ASSESSMENT, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF

(CONCRETE) STRUCTURES
As noted earlier, there is need to regularly inspect all structures so that any defects can be
detected and recorded in the early stages and a decision taken on what remedial work, if
any, should be carried out.

PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL ASSESSMENT

The following are the steps involved in assessment of any structure:

1) Discussion with the client

Before an appraisal of any structure is made, its owner or the client to the engineer, who
maybe of any of the categories below:
• government department
• national corporation
• local authority
• industrialist
• property company
• private owner
• corporate or private tenant
• architect, consulting engineer or other designer
• contractor or supplier
• civic group
• insurance company
will bring the idea to the engineer in form of a written brief in which he states his
requirements, dates for reporting, etc. Alternatively, the engineer will have to develop
his own brief together with the client.

2) Obtaining of background information

For a comprehensive appraisal to be made, the engineer must be fully knowledgeable

about the structure.
Therefore, he should obtain as much information about the structure as possible. This
information includes;-
• the design and construction dates
• details of construction
• present appearance and use
• its history which includes; any previous changes in use, when deterioration was
first noticed and whether any repairs had been carried out, and with what result.
All the above information could be hard to come by, but can be got from the owners,
designers, local authorities and government departments.

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3) Preliminary inspection

Equipped with all the information above about the structure, the engineer visits the site or
location of the building for inspection. Now, since it is not always as ideal as portrayed
above and the engineer usually never gets all that required preliminary information, he
inspects the site on the basis of the client’s complaints.

Depending on the type of structure and alleged defects, the engineer may take with him a
torch, tape, Schmidt rebound hammer, ladder, notepad, etc. it is also always advisable to
take a few carefully selected snapshots.

The information required during inspection is in three parts:

• the dimensions of the structure are required. They could be on existing drawings
and must then be checked on site for accuracy.
• The loadings and other conditions of service at present and in future must be
established.
• The materials of construction, the physical condition and the visual defects must
be ascertained.

Usually, existing structures are in use during inspection and thereby making access to all
the parts of the building a nightmare for the engineer. It is therefore advisable to always
first get permission from the current users who may be just tenants, or to get the client to
inform all the people inhabiting the area under study not to get in the way of the
engineer’s work.

Careful consideration of the data got will often indicate many possible underlying causes
of the deterioration and help in drawing up proposals for a detailed investigation,
sampling and testing.

4) Detailed inspection, sampling and testing

Proposals for sampling (if tests are required) are drawn up and together with the
contractors and laboratory authorities, required samples are taken and tested. For NDTs,
instructions must be given by the engineer in charge on where and how to test and record
results.

5) Analysis

The available data from above should be fully analysed and basing on it, conclusions and
recommendations should be provided.

6) Reporting

A final detailed report having all the findings, conclusions and recommendations should
be prepared and forwarded to the client who then decides on the next step depending on
the original reason for instituting a structural appraisal.

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PROBLEMS OF ASSESSMENT

• Lack of information
Owing to Uganda’s turbulent past as indeed is the same case as most developing
countries, most record keeping areas including offices/ stores have been vandalized
now and again. This led to most information in the country which of course included
engineering data, i.e. drawings, maintenance programs, design codes for those days
(before 1986), e.t.c to disappear or get misplaced.

• Permission from authorities

Also, during the data collection stage, there maybe need for carrying out tests, some
of which could be destructive or have a bearing on the safety of users or any other
thing of public interest e.g. load tests. Permission to carry out such tests may be
required from the concerned authorities

• Access to structure
Most structures requiring appraisals are usually under use and at times by sensitive
tenants. The engineer therefore usually gets problems of accessing most of the
necessary components of the structure in his/her endeavour to really know what is
existing.

The solution here could be requesting the client to inform his tenants about the
impending engineer’s visit and at least make them allow him perform his work with
little or no impedance.

• Involvement of other professionals

During their work, engineers have to incorporate other professionals say contractors
for exposure of certain points of the structure and the engineers have to bear
responsibility for these peoples work or mistakes. Therefore, in cases of grave
mistakes, this professional responsibility on the part of the engineer is a big problem.

• Complete understanding of the structural interrelationship

In cases where there are no existing drawings and a client wants modifications to be
made to his structure, he usually gets an architect to make for him his plans.

An engineer doing an appraisal for such a structure will have to visit it and armed
with the new modification drawings, has to try and understand the interrelationship
between the existing structure and these drawings and later provide the structural
detailing. This he has to do with the complete understanding of the incorporation of
the new as regards the whole structure’s stability. This usually is a problem and the
decisions taken, though risky, are binding.

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TESTING CONCRETE AND MORTAR IN EXISTING STRUCTURES

Testing is required when the survey carried out by the engineer does not provide
sufficient information for him/her to complete the appraisal and reach conclusions and
recommendations with confidence. This could arise when
• there is lack of information on what materials were used in the construction of the
structure under scrutiny
• the presence of deteriorated or deleterious material is suspected.

Alternatively, if
• the structure is clearly in a sound condition without defects and the physical
dimensions found in the survey allow calculations to confirm the suitability of the
structure for its intended future use,
• visual defects or the poor condition of the structure point to obvious conclusions
that meet the requirements of the brief,
then there is no need for carrying out any tests.

This in the long run saves on time and resources.

If tests are carried out, they are essentially of two types:

• ‘Destructive’ testing where samples of concrete or mortar are taken
• ‘Non-destructive’ testing (NDT) in which samples are not taken.
Destructive testing gives a local measurement of a dimension, material integrity or
condition, composition or property, while non-destructive testing gives a direct indication
of the performance of the structure or structural element.

It is always advisable to use a combination of both testing techniques so as to give a more

conclusive recommendation.

(a) Destructive tests

These are carried out by taking samples which are in form of cores and are mainly for
determining the compressive strength of the concrete existing in the structure. This coring
also indicates the distribution of materials in the concrete, concrete quality (voids,
honeycombing, etc) and may be used to obtain a measure of the shrinkage and absorption
properties of the concrete.

Coring can also be used to give an accurate measure of the cover to the reinforcement and
in determining the type and size of reinforcement. Core drilling to recover concrete for
laboratory analysis or testing is the best method of obtaining information on the condition
of concrete within a structure. However, since core drilling is expensive and destructive,
it should be considered only when sampling and testing of interior concrete is deemed
necessary. In coring, the consequence of cutting the reinforcement should be carefully
considered.

Other tests that can be carried out, but in a laboratory include:

4
• Chemical analysis.
Chemical analyses of hardened concrete or of selected portions (paste, mortar,
aggregate, reaction products, etc.) may be used to estimate the cement content,
original water-cement ratio, and the presence and amount of chloride and other
admixtures. The chloride analysis is the most common of these analyses. It is used to
provide a quantitative measure of chloride ion contamination and, thus, the potential
for active steel corrosion at various levels in the concrete deck. Samples for this test
are usually taken by a rotary hammer drill. The “threshold” chloride content, or
amount of chloride needed to initiate corrosion, is approximately 2.0 pounds of
chloride content per cubic yard of concrete.

• Petrographic tests
This type of examination may include visual and microscopic inspection, x-ray
diffraction analysis, differential thermal analysis, x-ray emission techniques, and thin
section analysis. These techniques may be expected to provide information on the
following: aggregate condition; pronounced cement-aggregate reactions; deterioration
of aggregate particles in place; denseness of cement paste; homogeneity of the
concrete; depth and extent of carbonation; occurrence and distribution of fractures;
characteristics and distribution of voids; and presence of contaminating substances.

• Physical analysis.
The following physical and mechanical tests are generally performed on concrete
cores: density, compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, Poisson’s ratio, pulse
velocity, and volume change potential by freezing and thawing.

• Microscopic examination
This is for determining whether sulphate-resisting Portland cement was used in
construction and in this test, thin sections need to be carefully prepared.

• The test for the depth of carbonation.

It is a very useful and simple test to carry out as it only indicates the advance towards
the reinforcement of the carbonation front by a distinctive colour change.

The pore solution in a hydrated Portland cement system is strongly alkaline with a pH
normally exceeding 12.6 brought about by calcium hydroxide, a product of the
hydration of the cement. In this environment steel is passive - a thin but dense
protective oxide film is formed on its exposed surface. This is enhanced by the
presence of surrounding concrete which restricts ingress of carbondioxide and
chlorides which can promote corrosion.

The presence of sodium and/or potassium salts can increase the pH further, for
example:

K 2 SO4 (aq ) + Ca (OH )2 (aq ) → CaSO4 ( s ) + 2 K + (aq ) + 2OH aq

−

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However, in concrete, hydrated cement reacts with aqueous solutions formed by the
acidic atmospheric gases, sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide, in moist conditions.
Aqueous solutions of sulphur dioxide will tend to dissolve the surface of concrete but
usually present only a superficial problem even in polluted atmospheres.
Carbon dioxide, however, will diffuse into the concrete and, in the presence of
moisture, react with the hydrated cement to form calcium carbonate. This will remove
hydroxyl ions from the pore solution and reduce the pH of the concrete.

Carbonated zone

Reinforcing steel

Aggregate

Cement matrix

Diagrammatic view of steel protected from carbonation-induced Corrosion

in partially carbonated concrete

The above phenomenon is shown in the equations below:

i. Ca(OH )2(aq ) → Ca 2+ aq + 2OH − aq

−
ii. CO2( g ) + 2OH aq → CO32(−aq ) + H 2O(l )
iii. Ca 2+ + CO32(−aq ) → CaCO3(aq )

Carbonation penetrates the concrete as a front from atmospherically exposed surfaces

but is not detrimental to the integrity of a concrete component until it penetrates to the
embedded steel as shown in the diagram below.

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 Carbonated zone

Reinforcing steel

Rust patches

Aggregate

Cement matrix
Diagrammatic view of steel corroding in carbonated concrete

Over time, the alkalinity of the concrete surrounding the embedded steel is reduced to
a point below a pH of about 9 to 10 where passivation is lost and the steel will be
vulnerable to corrosion if the other necessary components, water and oxygen, are
present in sufficient quantities.

This is shown in the diagram above.

Consequently good quality, well placed concrete with adequate cover to the steel
provides a high degree of protection to the steel reinforcement. The duration of this
protection depends on a number of factors including the retention of a high pH to
maintain the protective oxide film, the thickness and physical integrity of the cover
concrete, and how well this concrete acts as a barrier to the ingress of aggressive
species.

The corrosion process

The corrosion of steel reinforcement arises through local structural or compositional
variations within the concrete. Consequently some areas of the steel become
positively charged and others negatively charged.

The anodic reaction can be written as:

2+
Fe → Feaq + 2e −

The cathodic reaction is:

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 1−
2
O2( g ) + H 2O(l ) + 2e− → 2OHaq
−

The net reaction is the production of ferrous hydroxide which, in the presence of
oxygen and water, is converted to Fe2O3.n.H 2O (rust).

The above proceedings are summarized by the diagram below;

Iron therefore dissolves at the anode, with the resultant rust being deposited nearby.

The corrosion product occupies a volume several times that of the parent metal and its
formation creates internal stresses that in time will be sufficient to exceed the tensile
strength of the cover, leading to cracking and eventual spalling.

The electrical circuit is established through the movement of electrons within the
metal and hydroxyl, and metal ions through the pore solution in the concrete.

The key factors needed to support ongoing corrosion are:

• the presence of moisture on the surface of the reinforcement and in the adjacent
concrete,
• the availability of oxygen.

In countries with temperate climates, de-icing salts are the most common cause of the
corrosion.

In deduction from above, corrosion of the steel will cause two things to occur,
namely,
• the cross-sectional capacity of the reinforcement is reduced which in turn reduces
the load-carrying capacity of the steel.

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 • the products of the corrosion expand since they occupy about eight times the
volume of the original material. This leads to cracking and ultimately spalling of
the concrete.

For mild steel reinforcing, the damage to the concrete will become evident long
before the capacity of the steel is reduced enough to affect its load-carrying capacity.
However, for prestressed steel slight reductions in section can lead to catastrophic
failure.

Visual examination will typically reveal rust staining of the concrete. This staining
will be followed by cracking. Cracks produced by corrosion usually run in straight,
parallel lines at uniform intervals corresponding to the spacing of the reinforcement.
As deterioration continues, spalling of the concrete over the reinforcing steel will
occur with the reinforcing bars becoming visible. A laboratory analysis may be
beneficial to determine the chloride contents in the concrete throughout its depth.
This procedure may be used to determine the amount of concrete to be removed
during a rehabilitation project.

(b) Non-destructive tests

The purpose of NDT is to determine the various properties of concrete such as strength,
modulus of elasticity, homogeneity, and integrity, as well as conditions of strain and
stress, without damaging the structure. When carried out, these tests should only be taken
as being indicative and shouldn’t be considered as giving absolute information.

Some of the available tests include;-

• The electromagnetic cover meter surveys
these are used in measuring the depth to the steel, its orientation and distribution. Of
recent, it is also utilized in identifying the sizes of the reinforcement bars.

• The ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) tests.

This method is used in assessing the concrete strength of a member(s) and
determining the presence of cracks, voids and any other imperfections below the
surface of a member. It involves the measurement of the time of travel of
electronically pulsed compressional waves through a known distance in concrete.
These velocities can be used to assess the general condition and quality of concrete,
to assess the extent and severity of cracks in concrete, and to delineate areas of
deteriorated or poor-quality concrete.
- Good-quality, continuous concrete will normally produce high velocities
accompanied by good signal strengths.
- Poor-quality or deteriorated concrete will usually decrease velocity and signal
strength. Concrete of otherwise good quality, but containing cracks, may produce
high or low velocities, depending upon the nature and number of cracks, but will
almost always diminish signal strength.

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 This method does not provide a precise estimate of concrete strength. Moisture
variations and the presence of reinforcing steel can affect the results. Skilled
personnel are required in the analysis of the results.

• The Schmidt rebound hammer

Rebound numbers may be used to estimate the uniformity and quality of in situ
concrete. The rebound number is obtained by the use of a special “hammer” that
consists of a steel mass and a tension spring in a tubular frame.

The measured rebound number can be related to calibration curves which will give an
indication of the in situ concrete strength. The rebound number increases with the
strength of the concrete.

This method is inexpensive and allows for a large number of measurements to be

rapidly taken so that large exposed areas of concrete can be mapped within a few
hours.

As the impact on the surface of the concrete is over a small area, the readings are
susceptible to local variations and therefore at least 9 readings should be taken over a
given area to obtain a representative mean.

The measurements can be affected by: smoothness of the concrete surface; moisture
content of the concrete; type of coarse aggregate; size, shape, and rigidity of the
specimen; and carbonation of the concrete surface.

It should also be taken into account that the readings obtained only indicate the likely
strength of the concrete and thus these results have to be used in conjunction with
other relevant information in coming to any conclusions about any structure.

• Gamma radiography.
This test is used to determine the location of reinforcement and its size. Its expensive
and strict health and safety precautions are needed in its use.

• Penetration resistance (probe).

This test is also used for a quick assessment of quality and uniformity of concrete.
The apparatus most often used for penetration resistance is the Windsor Probe, a
special gun which uses a 32-caliber blank with a precise quantity of powder to fire a
high strength steel probe into the concrete. The depth of penetration of the probe into
the concrete can then be related by calibration curves to concrete compressive
strength.

A probe will penetrate deeper as the density, subsurface hardness, and strength of the
concrete decrease. It should not be considered for use as a precise measurement of
concrete strength. However, useful estimates of the compressive strength may be
obtained if the probe is properly calibrated.

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 This test does damage the concrete, leaving a hole of about 0.32 inches in diameter
for the depth of the probe, and may cause minor cracking and some surface spalling.
Minor repairs of exposed surfaces may be necessary.

• Surface tapping (chain drag).

Experience has shown that the human ear, used in conjunction with surface tapping,
is the most efficient and economical method of determining major delamination in
structures. Chain dragging can be used for this purpose. This is, however, a very
subjective test in that the operator must be able to differentiate between sound and
unsound regions, and the results cannot be easily quantified.

Steel corrosion assessment.

The most commonly used test for assessing the current state of reinforcing steel corrosion
is the half-cell potential test. This test involves measurement of the electrical potential of
an embedded reinforcing bar relative to a reference half-cell placed on the concrete
surface. Potential differences more negative than - 0.35 volts indicates a high degree of
probability of active corrosion of the reinforcing steel. Potential readings of - 0.20 volts
and lower indicate the probability of inactive or no corrosion, while readings between -
0.20 and -0.35 volts indicate the possibility of active corrosion.

Load tests.

Occasionally it may be necessary to examine the overall behaviour of an entire structure

or section of it. This may be achieved electronically by measuring the response to
dynamic loading with the aid of appropriately positioned accelerometers or alternatively
monitoring the performance under static test loads. The most common method however,
is to measure strains and deflections (with precise levelling or lasers) produced from
static full-scale test loads. These tests are generally expensive but yield valuable
information as to the overall “health” of a structure. This type of test can be conducted on
any type of structure, regardless of the material type.

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INDICATION AND CLASSIFICATION OF DETERIORATION

While performing an inspection of concrete structures, it is important that the conditions

observed be described in very clear and concise terms that can later be understood by
others. The common terms used to describe concrete deterioration are discussed below.

Cracking

Cracks provide easy pathways for moisture to travel into structures. Left unchecked,
moisture penetrating into masonry or concrete will cause staining and often leads to
further damage and deterioration.

Cracks in concrete may be described in a variety of ways. Some of the more common
ways are in terms of surface appearance, depth of cracking, width of cracking, current
state of activity, and structural nature of the crack:

(1) Surface appearance.

The surface appearance of cracks can give the first indication of the cause of
cracking.

Two categories exist:

(a) Pattern or map cracks.

These are rather short cracks, usually uniformly distributed and interconnected,
that run in all directions .These cracks are the result of restraint of contraction of
the surface layer or possibly an increase of volume in the interior of the concrete.

Another type of pattern crack is “D-cracking.”

These cracks usually start in the lower part of a concrete slab adjacent to joints,
where moisture accumulates and progresses away from the corners of the slab.
Vertical cracks near vertical expansion joints in walls can also be classified as D-
cracks.

(b) Individual cracks.

These cracks run in definite directions and may be multiple cracks in parallel at
definite intervals. Individual cracks indicate tension in the direction perpendicular
to the cracking. Several terms may be used to describe the direction that an
individual or isolated crack runs: diagonal, longitudinal, transverse, vertical, and
horizontal.

The directions of these cracks are demonstrated in the figure below.

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(2) Depth of cracking.
The four categories generally used to describe crack depth are surface, shallow, deep,
and through.

(3) Width of cracking.

Three width ranges are used: fine (generally less than 1/32 inch); medium (between
1/32 and 1/16 inch); and wide (over 1/16 inch).

(4) Current state of activity.

The activity of the crack refers to the presence of the factor causing the cracking. The
activity must be taken into account when selecting a repair method.

Two categories exist:

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 (a) Active cracks.
These are cracks for which the mechanism causing the cracking is still at work. If
the crack is currently moving, regardless of why the crack formed initially or
whether the forces that caused it to form are or are not still at work, it must be
considered active.

Also, any crack for which an exact cause cannot be determined should be
considered active.

(b) Dormant cracks.

These are cracks which are not currently moving or for which the movement is of
such magnitude that a repair material will not be affected by the movement.

(5) Structural nature of the crack.

Cracking may also be categorized as
(a) Structural cracking: caused by excessive live or dead loads, error in design, poor
workmanship, poor construction materials, physical damage, explosion, impact,
fire, severe deterioration due to serious corrosion of reinforcement).

(b) Non-structural cracking: caused by means other than those listed above. It should
be noted that neglected non-structural cracking can lead to structural failure, such
as due to corrosion of rebar.

Structural cracks will usually be substantial in width, and the opening may tend to
increase as a result of continuous loading and creep of the concrete.

Experience shows that majority of cracking is non-structural.

In general, it can be difficult to determine readily during a visual examination

whether a crack is structural or non-structural. Such a determination will frequently
require a structural engineer. A careful examination of cracks will give valuable
information e.g. position, pattern, direction (vertical, horizontal or inclined), direction
in relation to main reinforcement (parallel or transverse). Also to be noted/studied are
any deflection of the cracked member, width of the crack, depth of cover to
reinforcement, reinforcement drawings, calculations and specifications.

(c) Plastic shrinkage cracking: results from too rapid evaporation of moisture from
the surface of the concrete while the concrete is still plastic, i.e. the rate of
moisture loss exceeds the rate at which it rises to the surface (“bleeding”).
• The rate at which water reaches the surface depends on:

- Relative humidity
- Temperature of the concrete
- Temperature of the air
- Wind velocity

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 Also less understood phenomena that influence the rate at which water reaches the
surface are
- Degree of exposure of surface to sun and wind
- Type of aggregate and its grading, moisture content and absorption
- Total quantity of water in the mix
- Cement content
- Thickness of member
- Characteristics of any admixtures used
- Degree of compaction
- Dryness/wetness of formwork/subbase

• Plastic shrinkage cracks are fine and numerous of length 50 – 750 mm,
transverse in direction, but often parallel to each other at spacing between 50 –
90 mm; they are shallow and do not usually penetrate beyond the top layer of
reinforcement (but sometimes do and even go through the member)

• Plastic shrinkage cracks are quite common in hot sunny weather or in strong
dry windy conditions.

• Plastic shrinkage cracks are generally harmless but can cause consternation.

(d) Drying shrinkage cracking: caused by badly designed mix (i.e. too much water,
poorly graded fine aggregate with a high proportion of very fine material),
inadequate curing, and presence of chlorides (either in the aggregate or as an
admixture).
• Drying shrinkage is generally found in non-structural members with little or
no reinforcement, and in thin toppings, screeds and rendering.

(e) Thermal contraction cracking:

• During setting and early hardening of concrete, considerable heat is evolved
by the hydration of cement. As the temperature rises, the concrete expands
and when it cools down it contracts, producing thermal stresses that exceed
the concrete tensile strength and/or the bond between the concrete and the
reinforcement, and hence result in concrete cracking.
• Thermal cracks extend right through the member.

(f) Cracking due to bad workmanship, e.g. careless removal of formwork from
members or badly constructed expansion joints.

(g) Cracking due to Alkali Aggregate Reaction (AAR) such as alkali-silica reaction
(ASR)
• Occurs many years after the structure was completed.
• Manifests as random patterns, but in beams and columns will follow the lines
of the main bars; sometimes a yellowish gel extrudes from the cracks but
carbonation may turn it into a whitish colour; the concrete is often wet.
• Skilled laboratory examination is needed to do a definite diagnosis.

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(6) Combination of descriptions.
To describe cracking accurately, it will usually be necessary to use several terms from
the various categories listed. For example:
• shallow, fine, dormant, pattern cracking, or
• shallow, wide, dormant, isolated short cracks.

Disintegration.

Disintegration of concrete may be defined as the deterioration of the concrete into small
fragments or particles due to any cause. It differs from spalling in that larger pieces of
intact concrete are lost when spalling occurs.

Disintegration may be caused by a variety of causes including aggressive water attack,

freezing and thawing, chemical attack, and poor construction practices.

Two of the most commonly used terms to describe disintegration are scaling and dusting:

(1) Scaling.
This is the gradual and continuing loss of surface mortar and aggregate over an area.
The inspector should describe the character of the scaling, the approximate area
involved, and the location of the scaling on the structure.

Scaling should be classified as follows:

(a) Light scale.

Loss of surface mortar up to ¼ inch deep, with surface exposure of coarse
aggregates), is considered light scale.

(b) Medium scale.

Loss of surface mortar from ¼ to ½ inch deep, with some added mortar loss
between the coarse aggregates, is considered medium scale.

(c) Heavy scale.

Loss of surface mortar surrounding aggregate particles of ½ to 1 inch deep is
considered heavy scale. Aggregates are clearly exposed and stand out from the
concrete.

(d) Severe scale.

Loss of coarse aggregate particles as well as surface mortar and the mortar
surrounding the aggregates is considered severe scale. Depth of the loss exceeds
1 inch.

(2) Dusting.
Dusting is the development of a powdered material at the surface of hardened
concrete. Dusting will usually be noted on horizontal concrete surfaces that receive a

16
 great deal of traffic. Typically, dusting is a result of poor construction practice. For
example, sprinkling water on a concrete surface during finishing will frequently result
in dusting.

Spalling.
Spalling is defined as the development of fragments, usually in the shape of flakes,
detached from a larger mass. As previously noted, spalling differs from disintegration in
that the material being lost from the mass is concrete and not individual aggregate
particles that are lost as the binding matrix disintegrates. The distinction between these
two symptoms is important when attempting to relate symptoms to causes of concrete
problems.

Spalls can be categorized as follows:

(1) Small spall. These are not greater than ¾ inch in depth nor greater than 6 inches in
any dimension.

(2) Large spall. These are deeper than ¾ inch and greater than 6 inches in any dimension

(3) Special case of spalling.

Two special cases of spalling must be noted:

(a) Pop outs.

These appear as shallow, typically conical depressions in a concrete surface. They
may be the result of freezing of concrete that contains some unsatisfactory
aggregate particles. They are easily recognizable by the shape of the pit remaining
in the surface and by a portion of the offending aggregate particle usually being
visible in the hole.

(b) Spalling caused by the corrosion of reinforcement.

One of the most frequent causes of spalling is the corrosion of reinforcing steel.
During a visual examination, spalling caused by corrosion of reinforcement is
usually an easy symptom to recognize since the corroded metal will be visible
along with rust staining, and the diagnosis will be straightforward.

(c) Joint spall.

This is an elongated depression along an expansion, contraction, or construction
joint.

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COMMON DEFECTS IN BUILDINGS

Failures and defects in concrete structures can be placed in five main categories:

1) Structural deficiency

These are caused by

- errors in design
- errors in construction
- impacts
- explosions
- changed use of structure resulting in higher loading than allowed for in the
original design

2) Fire damage
This may result in some parts of the structure weakening, as well as physical damage
to the columns, slabs etc.

3) Deterioration due to poor quality materials, such as poor quality concrete,

inadequate cover to reinforcement, the presence of chlorides and/or sulphates in the
concrete.

4) External chemical and biological attack on the concrete and/or the reinforcement.

5) Physical damage due to use or abuse (“wear and tear”)

It is only when remedial work is ignored over a long period of time that failure
occurs.

Once the inspection of a concrete structure has been completed, the cause or causes
for any deterioration must be established. Since many of the symptoms may be
caused by more than one mechanism acting upon the concrete, it is necessary to have
an understanding of the basic underlying causes of damage and deterioration. Tables
1 & 3 summarize the various causes of deterioration in concrete and their associated
indicators. These causes are discussed:

a) Accidental loadings.
These loadings are generally short-duration, one-time events such as vehicular or
machine impact or an earthquake. These loadings can generate stresses higher than the
strength of the concrete resulting in localized or general failure. This type of damage is
indicated by spalling or cracking of the concrete. Laboratory analysis is generally not
necessary.

b) Chemical reactions.
This category includes several specific causes of deterioration that exhibit a wide variety
of symptoms as described:

18
• Acid attack.
Portland cement is generally not very resistant to attack by acids, although weak acids
can be tolerated. The products of combustion of many fuels contain sulphurous gases
which combine with moisture to form sulphuric acid.

Other possible sources for acid formation are sewage, some peat soils, and some
mountain water streams. Visual examination will show disintegration of the concrete
leading to the loss of cement paste and aggregate from the matrix. If reinforcing steel
is reached by the acid, rust staining, cracking, and spalling may be seen. If the nature
of the solution in which the deteriorated concrete is located is unknown, laboratory
analysis can be used to identify the specific acid involved.

• Alkali-carbonate rock reaction (AAR).

Certain aggregates of carbonate rock have been reactive in concrete. The results of
these reactions have been both beneficial and destructive. Visual examination of those
reactions that are serious enough to disrupt the concrete in a structure will generally
show map or pattern cracking and a general appearance which indicates swelling of
the concrete.

This reaction is distinguished from that of the alkali-silica reaction by the lack of
silica gel exudations at cracks. Petrographic examination may be used to confirm the
presence of alkali-carbonate rock reaction.

• Alkali-silica reaction (ASR).

Some aggregates containing silica that is soluble in highly alkaline solutions may
react to form expansive products which will disrupt the concrete. This reaction is
indicated by map or pattern cracking and a general appearance of swelling of the
concrete. Petrographic examination may be used to confirm the presence of this
reaction.

• Miscellaneous chemical attack.

Concrete will resist chemical attack to varying degrees depending upon the exact
nature of the chemical. Concrete which has been subjected to chemical attack will
usually show surface disintegration and spalling and the opening of joints and cracks.
There may also be swelling and general disruption of the concrete mass. Aggregate
particles may be seen protruding from the remaining concrete mass.

• Sulphate attack.
Naturally occurring sulphates of sodium, potassium, calcium, or magnesium are
sometimes found in soil or in solution in ground water adjacent to concrete structures.
The reactions involving these sulphates result in an increase in volume of the
concrete. Visual inspection will show map and pattern cracking as well as a general
disintegration of the concrete. Laboratory analysis can verify the occurrence of the
reactions described.

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c) Construction errors.
Failure to follow specified procedures and good practice or outright carelessness may
lead to a number of conditions that may be grouped together as construction errors.
Typically, most of these errors do not lead directly to failure or deterioration of concrete.
Instead, they enhance the adverse impacts of other mechanisms identified in this chapter.
The following are some of the most common construction errors:

• Addition of water to concrete.

The addition of water while in the delivery truck although increases on workability,
will often lead to concrete with reduced strength and durability. The addition of water
while finishing a slab will cause crazing and dusting of the concrete in service.

• Improper consolidation.
Improper consolidation of concrete may result in a variety of defects, the most
common being bug holes, honeycombing, and cold joints. These defects make it
much easier for any damage-causing mechanism to initiate deterioration of the
concrete.

• Improper curing.
Unless concrete is given adequate time to cure at a proper humidity and temperature,
it will not develop the characteristics that are expected and that are necessary to
provide durability. Symptoms of improperly cured concrete can include various types
of cracking and surface disintegration. In extreme cases where poor curing leads to
failure to achieve anticipated concrete strengths, structural cracking may occur.

• Improper location of reinforcing steel.

This section refers to reinforcing steel that is either improperly located or is not
adequately secured in the proper location. Either of these faults may lead to two
general types of problems:
- First, the steel may not function structurally as intended resulting in structural
cracking or failure.
- The second type of problem stemming from improperly located or tied steel is one
of durability. The tendency seems to be for the steel to end up close to the surface
of the concrete. As the concrete cover over the steel is reduced, it is much easier
for corrosion to begin.

d) Corrosion of embedded metals.

Under most circumstances, Portland-cement concrete provides good protection to the
embedded reinforcing steel. This protection is generally attributed to the high alkalinity
of the concrete adjacent to the steel and to the relatively high electrical resistivity of the
concrete. However, this corrosion resistance will generally be reduced over a long period
of time by carbonation, and the steel will begin to corrode as explained earlier.

f) Design errors.
Design errors generally result from inadequate structural design or from lack of attention
to relatively minor design details:

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• Inadequate structural design.
This will cause cracking and/or spalling in areas which are subject to the highest
stresses. To identify this as a source of damage, the locations of the damage should be
compared to the types of stresses that should be present in the concrete.
A detailed structural analysis may be required, and thus a qualified structural engineer
should be consulted if this problem is apparent.

• Poor design details.

Poor detailing may result in localized concentrations of high stresses in otherwise
satisfactory concrete.

The following are some of the more common design detail problems:
- Abrupt changes in section.
This may cause stress concentrations that may result in cracking. Typical
examples would include the use of relatively thin slabs rigidly tied into massive
columns or beams and replacement concrete that are not uniform in plan
dimensions.

- Re-entrant corners and openings.

These locations are subject to stress concentrations, and when insufficiently
reinforced, cracking may occur.

- Inadequate drainage.
This will cause ponding of water especially on flat roofs and floors, which may
result in excessive loading or, more likely, leakage or saturation of concrete.
Concrete subject to freeze-thaw cycles is especially vulnerable to this type of
damage.

- Insufficient travel in expansion joints.

Inadequately designed expansion joints may result in spalling of concrete adjacent
to the joints.

- Rigid joints between precast units.

Designs utilizing precast elements must provide for movement between adjacent
precast elements or between the precast elements and the supporting frame.
Failure to provide for this movement can result in cracking or spalling.

- Wear and abrasion.

In cases of factories and frequently used structures including those on which
vehicles pass, serous wear and abrasion occurs overtime.

- Freezing and thawing.

The cyclic freezing and thawing of critically saturated concrete will cause its
deterioration. De-icing chemicals may also accelerate the damage and lead to
pitting and scaling.
This damage ranges from surface scaling to extensive disintegration.

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 Laboratory examination of concrete cores with this damage will often show a
series of cracks parallel to the surface of the structure.

- Foundation movement.
These movements will cause serious cracking in structures

- Shrinkage.
Shrinkage is caused by the loss of moisture from concrete.
It may be divided into two categories: that which occurs before setting (plastic
shrinkage) and that which occurs after setting (drying shrinkage).
Cracking due to plastic shrinkage will be seen within a few hours of concrete
placement. The cracks are generally wide and shallow and isolated rather than
patterned. Cracks due to drying shrinkage are characterized by their fineness and
absence of any indication of movement.
They are usually shallow, a few inches in depth, and in an orthogonal or blocky
pattern.

- Temperature changes.
Changes in temperature cause a corresponding change in volume of the concrete,
and when sufficiently restrained against expansion or contraction cracking will
occur. Temperature changes will generally result from the heat of hydration of
cement in large concrete placements, variations in climatic conditions, or fire
damage.

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Table 1: Relation of symptoms to causes of distress and deterioration of concrete

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TABLE 2: BUILDING COMPONENT: RC beams and slabs
VISIBLE DEFECT POSSIBLE CAUSE INVESTIGATIONS SUGGESTED
Vertical or slightly inclined cracks Overloading Ascertain actual load being carried
Under reinforcement, inadequate compared with design load.
depth Compare span/depth ratio with code
Fault in design requirements
Thermal movement Ascertain existence or otherwise of
Shrinkage around stirrups uneven temperature gradient.
Diagonally inclined hair cracks generally at or near Overloading in shear Ascertain shear capacity and compare
supports of beams Thermal effects with shear forces.
Compare span/depth ratio with code
requirements
Ascertain existence or otherwise of
uneven temperature gradient
Presence of diagonal cracks in beams on the faces Torsional shear stresses Adequacy of design
of and extending around the perimeter of section Cause and magnitude of torsional
moment
Excessive deflection (damage to partitions /glazing Inadequate depth Compare span/depth ratio with code
below) in slabs and beams Overloading (long-term) recommendations
Fault in construction: tensile Ascertain calculated theoretical
reinforcement out of position deflections
Fault in design Check loading history
Deterioration of materials Test concrete
Cover meter checks
Cracking of slab and/or finishes over supports of Slabs designed simply supported Cover meter checks for presence of ‘top’
slabs although continuous steel
Anti-crack steel at supports Examination of design.
inadequate or incorrectly positioned
Excessive relaxation of support
Moments in original design

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Table 3: Test methods for concrete

Property Under Test ASTM Equipment Type

Investigation Designation

Corrosion of Half-cell potential C876 Electrical

embedded steel Resistivity Electrical
Cover depth Electromagnetic
Carbonation depth Chemical and microscopic
Chloride penetration Chemical and microscopic

Concrete quality, Rebound hammer C805 Mechanical

durability and Ultrasonic pulse velocity C597 Electronic
deterioration Radiography C856 Radioactive
Radiometry C457 Radioactive
Permeability C85, C1084 Hydraulic
Absorption Hydraulic
Petrographic Microscopic
Sulphate content Chemical
Expansion Mechanical
Air content Microscopic
Cement type and content Chemical and microscopic

Concrete strength Cores C42, C823 Mechanical

Pullout C900 Mechanical
Pulloff C803 Mechanical
Breakoff Mechanical
Internal fracture Mechanical
Penetration resistance Mechanical

Integrity and Tapping C215 Mechanical

structural Pulse-echo Mechanical/electronic
performance Dynamic response Mechanical/electronic
Thermography Infrared
Strain or crack measurement Optical/mech./elec.

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REPAIR OF CONCRETE: NON-STRUCTURAL REPAIRS

These are repairs that do not increase the load-carrying capacity of the member nor of the
structure

1) Cracks and Spalls

The following are the requirements in a satisfactory repair:

(i) Ensure that all defective concrete and rust on reinforcement have been removed.
This can be achieved by using:
• Pneumatic tools
• High velocity water jets (typical nozzle pressures of 21-69 N/mm2)
• Flame cutting equipment
• Wire brushing
• Grit blasting
(ii) Ensure the best bond between the old and new work
The bond can be created by applying a coat of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) grout
to the exposed reinforcement and concrete. The grout is 2 parts OPC to 1 part SBR
(styrene-butadiene rubber) or acrylic latex/resins. The grout also creates an alkaline
environment around the steel.

(iii) Ensure the new mortar or concrete is as impermeable as possible and compatible
with the old.
• Compatibility between the new mortar/concrete with the base concrete means it
should have similar compressive strength.
• For repairs with mortar, addition of SBR to cement at 10 litres to 50 kg will
reduce permeability and shrinkage, and increase bond and resistance to chemical
attack.
• The mortar is best applied by spraying, but in restricted areas hand application
may be the only practical way. Final finishing should be by hand troweling.

2) Honeycombed (and under-compacted) concrete

The following are the requirements in a satisfactory repair:

(iv) Suspected concrete should be checked by one of these:

• Cutting out
• Ultrasonic pulse velocity survey
• Gamma radiography
• Taking cores.
(v) Defective concrete is either removed or repaired.
Removal may involve demolition. Demolition is difficult and expensive.

- The following is the procedure for repair:

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 • Cut away the substandard concrete using methods discussed above.
• Replace concrete – but ensure proper compaction.
• For non-load bearing members, pressure grouting with a cement grout is
sufficient but may be expensive. So cut and repair is generally sufficient.

- It is difficult to achieve the same strength as originally intended.

- Compaction is difficult, especially in restricted areas.
- It is difficult to ensure weather tight joint between old and new concrete.

(vi) For small areas repair with cement/sand mortar might be preferable to concrete.
- Mortar should have a low water/cement ratio to reduce drying shrinkage.
- 1:3 mix mortar is normal.
- Hand application is generally satisfactory but “guniting” with a high velocity gun
is superior but only economical for large repair works – it can achieve mortar
strength of 40 N/mm2.

(vii) For very shallow superficial honeycombs, surface sealing with epoxide and poly
urethanes may be sufficient.

(viii) Pressure grouting of honeycombed concrete can be used to seal leaks in basement
walls and floors, but probably needs to be used alongside surface sealing.

3) Protection of Steel Reinforcement Against Corrosion

Possible methods are:

(ix) Provision of inert barrier around each rebar over its full length – difficult to
achieve unless concrete is first removed around the rebars.
(x) Cathodic protection – refer to literature for details.

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REPAIR OF CONCRETE: STRUCTURAL REPAIRS

Structural failures may result from:

• Errors in design
• Overloading
• Bad workmanship
• Bad materials
• Physical damage from explosion, impact, fire
• Chemical attack (corrosion) of reinforcement.

A failed structural member will usually manifest as cracks of unacceptable width, bowing of
vertical members (walls and columns), excessive deflection of horizontal members.

A failed structure or component of a structure is considered to be unfit for its intended use.

1) Repair of Cracks

Cracks should be sealed by:

• Injection of low viscosity resins – needs specialists
• Cement/sand mortar – discussed above
• Epoxide mortar – discussed above

2) Strengthening and Repair of Structures

This is necessary where a structure is/will be overloaded due to

- changed use and/or
- deterioration

The commonest method of repair/strengthening of weak members is

addition/replacement of reinforcement and then guniting (“shortcrete”).

Floors and roofs tend to have the most defects and common repairs include:
• Patching
• Joint repairs
• Resurfacing (with a variety of materials).

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