Dislocation

Sources
The Frank-Read
Source
The Frank-Read Source
 The Frank-Read Source

➢A Frank-Reed source permits

the dislocation multiplication
required for slip in crystalline
solids.
 The Frank-Read Source

➢In the absence of a stress

field a dislocation will be
straight.
 The Frank-Read Source

➢In a stress, t, the dislocation

experiences a force
 The Frank-Read Source

➢The stress, tcr, required to

establish the radius is the
critical shear stress of the
sample.
 The Frank-Read Source

➢ If applied resolved shear stress > tcr

→dislocation loop expands and its radius again
increases
 The Frank-Read Source

➢The force is always normal to

the dislocation line
 The Frank-Read Source
➢The two segments of opposite sign
collide and annihilate→
a free dislocation loop + a new
dislocation segment to repeat the
sequence
 Other Dislocation Sources

1) All metals contain

a lot of
dislocations due to growth
of crystals from the melt
 Other Dislocation Sources
2) Temperature and composition gradient
may cause misalignments between neighbouring
dendritic arms growing from same nucleus
→dislocations arranged in networks/in grain boundaries
 Other Dislocation Sources
3) Irregularities in grain boundaries
→ may emit dislocations emission from grain
boundaries

(an important source of dislocation in the early stages of plastic

deformation)
 Other Dislocation Sources

4) Aggregation and
collapse of
vacancies→
disc or a loop of dislocation
 Other Dislocation Sources

If dislocations are not formed by

dislocation generators, they can
be created by
NUCLEATION PROCESS.
 Other Dislocation Sources
1) Homogeneous
nucleation
By action of simple stress in a perfect lattice

---1/10 or 1/20 of shear modulus (~ 0.7

GPa as shear modulus is about 7-70 GPa)
 Other Dislocation Sources
1) Homogeneous nucleation

---Stress required for

homogeneous nucleation is very
high
(rupture of atomic bond in a
perfect crystal is needed)
 Other Dislocation Sources

2) Heterogeneous nucleation
---From high local stresses at second phase
due to phase transformation
 Other Dislocation Sources

2) Heterogeneous nucleation

---From defects present in the crystal

 Other Dislocation Sources
2) Heterogeneous nucleation
---The defects make the formation of
dislocation easier by lowering the
applied stress to form dislocations
 Other Dislocation Sources
2) Heterogeneous nucleation

NOTE: If dislocations are not formed by

Frank-Read sources, they must be
nucleated heterogeneously
COLD WORKING
Effect of Cold Working
on Properties

• Increase in yield strength, resulting in Strain

hardening or Work hardening
• Increase in tensile strength (Fig. 3.18)
• Increase in hardness
• Decrease in % elongation and % reduction in area i.e
decrease of ductility
• Decrease in electrical conductivity (Fig.3.19)
Effect of Cold Working
on Properties
Effect of Cold Working
on Properties
Cold Working
Annealing of Cold Worked Material

• Full Annealing or Annealing is the process by which the distorted

cold-worked lattice structure is changed back to one which is strain-
free through the application of heat.
• Annealing process may be divided in three stages:
1) Recovery
2) Recrystallization
3) Grain growth
 RECOVERY
RECRYSTALLIZATION
&
GRAIN GROWTH
Effect of Cold Working on Properties

• Increase in yield strength, resulting in Strain hardening or Work

hardening
• Increase in tensile strength (Fig. 3.18)
• Increase in hardness
• Decrease in % elongation and % reduction in area i.e decrease of
ductility
• Decrease in electrical conductivity (Fig.3.19)
Annealing and Hot Working

• Full Annealing or Annealing is the

process by which the distorted cold-
worked lattice structure is changed
back to one which is strain-free
through the application of heat.
Annealing and Hot Working

• Annealing process may be divided in

three stages:

1. Recovery
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth
Recovery

•A low-temperature process
•No appreciable change in
microstructure
•Principal effect is relief of internal
stresses due to cold working. (Fig
4.1)
Recovery

•At a given temperature, the rate of

decrease in residual strain
hardening is fastest at the
beginning and drops off at longer
times.(Fig. 4.2)
Recovery
Recov. time– Residual Strain Hardening
Recovery
• Process of annihilation and rearrangement
of point imperfections and dislocations,
WITHOUT migration of HAGB
Recovery
• A pair of vacancy and an interstitialcy can
mutually annihilate each other

• Point imperfections find a sink at HAGB and

at EDGE Disl.
Recovery
• Excess vacancies can disappear at edge
dislocations making them to climb up.

• On further increase in temp.-→ Dislocation

recovery process starts
---A +ve & a –ve edge/screw disl, ON SAME
SLIP PLANE----→ mutually annihilate each
other
Recovery
• Excess dislocations of same sign left over
after this-→ POLYGONIZATION
RECOVERY---POLYGINIZATION
Recrystallization

• The deformed grains are replaced by fine equiaxed

grains.

• The atoms in the lattice reorganize themselves at the

most drastically deformed portions of the grain,
usually the grain boundaries and slip planes.
Recrystallization

•It is a nucleation and growth process. An

incubation period corresponds to the
period required by the clustering atoms to
attain a critical size.
Recrystallization
Annealing of Cold Worked Metal
Recrystallization
Recrystallization (in Hot Rolling of
Plate/Sheet)
Recrystallization (in Wire Drawing)
Cold Worked & Annealed Microstructure
Recrystallization
Anneal Time-% Recrys
Recrystallization

• Heat provides the energy required to

overcome the rigidity of the distorted
lattice.(Fig.4.4)
Recrystallization
Recrystallization
• The number and energy content of the
high-energy points depend on the
amount of prior deformation, the
number increasing with increasing
deformation.
Recrytallization Temperature

• Recrystallization temperature refers to the

approximate temperature at which a cold-worked
material completely recrystallizes in 1 hr.
Recrytallization Temperature

• The greater the amount of prior deformation, the

lower the temperature for the start of recrystallizaion.
(Fig 4.5)
Recrytallization Temperature:
Prior Deform– Recrys Start Temp
Recrytallization Temperature
• Pure metals have low recrystallization
temperatures compared with impure
metals and alloys. (Table 4.1)
Recrytallization Temperature
• Recrytallization process is time and temp
dependent----It is more sensitive to changes in
temperature than to variations in time at
constant temp (Fig 4.6).

• Recrystallization is indicated by the sharp

decrease in tensile strength.(Fig 4.6)
Recrytallization Temperature:
T-t effect on Tensile Strength
Recrytallization Temperature
• For equal amounts of CW, the finer initial grain
size the lower is recryst. temp.
• The lower the temp of CW, the lower is recryst
temp.
• A minimum amount of CW (2-8%), known as
critical deformation, is required before any
change in grain size occurs.(Fig, 4.7)
Recrytallization Temperature:
Critical DEformation
SOLUTE DRAG & PINNING EFFECT
• Recryst Temp= f (solutes in metal)
Ex– commercial purity Al--- 275C & High purity
Al—75C
--The solute atomes segregate on gb & retard gb
migration during recryst. SOLUTE DRAG EFFECT
SOLUTE DRAG & PINNING EFFECT
• Recryst is slowed down for fine second phase
particles/precipitates—e.g. carbides in steels---
PINNING EFFECT
• BOTH EFFECTS retard movement of migrating gb
during grain growth also
Recrystallization

•DRIVING FORCE-→ Stored energy in cold

worked metal
Recrystallization
•Higher cold work-→ Lower Recryst. Temp.
•Finer initial Grain size-→ Lower Recryst. Temp.
•Higher cold work + Reduced initial grain size-→
Finer Recryst. grains
•Higher cold work temp (less strain energy)→
Higher Recryst. Temp
•Recryst. Temp. increases with increase in temp.
Grain Growth

• Large grains have lower free energy than

small grains. This is the driving force for
grain growth.
• Thermal energy helps overcome the force
of rigidity of the lattice, and the grains
grow.
• At higher temperatures, the grain growth
is more rapid. (Fig 4.8)
Grain Growth

• DRIVING FORCE-→ REDUCTION IN GRAIN

BOUNDARY ENERGY/VOL (as grain
boudary area /vol reduces)

• Driving force for grain growth is about an

order smaller than driving force for
recryst.
Grain Growth
Factors governing the final recrystallized grain
size
• Degree of prior deformation
--Higher prior deformations lead to smaller
grain size.

--With critical CW and high annealing

temp, very large grains or single crystals
can be produced. This is known as strain-
anneal method.
Factors governing the final recrystallized grain
size

•Time at temperature
--Increasing the time at any
temp above recryst temp favours
grain growth. (Fig. 4.10)
 Factors governing the final
recrystallized grain size

•Annealing temperature
-- The lower the temp above recryst
temp, the finer is the final grain size.
Factors governing the final recrystallized
grain size

•Heating time
-- The shorter the time of heating to
annealing temp, the finer is the grain size.
Factors governing the final recrystallized
grain size

•Insoluble impurities
-- The greater the amount and the finer the
distribution of insoluble impurities the finer
is the final grain size.
Effect of annealing on mechanical
properties

•Property changes produced by plastic

deformation are removed, and the material
returns nearly to its original properties

•Annealing is essentially a softening process.

Effect of annealing on mechanical properties
 HOT
WORKING
vs
COLD
WORKING
 Dividing line betn Hot &
Cold Working

When a material is deformed at an elevated

temp., two opposing effects are at play:

1) hardening effect due to plastic deform.

2) softening effect due to recrystallization

 Dividing line betn Hot &
Cold Working
At a temp.* for a certain amount of deform.,
the following two effects balance
1) hardening effect due to plastic deform.
2) softening effect due to recrystallization

---Above that temp.*, material deformed is

called hot worked material
--- Below that temp.*, material deformed is
called cold worked material
Deformation in tension @ diff temp

At 750F rate of soft= rate of hard-→

material will deform without increase in load
Hot Working

•At higher rates of deformation, hot

working regime tends to go up.(Fig 4.13)
Effect of Working Temp. on
Hardness (Rate of working is varied)
Hot Working vs
Cold Working
•Shortcomings of hot working:
(1) Difficulty in finishing to exact
size because of dimensional
changes on cooling
(2) ‘Scale’ formation on surface.
Effect of finishing temp of forging on grain size
Hot Working
Effect of grain size on surface appearance
STRENGTHENING
MECHANISMS
Strengthening Mechanisms

• The ability of a metal/ alloy to plastically deform depends

on the ability of dislocations to move.

• Strengthening techniques rely on restricting dislocation

motion to render a harder and stronger material.
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Strengthening Mechanisms:

Strain/Work Hardening
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Strain/ Work Hardening

-- When metals are cold worked→ Strength & hardness increase

--Annealed (heat treated) metals -→ Dislocation density: 108 m -2

--Moderate cold working of annealed metal→ Dislocation density: 1010-1012 m-2

--Heavy cold working of annealed metal→ Dislocation density: 1014-1016 m-2

 Strengthening Mechanisms:
Strain/ Work Hardening

--As dislocations increase-→ It becomes difficult for a single dislocation to move

through the lattice due to the interfering effect of stress fields of other
dislocations present -------------→ This is basis of strain/work hardening

Dislocations entangle with one another during cold work. Hence

----

dislocation motion becomes more difficult.

Strengthening Mechanisms:
Strain/ Work Hardening

 -→ the stress to move a dislocation in a matrix of dislocation density 

o → the stress to move a dislocation in a matrix of zero dislocation density
A→ b/2
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Strain/ Work Hardening
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Strain/ Work Hardening
• Strain hardening is especially used to harden alloys that
do not respond to heat treatment.
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Strain/ Work Hardening
• Example---Torsteel-→ reinforcing bars for concrete-→
cold twisted to increase stress
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Grain Boundary Strengthening
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Grain boundary strengthening
✓ Smaller grain size:
more barriers to slip,
higher strength.

✓ Hall-Petch Equation:
 = I + kd-1/2
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Grain boundary strengthening
✓ Hall-Petch Equation:

 = I + kd-1/2

 =Yield strength of the polycrystalline metal

I =Yield strength at an infinite grain size
k= Hall-Petch const
d= mean grain dia
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Grain boundary strengthening

k= 0.71 MNm -3/2

(BCC-iron)

k= 0.11 MNm -3/2

(Copper)

k= 0.07 MNm -3/2

(Aluminium)
→ k (BCC)> k (FCC) & k (HCP)
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Grain boundary strengthening
✓ Hall-Petch Equation:

 = I + kd-1/2

NOTE : Similar strengthening effect from subgrain boundaries

in deformed metals
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Grain boundary strengthening

----Ductility is not decreased

---Ductile brittle transition temp (DBTT) is lowered in steels
---Fatigue resistance is improved

NOTE: MOST DESIRABLE AMONG FOUR METHODS OF

STRENGTHENING IN METALLIC MATERIALS
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Grain boundary strengthening
—MICROALLOYED STEEL

--small quantities of Nb, V, Ti → carbide forming elements

--carbides dissolve and Nb, V, Ti go into solution in austenite during

reheating of billets in soaking pit

--when steel is hot rolled, solubility of microalloying elements decreases

with decreasing temp-→ strain induced precipitates form (very fine)

--the precipitates pin down the migrating grain boundaries during

repeated recrystallization of the deformed austenite between passes at
the successive stands of the rolling mill.
Strengthening Mechanisms:

Solid Solution Strengthening

Strengthening Mechanisms:
Solid Solution Strengthening

•The presence of solute atoms produces lattice

strain, either tensile or compressive, depending
on the relative size of the solute atom.

•Solute atom generates local shear that opposes

dislocation motion.
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Solid Solution Strengthening
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Solid Solution Strengthening

Impurity atom content increase:

Tensile and yield strength increases

Ductility decreases
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Solid Solution Strengthening

Impurity atom content increase:

Tensile and yield strength increases

Ductility decreases
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Solid Solution Strengthening
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Solid Solution Strengthening

Strengthening effect due to solute depends on:

1) A large conc of solute--→ frequent obstacle to disl motion

2) Strength  c ½
3) As size diff between solute and solvent increases-→
intensity of stress field around solute atom s increases-→
resistance to disl. motion increases
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Solid Solution Strengthening

• The nature of distortion produced by solute atoms

in important

• Substitutional solutes-→ spherical distortion-

→ less effective in restricting disl motion

• Interstitial solutes-→ tetragonal distortion-

→ maxm effect in restricting disl motion [Fig 5. 11 (b)]
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Solid Solution Strengthening
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Solid Solution Strengthening

• Strengthening due to solute can be increased by forced increase in

solubility through non equilibrium method.

• A supersaturated solution is obtained by QUENCHING from high

temp., where solubility is more.

Example: 0.8 wt % C steel (eutectoid composition) when quenched

from just above eutectoid temp, forms supersaturated martensite,
which is hard & brittle--- WHY??
Strengthening Mechanisms:

Precipitation Strengthening
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Precipitation Strengthening

• Closely spaced fine precipitates obstruct the dislocation motion in the

matrix.

• Two types of dislocation motion can b e there in such a case:

1) Cutting through the precipitates

2) Bending and bypassing
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Precipitation Strengthening

1) Cutting through the precipitates

• This occurs when precipitates are < 50 Angstorm and are

coherent with the matrix

• Increased resistance to dislocation motion in cutting through is due

to creation of a step at the interface & stacking fault within the
particle
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Precipitation Strengthening

Steps
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Precipitation Strengthening
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Precipitation Strengthening

1) Bending and bypassing

-- When particles are > 100-500 angstrom-→ dislocations bend

around and bypass them

---Stress  1/interparticle distance →

Strengthening Mechanisms:
Precipitation Strengthening

-- Finer the precipitates-→ More closely spaced--→More difficult for a

dislocation to bend and bypass-→ Optimum Aged condition of a
precipitation hardening alloy
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Precipitation Strengthening

1) Bending and bypassing

-- When particles are > 1000 angstrom-→ dislocations bend

around and bypass with ease--→ Little hardening-→ Over Aged
condition

--Coarse particles & low yield strength

Strengthening Mechanisms:
Precipitation Strengthening

• Precipitation strengthening or age hardening requires the second

phase, which is soluble at high temperature, but has a limited
solubility at lower temperatures.
Strengthening Mechanisms:
Precipitation Strengthening
Precipitation vis-a-vis Dispersion Hardening

• In dispersion hardening, insoluble particles (usually an

oxide) are mixed with matrix metal powder and processed
by powder metallurgy techniques (powder making,
conditioning, compacting & sintering)
• The particle are embedded in a metal matrix.
• In dispersion hardening, there is no coherency between
second phase and matrix.
• In dispersion-hardening, the second phase has very little
solubility in the matrix, even at elevated temperatures.
• Dispersion hardening systems have more temperature
stability.
Coherent, Partially coherent & Incoherent Phase
Boundaries
 Strengthening Mechanisms:
Precipitation Strengthening

Precipitation strengthening is applicable→ when no risk of precipitate coarsening & so softening

during service

• Example:
• Ni base superalloys-→ precipitates: Ni3 (Al, Ti) form a coherent interface with matrix (interfacial
energy– 0.005 J/m2)

• Lattice parameter of Ni3Ti reduced from 3.59 angstrom to 356 angstrom when Ti is completely
replaced by Al.

• Optimized Ti/Al--→ to match lattice parameters of precipitate & matrix for coherency
Precipitation vis-a-vis Dispersion Hardening

• In dispersion hard. particles don’t dissolve -→ no

coarsening
• Metal-oxides remain stable at high T

Example: TD nickel (thoria dispersed nickel)---

appreciable strength even at 0.9Tm.
Lomer-Cottrell
Barrier
Lomer-Cottrell Barrier

✓Dislocations moving on
intersecting slip planes attract and
combine, if their Burgers vectors
have suitable orientations.
LOMER-COTTRELL BARRIER
LOMER-COTTRELL BARRIER

✓Dislocations moving in two (111) planes with a Burgers vector

(ao/2)[101] & (ao/2)[011]→ The dislocations attract each other and
move toward the intersection point, which is the intersection of the
two Burgers vectors along the direction [0-11].

✓At this point || to the two dislocations react according to Lomer's

reaction:

ao/2[-110]+ ao/2[101]→ ao/2[110]

LOMER-COTTRELL BARRIER

✓All three dislocations must be

parallel to the line of intersection
of the slip plane, [110]
LOMER-COTTRELL BARRIER

✓The edge dislocation formed

by Lomer's reaction has a slip
plane (001).
LOMER-COTTRELL BARRIER

✓Since (001) is not a common

slip plane in the FCC lattice, the
dislocation formed from
Lomer's reaction should not
glide freely.
LOMER-COTTRELL BARRIER

✓However, it is not a true sessile

dislocation (unlike Frank partial)
because it is not an imperfect
dislocation.
LOMER-COTTRELL BARRIER
LOMER-COTTRELL BARRIER (important mechanism
for strain hardening) can be overcome by :

i) High Stresses

ii) High Temperatures