Palestine Polytechnic University

College of Humanities and Educational Sciences

Department of Linguistics and Translation

A HISTORY OF
ENGLISH LITERATURE

(LITERATURE II) COURSE

8414

Instructor : Zain Asqalan

 CHAPTER 1
THE OLD ENGLISH PERIOD

THE BEGINNINGS

Of the actual facts concerning the origin of English literature we know little indeed.
Nearly all the literary history of the period, as far as it concerns the lives of actual writers,
is a series of skillful reconstructions based on the texts, fortified by some scanty
contemporary references and topped with a mass of conjecture. The results, however, are
astonishing and fruitful.
In fact, old English had oral origins and conventions. But it would be a mistake to think
that oral poetry would be inartistic. The Germanic oral poetry survived at the end of Roman
Empire. Oral poetry was an art which evolved over generation. It was an art of memorable
speech. At times it dealt with heroic and narrative themes. It seems that the first English
poetry resembles Homeric poetry. Early English literature begin with Beowulf. The orally
composed poetry of the Anglo-Saxon was an established art.

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

The period is a long one, for it starts with the fifth century and concludes with the
Norman Conquest of 1066. The events, however, must be dismissed very quickly. We may
begin in 410 with the departure of the Romans, who left behind them a race of semi-
civilized Celts. The latter, harassed by the inroads of the savage Caledonians, appealed for
help to the adventurous English. The English, coming at first as saviors, remained as
conquerors (450–600). In the course of time they gained possession of nearly all the land
from the English Channel to the Firth of Forth. Then followed the Christianizing of the
pagan English, beginning in Kent (597), a movement that affected very deeply all phases
of English life. In succession followed the inroads of the Danes in the ninth century; the
rise of Wessex among the early English kingdoms, due in great measure to the personality
of King Alfred, who compromised with the Danes by sharing England with them (878);
the accession of a Danish dynasty in England (1017); and the Gallicizing of the English
Court, a process that was begun before the Conquest of 1066. All these events had their
effect on the literature of the period.

LITERARY FEATURES OF THE PERIOD

1. Pagan Origins. The earliest poems, such as Widsith and Beowulf, present few
Christian features, and those that do appear are clearly clumsy additions by later hands. It
is fairly certain, therefore, that the earliest poems came over with the pagan conquerors.
They were probably the common property of the bards or gleemen, who sang them at the
feasts of the warriors. As time went on Christian ideas were imposed upon the heathen
poetry, which retained much of its primitive phraseology.
2. Anonymous Origins. Of all the Old English poets, we have direct mention of only
one, Cædmon, though not one poem can difinitely be ascribed to him. The name of another
poet, Cynewulf, is known because he signed his poem s in runic letters at the end of his
poems.Of the other Old English poets we do not know even the names.
3. The Imitative Quality. Nearly all the prose, and the larger part of the poetry, consists
of translations and adaptations from the Latin. The favorite works for translation were the
lives of saints, the books of the Bible, and various works of a practical nature. In most cases
the translations are feebly imitative.
4. The Manuscripts. It is very likely that only a portion of Old English poetry has
survived, though the surviving material is quite representative. The manuscripts that
preserve the poetical texts are comparatively late in their discovery, are unique of their
kind, and are only four in number. They are (a) the Beowulf manuscript (b) the Junian
manuscript, containing the Cædmon poems; (c) the Exeter Book, in the Exeter Cathedral
library and (d) the Vercelli Book.

THE LANGUAGE

Reading Old English literature is difficult because the language is very different from
modern English. Its words were mostly native, with a few borrowed from Latin, and its
grammar was more complicated, with different forms for nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and
verbs. There were four main dialects: Northumbrian, which was the first to produce
literature; Mercian, spoken in the Midlands; Kentish, used in the southeast; and West
Saxon, the dialect of Alfred the Great. West Saxon became the main dialect because of
Wessex's political power, and most of the texts that survive today are written in it.

Old English was the language of a simple people with a small vocabulary and a direct way
of speaking. Over time, their writing became more polished and refined. Northumbrian was
the first dialect to produce literature, but it was later affected by the Danish invasions. West
Saxon became the most important dialect, as most surviving texts are in this form, while
Kentish was less significant in literature.

OLD ENGLISH POETRY

BEOWULF

1. Origin of the Poem. It is almost certain that the poem originated before the English
invasions. There is no mention of England; Beowulf himself is the king of the “Geatas.”
The poem, moreover, is pagan in conception, and so antedates the Christian conversion.
With regard to the actual authorship of the work there is no evidence. It is very likely that
it is a collection of the tales sung by the bards, strung together by one hand, and written in
the West Saxon dialect.
2. The Story. There are so many episodes, digressions, and reversions in the story
of Beowulf that it is almost impossible to set it down as a detailed consecutive narrative.
Putting it in its very briefest form, we may say that Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow, and king of
the Geatas, sails to Denmark with a band of heroes, and rids the Danish King Hrothgar of
a horrible mere-monster called Grendel. The mother of Grendel meets with the same fate,
and Beowulf, having been duly feasted and rewarded, returns to his native land. After a
prosperous reign of forty years Beowulf slays the dragon that ravishes his land, but himself
receives a mortal wound. The poem concludes with the funeral of the old hero.
3. The Style. We give a short extract, along with a literal translation, to illustrate the
style. The short lines of the poem are really half-lines, and in most editions they are printed
in pairs across the page. The extract deals with Beowulf’s funeral rites:

It will be observed that the language is abruptly and rudely phrased. The half-lines very
frequently consist of mere tags or, as they are called, kenning ‘a poetic phrase used for
or in addition to the usual name of a person or thing, esp. in the Anglo-Saxon verse,
as “a wave traveler” for a boat, “whale road” for the sea, “swan-road’ for a lake’.
Such phrases were employed to keep the narrative in some kind of motion while the
invention of the minstrel flagged. At least half of the lines in the extract are kennings. Such
phrases occur again and again in Old English poetry.
It will also be observed that the lines are strongly rhythmical, but not metrical; and
that there is a system of alliteration ‘the repetition of consonant sounds at the beginning
of words or stressed syllables’, consisting as a rule of two alliterated sounds in the first
half-line and one in the second half-line. Word-hoard ‘a store of words and phrases that
the poet draws upon while crafting a tale, this collection of words exists only in the
poet's mind.’
With regard to the general narrative style of the poem, there is much primitive vigor in
the fighting, sailing, and feasting; a deep appreciation of the terrors of the sea and of other
elemental forces; and a fair amount of rather tedious repetition and digression. Beowulf, in
short, may be justly regarded as the expression of a hardy, primitive, seafaring folk,
reflecting their limitations as well as their virtues.

4. The Biblical reference in Beowulf.

In poetry or any other literary work, a biblical allusion is a reference to the Christian
bible. These allusions are very common and are even found in the very oldest works of
English literature.
Beowulf represents Jesus in the manner that he came to save people from eternal
destruction by the devil “Grendel” and his mother. He fights for the sake of his people and
he fought Grendel with bare hands. Furthermore, Jesus and Beowulf each fights an evil
that is too great to be defeated by the people. Each hero is prepared to sacrifice his life in
order to gain salvation for the people to whom God has sent him.

Grendel is referred to as a descendant of Cain: "the hostile-hearted creature, Gods

enemy, guilty of murder". Since Grendel’s ancestor is Cain, Grendel has been banished
from the earth. Making Grendel a hell born creature with human emotions and instincts.
With Grendel comes the allusion of Cain killing Abel, Grendel kills the celebratory
warriors because they exuded happiness. Cain killed Abel because he felt God gave Abel
more attention. Grendel’s emotions brought him to envy, so he, like his ancestor before
him, killed another. Unlike Cain, Grendel killed thirty men every night for twelve years,
devolving his monstrous character into an immoral character

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS

1. Poetry. Poetry is much earlier in the field, and its development is the greater. It begins
with the rude forms of Beowulf and concludes with the more scholarly paraphrases of
Cynewulf.
(a) Epic: The epic exists in one of its forms in Beowulf. This poem lacks the finer
qualities of the classical epic, the strict unity, the high dignity, and the broad motive though
it has a majesty which have obvious appeal. It is defined as ‘one of the earliest forms of
literature. It’s a long narrative poem that recounts the adventure of a legendary hero,
chasing a goal of a national importance. His accomplishments reflect the value of his
culture and usually a figure in history or mythology of his people.’
 (b) Lyric: It has no real example in Old English, though there are certain poems which
have some of the expressive melancholy and personal emotion associated with the lyric,
e.g., The Wanderer and The Seafarer. Although not as prevalent and popular as the epics,
there also exists lyrical elegies in Old English literature. The lyric is the short and
passionate expression of a personal feeling. The nearest approach to it lies in the dramatic
monologues. These poems are too long and diffuse to be real lyrics, but they have some of
the expressive melancholy and personal emotion of the lyric.
2. Prose. The great bulk of Old English prose consists of translation; and in its various
shapes English prose adopts the methods of its originals. We have many homilies, some
history, and a few pastoral letters, all based strictly upon Latin works. There are very few
passages of real originality, and they are short and disjointed.
 CHAPTER 2
THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (1050–1350)

The extensive period covered by this chapter saw many developments in the history of
England: the establishment of the Norman and Angevin dynasties; the class-struggle
between king, nobles, clergy, and people; the black death and the numerous wars against
France, Scotland, and Wales. But, from the literary point of view, much more important
than definite events were the general movements of the times: the rise of the religious
orders, their early enthusiasm, and their subsequent decay; the blossoming of chivalry and
the spirit of romance, bringing new sympathy for the poor and for womankind; the
Crusades, and the widening of the European outlook which was gradually to expand into
the rebirth of the intellect known as the Renaissance. All these were only symptoms of a
growing intelligence that was strongly reflected in the literature of the time.

STATE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

This period witnesses the disappearance of the pure Old English language and the
emergence of the mixed Anglo-French or Middle English speech that was to be the parent
of modern English. As a written language, Old English disappears about 1050, and, also as
a written language, Middle English first appears about the year 1200. The changes that
have happened at that time were: the loss of a great part of the Old English vocabulary; a
great and growing inrush of French words; the confusion, crumbling, and ultimate loss of
most of the old inflections; and the development of the dialects. There are three main
dialects in Middle English: the Northern, corresponding to the older Northumbrian; the
Midland, corresponding to Mercian; and the Southern, corresponding to the Old English
Kentish or Southern. None of the three can claim the superiority until late in the period,
when the Midland gradually assumes a slight predominance that is strongly accentuated in
the period following.

LITERARY FEATURES OF THE AGE

1. The Transition. The period is one of transition and experiment. The old poetical
methods are disappearing, and the poets are groping after a new system. English poets had
two models to follow—the French and the Latin, but gradually the more typically native
features, such as the use of alliteration. It is likely that all the while oral tradition had
preserved the ancient methods in popular songs, but that influence was slight for a long
period after the Norman Conquest.
2. The Anonymous. The anonymous nature of the writing is still strongly evidenced. A
large proportion of the works are entirely without known authors; most of the authors
whose names appear are names only.
 3. The Domination of Poetry. Most of the surviving material is poetry, which is used
for fields, such as history, geography, divinity and science. The widespread of poetry made
the amount of prose look small by comparison.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS

1. Poetry. (a) Meter. The most interesting feature of this period is the development of
rhymed meters. which in general displaced the alliterative line of Old English poetry,
though the poems of the so-called alliterative revival in the fourteenth century are a clear
warning (if any were needed) that it is foolish to dogmatize. It is clear, in fact, though
written records do not show it, that the two types develop side by side, even though from
the literary history point of view the alliterative is confined to the west and more
particularly to the north-west.
(b) The Lyric. The it is the form which has the greatest appeal in this period for the modern
reader. Lyrics were influenced by French and Latin lyrics, and most of them were devoutly
religious in theme and tone. It has been noted that there is no example of the true lyric from
the Old English period, and it is impossible to say when they were first written in this
country. Only a very few fragments have been preserved from the twelfth century, and it
is not till the next that we have any in large numbers. especially noteworthy being those
addressed to the Virgin Mary. On the other hand the secular lyric is well represented too,
both by what we should look upon as love-lyrics and those which have subjects from
nature.

(c) The Romances. The stories which have been treated in this period used to be long, with
many intricacies of plot, cumulative in construction, chiefly of a journey or a quest; a strong
martial element, with an infusion of the supernatural and wonderful; characters, usually of
high social rank and the emphasis is on the incident.

2. Prose. The small amount of prose is strictly practical in purpose, and it doesn't have
that scope the poetry has. One good example is The Ancrene Riwle. It is the most
important of the early prose texts of this period and, as has been frequently pointed out, the
most influential. Its date is difficult to decide but is to be ascribed to the twelfth century. It
was written for three noble ladies who had become anchoresses, and was revised soon after
for a larger community. It is a manual designed to guide them in the life they had chosen.
The guiding principle in this 'rule' is doubtlessly 'moderation in everything,' and the most
characteristic feature of the author as it appears in the work is his broad humanity. The
homely elements in the work are such as attract the modern reader
 CHAPTER 3
THE AGE OF CHAUCER

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (1350–1450)

Compared with the periods covered by the last two chapters, the period now under
review is quite short. It includes the greater part of the reign of Edward III and the long
French wars associated with his name; the accession of his grandson Richard II (1377);
and the revolution of 1399, the deposition of Richard, and the foundation of the Lancastrian
dynasty. From the literary point of view, of greater importance are the social and
intellectual movements of the period: the terrible plague called the Black Death, bringing
poverty, unrest, and revolt among the peasants, and the growth of the spirit of inquiry,
which was strongly critical of the ways of the Church.

LITERARY FEATURES OF THE AGE

1. Transitional period. The 14th century has a great importance in the history of English
literature because it was a transitional period. In this age, the forces of the Middle Age and
the renaissance were gathering momentum. There was a national outlook. And the foreign
influence in England was gradually disappearing.
2. Expansion of English literature scope. A) the historical, romances and religious
literature were vanishing. B) Drama and novel replaced romantic ideals. C) the early works
of Chaucer were translations and imitations of foreign works, later there was more
searching in man’s affairs and he becomes the literary genius of his age.
3. No anonymous writers. In this age the authors were in favour of revealing their
identity. Great deal of books were easily ascribed. The age of anonymity is passing away.
4. During this time, a "modern" note starts to emerge. There's more critical thinking,
a deeper interest in human issues, and less blind faith or easy acceptance of the way things
are. While romance is still popular, it's starting to fade, and Chaucer even makes fun of it.
The romantic ideal is being replaced by a sharper interest in drama, which is just starting
to show. Another sign of change is that fewer works are anonymous; more books now have
known authors. For the first time, we also see a major literary figure who shapes the era
with their talent.
The Language
The English language has shaken down to a kind of average--to the standard of the East
Midland speech, the language of the capital city and of the universities. The other dialects,
with the exception of the Scottish branch, rapidly melt away from literature, till they
become quite exiguous. French and English have amalgamated to form the standard
English tongue, which attains to its first full expression in the works of Chaucer.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY FORMS

 The Chaucerian age saw a great and significant advance in poetical forms of literature,
and a noteworthy one in the domain of prose.
1. Poetry. With regard to poetry, we can observe the various forms separating
themselves and straightening out into form and coherence.
(a) The lyric, chiefly the religious and love-lyric, continues to be written and developed.
Chaucer himself contributes very little toward it, but a number of anonymous bards add to
the common stock. It is seldom that we can give precise dates to the lyrics of this period.
(b) The Rise of the Ballad. The origin of the ballad has always been a question in dispute.
There is little doubt, however, that ballads began to assume a position of importance at the
end of the fourteenth century.
The true ballad-form had several features to make it distinct from the romance: it is
commonly plebeian in origin and theme, thus contrasting with the romance, which is
aristocratic in these respects; it is short, and treats of one incident, whereas the romance
form is cumulative, and can absorb any number of adventures; it is simple in style, and is
as a rule composed in the familiar ballad-stanza.
(c) The Rise of the Allegory. This is perhaps the suitable place to note the rise of allegory,
which in the age of Chaucer began to affect all the branches of poetry. It is a concrete and
effective literary device for expounding moral and religious lessons.
(d) Descriptive and Narrative Poems. In this form of poetry The Canterbury Tales is the
outstanding example. There is powerful grip upon the central interest, a shrewd observation
and humor, and quite often a brilliant rapidity of narration.
(e) The metrical romance is still a popular form, it is realistic in subject and humorous-
satirical in style.
2. Prose. In prose we have the first English travel-book in Mandeville’s Travels; one of
the earliest translations of the Bible. Prose is increasing both in quantity and in quality, and
the rate of increase is accelerating.

GEOFFREY CHAUCER (1340–1400)

Features of his Poetry. (a) The first thing that strikes the eye is the unique position that
Chaucer’s work occupies in the literature of the age. He is first, with no competitor for
hundreds of years to challenge his position.
(b) His Observation. Among Chaucer’s literary virtues his acute faculty of observation
is very prominent. He was a man of the world, mixing freely with all types of mankind;
and he used his opportunities to observe the little peculiarities of human nature. He had the
seeing eye, the retentive memory, the judgment to select, and the capacity to expound;
hence the brilliance of his descriptions, which we shall note in the next paragraph.
(c) His Descriptions. Success in descriptive passages depends on skill in presentation,
as well as on the judgment shown in the selection of details. Chaucer’s best descriptions,
of men, manners, and places, are of the first rank in their beauty, impressiveness, and
humor. Even when he follows the common example of the time, as when giving details of
conventional spring mornings and flowery gardens, he has a vivacity that makes his poetry
unique. Many poets before him had described the break of day, but never with the real
inspiration that appears in the following lines:
(d) His Humor and Pathos. In the literature of his time, when so few poets seem to have
any perception of the fun in life, the humor of Chaucer is invigorating and delightful. The
humor, which steeps nearly all his poetry, has great variety: kindly and patronizing, broad
and semi-farcical, as in the Wife of Bath; pointedly satirical, as in the Pardoner and the
Summoner; or coarse, as happens in the tales of the Miller. Chaucer lays less emphasis on
pathos, but it is not overlooked.
(e) His Narrative Power. As a story-teller Chaucer employs somewhat winding methods,
but his narrative possesses a curious hidden speed. His stories, viewed strictly as stories,
have most of the weaknesses of his generation: a fondness for long speeches, for pedantic
digressions on such subjects as dreams and ethical problems, and for long explanations
when none are necessary.
(f) His Metrical Skill. In the matter of poetical technique English literature owes much
to Chaucer. He is not an innovator, for he employs the meters in common use. In his hands,
however, they take on new powers. The octosyllabic and heroic couplets, which previously
were slack and inartistic measures, now acquire a new strength, suppleness, and melody.

The Canterbury Tales

They are a long work, but still unfinished at Chaucer’s death, it is partly a new idea, partly
an old one. It is a collection of short stories.

The third or English period of Chaucer's literary career brought forth his masterpiece.
The Canterbury Tales, so called because the stories are supposed to be told by pilgrims on
their way through lovely rural scenes from London to Canterbury. Twenty-nine pilgrims,
not counting the poet and the innkeeper, gather near London Bridge. They intend to visit
the tomb of St. Thomas a Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, who had been slain and buried
there over two hundred years before.
This was a favorite shrine of English pilgrims. The pilgrims are going to travel together on
horseback, partly for the pleasure of each other's company and partly as a protection against
highway robbers. According to the general prologue- a marvelous portrait gallery of
typical people of the age, people whose offices for the most part no longer exist as the
society that produced them is no longer there- or introduction, which is by far the most
original part of the poem, each pilgrim is to tell two stories on the way to Canterbury and
two more on the homeward journey. The best story-teller is to be entertained at the expense
of the others. Only twenty-four tales are related, two of which are in prose, yet there are
sufficient to prove that Chaucer was a keen and kindly student of human nature.
 He tried merely to paint a group of pictures of English people of his own time, but he
did the work with such superb skill that it remains a portrait gallery for all time.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CANTERBURY TALES

1. Observation of life as it is really lived, pictures of people who are real.

2. A view of life: tolerance, humour, skepticism, passion and love of humanity.
3. Chaucer speaks to us today as with a clear voice was heard in his age.
4. The struggles between characters, manifested in the links between tales, mostly
involve clashes between social classes, differing tastes, and competing professions. There
are also clashes between the sexes.

Other poets of that age are William Langland, John Gower and John Barbour. Other
prose writers are Sir John Mandeville, John Wyclif and Sir Thomas Malory.

The tales chosen for discussion are:

1.The Nun’s Priest’s Tale

2. The Wife of Bath’s Tale