UNIT IV SMART MATERIALS

4.1 SMART MATERIALS

Smart materials are materials that can significantly alter one or more of their inherent
properties in response to their environment. The several external factors to which the smart
materials are sensitive to stress, temperature, moisture, pH, electric field, magnetic field. It can
respond in various ways, by altering colour or transparency, becoming conductive, permeable
to water or by changing shape.
Significant Features of Smart Materials:
➢ Materials that can think on their own & have
❖ Mental alertness
❖ quick perception
❖ speedy activity
❖ Effectiveness
❖ spirited liveliness
❖ Intelligence
➢ Smart materials can respond to a change & are
❖ Able to receive information (sensing the problem)
❖ Able to analyze & decide (processing the information)
❖ Able to act on the decision (actuating the process)
TYPES OF SMART MATERIALS:
Different types of Smart Materials are
➢ Shape Memory Alloys
➢ Piezoelectric Materials
➢ Magnetostrictive Materials
➢ Magneto-Rheological Fluids
Applications of Smart Materials
➢ Smart switches & actuators
➢ Safety device, fuse, alarms
➢ Artificial limbs, blood vessels & muscles Adhesive tapes/bands (time bound adhesive
property/painless removal/healing property)
➢ Food packaging industry-wrappers
➢ Smart spoons (Temperature sensitive polymers)
➢ Smart nose & tongue (Recognition characteristics)
➢ Smart clothes (Adaptive to temperature changes)
➢ Aircraft which will incorporate "smart materials” that will allow the wings of a craft to
change shape for optimal flying conditions.

4.2 POLYMERS
Terminologies:
Monomer:
The term ‘monomer’ combines the prefix mono-, which means ‘one’, and the suffix-mer,
which means ‘part’. A monomer is a small molecule that reacts with a similar molecule to
form a larger molecule. E.g., Vinyl chloride, tetrafluoroethylene, etc.
 Polymers:
The polymer is a macromolecule formed by the chemical union of many small units, called
monomers. E.g., Polyvinylchloride, polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), etc.

Polymerisation:
Polymerisation is a process by which two or more identical or different monomers combine
with or without eliminating small molecules such as water, methanol, etc., to form a
macromolecular substance. E.g.
1. Polyvinylchloride formed by the combination of vinyl chloride monomers.
2. Bakelite formed by the different types of repeating units of phenol and
formaldehyde monomers.
Classification of polymers:
Polymers are classified in different ways, as given below:

Polymers are classified into four main categories. They are as follows:
(1) Based on the source. (Origin)
(2) Based on the structure.
(3) Based on the Intermolecular Forces
(4) Based on the mode of synthesis
(1) Based on the source (Origin)
On the basis of source or origin, the polymers are sub-classified into two types. They are:
(a) Natural Polymers: The polymers isolated from natural materials such as plants and
animals are called natural polymers.
 (Eg) (i) Starch, (ii) Cellulose, (iii) Proteins, (iv) Nucleic acid, (v) Natural rubber.
(b) Semi-synthetic Polymers: A Semi-synthetic polymer is also a natural polymer, which
undergoes some chemical modification, to improve its properties is called Semi-
synthetic polymers.
(Eg) (i) Cellulose Acetate, (ii) Cellulose nitrate.
(c) Synthetic Polymers: The polymers prepared artificially in the laboratories are referred to
as synthetic polymers (or) man- made polymers.
(Eg) (i) Polyethylene, (ii) Teflon, (iii) Nylon, (iv) PVC, (v) Polyester, (vi) Polystyrene.
(2) Based on the structure:
Based on the structure, the polymers are classified as follows:
(a) Linear polymers: In Linear polymers, the monomeric units are linked together to form a
long straight chain. (Eg) Polyethylene, polyester
(b) Branched chain polymers: Monomers join together to form a long straight chain with
some branched chains of different lengths. (Eg) Glycogen
(c) Cross-linked polymers: In this type of polymers, monomers are linked together to form a
three-dimensional network. (Eg) Bakelite, Formaldehyde resin

(3) Based on the Intermolecular Forces:

Based on the Intermolecular forces, the polymers are classified as follows:
(a) Elastomers: Elastomers are rubber-like solid polymers, that are elastic in nature.
(Eg) Rubber (Natural / Synthetic)
(b) Fibers: Strong, thread like in nature, high tensile strength, less elasticity and can
easily be woven in to fabrics. (Eg) Silk, Nylon
(c) Thermoplastic polymers: Thermoplastic long-chain polymers in which inter-
molecules force holds the polymer chains together. These polymers are softened on
heating and hardened on cooling. (Eg) PVC, Polyethylene
(d) Thermosetting polymers: These polymers greatly improve the material’s mechanical
properties. It provides enhanced chemical and heat resistance. (Eg) Bakalite

(4) Based on the mode of synthesis

Based on the Intermolecular forces, the polymers are classified as follows:
(a) Addition Polymers: These types of polymers are formed by the repeated addition of
monomer molecules. (Eg) Polyethylene, PVC.
(a) Condensation Polymers: These polymers are formed by the combination of monomers,
with the elimination of small molecules like water, alcohol etc. (Eg) Nylon-6,6,
polyesters.
 4.3 Smart Polymeric materials
Smart polymers, also called stimuli-responsive polymers or intelligent materials, are designed
materials that have one or more properties that can be significantly changed in a controlled
fashion by external stimuli such as stress, temperature, moisture, pH, electric or magnetic
fields.
Examples of Smart polymeric materials:
• Synthetic spider web: This material is not only five times stronger than steel, but also has
great elasticity. Its potential uses include: bulletproof clothing, artificial skin for burns or
waterproof adhesives.
• Shrilk: Its main component is chitin, a carbohydrate in krill shells. Its decomposition time
is only two weeks and also works as a stimulant for plant growth.
• Graphene: Its potential uses are almost unlimited: batteries with more
autonomy, Cheaper, photovoltaic solar cells, faster computers, flexible electronic devices,
more resistant buildings, bionic limbs, etc.
Types of Smart Polymeric Materials:
• Piezoelectric materials
• Shape memory materials
• Chromo active materials
• Electro active materials
• Biodegradable materials
Applications of Smart polymers:
• Smart polymers appear in highly specialized applications and everyday products alike.
They are used for sensors and actuators such as artificial muscles, the production of
hydrogels, biodegradable and to a great extent in biomedical engineering.

4.4 Piezoelectric Polymers:

Piezoelectric polymers are polymers that can generate electric charges on the surface under
pressure/strain thus convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Criteria for polymers to exhibit piezoelectricity:
➢ The presence of permanent molecular dipoles
➢ The ability to orient or align the molecular dipoles
➢ The ability to sustain the dipole alignment once it is achieved
➢ The ability of the material to undergo large strains when it mechanically stressed
Applications of piezoelectric polymers:
• Piezoelectric motors
• Sensors in medical sectors
• Microphones
• Piezoelectric igniters

Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF):

PVDF is a semi-crystalline, specialty plastic material belonging to the fluoropolymer family.
It is a highly non-reactive thermoplastic fluoropolymer, produced by the polymerisation of
vinylidene fluoride.
Synthesis:
PVDF is synthesised by the polymerisation of Vinylidene fluoride in the presence of suitable
catalysts.

Piezoelectricity of PVDF:
PVDF exhibits excellent piezoelectric behavior. Piezoelectricity is the appearance of a
voltage across the sides of a material when it is subjected to mechanical stress or squeezing.
Mechanism:
❖ Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain material to generate electrical voltage when a
mechanical force or pressure is applied on it. Material which shows this kind of
behavior is called piezoelectric material.
❖ PVDF is also a piezoelectric polymer material. PVDF has four crystalline phases α, β,
ɣ and δ depending on the chain conformation. α phase of PVDF is non polar, so it
does not show piezoelectric effect. β and ɣ phase are responsible for generating
piezoelectricity in it.
❖ Normally the charges of piezoelectric crystals are in balanced even they are not
symmetrically arranged. The effects of charges are exactly cancelled out, leaving no
net charges in it. When a pressure or mechanical force applied on it, the charges
become out of balance. This effect of charges does not cancel each other, so net
charges appear on both side of crystals. In this way, a voltage can be generated in it
by simply pressing it. Now the piezoelectricity generation depends on electroactive
phase and crystallinity of PVDF material.
❖ Piezoelectricity is also induced in the material by stretching the PVDF sheet at a
temperature that is close to the melting point of about 175°C. This causes a polymer
chain packing of the molecules into a piezoelectric crystalline phase. The stretched
polymer is exposed to a high electric field to generate the piezoelectric properties in
the material. PVDF generates an electrical charge in response to temperature
variations.
Properties:
Some of the most characteristic features of PVDF are
• It has a excellent abrasion restance.
• It has a Piezoelectric, pyroelectric properties, Good thermal stability and high crystallinity.
• It is resistance to ultraviolet light (UV), high energy radiation, most chemicals and solvents
• It has high dielectric strength.
• It has Low water absorption; absorbs less than 5% water at room temperature.
Applications:
• The unique property of piezoelectricity, makes it a good material for transducers in
devices such as headphones, microphones, and sonic detectors.
• As piezoelectric films with commercial adhesives.
• Pyroelectric sensor and laser beam profile sensor and also in filtration and separation
equipment, etc.
• PVDF membrane can be used as separators in lithium-ion batteries
• It is used as a Filaments for additive manufacturing
• It is used in Wire and cable isolators
• It is used in the Water treatment membranes, Biomedical, artificial membranes, Food and
pharmaceutical processing.
4.5 Electro Active polymers
Electro active polymers or EAP’s are polymers that exhibit a change in size or shape,
when stimulated by an electric charge. It has a very simple structure comprises of films
(elastomers) sandwiched by two compliant electrodes made of a flexible and elastic materials,
and can operate as an electric control generator and actuator. Electro active polymers are
lighter, cheaper and can be made in many different forms. Electro-active polymer can operate
in room condition for a long time. Exhibits high mechanical energy density

Polyaniline (PANI):
Polyaniline or commonly known as PANI is one of the most studied conducting polymers
due to its high electrical conductivity. It belongs to a semi-flexible rod polymer family (kind
of organic polymer which may be converted to conducting polymers by appropriate

oxidations or doping) and produced as bulk powder, cast films or fibres. These polymers are
polymerized by using inexpensive aniline in the presence of an oxidant. On polymerization,
the polymer will exist in any one of the following oxidation states.

• Leucoemeraldine – colourless
• Emeraldine – green/blue colour
• Pernigraniline – blue/violet colour
Emeraldine is regarded as the most useful form of polyaniline. It has high stability at room
temperature and on doping with acid it forms emeraldine salt. The emeraldine form of
polyaniline is highly electrically conducting in nature. Leucoemeraldine and pernigraniline
are poor conductors, even when doped with an acid.
Properties:
• The change in the colour of polyaniline associated with different oxidation states can
be used in devices such as sensors and electrochromic devices.
• These are environmentally stable and inert.
• These are optically active.
• Its electrical conductivity lies between the metals Cu and Ag.
• Good catalytic character with photoactivity.
• Lightweight and flexible material.

Applications:
• In sensors, transistors, microchips.
• Used in intelligent packaging (based on colour change, the spoilage of food items can
be known).
• Antistatic film, paints and coatings.
• Conductive fabrics, electromagnetic shielding, conventional lead acid battery.
• Electronic bar code, stamps, OLED display, electro chromic smart window.
• It is used in printed circuit boards for corrosion protection.

4.6 Biodegradable polymers:

• Every Polymer is biodegradable. They degrade in mass, strength and molecular
weight with time. Most of the polymers have a period of 100-1000 years to degrade
fully.
• The specialty of biodegradable polymers is, they degrade quickly compared to non-
biodegradable polymers and their byproducts are eco-friendly (biocompatible) such as
CO2, water, methane and inorganic compounds or biomass that is easily scavenged by
microorganisms.
• The American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) and the International
Standards Organization (ISO) definition for a biodegradable plastic state that "A
plastic designed to undergo a significant change in its chemical structure under
specific environmental conditions”.
• Biodegradable polymers are the degradable plastics in which degradation results from
the action of naturally occurring microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae.
• Biodegradable polymers can be defined as polymers that can be degraded under
natural environment or physiological condition by either enzymatic degradation or
spontaneous hydrolysis.

Classification of Biodegradable polymers:

Biodegradable polymers are of three types. Some of them are synthetic based, while some
can be easily found in nature. Given below, we have shown different types of polymers,
which are biodegradable. There are edible polymers as well.
Poly-lactic acid (PLA)
➢ Poly –lactic acid (PLA) is one of the most promising biopolymers produced from nontoxic
renewable and naturally occurring organic acid-lactic acid.
➢ It is thermoplastic with good mechanical property profile, high biocompatibility and
biodegradability properties.
➢ Latic acid monomers can be produced from100% renewable resources, like corn and sugar
beets.
➢ Therefore, PLA can be produced and used in an environmentally friendly cycle.
Synthesis:
Poly Lactic acid prepared by different polymerization process from lactic acid including poly-
condensation, ring opening polymerization and by direct methods like azeotopic dehydration
and enzymatic polymerization.

Ring opening
polymerization

Properties of Poly (lactic acid)

➢ It is a linear and thermoplastic polymer.
➢ It has around 37% crystalline in nature
➢ Its glass transition temperature is in the range of 50-80o C.
➢ Melting point-In the temperature range of 70-180 o C
➢ It can be processed into fibers.
➢ Soluble in chlorinated solvents, dioxane, benzene and THF.
➢ Based on its chiral nature, available in l and d forms.
➢ It is a biodegradable polymer.
Application of Poly (lactic acid)
➢ As poly (lactic acid) is biodegradable, it is used in many biomedical implants in the form
of plates, pins, rods and screws
➢ It is also used in other biomedical applications like sutures (commonly called stitches),
dialysis medium, drug delivery devices, etc.
➢ Its biodegradability made it suitable for disposable items such as food packaging,
compost bags, tableware, cups, etc.
➢ It is used in the preparation of fibers which are used to make disposable garments,
hygiene production etc.

4.7 Composites:
A materials system composed of two or more physically distinct phases whose combination
produces aggregate properties that are different from those of its constituents.
Generally, one material forms a continuous matrix while the other provides the reinforcement.
Examples: Concrete reinforced with steel
Epoxy reinforced with graphite fibers.
Plastic molding compounds containing fillers, Rubber mixed with carbon black. Composite
materials have a profound place in engineering and high-tech applications. They have an
essential place in the engineering material world. In general, composite materials consist two
of phases or components inside them.
One of these phases is ‘matrix’ that gives the general shape and bulk of composite material.
Matrix materials in composites can be metals, ceramics or polymers. The other component in
composite materials is called the ‘secondary phase’ or ‘reinforcement phase’ added to the
matrix to give reinforcement. With this reinforcement, composite materials have their superior
properties.
Concrete is a composite building material made from a mixture of sand, gravel, crushed rock,
or other aggregates (coarse and fine) held together in a stone like mass with a binder such as
cement and water. Hardened concrete has a high compressive strength and a very low tensile
strength. Steel bars added to concrete which can resist high stretching forces to form
reinforced concrete.

Characteristics of composite:
• The importance of composite materials over metals and polymers are given below.
• Higher specific strength.
• Lower specific gravity.
• Higher specific stiffness.
• (Specific modulus is a materials property consisting of the elastic modulus per mass
density of a material. It is also known as the stiffness to weight ratio or specific stiffness.
High specific modulus materials find wide application in aerospace applications where
minimum structural weight is required.)
• Lower electrical conductivity.
• Better corrosion and oxidation resistance.
• Good impact and thermal shock resistance.
• Can be fabricated easily.
• Better creep and fatigue strength.
Constituents of Composites:
Two essential constituents of composites are:
Matrix phase
Dispersed phase.
Matrix phase:
A continuous body constituent which encloses the composite and gives a bulk form is called
matrix phase.
The matrix acts as a medium which protects and binds the dispersed phase.
The matrix phase may be metals, ceramics or polymer. Composites using these matrixes are
known as metal matrix composites (MMC), ceramic matrix composites (CMC) and polymer
matrix composites (PMC) respectively. Polymer matrix materials used in composites are
epoxy, polyamide (nylons), phenols, silicons and polysulphones.
Dispersed phase:
The substance which is dispersed in the matrix phase is called the dispersed phase. It
constitutes the internal structure of the composite.
Reinforcing phase used in composites
Glass fibres, Carbon fibres, Aramid fibres, Particulates, Flakes, Whiskers etc., are the
reinforcing phase used in composites

Types of composites:
Composites classified based on the matrix and reinforcing type of material.
Composites can be classified into three main groups according to the matrix material, viz.,
polymer matrix composites (PMCs), metal matrix composites (MMCs) and ceramic matrix
composites (CMCs). Polymer materials have found extensive use as matrix materials in
aerospace applications. Only in the late seventies, metals and ceramics were explored as matrix
materials. MMCs offer higher ductility than CMCs and better environmental stability than
PMCs. In addition, MMCs offer considerable improvement in transverse strength, shear
strength, electrical and thermal conductivities and resistance to erosion and abrasion.
4.8 Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP)
➢ Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) also called fibre-reinforced polymer, is a composite
material made of a polymer matrix reinforced with fibres.
➢ The fibres are usually glass (in fibreglass), carbon (in carbon-fibre-reinforced
polymer), aramid, or basalt. Rarely, other fibres such as paper, wood, or asbestos have
been used.
➢ The polymer is usually an epoxy, vinyl ester, or polyester thermosetting plastic,
though phenol formaldehyde resins are still in use.
➢ FRP composites exhibit high specific strength and specific stiffness. Due to these
advantageous characteristics, FRP composites have been included in new construction
and rehabilitation of structures through its use as reinforcement in concrete, bridge decks,
modular structures, formwork, and external reinforcement for strengthening and seismic
upgrade.
➢ Additionally, FRP reinforcements offer a number of advantages such as corrosion
resistance, non-magnetic properties, high tensile strength, lightweight and ease of
handling.
➢ FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automotive, marine, and construction
industries. They are commonly found in ballistic armour and cylinders for self-contained
breathing apparatuses.

4.9 Kevlar
➢ Kevlar is a Du Pont trade name for poly p-phenyleneterephthalamide (PPD-T).
➢ It is an aramid, i.e. an aromatic polyamide polymer fiber with a very rigid molecular
structure.
➢ Kevlar has unique combination of high strength, high modulus, toughness and thermal
stability.
➢ It is used for high-performance composite applications where light weight, high strength
and stiffness, damage resistance, and resistance to fatigue, creep, and stress rupture are
important. It was developed for demanding industrial and advanced-technology
applications
Kevlar has higher tensile modulus and strength than steel and possess high breaking tenacity.
It also has very high kinetic energy absorption. Kevlar 29 is used in industrial applications
such as cables, asbestos replacement, brake linings, and body armor. Kevlar 49 is considered
to have the greatest tensile strength of all the aramids, and is used in applications such as
plastic reinforcement for boat hulls, airplanes, and bikes.
Aramid/Kevlar Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites
➢ The aramid fibres are most often used in composites having polymer matrices like
epoxies and polyesters. Since the fibers are relatively flexible and somewhat ductile,
they may be processed by textile operations.
➢ Aramid fiber (Kevlar) was the first organic fiber used as reinforcement in advanced
composites with better mechanical properties than steel and glass fibers.
➢ Aramid fibers are inherently heat- and flame-resistant, which maintain these properties
at high temperatures.
➢ The choice of resin system for use with aramid fibers is an important one. Epoxy resins
give better translation of fiber properties than do polyesters, producing better shear
strength and flexural properties but lower impact resistance. Vinyl ester resins give
both good shear strength and impact resistance.
Preparation of epoxy-Kevlar composite laminates
➢ This method made use of 300 g of Kevlar fibre mat as reinforcement phase
➢ The matrix phase consists of pure bifunctional epoxy resin and hardener usually LY556
and HY951mixed in the ratio 10:1 and completely homogenized.
➢ The reinforcements and matrix material were added in 1.5:1 weight ratio while
fabricating different composite laminate configurations, the composite laminates were
produced by combining seven layers in different configurations and the hand layup
technique was chosen to make the composite laminates.
➢ The production of each hybrid composite was initiated by placing a 30 cm × 30 cm
frame over a flat surface followed by placing a waxed thin mylar sheet over the frame.
➢ The first layer of reinforcement fibre was placed on the mylar sheet. The epoxy resin
mixed with the hardener was laid over the exposed surface of the reinforcement fibre
and distributed evenly using a metal flat spatula.
➢ The second layer was placed over the resin, followed by a rolling process. Care was
taken to ensure that the fibres were oriented with the fibres of the previous layers. The
rollers were applied with even an pressure to ensure that the resin was pressed and
distributed within the fibres.
➢ The process was repeated until all of the seven layers of the reinforcement fibres were
placed one over the other. Another mylar sheet was placed over the top layer of the
composite. A uniform pressure was applied with the help of concentrated weights
placed over the top surface, and the wet laminate was made to cure at atmospheric
temperature for an about 24 h.

Hybrid composite of Epoxy resin-Kevlar fibre laminates

 Properties:
Composites reinforced with para-aramid fibers (Kevlar) have
(i) low density
(ii) high strength and specific modulus
(iii) good tensile fatigue properties
(iv) low compressive strength and inter laminar shear strength
It is generally difficult to obtain both good diametric tolerance and shredding-free surfaces for
the composites reinforced with aramid/Kevlar fibers. To prevent it, this type of composite
structure is preloaded by tensile stress and cut by shear force.
Applications:
(i) The use of these composites can reduce the weight by 30% comparing with glass fibre
composite materials.
(ii) To reduce weight and improve economic efficiency, generally, aramid composites have
been widely used in commercial aircraft and helicopters.
(iii) They also have found application in production of a composite toe cap.
(iv) Typical applications of these composites are in ballistic products (bulletproof vests and
armor), sporting goods, tires, ropes, missile cases, pressure vessels, and as a replacement
for asbestos in automotive brake and clutch linings, and gaskets.
(v) Common commercial uses include body armor, flame-resistant clothing, heat protective
gear, ropes and cables, rubber reinforcement, fiberoptics and thermoplastic pipes.

4.10 SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS (SMA)

A group of metallic alloys which shows the ability to return to their original shape or size
when they are subjected to heating or cooling are called shape memory alloys.
Generally, shape memory alloys are intermetallic compounds having super lattice structures
and metallic - ionic - covalent characteristics. Thus, they have the properties of both metals
and ceramics.
They are simple, compact highly safe and light in weight. bio - compatiblele. It possesses
super elasticity, wear resistance and corrosion-resistance properties.

Examples of shape memory alloys

Ni – Ti alloy (Nitinol), Cu – Al – Ni alloy, Cu – Al – Ni alloy, Cu – Zn – Al alloy, Au – Cd
alloy, Ni – Mn – Ga and Fe based alloys
Types of Shape memory alloys:
There are two types of shape memory alloys
(i) One - way shape memory alloy
(ii) Two - way shape memory alloy
 A material which exhibits shape memory effect only upon heating is known as one-way shape
memory alloy.
A material which shows shape memory effect during both heating and cooling is called two-
way shape memory alloy.
Phases of shape memory alloys
Martensite and austenite are two solid phases in SMA
i) Martensite is relatively soft. It is easily deformable phase which exists at low temperature
(monoclinic)
ii) Austenite is a phase that occurs at high temperature having a crystal structure and high
degree of symmetry (cubic)

Difference between Austenite and Martensite

Austenite Martensite
High Temperature state Low temperature state
Hard, firm Soft
Symmetric Less Symmetric
Inelastic Elastic
Resembles titanium Complex structure
Simple FCC structure Twinned and un-twinned structure
Thermal/Mechanical deformation Heat/stress induced transformation

4.11 Shape memory effect:

The change in shape of a material at low temperature by loading and regaining of original
shape by heating it, is known as shape memory effect. The shape memory effect occurs in
alloys due to the change in their crystalline structure with the change in temperature and stress.
➢ While loading, twinned martensite becomes deformed martensite at low temperature.
➢ On heating, deformed martensite becomes austenite (shape recovery) and upon cooling
it gets transformed to twinned martensite (Fig. 2).
 Material crystalline arrangement during shape memory effect

Explanation:
Shape Memory effect describes the effect of restoring the original shape of a plastically
deformed sample by heating it. This phenomenon results from a crystalline phase change
known as thermoelastic martensitic transformation. At temperatures below the transformation
temperature, shape memory alloys are martensitic. In this condition, their microstructure is
characterized by self-accommodating twins. The martensitic is soft and can be deformed quite
by de-twinning. Heating above the transformation temperature recovers the original shape and
converts the material to its high strength, austenitic, condition. The transformation from
austenite to martensite and the reverse transformation from martensite to austenite do not take
place at the same temperature.
Mechanism:
One Way Shape Memory Effect (OWSME):
Consider a single crystal in parent phase (T ≤ Mf)(a). The single crystal is cooled to a
temperature below Mf (b). Then, martensite are formed in a self-accommodation manner(c).
Thus, if an external stress is applied, and if the stress is high enough, it will become a single
variant of martensite under stress. Such a high mobility of the Twin Boundary, in which a
single variant of martensite change into the twin orientation by shear. When the specimen is
heated to a temperature above Af, reverse transformation occurs. The reverse transformation
induced by heating recovers the inelastic strain; since martensite variants have been reoriented
by stress, the reversion to austenite produces a large transformation strain having the same
amplitude but the opposite direction with the inelastic strain and the SMA returns to its
original shape of the austenitic phase (d). This phenomenon is called One–Way Shape
Memory Effect. (OWSME).
 Macroscopically Mechanism of One Way Shape Memory Effect: (a) Marten- site, (b) Loaded
and Deformed in martensite phase T≤ Mf, (c) Heated above T G As (austenite),(d) Cooling to
martensite T≤ Mf.
Two Way Shape Memory Effect (TWSME):
The two-way shape-memory effect is the effect that the material remembers two different
shapes: one at low temperatures, and one at the high temperature. A material that shows a
shape-memory effect during both heating and cooling is said to have two-way shape memory.
This can also be obtained without the application of an external force (intrinsic two-way
effect). The reason the material behaves so differently in these situations lies in training.
Training implies that a shape memory can "learn" to behave in a certain way. Under normal
circumstances, a shape-memory alloy "remembers" its low-temperature shape, but upon
heating to recover the high-temperature shape, immediately "forgets" the low-temperature
shape. However, it can be "trained" to "remember" to leave some reminders of the deformed
low-temperature condition in the high-temperature phases.

Macroscopically Mechanism of TwoWay Shape Memory Effect: (a) Martensite state, (b) Several
deformations with an irreversible amount, (c) Heated, (d) Cooled.
FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS:
1. SMAs exhibit changes in electrical resistance, volume and length during the
transformation with temperature.
2. The mechanism involved in SMA is reversible (austenite changes to martensite and vice
versa.)
3. Stress and temperature have a great influence on martensite transformation.
4. Pseudo elasticity:
Pseudo - elasticity occurs in shape memory alloys when it is completely in austenite phase
(temperature is greater than Af austenite finish temperature). Unlike the shape memory effect,
Pseudo-elasticity occurs due to stress induced phase transformation without change in
temperature. The load on the shape memory alloy changes austenite phase into martensite (Fig.
3.7) As soon as the loading decreases the martensite begins to transform to austenite and
results in shape recovery. This phenomenon of deformation of a SMA on application of large
stress and regaining of original shape on removal of the load is known as pseudo elasticity.
This pseudo elasticity is also known as super elasticity.

Where,
Ms : Temperature at which austenite starts to
transform to martensite upon cooling
Mf : Temperature at which transformation of
austenite to martensite is complete upon cooling
As : Temperature at which martensite begins to
transform to austenite upon heating
Af : Temperature at which transformation of
martensite to austenite is complete upon heating

Load diagram of pseudo elastic effect

5. Hysteresis:
The temperature range for the martensite to austenite transformation which takes place upon
heating is somewhat higher than that for the reverse transformation upon cooling. The
difference between transition temperature upon heating and cooling is called hysteresis. The
hysteresis curve for SMAs is shown in fig. The difference of temperature is found to be 20 - 30
C.
4.12 Nickel Titanium Alloy (Nitinol)
Nickel titanium, also known as Nitinol, is a metal alloy of nickel and titanium, where the two
elements are present in roughly equal atomic percentages. This metal alloy is denoted by the
symbols of its constituent metals. The formula for this alloy is NiTi. In 1962, William J.
Buehler and Frederick Wang first discovered the unique properties of this metal at the Naval
Ordnance Laboratory. This alloy exhibits the super-elasticity or pseudo-elasticity and the
shape memory properties. It means this unique metal can remember its original shape and
shows great elasticity under stress.
Nitinol Production
Extremely tight compositional control is required for making this alloy. Due to this reason, it is
very difficult to prepare this alloy. The extraordinary reactivity of titanium is another obstacle
in its preparation. Two primary melting methods are presently used for this purpose:
➢ Vacuum Arc Remelting: In this method, an electrical arc is struck between a water-
cooled copper strike-plate and the raw materials. Water cooled copper mold is used for
melting the constituents in high vacuum to prevent carbon introduction.
➢ Vacuum Induction Melting: The raw materials are heated in a carbon crucible using
alternating magnetic fields. This is also accomplished in high vacuum; however, carbon
is introduced in this process.
Physical Properties
Appearance: It is a bright silvery metal.
Density: The density of this alloy is 6.45 gm/ cm3
Melting Point: Its melting point is around 1310 °C.
Resistivity: It has a resistivity of 82 ohm-cm in higher temperatures and 76 ohm-cm in lower
temperatures.
Thermal Conductivity: The thermal conductivity of this metal is 0.1 W/ cm-°C.
Heat Capacity: Its heat capacity is 0.077 cal/ gm-°C.
Latent Heat: This material has a latent heat of 5.78 cal/ gm.
Applications:
1. Nitinol Wires
Nitinol is used for making shape-memory actuator wire used for numerous industrial purposes.
This wire is used for guidewires, stylets and orthodontic files. This wire is ideal for
applications requiring high loading and unloading plateau-stresses as well as for eyeglass
frames and cell phone antennas. However, the main uses of this wire are in stents and stone
retrieval baskets.
2. Nitinol Stent
This alloy is used for manufacturing endovascular stents which are highly useful in treating
various heart diseases. It is used to improve blood flow by inserting a collapsed Nickel
titanium stent into a vein and heating it. These stents are also used as a substitute for sutures.
3. Nitinol Stone Retrieval Basket
Nickel titanium wire baskets are well-suited for many medical applications as it is springier
and less collapsible than many other metals. This basket instrument is highly useful for the
gallbladder.
4. Other Uses
➢ It is also used as an insert for golf clubs for its shape changing abilities.
➢ It is a popular choice for making extremely resilient glass-frames.
 ➢ Nitinol is used for making self-bending spoons used in magic shows.
➢ It is used in aerospace industries.
APPLICATIONS OF SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS
Shape memory alloys have a wide range of applications.
1. Microvalve (Actuators):
One of the most common applications of SMAs is microvalves. Actuator is a microsensor
which triggers the operation of a device. The electrical signal initiates an action. When an
electrical current of 50 to 150 mA flows in Ni - Ti actuator, it contracts and lifts the poppet
from the orifice and opens the valve.
2. Toys and novelties:
Shape memory alloys are used to make toys and ornamental goods. A butterfly using SMA
moves its wings in response to pulses of electricity.
3. Medical field:
(i) Blood clot filters are SMAs, properly shaped and inserted into veins to stop the passing
blood clots. When the SMA is in contact with the clot at a lower temperature, it expands
and stops the clot and blood passes through the veins.
(ii) Orthodontic applications Ni-Ti wire holds the teeth tight with a constant stress
irrespective of the strain produced by the teeth movement. It resists permanent
deformation even if it is bent.
(iii) SMAs (Ni-Ti) are used to make eye glass frames and medical tools. Sun-glasses made
from superelastic Ni-Ti frames provide good comfort and durability.
(iv) Broken bones can be mended with shape memory alloys. The alloy plate has a memory
transfer temperature that is close to body temperature, and is attached to both ends of the
broken bone. From body heat, the plate wants to contract and retain its original shape,
therefore exerting a compression force on the broken bone at the place of fracture.
4. Antenna wires:
The flexibility of superelastic Ni - Ti wire makes it ideal for use as retractable antennas.
5. Cryofit hydraulic couplings:
SMAs materials are used as couplings for metal pipes.
6. Springs, shock absorbers and valves:
Due to the excellent elastic property of the SMAs, springs can be made which is used in
Engine micro valves, medical stents, Fire safety valves and Aerospace latching mechanisms.
7. Stepping motors:
Digital SMA stepping motors are used for robotic control.
8. Titanium-aluminium shape memory alloys:
They offer excellent strength with less weight and dominate in the aircraft industry. They
are high temperature SMAs, for possible use in aircraft engines and other high temperature
environments.
4.13 Chromogenic materials
The word "Chromo-" originates from the Greek language means that something is coloured.
All chromogenic materials change their colour depending on external stimuli. Materials that
change colour are scientifically termed chromogenics and they are described as “chameleonic”
because they change their colour reversibly as a response to changes in environmental condition
(such as change of temperature, brightness, etc.) or by induced stimuli.
The phenomena in which color is produced when light interacts with materials, often
called chromic materials. The technical principle, by which these materials change colour, can be
explained by an alteration in the equilibrium of electrons caused by the stimulus, like cleavage of
the chemical bonds or changes occurring inside the molecule, among electrons, with a
consequent modification of optical properties, such as reflectance, absorption, emission, or
transmission.
When the stimulus ceases, the material returns to its original electronic state, regaining the
original optical properties, thus the initial colour or transparency. This process, named chromism,
implies ‘pi’ and ‘d’ electron positions so that the phenomenon is induced by various external
stimuli bearing the ability of altering electronic density of the compound or a substance
Many natural compounds exhibit chromism and now a number of artificial compounds of
specific chromic properties have been synthesized. Color-changing materials have recently
received considerable attention and the use of these materials has been widely considered in
various fields.
Types of chromogenic materials
There are various types of chromogenic materials and they are split into categories
depending on what type of external stimuli triggers the change in colour. Based on the origin
of the stimulus, the color-changing process in smart materials is mostly classified into
photochromic, thermochromic, electrochromic, Mechanochromic, Solvatochromic,
Biochromic and chemochromic materials.

Photochromic Changes colour with a change of light.

Thermochromic Change colour with a change in temperature.
Electrochromic Change colour with a change in applied electric field.
Mechanochromic Change in colour when a mechanical stimulus, i.e., stress, is applied.
Piezochromic Change in color with the application of pressure.
Chemochromic Colour change due to the chemical changes in the environment
Halochromic Change in colour as a response to pH changes in the environment
Solvatochromic Colour changes due to sensitivity of a given solvent
Biochromic Colour changes due to the presence of pathogens

1. Photochromic materials
Photochromic materials change colour when the intensity of incoming light changes. These
materials work on the principle of absorption of light as in the case of optical lenses for solar
protection or smart windows for adaptive solar control.
Photochromic materials can be used for the design of optical switches, optical data storage
devices, energy-conserving coatings, eye-protection glasses, and privacy shields.
Photochromic materials and systems have several important uses depending on the rates of the
optical transformations.
A photochromic glass is produced by embelding a layer of silver halides (usually silver
chloride) in glass or transparent plastic. Photochromic glass darkens when is exposed to
sunlight. When the light fades, it become transparent again. It is suitable for making optical
lenses, windshields and windows.
2. Thermochromic materials
Thermochromic materials respond to a variation in environmental temperature by changing
their colour. Their capacity of acquiring different states of colours at different temperatures
and through temperature variations countless times makes them particularly interesting. For
example, titanium dioxide, zinc sulfide and zinc oxide are white at room temperature but when
heated change to yellow.
These materials have many useful and creative applications like thermometers, clothing, paint,
drink containers, toys, battery indicators, plastic products etc.,
Eg. Thermochromic T-shirt. A hairdryer was used to change the blue to turquoise

3. Electrochromic materials
Electrochromic materials are characterized by an optical change upon the application of an
electric field. Electrochromism is probably the most versatile of all chromogenic technologies
because it is the easiest to control and because it can easily be used in combination with
different stimuli such as stress or temperature. Electrochromic materials are able to vary their
coloration and transparency to solar radiation, in a reversible manner, when they are subjected
to a small electric field (1–5 V). The electrochromic materials available today command a big
market for dynamic antiglare mirrors that detect glare and automatically compensates for it,
especially for night time driving safety.
Eg. Electrochromic window in a Boeing 787-8 Dreamliner aircraft
An interesting example of these electrochromic smart windows in application is Chrysler
Pacifica car; the driver is able to dim the rear-view mirror according to his need and
preference. Electrochromic materials are very useful and have many applications including
systems to reduce glare, thermal control and as lenses in cameras and sun glasses.

4. Mechanochromic materials
Mechanochromic materials show a change in colour when a mechanical stimulus, i.e.
stress, is applied. These materials are currently studied intensely because of their potential use
in stress detection, particularly for in situ failure monitoring due to fracture, corrosion, fatigue,
or creep. This is an important group of materials with a huge range of applications such as data
storage, information encryption, sensors, memory chips, security inks, and light devices due to
its simple operation, obvious and rapid response.
Mechanochromic materials have been potentially applied to biological and healthcare systems.
This kind of material has received extensive attention in the field of solid-state optics because
of its potentially extensive applications in several advanced technologies, such as fluorescence
switches, mechanosensors, optoelectronics and data storage.

5. Piezochromic materials:
Piezochromism (from the Greek piezô "to squeeze, to press" and chromos "the color")
describes the tendency of certain materials to change color with the application of pressure.
This effect is closely related to the electronic band gap change, which can be found in plastics,
semiconductors and hydrocarbons.
In the aeronautical, space and Defense fields, the use of piezochromic coatings is studied
to control the health of composite structures. The use of piezochrome materials is also of great
interest for the visual detection of potential shocks or deformations of some industrial parts.
6. Chemochromic materials
Chemochromic materials respond to chemical changes in the environment by changing
colour. Chemochromic Materials are materials which react with different chemicals and
exhibit a change in color, transmission, or reflection properties.
Chemochromic materials are available in a number of forms, and are used in a number of
applications. Chemochromic materials are primarily used in the manufacture of dyes.
Chemochromic materials are also used in the material present in litmus paper which detects the
acidity and alkalinity of chemicals.
Chemochromic materials are also used to show the ripeness of the fruit as the chemical
reacts with the gases released by the fruit when it ripens. The major application of
chemochromic materials is its use in gas leak detection in rocket engines and industrial sites.

7. Halochromic materials
Halochromic materials can be considered a subgroup of chemochromic materials that
change colour as a response to pH changes in the environment. Halochromic materials are
commonly used materials that change their color as a result of changing acidity.
Halochromic substances are suited for use in environments where pH changes occur
frequently, or places where changes in pH are extreme. Halochromic substances detect
alterations in the acidity of substances, like detection of corrosion in metals.
8. Solvatochromic materials
Solvatochromic materials display the phenomenon called solvatochromism, typical of
some chemical substances that are sensitive to a given solvent. The solvatochromic effect is
the way the spectrum of a substance (the solute) varies when the substance is dissolved in a
variety of solvents. These materials are used to predict the colors of solutions.
In the field of chemical research, solvatochromism is used in environmental sensors, in probes
with the capacity of determining the presence and the percentage of a solvent, and in molecular
electronics for the construction of molecular switches.
9. Biochromic materials
Biochromic materials were developed to detect and report the presence of pathogens with a
colour shift. Potential applications of biochromic materials include colorimetric detection of
pathogens against food poisoning or bioterrorism. Researchers developed a green and
sustainable smart biochromic and therapeutic bandage using red cabbage extract encapsulated
into alginate nanoparticles.
Applications of chromogenic materials
1. Chromogenics have unique properties for applications such as glazing, large area
displays, and electronic paper.
2. Chromogenic polymers are a type of smart packaging system that alert consumers of
potential safety or quality problems in packaged products optically.
3. Chromogenic materials and devices promise smart management of solar energy under the
influence of external stimulus.
4. As a passive and green solar energy system, chromogenics may find a variety of
applications such as energy-efficient windows for buildings and automobiles, smart
displays, optoelectronic and medical industry as well as environmental technology as
emitting and sensing devices.
5. Electrochromic materials show similar working mechanism to supercapacitors which can
be used as energy storage materials and devices as well.
 PART-A

1. Write are smart materials? Give the types of smart materials?

Smart materials are the materials that can significantly alter one or more of their inherent
properties in response to its environment. The several external factors to which the smart
materials are sensitive to stress, temperature, moisture, pH, electric field, magnetic field. It can
respond in various ways, by altering colour or transparency, becoming conductive, permeable to
water or by changing shape.
TYPES OF SMART MATERIALS:
Different types of Smart Materials are
➢ Shape Memory Alloys
➢ Piezoelectric Materials
➢ Magnetostrictive Materials
➢ Magneto-Rheological Fluids

2. Define the term polymer.

Polymers are macromolecules (large molecule) formed by the repeated linking of large
number of small molecules called polymers
E.g. Polyethylene, Polyvinylchloride
3. What is meant by Polymerisation?
Polymerisation is a process by which two or more identical or different types of monomers
combine with or without eliminating small molecules such as water, methanol etc., to form a
macromolecular substance.
E.g. Polyvinylchloride formed by the combination of vinyl chloride monomers.
4. State the classification of Polymers based on structure
Based on the structure, the polymers are classified as follows:
(a) Linear polymers: In Linear polymers, the monomeric units are linked together to form a
long straight chain. (Eg) Polyethylene, polyester
(b) Branched chain polymers: Monomers join together to form a long straight chain with
some branched chains of different lengths. (Eg) Glycogen
(c) Cross-linked polymers: In this type of polymers, monomers are linked together to form a
three-dimensional network. (Eg) Bakelite, Formaldehyde resin
5. What are smart polymeric materials? Give examples of smart polymers.
Smart polymers, also called stimuli-responsive polymers or intelligent materials, are designed
materials that have one or more properties that can be significantly changed in a controlled
fashion by external stimuli such as stress, temperature, moisture, pH, electric or magnetic
fields.
Eg: Synthetic spider web, Shrilk and Graphene
6. What are the types and applications of Smart polymeric materials?
Different types of smart polymeric materials are Piezoelectric materials, shape memory
materials, chromo active materials, electro active materials and biodegradable materials.
Applications of Smart polymeric materials:
Smart polymers appear in highly specialized applications and everyday products alike.
They are used for sensors and actuators such as artificial muscles, the production of
hydrogels, biodegradable and to a great extent in biomedical engineering.
7. Mention the criteria for polymers to exhibit piezoelectricity.
➢ The presence of permanent molecular dipoles
➢ The ability to orient or align the molecular dipoles
➢ The ability to sustain the dipole alignment once it is achieved
➢ The ability of the material to undergo large strains when it mechanically stressed.
8. Why is Piezoelectric Polymers? Give any 2 applications.
Piezoelectric polymers are polymers that can generate electric charges on the surface under
pressure/strain thus convert mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Applications of piezoelectric polymers:
➢ Piezoelectric motors
➢ Sensors in medical sectors
➢ Microphones
➢ Piezoelectric igniters
9. Write a short note on electro active polymers?
Electro active polymers or EAP’s are polymers that exhibit a change in size or shape, when
stimulated by an electric charge.
It has a very simple structure comprises of films (elastomers) sandwiched by two compliant
electrodes made of a flexible and elastic materials, and can operate as an electric control
generator and actuator.
Eg: Polyaniline (PANI)
10. What is a biodegradable polymer?
Biodegradable polymers can be defined as polymers that can be degraded under natural
environment or physiological condition by either by enzymatic degradation or spontaneous
hydrolysis.
11. Not all bioplastics are biodegradable. Reason out.
Bioplastics that are considered 'biodegradable' can be broken down by microorganisms such
as bacteria, fungi, and algae into water, carbon dioxide, methane, biomass, and inorganic
compounds. For practical purposes, bioplastics that can be completely broken down within a
few months are considered biodegradable. Bioplastics that biodegrade more slowly
(requiring up to a few years to be broken down) are referred to as 'durable'.
12. Write the Mechanism of biodegradable polymers.
The breaking of polymeric bonds is associated with the action of enzymes, living organisms.
The process depends on the amount and type of living organisms and their microbial
activities.
The microorganisms are sensitive to temperature, moisture, pH, C/N ratio, and the amount of
oxygen available.
On degradation, finally, these polymers will be converted to CO2, water and biomass.
13. Define Composites
A material system consisting of a mixture of two or more macro – constituents, which are
mutually insoluble, differing in form and/ or composition, and forming distinct phases is
known as a composite
14. Write any 5 Characteristics of composites
➢ Higher specific strength.
➢ Lower specific gravity.
➢ Higher specific stiffness
➢ Lower electrical conductivity.
➢ Better corrosion and oxidation resistance.
➢ Good impact and thermal shock resistance.
➢ Can be fabricated easily.
➢ Better creep and fatigue strength
15. What are the constituents of composites?
Two essential constituents of composites are:
Matrix phase- metal, polymer, ceramic and carbon
Dispersed phase- Fibres (glass, carbon, aramid), particles, flakes, whiskers.
16. What is Kevlar? Give its types.
Kevar is a Du Pont trade name for poly p-phenyleneterephthalamide (PPD-T).
It is an aramid, i.e., an aromatic (benzene ring type) polyamide polymer fiber with a very
rigid molecular structure.
Types:
Kevlar 29 – Multipurpose yarn
Kevlar 49 – High modulus yarn
Kevlar 149 – Ultra high modulus yarn
17. Give the applications of CFRP in automotive industries?
In 17% of automobile parts CFRP is used as its weight can be reduced to about 30% of
standard automobile
A large-scale aircraft wing fabricated with CFRP is used to reduce weight of the various
additional components considerably
18. What are the advantages and disadvantages of CFRP?
Advantages
➢ Increase in toughness. this means more energy absorption ability making it
suitable for airport pavements, blast resistant structures etc.
➢ Increase in shear capacity when used in beams.
➢ Modest increase in flexural strength
➢ It is good for specialized applications. For example, in preparing shrinkage
reducing concrete mixtures that resist cracking.
Disadvantages
➢ Higher cost,
➢ Difficulty in finishing and working with it.
➢ Difficulty in repairs.
19. What are shape memory alloys?
A group of metallic alloys which shows the ability to return to their original shape or size
(i.e., alloy appears to have memory) when they are subjected to heating or cooling are
called shape memory alloys.
20. What are the types of shape memory alloys?
There are two types of shape memory alloys (i) One - way shape memory alloy (ii) Two -
way shape memory alloy A material which exhibits shape memory effect only upon
heating is known as one-way shape memory. A material which shows a shape memory
effect during both heating and cooling is called two-way shape memory.
21. Give the characteristics of shape memory alloys.
Generally, shape memory alloys are intermetallic compounds having super lattice
structures and metallic - ionic - covalent characteristics. Thus, they have the properties of
both metals and ceramics. Eg. Ni – Ti alloy (Nitinol) , Cu – Al – Ni alloy .
22. Define shape memory effect.
The change in shape of a material at low temperature by loading and regaining of original
shape by heating it, is known as shape memory effect.
➢ The shape memory effect occurs in alloys due to the change in their crystalline
structure with the change in temperature and stress.
➢ While loading, twinned martensite becomes deformed martensite at low
temperature.
➢ On heating, deformed martensite becomes austenite (shape recovery) and upon
cooling it gets transformed to twinned martensite.
23. What is pseudo elasticity?
This phenomenon of deformation of a SMA on application of large stress and regaining
of original shape on removal of the load is known as pseudo elasticity. This pseudo
elasticity is also known as super elasticity.
24. Mention the applications of shape memory alloys.
Shape memory alloys have a wide range of applications.
1. Microvalve (Actuators) 2. Toys and novelties 3. Medical field Blood clot filters
Orthodontic applications 4. Antenna wires 5. Thermostats.
25. State the disadvantages of shape memory alloys.
➢ They have poor fatigue properties.
➢ They are expensive.
➢ They have low energy efficiency.

26. Mention the types of chromogenic materials.

Based on the origin of the stimulus, the color-changing process in smart materials is
mostly classified into photochromic, thermochromic, electrochromic, Mechanochromic,
Solvatochromic, Biochromic and chemochromic materials.
27. Give examples of thermochromic materials.
(i) Thermochromic T-shirt: A hairdryer was used to change the blue to turquoise
(ii) Forehead strip thermometers change color with temperature to reveal whether
someone's suffering from a fever. They're inexpensive, safe, easy-to-use, and
hygienic.
(iii) ceramic mug, which changes colour when a hot drink is poured inside. The
transformation is reversible; thus, the colour of the mug goes back to its original one
when it cools down to room temperature.
 PART-B
1. Explain the classification of polymers in detail?
2. What do you mean by Piezoelectric Polymers? Explain the synthesis, properties and
applications of Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
3. Give the synthesis, properties and applications of Polyaniline (PANI).
4. What is biodegradable polymer? Give the synthesis, properties and applications of Poly-
lactic acid (PLA).
5. Explain the types of composites with suitable examples?
6. What is FRP? Give its characteristic, advantages and uses.
7. Explain shape memory effect with suitable diagram?
8. Write the applications of shape memory alloys in various fields.
9. Discuss the functional properties of shape memory alloy in detail.
10. What are chromogenic materials? Explain its types.
11. Mention the important applications of chromogenic materials.