Bicycle Ridesharing

Private car –
Bus 2.6 (0.00) –
Rickshaw 1.5 (0.00) 1.1 (0.00) –
CNG 1.7 (0.00) 0.9 (0.00) 0.2 (0.00) –
Walking 0.2 (0.00) 2.4 (0.00) 1.2 (0.00) 1.5 (0.00) –
Motorcycle/scooter 0.3 (0.00) 2.3 (0.00) 1.1 (0.00) 1.4 (0.00) 0.1 (0.36) –
Cycling 0.2 (0.00) 2.4 (0.00) 1.2 (0.00) 1.5 (0.00) 0.0 (1.00) 0.1 (0.40) –
Ridesharing 1.9 (0.00) 0.7 (0.00) 0.4 (0.00) 0.1 (0.06) 1.7 (0.00) 1.5 (0.00) 1.7 (0.00) –
One-way ANOVA test results: F(7, 6424) = 669.45, p-value = 0.000

6
N.M. Zafri et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 13 (2022) 100548

2015). However, the declining share of public transport could affect the ridesharing), and cycling, indicating that male respondents perceived
process of improvement as well as the introduction of a mass transit less risk of viral transmission in these modes than their female coun­
system. Therefore, it could be reiterated that the expected modal shift terparts (Table 4). The middle-aged (30–60 years old) respondents
due to the COVID-19 pandemic might deteriorate the urban trans­ perceived more risk of viral transmission in auto-rickshaw (CNG),
portation system by increasing congestion, complicating traffic man­ rickshaw, motorcycle/scooter, and cycling than young respondents
agement, deteriorating traffic safety, and worsening air pollution. (Table 4). These results are consistent with the existing studies (Dry­
Increasing walk and bicycle trips could be the only positive side of the hurst, 2020; He et al., 2021; Ding et al., 2020), which show that females’
modal shift. However, it is unlikely to happen as most of the urban roads and older people’s perceived risk of COVID-19 is higher. According to
of Bangladesh are not pedestrian-friendly, and there is no mentionable these studies, females and older people are more risk-sensitive. There­
infrastructure and facility available to encourage bicycle use (Gallagher, fore, they engage in less risk-taking behaviors. They perceive themselves
2017). as more vulnerable, and their thoughts are more delicate than male and
young people.
Income was found to be a significant influencing factor for the
Factors influencing the perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission perceived risk of bus, walking, motorcycle/scooter, and cycling. The
low-income group perceived less risk of viral transmission in public
To determine the factors that influence the perceived risk of COVID- transportation, walking, motorcycle, and cycling than the higher income
19 transmission, separate ordinal logistic regression models for each group (Table 4). He, Chen (He et al., 2021) show that perceived risk
travel mode were developed. Table 4 presents the estimated coefficients regarding COVID-19 was higher among the higher income group. The
(β), odds ratios (OR), and p-values of the significant independent vari­ reason might be that the low-income group might be less aware of the
ables as well as summary statistics of the developed models. Model COVID-19 transmission risk in modes and more likely to be concerned
statistics show that all the models were statistically significant (p < about their livelihood than the higher income group. In addition, the
0.01). However, the pseudo R2 values for all the models are found to be higher income groups usually travel in private modes, and they rated the
low (highest for bus: 14%, lowest for walking: 2%). Low R2 values were transmission risk of the bus by comparing it with the mode they use
also found in previous studies related to COVID-19 risk perception regularly. Therefore, they perceived more risk on riding public trans­
(Dryhurst, 2020; Ding et al., 2020). The very low pseudo R2 values for portation modes. The higher income group who are not using private
private modes indicate that the significant independent variables in the modes is more likely to make a modal shift as they can afford a private
model were able to explain limited variation in the perceived risk of mode.
COVID-19 transmission. Interpretation of the results and discussion on
the results are presented in the following sections. Psychological variable
The model results show that psychological variables significantly
Socio-economic variable explain the variation in public transport and shared modes (Table 4).
Among the socio-economic variables, gender was found significant Worries about the health impact of COVID-19 had a significant positive
and negative for public transport (bus), shared modes (CNG, rickshaw,

Table 4
Results of ordinal logistic regression models.
Variables Public Shared mode/ Para-transit Private modes
transport
CNG Rickshaw Ridesharing Walking Private car Motorcycle Cycling
(bus)
β OR β OR β OR β OR β OR β OR β OR β OR

Intercepts (Thresholds)
Perceived risk = 1 − 2.4* 0.1 − 2.1* 0.1 − 1.5* 0.2 − 2.0* 0.1 0.1 1.1 0.1 1.1 − 0.3* 0.8 − 0.5* 0.6
Perceived risk = 2 − 0.7* 0.5 0.1 1.1 0.5** 1.7 − 0.1 0.9 1.5* 4.3 2.0* 7.3 1.2* 3.5 1.0* 2.7
Perceived risk = 3 0.2 1.2 1.5* 4.3 1.8* 6.1 1.1* 2.9 2.3* 10.2 3.5* 34.0 2.0* 7.6 1.9* 7.0
Perceived risk = 4 0.7** 2.0 2.7* 15.5 3.1* 21.6 2.2* 8.9 3.0* 19.8 4.3* 72.7 2.9* 18.7 2.7* 15.0
Socio-economic variable
Gender: Male − 0.3*** 0.7 − 0.5* 0.6 − 0.3** 0.7 − 0.3** 0.7 − 0.5* 0.6
Age group 2: Middle-aged 0.4** 1.5 0.4** 1.5 0.4** 1.5 0.5* 1.6
Income group 1: Low- − 0.5* 0.6 − 0.5* 0.6 − 0.5* 0.6
income group
Income group 3: High- 0.3** 1.4
income group
Psychological variable
Worry about the health 0.2** 1.2
impact
Trust in preventive 0.2* 1.3 0.4* 1.4 0.3* 1.3 0.3* 1.4
strategies
Care about risk: don’t care − 1.0* 0.4 − 0.7* 0.5 − 0.4* 0.7 − 0.6* 0.5
Travel behavior related variable
Car ownership − 0.6* 0.6
Regular use travel model 2: − 0.5* 0.6 − 0.3*** 0.7 − 0.7* 0.5
Walking
Regular use travel mode 3: − 0.3** 0.7
Shared mode
Regular use travel mode 4: 0.5* 1.7 0.7* 2.0 0.4** 1.4 − 0.4*** 0.7
Private mode
Model Statistics
Model fit (p-value) 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
Nagelkerke R square 0.14 0.12 0.09 0.09 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.60
(pseudo)
** ***
N.B.: *significant at a 99% confidence level; significant at a 95% confidence level; significant at a 90% confidence level.

7
N.M. Zafri et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 13 (2022) 100548

impact on the perceived risk of viral transmission in public trans­ highly unlikely that those who perceived shared modes as highly risky
portation. Trust in the preventive strategies variable had a significant would switch to public transport as they will require to share the vehicle
positive impact on the perceived risk of viral transmission in all public with more strangers. Therefore, individuals of this group may switch to
transport and shared modes. This impact was found negative for the care private modes as well. As most of the working population belongs to this
about risk variable. When we interpreted these results, we understood age group, a crucial consequence will occur for Bangladesh in terms
that the perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission in public transport and transportation demand management and a hindrance to ensure sus­
shared modes increased if the respondents were worried about the tainability in the transportation sector if these individuals switch to
health impact, had a higher level of trust in the preventive strategies, private modes. In addition, we found that the low-income group is less
and cared about risk. These results are consistent with previous studies, likely to perceive high risk of viral transmission in terms of using public
which suggested that the perception of risk was higher if the people were transport. One of the possible reasons could be unaffordability or lack of
worried about COVID-19 (Abir et al., 2020). Khosravi (Khosravi, 2020) alternative modes for them to travel as highlighted by Jamal et al.
argued that early concerns and trust of the public could assume a (2022). Therefore, they kept traveling by public transport during the
fundamental function in improving the apparent danger of a pandemic pandemic. As a result, confidence against possible viral transmission was
and expanding public interest in taking preventive measures. On the developed among them, and consequently, they perceived low risk while
other hand, the opposite result was found in the studies by Dryhurst, traveling by public transport.
Schneider (Dryhurst, 2020) and Cori, Bianchi (Cori et al., 2020), where Interestingly, psychological factors such as worry, care, and trust
they showed that a higher level of trust led to a lower level of risk were not significant for private modes, but they were significant for
perception. One explanation could be that people who have a higher public transport and shared modes. As the findings suggest, those con­
level of trust in preventive strategies might understand the difficulties of cerned about the health impact of COVID-19 and trust personal hygiene
maintaining these strategies in public transport and shared modes. preventive measures were more likely to perceive higher risk in terms of
Therefore, they perceive higher risk in these modes. One of the inter­ using public transport. Lastly, private mode users were highly likely to
esting findings is that none of the psychological variables showed a perceive shared modes as a risk mode regarding viral transmission. We
significant impact on the perceived risk of viral transmission in private can link these findings to the “Theory of Planned Behaviour” by Ajzen
modes. Therefore, authorities of public transport and shared modes need (Ajzen et al., 1985), and can conclude that individuals who are female,
to take steps to gain the passengers’ trust and reduce their concerns to between 30 and 60 years, do not fall within the low-income group, and
prevent the potential undesirable modal shift. are more concerned about health and hygiene likely to change their
travel mode as there has been a change in their perceptions regarding
Travel behavior-related variable viral transmission. Also, according to the theory, even though in­
Travel behavior-related variables were significant for shared modes dividuals’ beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes can be biased, these pro­
and private modes (Table 4). Respondents who used private modes for duce their corresponding behavioral intentions and ultimately,
regular travel perceived a significantly higher risk of COVID-19 trans­ individuals conduct the activity and show the behavior that is consistent
mission in shared modes and lower risk in private modes. In addition, with the beliefs, perceptions, and attitudes they possess (Ajzen et al.,
respondents who own a car perceive significantly lower risk in a private 1985; Bamberg et al., 2003). We cannot assert that similar implications
car. Besides, respondents who regularly travel on foot perceived low risk will be experienced in all developing countries as there is differences in
of viral transmission in walking, motorcycle, and cycling. Furthermore, transportation infrastructures, available transportation modes, their
respondents using shared modes for regular travel perceived lower risk affordability and public attitudes, beliefs and perceptions. However,
in cycling. Based on this result, it could be expected that no modal shift countries with comparable socio-economic and cultural backgrounds
from private modes is likely to happen as the private mode users with similar levels of transportation infrastructure may experience
perceived their existing travel modes as safer than others. However, an similar perceived risks in terms of using different transportation modes.
expected modal shift from shared modes to private modes, especially to The findings of this study also showed that people perceived very low
cycling, is possible if a favorable environment is provided. risk in active travel modes. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
COVID-19 provides an opportunity to improve of the active trans­
Conclusion portation system. The government should provide adequate in­
frastructures and facilities to make the urban areas pedestrian-friendly
To anticipate the impact of COVID-19 pandemic on people’s travel so that pedestrians feel encouraged to travel more by walking, especially
behavior, it is essential to understand people’s perception of the risk of in high-density areas and commercial hubs. Cycling mode needs to be
COVID-19 transmission in different travel modes. Therefore, this study given preference over the motorized modes. A comprehensive study
aimed to estimate the mode-wise perceived risk of viral transmission and should be undertaken to examine the needs of the cyclists to understand
identify the factors that influenced the perceived risk. The findings of the the problems they face and address those through appropriate measures.
study show that people perceived high risk of viral transmission in This study did not measure the actual risk of COVID-19 transmission
public transport (bus). On the other hand, they perceived moderate risk in different travel modes. Future studies might be conducted to measure
in shared modes (rickshaw, CNG, and ridesharing) and very low risk in actual and perceived risk to compare if respondents tend to overestimate
private modes (private car, motorcycle/scooter, walking, and cycling). or underestimate the actual risk. Besides, this study is based on the
Due to high-risk perceptions in public transport and shared modes, a survey conducted during the 1st wave of COVID-19 . Further studies
modal shift to private modes is possible. Unfortunately, such an increase could be conducted to examine how the perceived risk has changed over
in private modes’ trip share at the expense of public transport would time. Lastly, we conducted this study before the development of the
worsen urban transportation problems and undermine sustainable vaccine. Presently, vaccination campaigns are being carried out
transportation goals. throughout the world, including Bangladesh. It is likely that the
Findings also suggest that socio-economic factors such as gender, perceived risk of COVID-19 transmission in different travel modes has
age, and income significantly influence the perceived risk of all the changed after mass vaccination. Therefore, researchers should conduct
considered modes. According to the findings, females may reduce their further studies to analyze perceived risk after mass vaccination and
travel through public transport and shared modes of transport due to compare their results with the pre-vaccination period.
their perceived high risk of viral transmission. For the similar reason,
individuals between 30 and 60 years may reduce travel through shared CRediT authorship contribution statement
modes. Although we did not find any significant association between 30
and 60 year old people and the perceived risk of public transport, it is Niaz Mahmud Zafri: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal

8
N.M. Zafri et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 13 (2022) 100548

analysis, Investigation, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – Harrell, F.E., 2015. Ordinal Logistic Regression. In: Harrell, J.F.E. (Ed.), Regression
Modeling Strategies: With Applications to Linear Models, Logistic and Ordinal
review & editing. Asif Khan: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing
Regression, and Survival Analysis. Springer International Publishing, Cham,
– original draft, Writing – review & editing, Supervision. Shaila Jamal: pp. 311–325.
Conceptualization, Methodology, Data curation, Writing – review & He, S., Chen, S., Kong, L., Liu, W., 2021. Analysis of Risk Perceptions and Related Factors
editing. Bhuiyan Monwar Alam: Conceptualization, Writing – review Concerning COVID-19 Epidemic in Chongqing. China. Journal of Community Health
46 (2), 278–285.
& editing, Supervision. Ipsos. Impact of Coronavirus to new car purchase in China. 2020; Available from: https://
www.ipsos.com/en/impact-coronavirus-new-car-purchase-china.
Holmes, A., 2020. Facebook, Twitter, Google, and Microsoft will let employees work
Declaration of Competing Interest from home through 2020 or longer. Here’s how tech companies are reconsidering
remote work in the wake of COVID-19. in Business Insider.
Islam, M.T., 2020. Social distancing in public transport yet another cruel joke. The
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Business Standard.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence Jazeera, A., Which countries have made wearing face masks compulsory?, in AL Jazeera.
the work reported in this paper. 2020.
Jamal, S., Chowdhury, S., Newbold, K.B., 2022. Transport preferences and dilemmas in
the post-lockdown (COVID-19) period: Findings from a qualitative study of young
References commuters in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Case Studies on Transport Policy. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.cstp.2022.01.001. In press.
Khosravi, M., 2020. Perceived Risk of COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Public Worry and
Abdullah, M., et al., 2020. Exploring the impacts of COVID-19 on travel behavior and
Trust. Electronic Journal of. General Medicine 17 (4), em203. https://doi.org/
mode preferences. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 8,
10.29333/ejgm/7856.
100255.
Killerby, M.E., Biggs, H.M., Midgley, C.M., Gerber, S.I., Watson, J.T., 2020. Middle east
Abir, T., Kalimullah, N.A., Osuagwu, U.L., Yazdani, D.-A., Mamun, A.A., Husain, T.,
respiratory syndrome coronavirus transmission. Emerg. Infect. Dis. J. 26 (2),
Basak, P., Permarupan, P.Y., Agho, K.E., 2020. Factors Associated with the
191–198.
Perception of Risk and Knowledge of Contracting the SARS-Cov-2 among Adults in
Mahase, E., 2020. Covid-19: How does local lockdown work, and is it effective? BMJ 370,
Bangladesh: Analysis of Online Surveys. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 17 (14),
m2679.
5252. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145252.
Muley, D., Shahin, M.d., Dias, C., Abdullah, M., 2020. Role of transport during outbreak
Adefuye, A.S., Abiona, T.C., Balogun, J.A., Lukobo-Durrell, M., 2009. HIV sexual risk
of infectious diseases: evidence from the past. Sustainability 12 (18), 7367. https://
behaviors and perception of risk among college students: implications for planning
doi.org/10.3390/su12187367.
interventions. BMC Public Health 9 (1). https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-9-281.
Pan, Y., Darzi, A., Kabiri, A., Zhao, G., Luo, W., Xiong, C., Zhang, L., 2020. Quantifying
Ajzen, I., 1985. From intentions to actions: a theory of planned behavior. In: Kuhl, J.,
human mobility behaviour changes during the COVID-19 outbreak in the United
Beckmann, J. (Eds.), Action Control: From Cognition to Behavior. Springer Berlin
States. Sci. Rep. 10 (1) https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-77751-2.
Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 11–39.
Zafri, N.M., et al., Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Motorcycle Purchase in Dhaka,
Al-Muharrmi, Z., 2010. Understanding the influenza A H1N1 2009 pandemic. Sultan
Bangladesh. Frontiers in Future Transportation, 2021.
Qaboos Univ. Med. J. 10 (2), 187–195.
RAJUK, Dhaka Structure Plan 2016-2035. 2015.
Anwari, N., et al., 2021. Exploring the travel behavior changes caused by the COVID-19
Reibstein, D.J., Lovelock, C.H., Dobson, R.D.P., 1980. The Direction of Causality Between
crisis: A case study for a developing country. Transport. Res. Interdiscipl. Perspect. 9,
Perceptions, Affect, and Behavior: An Application to Travel Behavior. Journal of
100334.
Consumer Research 6 (4), 370–376.
Astroza, S., et al., Mobility Changes, Teleworking, and Remote Communication during the
Shafiq, S., 2021. Covid-19 health rules largely ignored on public transports. Dhaka
COVID-19 Pandemic in Chile. Trasport Findings, 2020. July.
Tribune.
Balkhi, F., et al., Psychological and Behavioral Response to the Coronavirus (COVID-19)
Shakibaei, S., de Jong, G.C., Alpkökin, P., Rashidi, T.H., 2021. Impact of the COVID-19
Pandemic. Cureus, 2020. 12(5): p. e7923-e7923.
pandemic on travel behavior in Istanbul: A panel data analysis. Sustainable Cities
Bamberg, S., Ajzen, I., Schmidt, P., 2003. Choice of Travel Mode in the Theory of Planned
and Society 65, 102619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2020.102619.
Behavior: The Roles of Past Behavior, Habit, and Reasoned Action. Basic Appl. Soc.
Sönmez, S.F., Graefe, A.R., 1998. Determining Future Travel Behavior from Past Travel
Psychol. 25 (3), 175–187.
Experience and Perceptions of Risk and Safety. Journal of Travel Research 37 (2),
Bhaduri, E., et al., 2020. Modelling the effects of COVID-19 on travel mode choice
171–177.
behaviour in India. Transport. Res. Interdiscipl. Perspect. 8, 100273.
Spears, S., Houston, D., Boarnet, M.G., 2013. Illuminating the unseen in transit use: A
Biswas, R.K., Afiaz, A., Huq, S., 2020. Underreporting COVID-19: the curious case of the
framework for examining the effect of attitudes and perceptions on travel behavior.
Indian subcontinent. Epidemiol. Infect. 148, e207.
Transport. Res. Part A: Policy Practice 58, 40–53.
Boukerche, S. and R. Mohammad-Roberts. Fighting infectious diseases: The connection to
Stanford. Forest loss makes diseases like COVID-19 more likely. 2020; Available from:
climate change. 2020 23 August, 2020]; Available from: https://blogs.worldbank.
https://www.futurity.org/forest-loss-zoonotic-diseases-pandemics-2331342/.
org/climatechange/fighting-infectious-diseases-connection-climate-change.
The Daily Star. Public Transport: Pre-Covid fare, health rules not followed. The Daily Star (2
Bruine de Bruin, W., Age Differences in COVID-19 Risk Perceptions and Mental Health:
September 2020) 2020 [cited 2020 27 September 2020]; Available from: https://
Evidence From a National U.S. Survey Conducted in March 2020. The Journals of
www.thedailystar.net/frontpage/news/public-transport-pre-covid-fare-health-rules-
Gerontology: Series B, 2020.
not-followed-1954377.
Bucsky, Péter, 2020. Modal share changes due to COVID-19: The case of Budapest.
The Daily Star. ’Lockdown’: Public transport services to resume tomorrow in 11 major cities.
Transportation Research Interdisciplinary. Perspectives 8, 100141. https://doi.org/
Coronavirus (6 April 2021) 2021 [cited 2021 15 April]; Available from: https://
10.1016/j.trip.2020.100141.
www.thedailystar.net/coronavirus-deadly-new-threat/news/govt-decides-resume-
Budd, L., Ison, S., 2020. Responsible Transport: A post-COVID agenda for transport
public-transport-services-divisional-cities-amid-restrictions-2073121.
policy and practice. Transport. Res. Interdiscipl. Perspect. 6, 100151.
The Daily Star. New, grim record every day: 112 Covid-19 deaths in 24 hours. Coronavirus:
CDC. 2009 H1N1 Pandemic (H1N1pdm09 virus). 2019; Available from: https://www.cdc.
A deadly threat (1 May, 2021) 2021 [cited 2021 1 May]; Available from: https://
gov/flu/pandemic-resources/2009-h1n1-pandemic.html.
www.thedailystar.net/coronavirus-deadly-new-threat/news/new-grim-record-
Chan, H.F., Skali, A., Savage, D.A., Stadelmann, D., Torgler, B., 2020. Risk attitudes and
every-day-112-covid-19-deaths-24-hours-2080109.
human mobility during the COVID-19 pandemic. Sci. Rep. 10 (1) https://doi.org/
Thakur, P., et al., Impact of COVID-19 on Urban Mobility in India: Evidence from a
10.1038/s41598-020-76763-2.
Perception Study. 2020: New Delh.
Chen, Z.-L., et al., Distribution of the COVID-19 epidemic and correlation with population
Tirachini, A., Cats, O., 2020. COVID-19 and public transportation: current assessment,
emigration from Wuhan, China. Chinese medical journal, 2020.
prospects, and research needs. J. Public Transport. 22 (1) https://doi.org/10.5038/
Cori, L., Bianchi, F., Cadum, E., Anthonj, C., 2020. Risk Perception and COVID-19. Int. J.
2375-090110.5038/2375-0901.22.110.5038/2375-0901.22.1.1.
Environ. Res. Public Health 17 (9), 3114. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093114.
Tokey, A.I., Change of Bike-Share Usage in Five Cities of United States during COVID-19.
De Vos, J., 2020. The effect of COVID-19 and subsequent social distancing on travel
Findings, 2020. November.
behavior. Transport. Res. Interdisciplin. Perspect. 5, 100121.
Troko, J., Myles, P., Gibson, J., Hashim, A., Enstone, J., Kingdon, S., Packham, C.,
Ding, Y., Du, X., Li, Q., Zhang, M., Zhang, Q., Tan, X., Liu, Q., Yi, S., 2020. Risk
Amin, S., Hayward, A., Van-Tam, J.N., 2011. Is public transport a risk factor for
perception of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and its related factors among
acute respiratory infection? BMC Infect. Dis. 11 (1) https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-
college students in China during quarantine. PLoS ONE 15 (8), e0237626.
2334-11-16.
Dryhurst, S., et al., 2020. Risk perceptions of COVID-19 around the world. J. Risk Res.
WHO. Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) - multi-country outbreak - Update. 2003;
1–13.
Available from: https://www.who.int/csr/don/2003_03_16/en/.
DTCA, The Project on the Revision and Updating of the Strategic Transport Plan for
WHO, Emergencies preparedness, response. 2020.
Dhaka, D.T.C.A. (DTCA), Editor. 2015.
Worldometer. Countries where COVID-19 has spread. Coronavirus (12 December 2020)
Duffin, E. Impact of the coronavirus pandemic on the global economy. 2020; Available from:
2021 [cited 2020 12 December ]; Available from: https://www.worldometers.info/
https://www.statista.com/topics/6139/covid-19-impact-on-the-global-economy/.
coronavirus/countries-where-coronavirus-has-spread/.
ECDC. Transmission of COVID-19. 2020; Available from: https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/
Zafri, N.M., Afroj, S., Ali, M.A., Hasan, M.M.U., Rahman, M.H., Yuan, Q., 2021.
en/covid-19/latest-evidence/transmission.
Effectiveness of containment strategies and local cognition to control vehicular
Gallagher, R., 2017. Prioritising Dhaka’s urban transport system. J. Business Technol.
traffic volume in Dhaka, Bangladesh during COVID-19 pandemic: Use of Google Map
(Dhaka) 11 (1), 141–144.
based real-time traffic data. PLoS ONE 16 (5), e0252228.
GoB. Latest Status in Bangladesh. 2021; Available from: https://corona.gov.bd/.

9
N.M. Zafri et al. Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives 13 (2022) 100548

Zafri, N.M., Afroj, S., Nafi, I.M., Hasan, M.M.U., 2021. A content analysis of newspaper sustainability and new normal situation. Sustainability 13 (12), 6975. https://doi.
coverage of COVID-19 pandemic for developing a pandemic management org/10.3390/su13126975.
framework. Heliyon 7 (3), e06544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06544. Zhang, N., et al., 2021. Changes in local travel behaviour before and during the COVID-
Zafri, N.M., Khan, A., Jamal, S., Alam, B.M., 2021. Impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on 19 pandemic in Hong Kong. Cities 112, 103139.
active travel mode choice in Bangladesh: A study from the perspective of

10