OLERICULTURE

(The Science of Vegetables)

by

Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen

Muhammad Amjid
Ali Shan
 OLERICULTURE
(The Science of Vegetables)
Authors:
Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen
Assistant Professor - Department of Horticultural Sciences
Director - Cholistan Fruit Research Institute
Director - Cut Flower and Vegetable Research and Training Cell
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan

Muhammad Amjad
Department of Horticultural Sciences
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan

Ali Shan
Department of Horticultural Sciences
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan
Editor:
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Nafees
Chairman - Department of Horticultural Sciences
Director - High Density and Multistory Orchard and Fruit Research Unit
Faculty of Agriculture and Environment
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan
Managing Author:
Kalsoom Akhtar
Lecturer- Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management
Deputy Director - Quality Enhancement Cell
Additional Director - Enabling Center
Advisor - Directorate of Female Sports
Institute of Business and Administrative Sciences
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan
Art Work:
Farjad Faiz
Lecturer
College of Art and Design
The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Pakistan
Graphic Designer:
Hafiz Abdul Rasheed
Senior Graphic Designer, IUB

Year: 2023
Published by:
The University Printing Press, IUB
 OLERICULTURE: Science of Vegetables
(Principles and Practices)
PART-I
Principles of Vegetable Production

Introduction and Importance .............................................................................................................. 4

1.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 4
1.2. Importance............................................................................................................................. 4
Classification of Vegetables .................................................................................................................. 8
2.1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 8
2.2. Botanical classification .............................................................................................................. 8
2.3. Classification based on plant part used.................................................................................. 12
2.4. Classification based on hardiness and season........................................................................ 13
2.5. Classification based on cultural practices .............................................................................. 15
2.6. Classification based on plant life cycle .................................................................................. 16
2.7. Classification based on photoperiodic response .................................................................... 16
2.8. Classification based on major climatic region ....................................................................... 17
2.9. Classification based on soil reaction (pH) .............................................................................. 17
2.10. Miscellaneous Classification.................................................................................................. 17
Cropping systems in Olericulture...................................................................................................... 18
3.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 18
3.2. Classification of cropping systems on the bases of vegetable farming ................................ 18
Types of Vegetable Farming .............................................................................................................. 25
Major types ...................................................................................................................................... 25
4.1. Kitchen gardening .................................................................................................................... 25
4.2. Market gardening .................................................................................................................... 26
4.3. Truck gardening....................................................................................................................... 26
4.4. Vegetable forcing ..................................................................................................................... 27
4.5. Vegetable garden for processing............................................................................................. 28
4.6. Vegetable garden for seed production ................................................................................... 28
4.7. Floating Gardens ...................................................................................................................... 29
4.8. Organic Vegetable gardening ................................................................................................. 29
Recent Trends in Vegetable Production ........................................................................................... 31
5.1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 31

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 5.2. Organic Farming ...................................................................................................................... 31
5.3. Vertical farming ....................................................................................................................... 34
5.4. Vegetable forcing ..................................................................................................................... 36
Tuber and Bulb Formation ................................................................................................................ 39
6.1. Tuber vegetables ................................................................................................................. 39
6.2. Bulb vegetables .................................................................................................................... 40
Hardening, Pruning, and stacking..................................................................................................... 43
7.1. Hardening ................................................................................................................................. 43
7.2. Pruning...................................................................................................................................... 44
7.3. Staking ...................................................................................................................................... 45
Seedlessness and Parthenocarpy........................................................................................................ 46
8.1. Seedlessness .............................................................................................................................. 46
8.2. Parthenocarpy ......................................................................................................................... 47
Factors Affecting Vegetable Production ........................................................................................... 49
9.1. Temperature ............................................................................................................................. 49
9.2. Humidity ................................................................................................................................... 51
9.3. Water......................................................................................................................................... 52
9.4. Precipitation ............................................................................................................................. 53
9.5. Light .......................................................................................................................................... 53
9.6. Soil ............................................................................................................................................. 55
9.7. Biotic Factors ............................................................................................................................ 56
9.8. Genetic Factors......................................................................................................................... 56
Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) ...................................................................................................... 57
10.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 57
10.2. Classification of plant growth regulators and retardants .................................................. 57
10.3. Functions of hormones.......................................................................................................... 57
10.4. Commercial use of Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) in vegetable crops......................... 60
10.5. Methods of PGR application ................................................................................................. 62
10.6. Precaution Measures in the Application of PGRs ............................................................... 63
10.7. Limitations in the Use of Growth Regulators ...................................................................... 63
Physiological Disorders ...................................................................................................................... 64
11.1. Introduction............................................................................................................................. 64
11.2. Certain Physiological Disorders and description ................................................................ 64
Production Problems and their Management .................................................................................. 72
12.1. Production problems ............................................................................................................. 72
12.2. Management of Problems...................................................................................................... 83

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Crop management and quality assurance ........................................................................................ 85
13.1. Crop management .................................................................................................................. 85
13.2. Quality assurance ................................................................................................................... 90

PART-II
Commercial Vegetable Production Technologies
Parsnip ................................................................................................................................................. 95
Broccoli ................................................................................................................................................ 99
Swiss Chard ....................................................................................................................................... 104
Brussels Sprouts ................................................................................................................................ 108
Iceberg Lettuce .................................................................................................................................. 113
Asparagus .......................................................................................................................................... 117
Artichoke ........................................................................................................................................... 121
Celery ................................................................................................................................................. 125
Parsley ................................................................................................................................................ 130
Kohlrabi ............................................................................................................................................. 135
Carrot ................................................................................................................................................. 140
Turnip ................................................................................................................................................ 145
Cauliflower ........................................................................................................................................ 150
Sugar Beet .......................................................................................................................................... 155
Okra ................................................................................................................................................... 160
Potato ................................................................................................................................................. 165
Cabbage ............................................................................................................................................. 171
Radish ................................................................................................................................................ 176
Pumpkin ............................................................................................................................................. 181
Watermelon ....................................................................................................................................... 186
Spinach ............................................................................................................................................... 191
Cucumber .......................................................................................................................................... 196
Bitter Gourd ...................................................................................................................................... 201
Chilies ................................................................................................................................................. 206
Brinjal ................................................................................................................................................ 211
Onions ................................................................................................................................................ 216
Peas ..................................................................................................................................................... 220
Ginger ................................................................................................................................................ 224
Tomato ............................................................................................................................................... 228

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Introduction and Importance

1.1. Introduction
1
The word vegetable is derived from the Latin word “vegetabilis” which means to enliven or to
give energy. In the 13th century vegetable meant “living and growing” but the modern meaning
since the 17th century is “any plant which is cultivated for food. Horticultural definition of a
vegetable is “any edible part of the herbaceous plant which is consumed by the human fresh or
processed”. It may the vegetative part of a plant or part related to flowers like the flowering
head in broccoli, leaves in spinach, fruit in okra and tomato, root in sweet potato, tuber in
potato, and bulb in onion. A branch of horticulture that deals with vegetables is known as
“olericulture. The word olericulture is the combination of two words, the Latin word “Oleris”
means herb and the English word “culture” means raising of plants. Botanical definition of a
vegetable is “any edible portion of the herbaceous plant is known as a vegetable.

1.2. Importance
1.1.1. Economic Importance

The vegetable business is one of the most important businesses in the world. Millions of people
are linked to this business. According to 2020 data collection, the total business of vegetables
exceeds 549 billion US dollars, which is at least four times more than that of cereals
(contributing 128 billion USD to the world economy). A major part of vegetables uses in local
markets and less than 10% of total production is used to import and export purposes. According
to the surveys, China, India, USA, and Turkiye are the biggest producers of vegetables.
Pakistan produces 5.5 MMT of vegetables annually, with an annual increase of 3.25%.
According to the latest statistics of the State Bank of Pakistan, Pakistan exports vegetables of
worth 2.11 billion USD from July 2021 to January 2022. Onions, carrots, and tomatoes produce
49% of total vegetable production whereas vegetables occupy only 3.1% of cropped area of

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
the country. Punjab is the biggest shareholder among all provinces with 60% of the total
vegetable cultivated area and produces 67% of total vegetable production.

1.1.2. Nutrition

Most of the vegetables do not have cholesterol, low in

calories and fats which is beneficial for heart health
and blood pressure.

Vegetables are a rich source of potassium (like

potatoes, tomatoes, white beans, spinach, and sweet
potatoes).

Almost all vegetables are the major source of dietary

fiber including cauliflower, broccoli, cabbage, turnip,
carrot, etc.

They are a rich source of folate (folic acid), vitamin

A, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin K, vitamin B6, and Cobalamin.

All vegetables especially root vegetables are a major source of phosphorus, calcium,
magnesium, sodium, manganese, and iron
(especially leafy vegetables).

Vegetables provide an adequate amount of

carbohydrates, sugar, and proteins.

1.1.3. Health Benefits

Dietary fibers present in vegetable help relieve constipation, remove cancerous compounds in
the digestive tract, and helps to cure ulcer. Dietary fibers are also helpful in healthy weight
gain, maintaining bowel health, and lowering cholesterol level.

Folate present in vegetables helps in fetal development in childbearing women and reduces the
risk of spina bifida and neural tube defects. During early pregnancy, reduces the risk of birth
defects in the brain and spine. Folate is also a crucial part of healthy cell growth, functioning,
and formation of red blood cells.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Vitamin A improves eyesight, especially in dim light, keeps skin smooth and healthy, and
enhances immunity against infections. It also aids the proper growth and development of babies
in the womb.

Phosphorus and calcium are present in vegetables which require in blood and the formation
and strengthening of bones and teeth. Phosphorus has a significant role in using of
carbohydrates and fats in the body. It is also needed for the body to make protein for the growth,
maintenance, and repair of cells and tissues. Calcium plays an important role in the proper
functioning of muscles and nerves. According to several studies, calcium in the combination
with vitamin D have benefits more than bone health: perhaps protecting against diabetes, high
blood pressure, and cancer.

Iron is the basic part of oxygen-carrying units (hemoglobin) in blood. Iron is also a crucial part
of myoglobin formation which help to reach the oxygen to muscles. Iron intake is also
important to make some hormones.

Vitamin C keeps gums and teeth healthy, helps heal wounds, and improves iron absorption.
Vitamin C is a natural antioxidant that prevents body cells from free radicals. These free
radicals are produced when the body breaks down food or is exposed to tobacco smoke and
radiation from the sun, X-, rays or other sources. Free radicals might play a role in heart disease,
cancer, and other diseases.

Potassium helps to regulate blood pressure, maintains the sugar and cholesterol levels in the
blood, and prevents the development
of kidney stones. It ensures the proper
functioning of nerves and muscles and
regulates the heartbeat.

Low calories in vegetables improve

the fitness of the body and enhance
immunity against diseases.

Vegetable intake improves cardiac

health and reduces the risk of heart attack and heart strokes.

Regular intake of vegetables may also reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome and obesity.
According to research by NCBI, vegetables intake results suggest an inverse association

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
between fruit and vegetable consumption and diastolic blood pressure in metabolic syndrome
patients.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Classification of Vegetables

2.1. Introduction
2
About 10,000 species of plants are consumed as vegetables throughout the world. According
to Biodiversity International scientists, 1097 are cultivated worldwide out of which 40 to 50
vegetables are commercially and economically important. To understand, these are classified
into different groups according to their characteristics. Vegetables are classified according to
different ways for the complete satisfaction of farmer, student, and consumer communities.
Some classifications are discussed below.
• Botanical classification
• Classification based on plant part used
• Classification based on hardiness and season
• Classification based on cultural practices
• Classification based on plant life cycle
• Classification based on photoperiodic response
• Classification based on major climatic region
• Classification based on soil reaction (pH)
• Miscellaneous Classification

2.2. Botanical classification

The only classification that is applicable or accepted Internationally in science is botanical
classification. In botanical classification, all plant species have a scientific name that is given
by the great taxonomist Linnaeus. Linnaeus firstly introduced binomial classification and
nomenclature. This classification is based on the morphology of the plants, floral biology,
cytological similarities and dissimilarities, origin, and behavior of plant species. In botanical
classification plants are classified into the kingdom, division, sub-division, phylum, sub-
phylum, class, sub-class, order, family, genera, species, subspecies, and variety. A family is a
broad group in which vegetables are discussed. The combination of genus and specie is known
as the botanical name. The scientific or botanical names are accepted universally the same as
their nomenclature.

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This classification is helpful only for students and scholars but has little importance for the
farmer community. For example, carrots and radishes have the same cultural practices but
belong to different families. On the other hand, tomatoes and potatoes belong to the same
family but they have different cultural practices.

The main division of vegetables is Spermatophyta, and the sub-division is Angiospermae,

which is the largest sub-division, and all vegetable crops lie in this group. It has further two
classes Monocotyledoneae and Dicotyledoneae.

Many vegetables are concerned with the class Dicotyledonae. The table below is related to the
class, family, genus, and specie, common and local names of most of the common vegetables.

TABLE 1. Class, family, genus, species, the common and local name of major vegetable
crops

Class Family Scientific English Local name

name name
Allium cepa Onion Pyaaz,
gandda
Monocotyledoneae Alliaceae Allium sativum Garlic Lehsin

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 Allium Shallot Shallot,
ascalonicum pyaaz
Liliaceae Asparagus Asparagus Asparagus
officinalis
Araceae Colocasia Taro Arvi
esculenta
Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea Lesser yam Yam
esculenta
Dioscorea Greater yam Yam
rotundata
Dioscorea White yam Yam
alata
Beta vulgaris Beetroot Chaqandar
Chenopodiaceae Spinacia Spinach Palak
oleracea
Lactuca sativa Lettuce Salad
Compositae Cynara Artichoke Artichoke
scolymus
Convolvulaceae Ipomoea Sweet Shakarqandi
batatas potato
Brassica Cabbage Band gobhi
Dicotyledoneae oleracea
var. capitata
Brassica Cauliflower Phool gobhi
oleracea
var. botrytis
Brassica Brussels Brussels
Cruciferae oleracea sprouts sprouts
var. gemmifera
Brassica Broccoli Broccoli
oleracea
var. italica

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 Brassica Kale Kale
oleracea
var. acephala
Brassica Kohlrabi Kohl rabi
oleracea
var.
gongylodef
Brassica Turnip Shaljam
compestris
var. rapa
Brassica Chinese China gobhi
chinensis cabbage

Raphanus Raddish Moli

sativus
Raphanus Mougri Mongra
sativus radish
var. mougri
Cucerbita Pumpkin Kaddu
moschata
Cucerbita pepo Summer Sarda
squash
Cucerbita Winter Garma
maxima squash
Citrullus Watermelon Tarboz
Cucurbitaceae lanatus
Cucumis Cucumber Kheera
sativus
Cucumis melo Muskmelon Halwa kaddu
Momordica Bitter gourd Krela
charantia
Lagenaria Bottle gourd Loki
siceraria

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 Euphorbiaceae Manihot Cassava Cassava
esculenta
Fabaceae Pisum sativum Pea Mattar
Phaseolus Lima bean Bean
lunatus
Vigna Cow pea Channa
unguiculata
Cyamopsis Cluster bean Arind
tetragonoloba
Glycine max Soybean Soybean
Malvaceae Abelmoschus Okra Bhindi
esculentus
Solanum Potato Aalu
tuberosum
Solanum Tomato Tmatar
Solanaceae lycopersicum
Solanum Brinjal, Bengan
melongena eggplant
Capsicum Chili Mirchi
annuum
Daucus carota Carrot Gajar
Petroselinum Parsley Parsely
crispum
Apiaceae Apium Celery Celery
graveolens
Pastinaca Parsnip Parsnip
sativa

2.3. Classification based on plant part used

In this classification, vegetable crops are divided according to their edible part. This type is
quite important for consumers as well as for post-harvest handling techniques. Highly
perishable such as stem or leafy vegetables have less shelf life as compared to low perishable.
There are ten main groups in this type of classification.
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 i. Bulbs: bulbs of a few plants are used as vegetables such as onion, garlic, and leek.
ii. Flowers: Flowers of several plants are edible and used as a vegetable, eaten raw as well
as after processing. Some flower vegetables are cauliflower, broccoli, and artichoke.
iii. Fruits: a botanically ripened ovary is defined as a fruit. Several commercial vegetables
are botanically fruits and contain seeds. Cucurbits, tomatoes, eggplant, and chilies are
examples of fruit vegetables.
iv. Leaves: leaves of several plants are used as edible parts such as spinach, asparagus,
cabbage, and lettuce.
v. Pods: cowpea, chickpea, and beans are examples of pods that are commonly used as
vegetables.
vi. Roots: roots of some plants commonly used for vegetable purposes. Some most
common examples of root vegetables are carrots, radishes, sugar beet, turnip, parsnip
yam, etc.
vii. Seeds: the seeds of peas and beans are used as a vegetable.
viii. Stem: asparagus, celery, and kohlrabi are examples of stem vegetables.
ix. Tubers: tuber is an underground swollen stem of a plant. Examples of tuber vegetables
are taro, potato, sweet potato, and cassava.

2.4. Classification based on hardiness and season

In this group, we classified the vegetable crops according to their ability of tolerance and
sensitivity to frost. Crops that can bear frost completely are known as hardy. These are winter
season and temperate region crops that can grow best at lower temperatures (15-18). These
crops can further be divided into two sub-groups, semi-tolerant (semi-hardy) and tolerant
(hardy) vegetables. Asparagus and rhubarb can tolerate even freezing temperatures.
Vegetable crops that are highly sensitive to frost are known as tender. These are summer-season
crops that can grow best at high temperatures (20-27°C). Warm-season crops can further be
classified into two groups tender or sensitive crops and very tender or very sensitive vegetable
crops. These crops are highly sensitive to frost. Examples of these vegetables are discussed
below.

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2.4.1. Summer Season Vegetables
i. Tender/ sensitive vegetables: This group of vegetables needs a warm temperature to
grow which must be more than 10oC, below this temperature their growth will be
stunted, these include chili, snap bean, lima bean, and sweet corn.
ii. Very tender/ very sensitive vegetables: These vegetables are more sensitive to
temperature than previously mentioned crops. These crops grow ideal between the
temperature range of 21oC to 35oC and day temperature less than 15oC is harmful to

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 these. This group of crops includes include amaranth, tomato, bell pepper, okra, chili,
cluster bean, cowpea, eggplant, sweet potato, tapioca, cucurbits, and yam.
2.4.2. Winter Season Vegetables
i. Hardy/tolerant vegetables: These vegetables cannot grow normally when the
temperature falls below 10oC and can withstand frost, these include broccoli, cabbage,
Brussels sprouts, chive, collard, asparagus, pea, garlic, kale, leek, onion, parsley,
spinach, turnip, and radish,
ii. Semi-hardy/ semi-tolerant vegetables: This is a half-hardy group of vegetables that
can withstand conditions from a light frost to higher temperatures up to 25oC, these
include parsnip, carrot, cauliflower, potato, Chinese cabbage, celery, lettuce, globe
artichoke, and leaf beet.

2.5. Classification based on cultural practices

This classification is based on the cultural practices of vegetable crops. The vegetables that
have similar cultural practices are categorized into the same group. This type of grouping is
very easy to understand for the farmer community as well as for the students of Olericulture.
The following groups are classified according to their cultural practices.

i. Bulbous vegetables: In this group, lies all species of Allium, and belong to the family
Alliaceae. It is a group of cool-season vegetables that contains garlic, onion, leek, etc.
ii. Cole vegetables: Vegetable crops that belong to the family Brassicaceae/Cruciferae
and are also known as crucifers or Brassicas. These are winter or cool-season and
transplanted crops. The vegetables include cauliflower, Chinese cabbage, cabbage,
Brussels sprouts and sprouting broccoli, etc.
iii. Cucurbit vegetables: The group which contains vegetables of the Cucurbitaceae
family, is also known as the gourd family. Generally, the plants have tendrils and
produce fleshy edible fruits. These are direct-seeded warm-season vegetable crops and
some examples are gourds, cucumber, pumpkin, melons, and summer squash.
iv. Leafy vegetables: All crops belonging to this group are direct-seeded leafy vegetables
such as Swiss chard, spinach, coriander, leaf beet, and amaranthus.
v. Pod vegetables/peas and beans: This group has legume crops and belongs to
Leguminosae or Fabaceae family also known as the Pea family. These are directly
sowing crops and contain peas, French beans, Lima beans, broad beans, cluster beans,
and cowpea.

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 vi. Root vegetables: These vegetable crops have distinguished and fleshy underground
edible parts and are direct-sown cold-season crops. This group includes carrots,
radishes, turnips, parsnips, beetroot, etc.
vii. Salad vegetables: These vegetables are mostly eaten raw such as parsley, lettuce, and
celery.
viii. Solanaceous vegetables: These vegetable crops are related to the family Solanaceae
commonly known as the nightshade family and are summer/warm season transplanted
crops. Such as tomato, chili, bell pepper, eggplant/brinjal, etc.
ix. Tuber vegetables: This group contains potato, taro, sweet potato, cassava/tapioca, and
yam crops.
x. Okra: It is an independent group that consists of only okra or ladyfinger.

2.6. Classification based on plant life cycle

According to the life cycle of vegetables, these are categorized into the following group.
i. Annual vegetables: these include such vegetable crops that complete the life cycle in
one growing season. Such as peas, beans, tomatoes, okra, eggplant, chili, bell pepper,
cucurbits, etc.
ii. Biannual vegetables: these vegetables complete their life cycle in two growing
seasons. During the first season, they complete their vegetative growth (leaves, stems,
roots), and during the second growing season, they complete their reproductive growth
including flowers, fruits, and seeds, such as Cole crops, bulb crops, root crops, etc.
iii. Perennial vegetables: vegetable crops that remain in the field for more than two years
are referred to as perennial vegetables. These include asparagus, artichoke, Jerusalem
artichoke, chayote, ivy gourd, and pointed gourd.

2.7. Classification based on photoperiodic response

i. Short-day plants: A plant that needs prolonged darkness is called a "short-day" (long
night) plant. Short-day plants make flowers only when the length of the day is around
10-12 hours. Onion initiate bulb formation when the day length is about 12 hours, and
soybean are examples of short-day vegetable plants.
ii. Long-day plants: Long-day plants need less darkness to produce the reaction they need
for production. These plants need about eight to ten hours of darkness to bloom.
Examples of such vegetable plants are spinach and lettuce for seed production. Best
Tuber formation such as in potatoes is the character of long-day plants.

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 iii. Day-neutral plants: Day-neutral plants don't rely on the measure of darkness or
sunshine hours. These plants react to the maturing procedure. As the plant develops,
the blossom sprouts, or the plant blossoms and sets natural products. Peas and tomatoes
are the best examples of day-neutral plants.

2.8. Classification based on major climatic region

There are three major climate regions, including a temperate region with an average
temperature of from minus temperatures to less than 18oC, a tropical region with a temperature
range of less than 27oC, and a sub-tropical region with an average temperature above 27oC.
Crops of these regions are;
i. Temperate: these crops include all hardy vegetables.
ii. Tropical: these crops include all semi-hardy vegetables.
iii. Sub-Tropical: all tender crops lie in this group of classifications.

2.9. Classification based on soil reaction (pH)

Soil pH is a master characteristic in soil chemical properties because pH governs many
chemical processes. The pH specifically affects nutrient bioavailability by controlling the
chemical forms of nutrients. The grouping of vegetables based on the preferable pH level is
given below.
i. Slight tolerant vegetables: the crops which grow best between the 6.8 to 6 soil pH and
include broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, onion, and okra.
ii. Moderately tolerant vegetables: the vegetable crops which are moderately tolerant to
soil pH (6 to 5.5) are peas, beans, carrots, cucumbers, and turnips.
iii. Highly tolerant vegetables: the vegetable crops which are highly tolerant to soil pH
(6.5 to 5) are potato, sweet potato, etc.

2.10. Miscellaneous Classification

i. Direct sowing crops: these include okra, cucurbits, radish, carrot, spinach, and
coriander.
ii. Transplant sowing crops: these include chilies, tomatoes, cabbage, cauliflower,
brinjal, and onion.

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 Cropping systems in Olericulture

3.1. Introduction
3
Historically, cropping systems have been designed to maximize yield, but modern agriculture
is increasingly concerned with promoting environmental sustainability in cropping systems. A
cropping system can be defined as yearly order, a special sequence of crops, and management
techniques used on the same piece of land.

3.2. Classification of cropping systems on the bases of vegetable farming

i. Mono Cropping system (Monoculture).
ii. Poly cropping system (Polyculture).
iii. Ratoon cropping system.
iv. Crop rotation.

3.2.1. Mono cropping system (Monoculture)

Mono cropping can be defined as the cropping system in which the cultivation of crop on a
piece of land with the pure stand of only one crop. It is practiced in commercial farms, normally
in large cultivation areas.

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Mono cropping is also practiced in arid zones due to the shortage of water. The advantage of
monoculture is the convenience of sowing and harvesting with the help of farm machinery
under a mechanized farming system. The drawbacks of this type of cropping system are a
reduction in productivity and fertility of the soil. Deterioration of soil structure, increase in
infestation of diseases, weeds, and pests.

3.2.2. Poly cropping system

To reduce the impacts of climate change and personal benefit, farmers are following different
vegetable farming systems such as:
I. Multiple cropping
II. Intercropping
III. Mixed cropping
IV. Multistoried cropping
V. Relay cropping
VI. Succession cropping
i. Multiple Cropping

The cropping system in which two or more vegetable crops are cultivated either in a sequence
for an entire or a part of their life cycle on the same piece of land in a year is known as multiple
cropping. The examples of multiple cropping, sequences in the vegetables are:
a) Tomato, pea, carrot, cucumber
b) Pea, coriander, bean, bitter gourd
Multiple cropping is an intensified cropping system in which the use of the field in time and
space dimensions is ensured. In simple words, it is a one-year cropping system in which two
or more crops are cultivated in succession within a year. Harvesting more produce from the
same piece of land during a specified time is the purpose of multiple cropping. It is influenced
by varieties, crop rotation, climatic conditions, and farmers’ motivation. Both varieties and
crops selected for multiple cropping should be adaptable to the local environment and soil
conditions. For multiple cropping, mostly short-duration and photo-insensitive cultivars are
recommended. Short-day verities of onion are preferred for growing at high altitudes.
Generally, multiple cropping is labor-consuming, but an increase in net profit and production
motivates the farmers to adopt it. For growing vegetable crops under multiple cropping
systems, an advanced schedule must be prepared. Laboratory tests must be conducted to check
the fertility status of the soil. Leguminous crops should be included in the system for the

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
fixation of nitrogen. High-yielding and early-maturing varieties should be selected. The
recommended dose of fertilizers and manure should be applied to each crop.

ii. Intercropping

The growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of land at the same time
is called intercropping. It means a cropping system in which intercrop is grown in between
rows of the major crop without affecting the optimum plant population and yield of the major
crop. In intercropping, the cropping intensity in the space dimension is increased.
Following intercropping, the net profit and productivity of land increased because the crops
utilize given inputs efficiently. The crop also serves as an assurance of crop failure. However,
during the selection of crops care must be taken their nutritional and light requirement should
not be overlapping.

Some common examples of intercropping are radish and turnip grown in cabbage fields as an
intercrop; spinach and onion are also grown as intercrops in chilies and tomatoes. There are
some classes of intercropping are given below:
a) Row intercropping
b) Patch intercropping
c) Strip intercropping

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 d) Relay intercropping
iii. Mixed cropping

As the name indicates, the Growing of two or

more crops with no distinct row arrangement is
called mixed cropping. Examples of mixed
intercropping are sugarcane + okra + onion,
cotton + radish + cluster bean + beetroot and
cotton + radish + beetroot + coriander.
There are three types of mixed cropping.

a) Parallel Crops: The cultivation of such

crops that have different natural habits
and zero competition is called parallel
cropping. Example of parallel cropping
cowpea + sweet corn.

b) Companion crops: A system in which

the production of both companion crops
is equal to the production of both crops
when grown individually is known as
companion cropping. The best example
of companion cropping is potato or onion
+ sugarcane.

c) Guard crops: The main crop is sown in

the center, surrounded by hardy crops to
protect the main crop from animals,
winds, and sometimes from pest attacks
is called guard crop.

iv) Multistoried Cropping

Such a type of cropping system in which crops of different heights and vertical layers
of leaf canopies according to light requirements are grown together on the same field

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 at the same time is called a multistoried cropping system. Examples of multistoried
cropping are Sugarcane + Okra + Onion, Date palm + citrus + annual vegetable.

v) Relay Cropping
Relay cropping is defined as the system in
which a succeeding crop (next crop) is
planted when the first crop (preceding crop)
has reached its physiological maturity stage
or before when it is ready to harvest. This
type of poly cropping helps avoid
competition between the main crop and the
intercrop. Relay cropping is practiced
sometimes such as planting of Rabi crop of
onion seedlings in the standing crop of
cabbage which may be almost reaching
physiological maturity for harvesting. Some
most common examples of vegetable-based
relay cropping are the sowing of cucurbits in
the potato field and the planting of chilies in
sweet corn fields. The main advantage of
relay cropping is the sowing of the next crop
can be done without any land preparation.
Hence the cost of cultivation reduces.

vi) Succession Cropping

Succession cropping can be defined as the growing of two or more crops in succession on the
same land within a year. Succession planting is a detailed system of planning the amounts and
maturity dates of each vegetable you grow in order to avoid being overwhelmed with produce
all at once and to guarantee an extended harvest.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
3.2.3. Ratoon Cropping

The cultivation of crop regrowth after harvest is known

as ratoon cropping. It is an old system of cropping that
has been practiced for many decades, mostly in tropical
regions. This technique allows a crop to produce two or
more harvests for yield from one-time planting. The
basic requirements of ratooning are that the crop must
have perennial nature, a well-developed root system,
and earlier maturity. There are many advantages of
ratoon cropping such as it reduces the cost of land preparation. It also minimizes the cost of
seed. It has better use of sunlight and growing season. Higher yield and biomass per unit plant
can be achieved in the given period. Because of a
shorter growth period less use of irrigation water and
fertilizers as compared to the original crop. The ratoon
cropping system economically is more productive when
it is compared to the conventional cropping system.
Ratooning is commonly practiced in brinjal and chilies.
Okra is also an ideal vegetable for ratooning.

3.2.4. Crop Rotation

Crop rotation can be defined as the cultivation of different crops on the same piece of land in
a specific order. Generally, a good crop rotation means the systematic succession of the main
three classes of crops major crops, grain crops, and grass crops. A rotation is definite when the
crops repeat in fixed order and interval.

Objectives of crop rotation

• A good rotation in crops maintains the soil in good tilth.

• One of the main objectives of grain crops (nitrogen-fixing) in the rotation is to supply
organic matter and nitrogen to the soil to increase fertility.
• It improves the physical structure and texture of the soil.
• Prevents the crops from the destructive outbreak of insects’ attack.
• It reduces the risk of plant diseases.
• It keeps the soil occupied which minimizes the risk of soil erosion.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 • It provides the economic destruction of harmful weeds.
• It also provides the proper removal of plant nutrients.
• It provides the plan for systematic farming.
• It reduces the cost of inorganic chemicals.
• It maintains the yield of crops.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Types of Vegetable Farming

Major types
4
In this chapter, we will discuss various types of vegetable farming or vegetable gardens.
Vegetable farming can be categorized into different types depending on the area under
cultivation, the method of cultivation, and especially the purpose of vegetable production.
According to these facts, vegetable cultivation is classified into the following types of gardens.
• Kitchen gardening
• Market gardening
• Truck gardening
• Vegetable forcing
• Gardening for processing
• Gardening for seed production
• Floating garden
• Organic vegetable gardening

4.1. Kitchen gardening

Kitchen gardening is defined as
raising vegetable crops in
residential houses to fulfill the
demand for vegetables of a family
all over the year or at least a
season. It is also termed as home
gardening.
There are many benefits of
growing vegetables at home such
as effective and efficient use of land for raising essential as well as organic vegetables by a
family according to their likeness. It is quite economic because vegetables are expensive in the
markets of city areas. Besides, these vegetables are fresher than those present in the market.
Kitchen gardening is also a little share in vegetable production. Several people take it as a

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
hobby, which is a healthy and joyful hobby and the extra time of the family will be utilized
well. The aim of the home garden should be in a way that a continuous supply of vegetables to
a family throughout the year will ensure. We can get organic and healthy vegetables around
the year.

4.2. Market gardening

Farms that produce vegetable crops for supply direct to consumers in the local market is known
as a market garden.

In beginning, this kind of

farming was limited to the
near surroundings of the
cities, where quick means of
transport were not present.
Most of the market gardens
are available within the
range of a few kilometers of
a city. The cropping pattern of market gardening relies on the requirements of the nearby
market. Intensive methods of cultivation are followed as the land is highly expensive. In market
gardening, farmers like to cultivate early varieties of vegetables. In this gardening, a farmer
should be a good seller so that he could sell his produce. He should be a multitalented person
as he will have to cultivate several vegetables around the year. The high cost of land and labor
is reimbursed by the availability of municipal sludge and water near several cities and the high
profit of the produce.

4.3. Truck gardening

In this type of gardening, we produce particular vegetable crops in relatively large quantities
for markets at long distances.
The word truck has been derived from the French word ‘troquer’ meaning ‘to barter’ and has
no relationship with a motor truck. When gardens are located away from the consumer markets,
mostly the middleman is involved in marketing the commodities and resale is a common thing
of truck gardening. In this type of farming, cultivars must possess special characteristics to
withstand distant transportation, mostly in the case of perishable vegetables. With the
development of cold containers, good quality roads, and, a quick and easy system of
transportation, the distinction between market and truck garden is continuously diminishing.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
4.4. Vegetable forcing
In vegetable forcing, vegetables are produced, out of the season of their normal growth. The
vegetables are produced under forcing structures in this farming. Greenhouses, cold frames,
and hotbeds are common structures that are used for this purpose. Cold frames are the smallest
and simplest types of greenhouses, that absorb solar energy to keep warm airspace and soil
floor. In hotbeds, energy is provided by soil, which is produced by the decomposition of
organic matter, like manure. The use of these structures results in high production costs. It is
done for higher-income consumers, who have more paying capacity. Vegetable forcing ensures
more income through the supply of vegetables during the off-season. This type of gardening is
more popular in western countries. Vegetable forcing encourages the development of hotels,
restaurants, and tourism industries.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
4.5. Vegetable garden for processing
In this type of garden, vegetables are
produced for processing industries.
Vegetable gardens for processing
ensure the regular supply of raw
materials to related processing units.
These types of gardens are getting
popular nowadays due to the increase
in processing industries. Tomatoes,
potatoes, chilies, peas, and cucumber
are specially grown for processing. Generally, the cultivation is done under the supervision of
the processing industry and using the techniques and inputs provided by the processing unit.
Such type of gardens increases the per unit area income of farmers due to the reduction in post-
harvesting losses. High-perishable vegetables have more returns; these can be grown with
minimum post-harvesting losses in this farming. The main advantage of this type of gardening
is the commercialization of vegetable farming and new employment generation.

4.6. Vegetable garden for seed production

Good seed is the base of any successful
vegetable farming. Growing vegetables
exclusively for the sake of seed
production is known as gardening for
seed production. For seed production,
exceptional knowledge of the crop is
required. For example, its growth habit,
mode of pollination, handling of seed
crops, curing, cleaning, harvesting,
grading, packing, and storage are the prime importance for quality seed production. The seed
production industry is an expanding industry in Pakistan and has a bright future. Seed
production gardening has many advantages such as high returns, availability of quality, and
high-yielding seeds in local markets, employment generation, and opportunity for farmers for
seed replacement.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
4.7. Floating Gardens
It is commonly practiced in Dal Lake of Kashmir. In such types of gardens, the floating base
is made from roots of locally growing Typha grass, compost, and other organic matter. The
vegetables cultivated in floating gardens are organic with proper plant protection measures and
cultural practices. Sometimes these types of gardens are the practice of floating boats. There
are many advantages of floating gardens such as sufficient use of water surface to an area and
it also enhances the aesthetic value of a place.

4.8. Organic Vegetable gardening

Gardens, which produced truly organic vegetables according to international standards, are
known as organic vegetable gardens. In organic gardens, all inputs which are used to cultivate
vegetables are purely organic. The use of inorganic-based nutrients, pesticides, and growth
regulators is very limited. Organic farming is a unique production management system. The

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
aims of the organic farming system are to conserve natural resources and the environment.
Encouraging sustainable agriculture and re-establishing the ecological balance. Conserving
natural flora and fauna and improving the fertility of the soil. It is increasing genetic diversity,
reducing toxic residues, and chemical pollution. Several countries are working speedily on
organic farming to achieve sustainability goals, for example, China planned to shift 100 percent
to organic vegetables by 2030.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Recent Trends in Vegetable Production
5.1. Introduction
5
As the population of the world increase day by day, agricultural lands decrease. It is alarming
news for the food production sectors. To fulfill the need for food it should be necessary to adopt
modern techniques and technologies in the agriculture sector. Advancements in the field of
science and technology along with global urbanization are the major factors driving the course
and evolution of agricultural research. Nowadays the most challenging task for agricultural
scientists is to ensure the proper and continuous supply of food for growing human civilization.
Environmental stresses such as climate change and shortage of land resources and water are
major constraints haunting this task. At the same time, these environmental problems like
excessive use of chemicals (pesticides) are not desirable in agriculture for the preservation of
biodiversity, environment, and soil quality. In third-class countries, due to a lack of knowledge
of technological advancements and financial resources, the farmer communities are unable to
shift to practices of modern intensive agriculture and remain isolated from global linkages.

In this chapter, we will discuss the recent trends in vegetable production as well as in
agricultural production. In the first section, we will study the organic farming of vegetables, its
advantages, and disadvantages. Later, in the second section, we will study the vertical farming
and vegetable forces which are the recent advancement in vegetable and fruit farming.

5.2. Organic Farming

In simple words, organic farming can be defined as the production of crops without using any
pesticides, fertilizer, or growth hormones. Organic farming is also known as biodynamic
agriculture which means working in harmony with nature. For example, the agricultural
practices followed in organic farming don’t cause any damage to the environment and
biodiversity. Because of the eco-friendly nature of organic farming, it is deemed a feasible
alternative in comparison to chemical-based farming. In a scenario where extreme use of
chemical-based pesticides and fertilizers has raised concerns for ecotoxicity and health hazards,
organic farming is an important need.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
In organic farming, to create the perfect soil for vegetable production, farmers commonly
depend on biofertilizer composts as well as green manures. Green manure ensures the nitrogen
supply to plants as well as improves the physical structure and texture of the soil. It helps to
increase the water and nutrient-holding capacity of the soil, and also prevents erosion. We can
grow all types of vegetables in all seasons following organic farming. We should cultivate
seasonal vegetables rather than non-seasonal ones because they may work but require much
care. Only organic seeds are used in organic farming.

Weeds are those unwanted plants that could create diseases and provide shelter to most of
insects and use most of the nutrients from the soil. In organic farming, weeds should be
eradicated from the field as soon as possible by the means of hand, mechanical scheme,
biological way, cultural and thermal schemes. In organic farming pest control starts before
creating beds which continues till the harvesting of the crop. The modern farmer community
knows the meaning of a famous quote “prevention is better than cure”. In this type of farming
to control pests should follow the given instructions:

• Ensure better quality compost in the soil

• Choose resistant varieties of vegetable seeds.
• Deep monitoring of all stages of vegetable growth.
• If there are any disease-affected plants, eradicate them.
• Keep the plants trying because wet foliage favors fungattacksack.
• Crop rotation is the best practice to minimize the risk of insect pests.
• Minimize the habitat of insects near your vegetable garden.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
There are so many advantages of
organic farming. Organic farming can
be studied from both consumer and
producer perspectives. The produce
that comes from organic farming is of
superior quality in terms of mineral
content and vitamin availability.
These functions of organic farming
produce result in higher sugar content
of fruits and vegetables and have
better taste. Another advantage of organic fruits is not loaded with toxic chemicals such as
fungicides, pesticides, and herbicides and is considered healthy. Organic vegetables can be
stored for a long time as compared to those that are grown conventionally. Organically grown
vegetable crops are pure and free of diseases and pests. Above mentioned everything about
organic farming ensures sustainability by protecting the environment. Some other general
benefits of organic farming of vegetables are given below:

• Vegetables produce by following organic farming have less environmental impacts than
conventional farming.
• This type of farming improves plant growth and the physiological activities of plants.
• Following organic farming, farmers can minimize their production costs because they
don’t have to spend a lot of their money on chemicals and fertilizers.
• The practice of Organic farming helps to reduce water pollution.
• Organic farms help to save energy as well as protect the environment.
• Animals and plants can live in the same habitat in a natural way which increases
biodiversity.
• It can also slow down the rapid increase in global warming.

Organic farming has many advantages but also has some disadvantages. Organic produce costs
more because the yield from the same piece of land is less than the farmers produce through
conventional methods. Sometimes, the production cost of production is high because a lot of
labor and time are involved in this farming. The main drawback of organic farming is a lot of
gaps exist in distributing and marketing organic products. Organic farming cannot produce
enough food that the world needs to live.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
5.3. Vertical farming

In the next 30 years, the world’s population is expected to grow by more than 2 billion people,
and the availability of food for their survival will be a huge challenge. Due to a rapid increase
in industrial development and urbanization, we are losing our agricultural lands every day.
According to scientists and analysts, the earth has lost about a third of its agricultural lands
over the last four decades. Gradually increase in food demand because of the growing
population along with decreasing in agricultural lands brings the greatest challenges that we
will face in upcoming years. Scientists and experts believe that vertical farming can be the
answer to all these challenges, and think vertical farming is the future of agriculture.

The term vertical farming was introduced by an American geologist named Gilbert Ellis Bailey
in 1915. The concept of vertical farming was popularized by another American Professor
Dickson Despommier in 1999. Other than conventional farming methods, aeroponics and
hydroponics produce more and faster yields. Vertical farming can be defined as the practice of
growing crops in vertically stacked layers. The practice can use soil as well as soilless farming
techniques such as hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics. Following Controlled
Environment Agriculture (CEA) techniques, this modern idea of vertical farming uses indoor
farming technology. In this type of farming the artificial control of light, temperature, gases,
and humidity make the indoor production of vegetables and fruits possible. Vertical farming is
similar to greenhouses in many ways where artificial lighting and metal reflectors are used

instead of natural sunlight. The aim of this type of farming is to maximize crop yield in a
limited space. As we know our main aim of using vertical farming is to produce maximum

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
yield per unit area. To find this goal vegetables and fruits are grown in stacked layers in a
tower-like structure. A proper and exact combination of artificial and natural lights is used to
provide and maintain the proper environment for photosynthesis in the room. Some techniques
like rotating beds are used to enhance lighting efficiency. In vertical farming soilless cultures
such as hydroponic, aeroponic, and aquaponic growing mediums are preferred over the soil.
Coconut husks, peat moss, and other similar mediums are also used in vertical farming. Many
sustainability features are used in this farming to minimize the energy cost of farming. As
compared to the conventional farming method vertical farming uses 90% less water.

There are so many advantages of vertical farming some of them discussed here. The main
advantage of this type of farming is allowing maximum crop yield. This means that vertical
farming can allow fruits and vegetable crops to be cultivated at all times around the year
because it does not weather dependent
type of farming. Another main
advantage of vertical farming is that it
minimizes transportation costs
because you can build vertical farms
in cities, so there is no need to import
vegetables and fruits from other
regions. Vertical farms produce a high
yield of produce from a small piece of
land, which means it saves space and
offers a plan to handle future food
demand, and helps to reduce future food security risks. It conserves the resources like water,
fertilizer, and labor. As we discussed earlier vertical farms save up to 90% of water because in
conventional farming most of the water leach down but in this farming no chance of water as
well as fertilizer loss. It also prevents insects and diseases because it provides a controlled
environment. It is environmentally friendly farming because it highly decreases the amount of
fossil fuels needed for farming equipment which is not required in vertical farming for sowing,
mechanical operations, and harvesting crops.

Vertical farming also has some disadvantages such as it increases the unemployment rate
because less labor consumption causes a lot of people to be left jobless. Another disadvantage
of vertical farming is pollination costs in flower or fruit-based vegetables like tomatoes,

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
because there are no insects to pollinate the crops it will have to be done manually or
mechanically. Because it’s technology-dependent farming that increases the production cost.
If the power stops all the crops growing will die that is the major disadvantage of vertical
farming.

5.4. Vegetable forcing

Vegetable forcing is an important branch of Olericulture and a recent trend in vegetable

production. In this method, vegetables are produced out of their normal season of outdoor
production under forcing structures that admit light and induce favorable environmental
conditions for plant growth. Greenhouses, cold frames, and tunnels are common structures that
are used. The vegetable produced by vegetable forcing is known as off-season vegetables. It is
the most intensive type of vegetable farming. Vegetables produced through these structures
give a very high return. Vegetable forcing is not the most common because consumers cannot
afford the prices of such vegetables.

Greenhouse: the greenhouse is a framed structure covered with a transparent material.

Greenhouse a covered structure that protects the plants from external climate conditions and
diseases creates an optimal growth microenvironment that offers a flexible solution for
sustainable and efficient year-round cultivation.

Tunnels: In vegetable forcing,

summer vegetables are
cultivated in the winter,
sunlight is captured under the
cover of a polythene sheet to
maintain the temperature, and
the heat is provided artificially
to get an early crop. This
technology is called Tunnel
Farming. In the absence of
storage infrastructure and a
vegetable processing industry
in the country, off-season vegetable farming is the only viable option that can add value to the
farmer’s produce.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Types of Tunnels according to structures
Iron Tunnel

The iron tunnel consists of an Angling Rod, T-Iron, or Jisti Pipes. The life limit of this tunnel
is up to 20 years but at the time of construction, it is expensive. To minimize the cost of this
structure, T-Irons can be replaced with bamboo on the roof. Basic pipe structures are fixed in
the soil through concrete. This type of tunnel may be moved from one to another place easily.

Bamboo Tunnel

Bamboo tunnels are less resistant but cheap in price. This type of tunnel structure could be
modified easily. For burying in soil, bamboo may be replaced with Eucalyptus sticks. The
average life of this tunnel structure is about 2-3 years.

Low Tunnel

Low tunnel structures are commonly made up of 5 mm iron bars, mulberry sticks, or narrow
bamboo. 2-3-meter-long bars of iron or wood are bent and fixed in the soil to make 1-meter-
high tunnels.

Types of Tunnels according to Height

High Tunnels

The height of high tunnels is commonly 4 to 5 meters. These types of tunnel structures are used
for growing Cucumber, Tomato, Bottle Gourd, etc.

Walk in Tunnels

The average height of the walk-in tunnel is 2 to 2.5 meters. This type of tunnel structure is used
for growing Sweet pepper, Hot Peppers, Cucumbers, and other vegetables.

Low Tunnels

The height of the low tunnel is

up to 1 meter. Bitter Gourd,
Sponge Gourd, Musk Melon,
Water Melon, and nurseries of
some vegetables are raised in
low tunnels.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 38
Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Tuber and Bulb Formation

6.1. Tuber vegetables

6
Tuber vegetables can be defined as a vegetable that grows
underground on the root of a plant. Tubers are underground plant
stems that swell to store nutrients for the next season's growth.
The mature tubers are dug from the ground and cleaned of soil to
store or prepare as food. They are capable of producing complete
new plants from a part of the tuber. These are mostly high in
starch. Examples of tuber vegetables are yam, potato, taro, and
ulluco.

6.1.1. Process of tuber formation in potato

Simply, as the potato plant grows, its compound leaves produce starch that is moved to the end
of its underground stems. The stolons thicken to form a few or as many as 20 tubers close to
the soil surface. The buds generate shoots that grow into new plants when conditions are again
favorable. The success of the tuber formation phase is a major factor in determining the final
harvestable yield.

Stimulating factors for tuber formation Many factors affect tuber formation such as
temperature, day length, and the availability of nutrients and water. At the start of the season,
tuber formation is mainly initiated by the day length and temperature of the soil. Every potato
cultivar has a certain ‘critical day length’, a measure of the sensitivity of a variety to induce
tuberization under the influence of day length. The choice of potato cultivar in association with

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
the planting date plays an important role in finding the moment of tuber formation. Low
temperatures at night and high light intensity at day time can stimulate the formation of the
tuber. Tuber formation is best at a temperature of 20oC and can be reduced with higher
temperatures.
Inhibiting factors for tuber formation
In potatoes, energy transfer and storage in both vegetative and productive plant organisms
continually compete. Undersurface, tuber formation is consequently inhibited when the energy
is moved to developing the vegetative parts of plants. Application of overwater promotes
foliage growth, hence delay in tuber formation. A high nitrogen application mainly stimulates
vegetative growth. This has an adverse effect on tuber formation. With late cultivars, in
particular, it is highly important to moderate how much nitrogen is applied and to spread
applications over the growing season using foliar spray treatment.

6.2. Bulb vegetables

Bulb vegetables usually grow just under the surface of the
ground and produce a fleshy, leafy shoot above the
ground. Bulbs usually consist of clustered segments or
layers. Examples of bulb vegetables are onion, shallot, garlic,
leek, chives, and fennel.

6.2.1. Bulb formation in onion

To grow good bulb onions, you need to know about how day
length and temperature affect their growth. Onions are photothermoperiodic, which means they
are highly sensitive to temperature and day length.

6.2.2. Temperature and onion bulb formation

Temperature encourages the plant of onion to stop making a bulb and begin flowering stalks
and forming seeds known as bolting. When an onion gains a certain level temperature of
between 40° and 50°F (4° to 10°C) will initiate it to bolt formation, its range may differ in
different varieties. As we know onions are a biennial cool-season crop, which means they
require two seasons to complete the life cycle from seed to seed and these two seasons are
separated by winter cold.
• Onion seeds sprout commonly within 7 to 10 days. The minimum temperature
for sprouting is 55°F (12.8°C), as the temperature of soil increases from 55°F to

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 75°F, the time of emergence decreases, and the percentage of seeds sprouting
(rate of germination) will increases.
• Onions are frost tolerant and adapted to a wide range of temperatures.
Development of leaf, root, and bulb occurs in cool temperatures between 55° F
to 75°F. The optimum leaf growth of onion occurs at 68°F to 77°F (20° to 25°C).
Once bulb formation has begun, onions can tolerate temperatures above 75°F.
• Bolting is the setting of seed and cessation of bulb development driven by
temperatures. Lower and higher temperatures both are linked with the initiation
of bolting. Temperatures less than 40°F and greater than 77 o F initiate the bolting
procedure. Despite the temperature range, the duration of a certain temperature

is also an important factor that affects the bolting. Late transplanting of aged
seedlings, transplanting time, plant variety, plant size, poor supply of nitrogen,
and restricted vegetative growth due to any stress, are all these factors that
initiate the bolting.
6.2.2. Day length and onion bulb formation

Daylight hours or day length is determined by the sun-tracking south during the fall and
winter and north in the northern hemisphere during the spring and summer which
stimulates the onion plant to start making a bulb of onion and to stop foliage growth.
Every onion cultivar will form a bulb only after it has received a certain number of
hours of day length every day for a certain number of days. Onions are classified into
short-day, long-day, and day-neutral varieties.

There are many cultivars of onions used for growing bulbs. When you choose a bulb
onion variety for your field, it is very important to know that how many daylight hours

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
you will have during the growing season and the temperature range during that time.
Onions first form their leaves and then start to form bulbs depending upon the variety
and day length.

• Short-day onions require 12 to 14 hours of day length every day to form bulbs.
This happens in the southern regions of the northern hemisphere to not greater
than latitude 36°N.

• Day-neutral onions require just 13 to 15 hours of daylight each day to form bulbs.
Intermediate-day onions grow best between latitudes 35° to 38°N but many are
adapted for production to latitude 42°N.

• Long-day onions require 14 to 16 hours of daylight each day to form bulbs. Long-
day onions do the best north of the 36th parallel or latitude 36°N.

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Hardening, Pruning, and stacking

7.1. Hardening
7
Exposing seedlings to outdoor conditions gradually is known as the hardening process. It
prepares them to withstand harsh and windy outdoor environmental conditions. Hardening
encourages the changes from succulent, soft growth to harder and firmer growth. The hardening
process begins one to two weeks before setting them out in the field or the garden. Place them
in a protected and shaded spot during the daytime and bringing them inside at night is the
easiest way to harden the seedlings. Every day, increase the amount of light the seedlings
receive.

When the outdoor temperature is below 45oF and the weather is windy, do not put vulnerable
seedlings into the field or garden. Even hardy crops can be hurt if they are exposed to freezing
temperatures without hardening.

The amount and frequency of watering should be reduced to slow down the growth but should
not allow the plant to wilt.

Excellent environmental conditions for the hardening of seedlings are in the cold frames.

After appropriate hardening, Seedlings can tolerate unexpected frost, sunlight, and wind with
minimum damage.

Seedlings are tender and grow in the

sheltered and protected environment
where they complete their young lives.
So, these newborn seedlings require an
extra step in their growing cycle. To
ensure the successful transplanting from
inside to outdoors needs a bit of loving
care also known as hardening off. The
hardening of vegetables is intended to
slow plant growth. If moves to the extreme, actually stopping plant growth, and serious damage
can be done to certain crops. For example, melons and cucumbers may stop growth if hardened

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
severely. They can be left outside for a night if the temperature will higher than 50oF. Broccoli
and cauliflower produce thumb-sized heads(Buttoning) that cannot grow further.

7.2. Pruning
The term pruning means chopping off or trimming branches from a plant. In vegetable crops,
first pruning is done to keep leaves off the ground and allow aeration at the base of plants. In
other words, pruning is the removal of axillary shoots(Suckers) and can vary from no pruning
to the removal of all axillary shoots up to the first fork (shoot just below the first bloom cluster).
Pruning influences the quality and yield of produce greatly. In various cultivars, the degree of
pruning and time of pruning is different according to the growing pattern of the cultivar. Like
in tomato crops, only minimum pruning is required and most of the time only ground suckers
are removed in weak determinate cultivars e.g.
Solar set, Solar fire, and Equinox. Heavier
pruning in these cultivars leads to serious yield
losses and increased sunburned fruit, blossom
end rot, and cat facing. In vigorous determinate
varieties, heavier pruning(trimming of two
additional suckers with ground suckers) is best
for maximum yield and quality like in FL91,
FL47, and Agriset 761. Several seed companies
that sell the variety will recommend the amount
of pruning needed. Pruning must be done at the
early stage when shoots are only two to four
inches long to minimize damage to the plants.

Purposes of pruning

• It helps train plants who want to climb at the trellis and facilitates their upward climb
in trailing and trellising culture.
• Pruning is done to improve the quality and size of harvest by reducing the unwanted
growth of plants.
• To facilitate the aeration and ensure light penetration which optimizes the growth and
reduces the threat of disease and pests.
• To Control the size of plant which prevent excessive growth and overcrowding and
plant only take up their designated space in the garden.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
7.3. Staking
Several plants need support to help them
grow, especially climbing plants including
winter squash, cucumber, beans, and
tomato. Staking is the most appropriate
way to train plants to grow vertically. It
improves the quality and yield of harvest
by keeping fruit and plants off the ground
and prevent from several soil-bearing
pathogens and crawling pests. In tomatoes,
if left the plant to grow without training, the fruit is exposed to the sun and causes sunscald.
Staking allows better air circulation, improves spray coverage and plants dry off faster.

In tomatoes, without training plants sprawl along the ground due to the weight of the fruit
which causes several physiological disorders and increases the threat of disease and pests.
Staking makes easier the harvest and minimizes the damage done to the plants. Indeterminate
cultivars, wooden stakes 48 to 54 inches long and one-inch square are used. One stake is placed
with every plant. Several farmers have used a stake in every other plant successfully at times,
but, under severe wind and rainy conditions, they may not support the plants enough.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Seedlessness and Parthenocarpy

8.1. Seedlessness
8
Seedless plants develop the fruit without seeds or with the minimum traces of aborted seeds or
having a minimum number of seeds. Seeds are necessary for propagation but from the
consumers’ point of view, they can be a nuisance. Seeds produce hormones that lead to fruit
deterioration and are often as hard with bad taste, so it is a desired characteristic. Seedless fruits
have more shelf life and better quality. These vegetables and fruits with minimum or no seeds
are produced by meticulous crossbreeding, mutation, and different advanced breeding
techniques, and this may take decades to introduce a new strain to marketable viability.

Careful breeding to get better qualities like larger fruits with smaller seeds had been done since
the start of agriculture. After Mendel’s work, plant breeding started to be understood during
the 19th century. Mendel identified some types of units that were responsible for passing down
the traits and during the 20th century it was discovered, genes are the units, which transmit
inheritance through offspring. Genes contain chemical sequences that represent specific traits,
and it is very important to understand the details of genetic transmission to produce seedless
fruits and vegetables. Seedless grapes and oranges were produced naturally happening seedless
plants. An orange plant in Brazil was found
seedless during the 19th century and navel
seedless oranges are descendants of that
plant. And the seedless grapes are the
successor of the seedless grapes strain that
originated in the middle of the Caucasus
and Black Seas. This cultivar spread
throughout the world within a short period
of time and was cultivated in the USA known as Thompson since 1872. This cultivar has a
genetic abnormality that stops the development of the seeds after a few weeks of fruit setting
through pollination and feralization. All the other seedless varieties including black and red
varieties are also developed by Thompson. Growers on large scale use the spray of a growth

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
hormone gibberellin which speeds up the fruit growth
and grapes become juicy and big regardless of the
arrested seeds. In 1990 seedless watermelons were
introduced in the USA. All seedless varieties of
watermelon are self-infertile, and they need pollen
grains from a seeded watermelon plant to produce
seedless fruits. In watermelons, fruits with small seeds,
are aborted after fertilization.

8.2. Parthenocarpy
Another form of seedlessness is parthenocarpy. In this process, the ovary becomes able to
produce fruit without fertilization therefore pollination is not required for this. Parthenocarpy
is a required trait in the fruit of vegetable crops to enhance their commercial value.
Parthenocarpy is occurred in both ways i.e. naturally and induced by artificial methods.
Parthenocarpic fruits are obtained under
prohibited environmental conditions that
prohibit fertilization and induce the formation
of fruit without converting the ovule into the
seed. Only a few cultivars are developed which
produce parthenocarpic fruits without any
treatment but in several other species, fruit bud
treatment by exogenous application of
artificial phytohormones is used to develop
parthenocarpic vegetable fruits for late or early production in protected cultivation. By genetic
engineering, a few varieties of transgenic parthenocarpic eggplant, tomato, and tobacco are
developed which produce fruit without seeds after pollination or without pollination due to the
same changes in the genome that contain the
codes for initiation of parthenocarpy. Genetic
manipulation with phytohormones leads to
develop parthenocarpic cultivars.
Parthenocarpic cultivars of summer squashes
and cucumber are ideal to grow in the
greenhouse and high tunnels. In addition,
these cultivars work well with insect netting,

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
as the nets do not need to be removed at the flowering stage as required by varieties that need
pollination. Methods to develop a new parthenocarpic specie are to use either genetic mutants,
synthetic growth factors, or change the plant behavior by the change in ploidy level.

8.2.1. Benefits of Parthenocarpy

• Improve quality, yield, and processing attributes of vegetable fruits including

watermelon, cucumber, eggplant, etc.
• Complete cost of cultivation reduced.
• Larger-sized fruits produced by the application of natural growth regulators.
• It keeps pests and insects away from the plant because there is no need for pollinators.
• One of the main advantages is they can also set fruit properly in undesired
environmental conditions. because pollens are the most sensitive part of plants to
unfavorable environmental conditions and they cause a heavy loss in adverse
conditions.
• Temperature is the main restriction to producing out-of-season vegetable fruits but it is
possible with parthenocarpic cultivars.

8.2.2. Types of Parthenocarpy

• Stimulative Parthenocarpy: It can be induced by flowing air or plant growth

regulators into the unisexual flowers that are present inside the syconium and also be
achieved when the ovipositor of a wasp is inserted into the ovary of a flower.
• Vegetative Parthenocarpy: Normally it occurs due to the lack of pollination and without
pollination, seeds are not produced inside the fruit.
• Artificial Parthenocarpy: In unparthenocarpic varieties, pollination is practiced
artificially with altered or dead pollens or pollens from another type of plant to get the
parthenocarpic fruit.

Several Fruits with parthenocarpic varieties are watermelon, yellow summer squash(Golden
Glory), zucchini(Dunja, Partenon), tomato(Oregon Spring, Tomato Legend), grapes,
cucumber(Picking, Slicer, Long, and Mini), pineapple, etc.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Factors Affecting Vegetable Production

9.1. Temperature 9
Temperature is the measurement of the amount of heat energy, and it is one of the most
important factors that affect germination, growth, development, and maturity. Temperature
directly affects the seed germination and affects almost all physiological features of the plant
including the development of pollens, receptivity of stigma, fruit-bud differentiation,
blooming, fruit setting, fruit growth, seed
formation, the maturity of fruit and vegetative
part, and ripening of fruit. The temperature
required for normal growth for most of the plants
is between 15oC to 37oC. Higher temperatures
increase the risk of the development and
reappearance of insects and diseases and raise
the vectors that convey infection.

Pollens are the most sensitive part of the plant which cannot bear a little fluctuation in
temperature. Pollens germinate at a temperature range of 0oC to 39oC approximately. Crops of
the colder regions require a lower temperature
range to accelerate the pollen tube growth
kinetics and increased fertility by developing
more pollen tubes to fertilize the eggs present in
the style base. For example in tomatoes pollen
cannot develop with night temperatures lower
than 55F. Pollination is one of the most sensitive
phenological stages to temperature extremes
across all species and during this developmental
stage temperature extremes would greatly affect
production. The rehydration process occurs by absorbing water when pollen lands on the stigma
but higher temperatures reduce the rate of rehydration and decrease fertility.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Temperature is the most important factor that affects the germination rate of almost every crop.
Fluctuations in temperature may influence germination in three main ways including hormone
induction, moisture availability, and activity of enzymes. For the initiation of enzymes work
and hormones production water absorption is necessary but during high temperatures moisture
may reduce with an increase in temperature. Dormancy induces in some species with high
temperature but also can reinforce it and low temperature also acts in the same way. Seeds of
warm-season crops are dormant during winter and cool-season crops remain dormant during
summer. Temperature effect on germination and dormancy greatly depends on amplitude
(relative periods spends above or below the medium temperature range and number of periods).
After breaking the dormancy, the rate of germination which is reciprocal to the time taken for
gemination shows the positive linear relationship between the base temperature (the lowest
temperature at which the germination rate is zero) and the optimum temperature, and a negative
linear relation to optimum temperature and the ceiling temperature (the highest temperature at
which germination rate is again zero).

The other effect of temperature is influencing the growth rate and quality of plants. Higher
temperatures cause an increase in the respiration process, lesser the sugar content and water
requirement goes up. Physiological activities stop with temperatures above 50oC and below
freezing point (0oC). It is due to disturbance in all of the thermosensitive processes in the cell.
Proteins start to denature with higher temperatures and the electron transport chain cannot
remain normal, and low temperature cause chilling injury which causes the puncture of cells
and tissues which appears in the form of death of cells and tissues. In a controlled condition,
warm temperatures expanded the pace
of phenological development, but there
was little impact on leaf region or then
again vegetative biomass contrasted
with ordinary temperatures. The
significant effect of warmer
temperatures is at the time of the
reproduction process. Photosynthesis is
also affected greatly by an increase in
temperature due to the high sensitivity
of the electron transport chain toward temperature fluctuations. The maturity of any crop is

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
based on daily day-night temperature unless the plant is not stressed by other environmental
factors.

Temperature impacts are expanded by water shortages and the

overabundance of soil water showing that understanding the
cooperation of temperature also, water will be expected to grow
progressively successful adjustment systems to counterbalance
the effects of more noteworthy temperature extraordinary
occasions related to a changing atmosphere.

Soil temperature is also a very important factor that influences plant growth and reproduction,
it affects the chemical reactions and physical processes occurring in the soil. It changes the rate
of uptake of solutes and water and also influences the growth of undersoil plant parts like
tubers, bulbs, rhizomes, and roots. Soil
temperature greatly affects the activities of
microorganisms in the soil that influence the
availability of nutrients. At the time of
germination, it is very critical to have the
optimum soil temperature otherwise
germination rate will decrease gradually with a
change in temperature. The growth rate of the
vegetative parts as well as the reproductive
parts of plants is low in colder soils.

9.2. Humidity
Relative humidity (Percentage of water vapors present in the air as per amount at saturation at
a specific temperature and pressure) depends on the temperature and pressure of the
surroundings. At the level of 100%, relative
humidity expresses there is no more space
for water vapor in the air, therefore no
transpiration and soil evaporation occur as
a result plant growth will be stopped.
Relative humidity determines the water
requirements for crops by affecting
transpiration and evaporation. Optimum

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
transpiration is necessary to uptake the nutrients and minerals from the soil and a low
transpiration rate lowers the availability of nutrients to plants which causes a low growth rate
and many diseases and disorders. And if
the humidity level is very low in the air
around the plant, the respiration rate goes
up and the plant loses a large amount of
water, in result stomata will be closed and
cause the stoppage of photosynthesis. The
optimum level of RH for most of the crops
is between 40-60% and the plant does not
grow better at 80% or above.

9.3. Water
Water is the basic component of every type of life,
without water there is no concept of life. Water is one
of the essential components of the raw material of
photosynthesis. The transpiration process helps to
maintain the plant temperature and facilitates the
uptake of soil nutrients. The quality and quantity of
water and time of irrigation influence greatly the
growth and development of crops. An excessive
amount of water present in the root zone may cause
the rotting of roots and decrease the amount of oxygen
in the soil around the roots. And the low amount of
water in the root zone may cause a decrease in nutrient
uptake and the plant cannot perform photosynthesis
properly, in a result growth is affected and the plant
does not give better quality and yield. The severe
shortage of water causes the closing of the stomata and
with the closing of the stomata photosynthesis will
stop completely. The water amount between field
capacity and the permanent wilting point is available
water for plants, and its amount will be more in clayey
soils than other textured soils. Chemical and

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
biochemical reactions in soil are based on water-like mineralization and microorganisms’
activities in the soil. Soil moisture plays an important role to maintain the soil temperature,
optimum microbes’ activities, and mobility of nutrients. For different crops, the number of
required irrigations is different. The number of irrigations will be more if the temperature is
high in that region. Water with high salt concentrations is not suitable for most of the crops.

9.4. Precipitation
Falling water from the atmosphere in any
form is known as precipitation including
rainfall, hails, dew, fog, and snowfall. The
type, time, and intensity of precipitation in
specific areas determine the type of crop
growing in that region. Vegetation in any area
is affected severely by rainfall, deserts have
the lowest rainfall and only shrubs and grasses
can grow there, but in plains and the Western Ghats with optimum to high rainfall helps to
grow several valuable crops like rice, tea, and coffee, and rubber. The amount and distribution
of annual rainfall determine the climate of a region and it is very important to have longer
growing periods.

9.5. Light
Light influences directly the crop from
germination to post-harvest activities. It is a
driving force for photosynthesis. A one
percent increase in light intensity will give the
same one percent increase in the
photosynthesis process and as a result, the
yield will be high. But when the rate of
photosynthesis reaches its maximum point
and a further increase in light intensity cannot enhance the photosynthesis which is known as
the light saturation point. Plants use water and carbon dioxide to generate food and release
oxygen into the atmosphere, a natural process that feeds all other life on our planet. The
light-absorbing unit of the plant is the green pigment chlorophyll. Any type of vegetation
cannot grow in darkness because for every plant having chlorophyll coursing through its

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
leaves, light is compulsory. Other than photosynthesis, all physical and chemical reactions that
occur in soil, water, and the environment depend on light. The intensity and duration of sunlight
determine the climate of a region. The intensity and duration of sunlight received change with
the changing seasons. So, cultivate adapted plants to that climate. During cold weather
temperature and sunlight decrease so photosynthesis decrease in result reduces plant growth.
Blue light with wavelengths of 400-500nm is absorbed perfectly by chlorophyll and is most
suitable for vegetative growth. Incompatible light has bad effects on plant growth, leaves
remain small or grow to extra-large, and inter-nodal distance increases or decreases from
optimum. Red light with a wavelength of 600-700nm has low energy and is essential for
blooming and fruit setting. Light intensity determines the rate of photosynthesis and light
duration determines the growth phases of the plant. Sun is a single natural source of perfect
light but in the artificial system, it is very difficult to regulate the intensity, wavelength, and
duration according to the crop and growth phase of the crop. Ultraviolet light is very harmful
to crops as it may cause several changes in genetic material and may induce the changings in
genetics.

Another major effect of light duration is photoperiodism. The number of hours of sunlight in a
day directly impacts reproductive growth. Plants can be divided into three categories based on
the required day length to trigger flowering:

Long-day Plants: These plants require more day length than night length or more light hours
than dark hours. In these plants, the reproductive phase starts when the day length increases
like carnation and petunia bloom in early summer or late spring.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Short-day Plants: These plants require short day lengths than night lengths or fewer light
hours than dark hours. In these plants, the reproductive phase starts when the duration of dark
hours increases. These plants enter the reproductive growth phase while the day length is
shorter than the night like zinnia and poinsettia bloom in early spring or fall.

Day-neutral Plants: These plants flower regardless of the day length. They flower when they
reach their reproductive stage and does not influence by day length or light duration like pepper,
cucumber, and potato.

The short intensity of light determines the rate of photosynthesis and the length of the day’s
impact on the time of flowering.

9.6. Soil
Many properties of soil affect plant growth
and development including soil structure,
texture, water holding capacity, the activity
of microbes in the soil, soil aeration, soil
temperature, soil pH, presence of nutrients in
the soil, and amount of organic matter. Plants
can influence by soil conditions in ways that cannot freely be explained in terms of the ability
of the roots to take up water and nutrients. Roots may sense difficult conditions in the soil and
thence send inhibitory signals to the shoots which harden the plants towards the significance
of a deteriorating or restrictive environment, especially if the plant’s water supply is at risk.
Aeration is essential for germination, the uptake of water, and providing oxygen to microbes
in the soil. In the presence of air, insoluble minerals become soluble and organic matter
decomposed properly. Rice crops
can tolerate waterlogged soils
because the roots of rice require a
very low amount of oxygen. The
amount of organic matter present
in soil determines fertility because
it is a source of several major and
minor nutrients. It also enhances
the water-holding capacity of the
soil, improves the soil structure,

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
facilitates aeration, and is a food source for microorganisms in the soil. The presence of
microorganisms in the soil is essential to decompose organic matter in the soil and nitrogen
fixation bacteria in the soil fix the nitrogen to the root zone from the atmosphere. Soil
temperature affects greatly the germination, microbes’ activity, and absorption of water and
nutrients influencing the underground part of the plant. Cold soils are not good for the proper
growth and development of crops. Soil pH or soil reaction (concentration of hydrogen ions)
affects the growth and soils with pH 7 are good for most of crops. Acidic soil with a pH greater
than 7.0 is injurious due to the toxicity of Al and Fe interferesfere with other essential nutrients.

9.7. Biotic Factors

Biotic factors including plants and animals
influence plant growth. Competition between
plants affects the type of vegetation and some of
the plants release toxic compounds in the soil to
kill the other plants nearby. Small animals like
honeybees, wasps, and butterflies are beneficial
because they facilitate pollination and enhance
the yield but large animals may cause physical
damage to crops.

9.8. Genetic Factors

The desirable yield and quality of any crop are obtained through controlled genetics. Genetic
factors influence the resistance to lodging, early maturity, drought and salinity tolerance, high
yield capacity, quality of foliage and
grain, chemical composition, and
tolerance to diseases and insect pests. A
major part of crop losses by diseases and
insect pests but it can be minimized by
genetic control through genetic
engineering.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs)
10
10.1. Introduction
Plant growth regulators refer to synthetic or natural substances that affect the growth and
development of a plant. Initially, the use of PGRs was started in 1940. There is little difference
between plant hormones and plant growth regulators. Plant hormones are organic compounds
produced by the plant itself in one part and translocated to other parts, where in very low
concentrations it causes the physiological response. Plant growth regulators on the other hand
are chemical substances either produce naturally by plants or synthesize artificially. We can
say that all plant hormones are PGRs but all the PGRs are not planting hormones.

10.2. Classification of plant growth regulators and retardants

• Auxins (IAA, IBA, 2-4D, NAA, 4-CPA)
• Gibberellins (GA3)
• Cytokinins (Zeatin, Kinetin)
• Ethylene (Ethereal)
• Abscisic acid (Phaseic Acid, Dormins)
• Phenolic substances (Coumarin)
• Natural substances: (Phytochrome, Vitamins, Traumatic Acids)
• Flowering hormones (Anthesin, Florigin, Vernalin)
• Synthetic substances: (Synthetic Auxins, Synthetic Cytokinins)
• Growth inhibitors: (AMO-1618, Cycosel, Phosphon-D, B-999, Morphacting)
In nature, some PGRs are growth promoters whereas some are growth inhibitors such as in
naturally occurring chemical compounds Auxins, Gibberellins, and Cytokinins are recognized
as growth promoter hormones whereas Ethylene and Abscissic are growth retardants.

10.3. Functions of hormones

i. Auxin
The word ‘Auxin’ is derived from the Greek word Auxein which means “to increase/ to grow”.
Auxin was isolated from human urine firstly. The precursor of the hormone auxin is
Tryptophan. In plants, it is produced in the apical part (tips) of roots and shoots and sometimes

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 in seeds. The natural form of Auxin is IAA (indole-3-Acetic Acid) and PAA (Phenyl Acetic
Acid) while synthetic Auxins are IBA (Indole-3-Butyric Acid), 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and NAA.

The associated functions of Auxin are

apical dominance and promote root
induction. It also regulates flowering,
controls premature fruit drop, and inhibits
the abscission of leaves and flowers. Auxin
helps in nucleic acid activity, sex
determination, and xylem differentiation.

ii. Gibberellin

The name Gibberellins was obtained from a fungus Gibberella fujikuroi which causes Bakane
Foolish seedling disease in which rice plants grow abnormally tall. The precursor of
Gibberellin is the compound Terpenoids (Terpenes, Diterpenes & Sesquiterpenes). It is
produced in embryos of young leaves as well as in the roots of plants. Gibberellin is produced
in the G1, G2, and G3 forms in plants but the most common form is G3.
The associated functions of Gibberellins
are inducing cell division and cell
elongation, increasing flower and fruit size,
promoting germination of seeds, breaking
seed dormancy, inducing
flowering(bolting) in response to long
days, preventing genetic dwarfism,
stimulating maleness in dioecious flowers.
This hormone also produces tolerance against chilling.

iii. Cytokinin

The hormone Cytokinin was first isolated from coconut milk by Miller and Skoog. They
isolated the growth factor that controls the cell division from DNA preparation, known as
Cytokinins. The precursor of Cytokinin of the compound is 5-AMP (Adenosine Mono-
Phosphate). It is produced in the endosperm of seeds, young fruits, and root tips of plants.

Cytokinin promotes cell division, stimulates bud initiation and root growth, induces cell
enlargement and cell differentiation, delays the storage life of flowers and vegetables,

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 translocation of nutrients, prevents
aging of plants (senescence), and
promotes lateral bud development.

iv. Ethylene

Ethylene which is also known as the ripening hormone is a colorless gaseous hormone. The
precursor of ethylene is Methionine. An adequate amount of Carbon dioxide and oxygen can
inhibit the synthesis of ethylene. Sites of production where it produces are ripened fruits, leaves
flowers, and nodes of the stem.

The hormone stimulates uniform ripening in vegetables, promotes abscission, and promotes
the senescence of the leaf. Ethylene also breaks bud and seed dormancy in some species.

v. Abscisic Acid

Abscisic acid is a naturally occurring plant hormone. It is also known as Stress Hormone and
acts as Anti-Gibberellin. Mevalonic acid is the precursor of Abscisic acid. It is produced in
almost all organs of a plant.

Abscisic acid acts as a plant stress hormone and stimulates seeds to synthesize storage proteins.
It induces dormancy of buds and seeds and inhibits seed development and germination. It
involves leaf and fruit abscission (fall). It is also playing important role in stomatal opening
and closing and protects cells from dehydration.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
10.4. Commercial use of Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) in vegetable
crops
To stimulate fruit setting: in solanum crops, poor fruit setting is a major problem. To
stimulate fruit set in tomato crops, the application of 2,4-D at the rate of 3-5 ppm or 4-CPA is
very helpful.

To promote flowering: GA has been reported to induce early flowering in lettuce and Maleic
Hydrazide delayed flowering in okra. To induce flowering in potato crops, apply 50 mg/l GA
to young leaves of non-flowering varieties when floral buds had just formed.

To break seed dormancy: Lettuce is a vegetable in which treatment with GA has been
reported to break seed dormancy induced by high temperatures. Mostly the tubers of potatoes
fail to sprout before the termination of the dormant period, GA has been reported to break the
dormancy period in potatoes. For breaking of dormancy comprise the vapor treatment with
ethylene chlorhydrin (1 liter per 20 q) and then dipping in thiourea (1%) for 1hr. finally in GA
(1 mg/l) for 2 seconds.

To increase seed germination: treatment of seeds before sowing with growth regulators has
been reported to enhance seed emergence rate. NAA at 20ppm and IAA enhance seed
germination in okra. Pre-sowing treatment of seeds in ethephon at 480 mg/l for 24 hours
improved germination in bottle gourd, muskmelon, squash melon, and watermelon at low
temperatures.

Inhibition of sprouting: treatment of potato tuber in IAA at 300 to 1000 ppm solution prolongs
dormancy and thiourea at 1% breaking the tuber dormancy. For storage of onions, application
of Maleic Hydrazide at 2500 ppm 15 days before harvesting prevents sprouting.

Parthenocarpy: The role of plant growth hormone in fruit development can also be seen from
the fact that with their help it is possible to stimulate fruit development without fertilization
(parthenocarpy). Auxin produced parthenocarpic fruit in watermelon and cucumbers, PCPA
(para-Chlorophenylalanine) 50-100 ppm induced seedlessness in tomato and brinjal,
application of 2,4-D at 0.25% in lanolin paste or foliar sprays to freshly opened flower bunch
has been reported to induce parthenocarpy.

Sex expression: the treatment with plant growth regulators has been found to change sex
expression in some crops like cucurbits, pepper, and okra. Application of silver nitrate (300-
400 ppm), GA3 (1500-2000 ppm), and Silver Thiosulphate (300-400 ppm) sprayed at the 2-4

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
leaf stage stimulates male flower production in cucurbits. Whereas application of GA 3 (10-25
ppm), NAA (100 ppm), and IAA (100 ppm) when sprayed at 2-4 leaf stage in cucurbits, then
they have been reported to increase the number of female flowers in cucurbits.

Hybrid seed Production: plant growth regulators can also be used as an aid in hybrid seed
production. Sometimes Ethephon has been used for producing temporary female lines in some
cucurbit varieties. In cucumber, GA3 sprays
have been made to staminate flowers in
gynoecious lines. Silver Nitrate at 500 mg/l has
been reported to be as effective as GA3 in
inducing male flowers on gynoecious lines of
cucumber. A successful F1 hybrid in butternut
squash has been made by using a female line
produced with ten weekly sprays of ethephon.
Plant growth regulators have been reported to
the maintenance of gynoecious lines.
However, in muskmelon foliar sprays of Silver
Thiosulphate at 400 mg/l were found best for
simulation of male flowers on gynoecious lines.

To enhance fruit field: plant growth regulators are also used to enhance the yield of many
vegetable crops some of these are given below.

Tomato: Treatment of seed in GA at 5-20 mg/l,m NOA at 25-50 mg/l, and CIPA at 10-20
mg/l, 2, 4-D, 0.5 mg/l or thiourea at 10-1 M have been reported to improve fruit yield in tomato.

Chilies and Peppers: Foliar sprays of GA at 50 mg/l at fruit setting or planofix (NAA 10
mg/l) double sprays (at flowering and 5 weeks later) decreased flower shedding and gave better
fruit yield in chilies.

Brinjal: Drenching of seedlings’ roots in GA at 5-20 mg/l and NAA at 0.2 mg/l has been
reported to produce higher fruit yield.

Fruit ripening: an ethylene-releasing compound known as ethephon has been reported to

stimulate ripening in tomatoes and pepper. Application of ethephon at 1000 mg/l at the turning
stage of earliest fruits induced early ripening of fruits thus increasing the early fruit yield by

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
30-35%. Postharvest dipping with ethephon at 500-2000 mg/l has also been reported to induce
ripening in mature green tomatoes.

10.5. Methods of PGR application

i. Aerosol method of application

This is a very common method in greenhouses. In

this method, plant growth hormone solution is
applied through a small aerosol cylinder. Liquid
gases in a little while evaporate leaving the PGR
chemical in the air.

ii. Soaking method of application

In this method, uniform quantities of PGRs are

liquefied in alcohol and make diluted with distilled
water to make the desired quantity and amount of
solution (20-2000 ppm). Before planting, cuttings
are treated with the solution for almost 24 hours.

iii. Application in powder form

In this method of application, the powders of the

plant growth regulator dissolved in an organic
solvent. And then mixed with moistened soybean
flour, charcoal powder, or wheat flour, and prepare
a uniform paste. The paste is enabled to stand until
the solvent evaporates.

iv. Application in lanoline paste

Most of the roots promoting PGRs are easily

soluble in lanoline, a fatty acid substance. A
lanoline is a paste that encourages the
advantageous roots in plants. It is made by mixing
plant growth hormone in lanoline and allowing it
to cool.

v. Root feeding method

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
vi. Spraying method
vii. Injection of solution into internal tissues.

10.6. Precaution Measures in the Application of PGRs

• Use plant growth regulators at an appropriate stage of plant growth.

• These growth substances should be sprayed during the time of afternoon for getting
maximum results.
• Spray should be applied uniformly and wet on both side surfaces of the leaves.
• Add some adhesive material like Tween-20 or Teepol.
• We should always use only distilled water for the preparation of the growth substance’s
solution.
• Fine application of spray can be achieved by hand atomizer.
• Always should use a fresh solution of chemicals.
• Should avoid spraying in windy hours.

10.7. Limitations in the Use of Growth Regulators

• Sensitivity of each plant to a given PGR treatment prevents predicated biological effects
in the plant.
• Screening for PGR activities demands high costs and causes many complications. Some
synthetic plant growth regulators are very harmful to human beings.
• Lack of support from agricultural researchers in public and private sectors.
• Substances that are used to make synthetic plant growth hormones have high costs, so
the development of PGR is not an easy task.
• It is very difficult to find an appropriate stage of plant growth that is suitable for PGR
application. Any mismanagement regarding this matter causes heavy loss.
• Lack of basic knowledge of toxicity and mechanism of action in farmers.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Physiological Disorders

11.1. Introduction
11
Physiological disorders are also known as abiotic disorders. These are different from diseases
or biotic disorders because there is no involvement of living organisms like bacteria, viruses,
fungi, insects, etc. but caused by non-living factors especially eccentricity from normal growth.
Almost all physiological disorders are irreversible once they occurred. They are caused by
chemical and physical changes in the plant. These are occurred by the shortage or excess of
any substance that interferes with the life and development of the plant. Physiological disorders
cannot be transmitted but they provide susceptible places to pathogens. Several disorders occur
due to abnormal changes in temperature, deficiency of several nutrients, imbalance in moisture
content, low soil fertility, poor harvest, and post-harvest techniques. The specific cause of
physiological disorders can be identified by examining soil such as determining soil reaction,
which can help to identify the presence of physiological disorders. Recent conditions, such as
heavy rains, drought spells, frosts, etc. Physical disorders can be divided into different
categories based on physiological factors involved in their development including weather-
related disorders, senescence-related disorders, and nutrient-related disorders.

11.2. Certain Physiological Disorders and description

i. Tip burn

It appears when the crop reached its maturity stage

and is caused by a deficiency of nutrients or water.
Brown-black lesions appear on the edges of the
leaves of cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, brussels
sprout, and lettuce. To prevent the plants from tip
burn, the proper liming plans, optimal soil moisture
and tilth are the main considerations. Grow resistant
cultivars, non-ammonical nitrogen fertilizers, and proper cultural practices.

ii. Blossom end rot:

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Symptoms are the appearance of dry sunken lesions on
the end of the blossom in eggplant, pepper, brinjal, and
tomato. It is mostly triggered from wet areas at the end of
the fruit and it is initiated during the early stage of fruit
development. It is also triggered by a deficiency of water
or nutrients. Control measures are maintaining optimal
soil moisture and tilth are main considerations, grow
resistant cultivars and proper cultural practices are also helpful practices.

iii. Phenolic browning:

Most of the time it attacks only carrots. Symptoms are

discoloration and browning on the surface of the carrot. If
harvested carrots store in cold rooms for a long time then the
chances of phenolic browning increase. Abrasion eliminates
the epidermal layer, exposing the carrot to oxidation of
phenolic complexes, which change to brown, or black in
severe cases. Wash the carrots completely just after harvest
and avoid bulk storage and pack them as soon as possible
after cooling to increase quality.

iv. Internal Brown Spot

Brown-colored flecks appear throughout the

internal tissues of the flesh of the tuber in potatoes.
Streaks are roughly circular, typically tan, and
about 1/8 inch in diameter. It has different
symptoms and appearance from tip burn and
blossom end rot but their underlying cause appears
to be the same i.e. cell death. The reason behind it
is the same as other disorders i.e. lack of nutrients
or water and control measures to maintain optimal soil moisture and tilth are the main
considerations, grow resistant cultivars, proper cultural practices, using non-ammonical
nitrogenous fertilizers, growing resistant varieties, and proper cultural practices.

v. Greening

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
In potatoes symptoms of greening are the
appearance of green color in the tuber due to the
production of chlorophyll when it is exposed to
light. These light-exposed tubers also produce a
toxic compound known as glycoalkaloids from
which the most dominant are chaconine and
solanine. Post-harvest storage of potatoes must
be done in trays or on brown paper in dark and a
cool place.

vi. Scaling or Silvering

In storage, carrots develop a scaly surface in a few cases. The appearance looks similar to
dandruff which is white and flaky.
This disorder mostly attacks when
dehydration occurs in stored carrots.
Washing for a longer time can remove
this skin layer but can lead to
increased breakage of roots. The most
important preventive measure is
carrots should not let dehydrated
during harvest-postharvest duration.

vii. Hollow heart and Brown center

The hollow heart is also known as the brown center or sugar center and it is categorized by a
region of cell death in the heart of the potato which creates brown color tissue. It is also
characterized by a star shape cavity in the middle of the potato but sometimes a cavity
surrounded by normal flesh or only a little spot in the center of the tuber. It is initiated by a
shortage of several nutrients, especially water and nitrogen, and can be controlled by
maintaining moisture at the optimum level and applying nitrogenous fertilizer, especially at the
initial stage of tuber formation. Plant spacing is also important to control hollow heart and
brown center in potato crops.

viii. Growth Cracks in Potato

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
During growth stages tuber split, mostly
from the epical tip or bud, and spread
lengthwise. Occurrence and appearance
vary in severity from appearing as a
surface scratch to a crack through the
tuber. The growth stage (on which initial
cracking occurs) influences entirely the
severity of cracking. Growth cracking
increases when sudden environmental changes occur or when growth conditions are
unfavorable but the specific reason for cracking is still unknown. It is critical to maintaining
optimum soil moisture, especially at the bulking stage when tubers grow rapidly.

ix. Tomato Cracks

In tomato cracks, the epidermis or outer layer of fruit splits, and cracks appear. Two forms of
cracking are occurring in tomatoes i.e., concentric cracking and radial cracking. Concentric
rings appear around the stem scar and radial cracking starts from the stem end and extended
toward the blossom end. Sometimes both types of cracking occurred on a single fruit. Tomato
cracks result from extremely rapid fruit
growth brought on by periods of
abundant rain and high temperatures,
especially when such weather
conditions follow drought. The most
susceptible fruits are those exposed to
sunlight. Preventive measures are the
use of resistant varieties, maintaining
proper soil moisture, and avoiding
direct exposure of fruit to sunlight.

x. Sunscald

It is caused by excessive exposure to the sunlight and the subsequent elevated tissue
temperature during fruit development disrupting lycopene synthesis and appears yellowish
areas that remain until to end of the ripening process. During winter, visible damage appears
on bark due to the freezing of bark following high temperatures. It is also known as southwest

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
injury in the northern hemisphere. A good fruit-to-
foliage ratio can reduce the chances of sunscald.
Plants grow under sunscreen sheets or in wire cages
ensuring proper foliage protection. The attack can
also reduce by controlling defoliation diseases
which reduce the foliage and cause direct exposure
of fruits to sunlight. It is a disease of green fruits like
capsicum and tomato.

xi. Bolting

Bolting is a disease of most biennial crops like

lettuce, cabbage, radish, kohl rabi, kale, broccoli,
brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and collards. Plants
produce premature, nutrient-gobbling, and hearty
bolting stem before maturity or harvest. In a few
crops such as lettuce produce secondary
metabolites in leaves that give an unpleasant and
bitter taste and cause a heavy loss in market
value. Preventive measures are growing resistant varieties to stresses, adjusting the dates for
the crop in which chilling may not occur and the plant can get a good marketable size with
optimum quality. Proper fertilizer application and good irrigation are also helpful in controlling
early bolting.

xii. Bracting

Bracting is a type of vernalization in

which cauline small-sized leaves
develop and penetrate the curd surface in
cauliflower. The main cause is the
temperature higher than inducing fuzzy
heads. These small leaves grow from
axillary bracts of main peduncles. It can
be induced by ethephon and also can be
promoted by higher temperatures.
Control measures are the use of resistant varieties to environmental stresses, adjusting the dates

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
for the crop in which chilling may not occur and the plant can get a good marketable size with
optimum quality. Proper fertilizer application and good irrigation are also helpful in controlling
the induction of bracts.

xiii. Buttoning or Premature Heading

Buttoning is a process in which cauliflower and broccoli plants produce early and small-sized
curd that is not usable and does not get the marketable size. Early plantation during wet and
cold seasons reduces vegetative growth and may cause the formation of small heads after a
short period of plantation and cause severe losses. Environmental stresses which weaken the
vigor of the plant and reduce vegetative growth, such as transplanting in cold temperatures,
seem to enhance the buttoning. Control
measures are the use of resistant varieties to
environmental stresses, adjusting the dates for
the crop in which chilling may not occur and the
plant can get a good marketable size with
optimum quality. Proper fertilizer application
and good irrigation are also helpful in
controlling the induction of bracts.

xiv. Pithiness

Pithiness is a disorder of radish and is also known as “pore development” or “pore extent”. It
is a symbol of senescence. Physiologically, parenchymatous
cells die and are filled with air. Excessive root growth in
contrast to the consistent assimilation ability of the leaf.
Cultivars with rapid enlargement and early maturity and
reduction in root weight to top weight ratio can develop
large pores. More pronounced with delayed harvesting. Loss
can be minimized by harvesting done at the appropriate time
and with the use of resistant varieties.

xv. Elongated root

In elongated root disorder, the root gets a fork-like structure due to the secondary elongated
growth of roots and it is also known as forking disorder. This disorder is also related closely to
soil adaptation. The excess amount of moisture in the soil at the root development stage in

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
carrots and radishes is the main cause. In heavy
soils, it occurs due to the high water-holding
capacity of the soil and due to soil compactness.
The disorder also facilitates the presence of
Undecomposed organic manure. The ratio of the
disorder can be reduced by optimizing the
irrigation, controlling the soil moisture, and
cultivating the radish and carrot in light soils like
silty loam and sandy loam having loose structures and are friable in nature.

xvi. Pungency

MTB-ITC (4-methylthio-3-butenyl isothiocyanate) is the pungent compound present in radish.

Cultivars with a low percentage of MTB-ITC are less pungent and preferred in Europe and
America. As a disorder, due to environmental stress or abiotic stress roots become more
pungent. Low moisture availability and high temperature are the main causes of an increase in
pungency. Proper supply of irrigation water and use of resistant cultivars are the main control
measures.

xvii. Cavity spot

This disorder appears as a cavity in the cortex,

with pitted lesions formed due to subtending
epidermis collapses in most cases. A deficiency
of Ca is the main cause of cavity spots, if the
accumulation of potassium increases, it leads to
less accumulation of calcium. This disorder is a
manifestation of calcium deficiency which
initiate by excessive uptake of potassium during the ontogeny of carrot plants. A significant
decrease in cavity spots by increasing the calcium level in growing media. Fertilizer supply
should be minimum and applied only when the crop needs it the most. This method would
reduce potassium accumulation in plants.

xviii. Root splitting

Affected carrots are unmarketable and cause heavy losses. Soils with high concentrations of
nitrogen or nitrogenous compounds lead to an increase in root splitting. A side dressing of

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
ammonium nitrate or the application of an excessive
amount of fertilizer to widely spaced carrots also
increases the risk of splitting disorder. Larger the roots
due to wider spacing, the greater the chance of splitting.
Control measures are the selection of resistant varieties,
spacing should be right, fertilizers should apply in
optimum amounts, and use of the N fertilizer source
rather than ammonium compounds.

Vegetables are the most important part of the diet all over the world. In most processed food
items, there are vegetables used as raw material. These fresh or processed food items are
affected by diseases or disorders and cause a heavy loss in the quality and market value of fruits
and vegetables. Physiological disorders include all the fruit and vegetable alterations and
quality defects that are not attributable to pathogens. These disorders are difficult to identify
and control in several cases. If symptoms and preventive measures are recognized, they are not
economical. But a few steps have to take during harvest or during pre-harvest activities to
reduce the chances of physiological disorder occurrence. Preventive measures are including
proper cultural practices, maintaining optimum soil moisture, sowing and harvesting must be
on time, application of balanced nutrients, and careful postharvest operations.

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Production Problems and their
Management 12
12.1. Production problems
12.1.1. Lack of Government Support

In developing countries like Pakistan, most of the policymakers are not related to the field and
they cannot understand the basic problems of farmers. Prices of agricultural products are not
determined by market forces and there are several restrictions on their transportation in
domestic markets and also on their import exports, there are no free market regimes that can
ensure the prices are closely related to world prices which can result in optimal utilization of
resources. The inequitable distribution of land and resources is also a major problem. 86% of
farmers have less than 50% of land and water resources and the other 16% occupied more than
50% of the resources. Price and supply are not fixed by the government in local markets, a
good production leads to decreasing in price due to an increase in supply, and a price drop
weakens the financial conditions of farmers and they can easily go out of business and if there
is an excess in supply, prices can drop below the cost and this also causes the spoilage of a
considerable part of fresh vegetables. Tariffs on horticultural products lead to lower income for
food exporters in developing countries is a big stumbling block to trade.

The most important step to solve these problems is to devise policies that make agriculture
more equitable for small farmers and landless labor. The government should properly manage
the stocks to stabilize the maximum and minimum prices. Authorities should minimize the
tariffs on imports and export which encourage trade. Government institutions should provide
subsidies for the betterment of infrastructure and adopt environmentally friendly methods.
Government and private firms should provide loans and technical help to small farmers during
the period when crops are damaged by natural disasters like floods, hails and locust attacks are
main natural disasters. Authorities should serve to aid the poorest farmers who are usually hit
hardest by natural disasters. The government should improve agriculture insurance through
collaboration between public-private sector and by supporting agri-markets, the government
could act as a catalyst for the financial protection for farmers.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
12.1.2. Poor Transportation Facilities

In today’s world, transportation is the key element of the global economy, but roads in poor
conditions and obsolete vehicles slow down the economic growth of developing countries. In
Pakistan, challenges are faced by farmers on both ends of their business. One of the major
problems is to shipping their products. Food items especially raw food materials are perishable
and when prepared for shipping they require
special treatments. Vegetable farmers are
facing spoilage issues on large scale. If they
deal with regional or local customers they
must have to use larger storing and cooling
units to make safe the product temporarily
until the product goes to the market. For this
purpose, farmers use refrigerating trucks to transport their products in main cities and in
developed countries but developing countries like Pakistan do not have enough of these
transportation resources. And the few facilities that are available cannot be afforded by most
farmers. The public transport system for small farmers at the rural level is not present and a
large number of perishable vegetables
cannot transfer to the main markets.
Policymakers should force the Pakistani
government to develop and manage their
public transport systems to provide a high
level of equity, mobility, and environmental
sustainability. About 86% of farmers have
small areas of land, and they do not have
access to main markets to sell their perishable products like fresh vegetables and fruits which
can spoil later. Dilapidated roads in rural areas of Pakistan are the major cause of the bad
condition of agriculture and poor financial conditions of small farmers. Some of the main
problems faced by farmers in Pakistan are given below.

• Lack of clear policy from the government

• Lack of updated, multi-model, and modern transportation system.
• Non-availability of an effective and adequate private sector for the transportation sector.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 • Lack of efficient and suitable private sector for the transportation sector.
• Unrealistic transport regulations.
• Unavailability of adequate financial support for the public sector.
• Increase in population has resulted in an increased supply of vehicles and increased
transportation needs.
• Private sector is facing the absence of credit facilities.
• Critical safety issues on roads.
• Lack of effective accident compensation procedures.
• Spread of small vehicles.
• Absence of coordination between transport agencies.
• Inadequate institutional management for appropriate planning of transport.
• Absence of standard manpower for management and operation.
• Inadequacy of traffic management techniques.
• Involvement of non-professionals in transportation policies and plans.

12.1.3. Lack of Quality Seeds

The unavailability of quality seeds is the factor that affects production most adversely,
especially in developing countries. Causes of low quality and low production of quality seeds
are improper use and lack of fertilizers, restricted inputs, and use of poor genetic potential. The
production of quality seeds may also affect by climatic factors including temperature,
photoperiod, wind, rainfall, altitude, and topography of the land. Farmers cannot hit per hectare
yield and optimum crop size without having enough seeds of better quality. Low-quality seed
gives a low germination percentage and weak sprouts that cannot stand a little fluctuation in
environmental conditions. Seed-borne diseases and insects are major causes of low quality and
yield. In Pakistan, the problem of
quality seeds is very severe. The
most adverse one is that certified
seeds are mainly supplied by the
private sector. A major part of the
seeds is imported from other
countries. These include both,
hybrids and open-pollinated
varieties. About 88% of the total vegetable seed is imported every year. Data collected by the

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Federal Seed Certification and Registration Department about local and imported seed
percentages and total requirements between the years 2002-5 is given below.

Sr. No. Year Estimated Seed Seed Availability in MT

Required Total Local Imported
(MT)
1 2002-3 5156 3087.13 646.50 2450.63
(60.05%) (12.53%) (47.52%)
2 2003-4 5268 4012.38 861.06 3151.32
(76.16%) (16.34%) (59.82)
3 2004-5 5270 5084.60 408.00 4676.60
(96.48%) (7.74%) (88.74%)

12.1.4. Lack of Education and Awareness

Lack of education and awareness is one of the most critical issues faced by small farmers. They
do not know how to manage the land area and resources efficiently. Small farmers need
progressing education to stay aware of business management, science, fast-moving
developments in technology, and an array of skills and fields that affect agricultural
operations. The main benefits of spreading education and awareness among farmers are:

• Food contamination is reduced.

• Less harm to the environment.
• Reduce the need for chemicals and water for crops.
• Increased profits.

The adoption of state-of-the-art technology by educated farmers can result in huge savings over
time. One of the major causes of unawareness is the huge difference between the requirements
and availability of extension workers in developing countries like Pakistan.

12.1.5. Quality and availability of Irrigation Water

Water is the principal source of agriculture. Pakistan is an agricultural country, and its line is
dependent on irrigation. With the progressive Indus Basin Irrigation System, no one can ignore
its routine and strategic importance. A major part (about 90%) of the Pakistan agriculture sector
depends on irrigation water. In Pakistan agriculture sector consumes 93 percent of the available

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
water resources whereas more than 60 percent of
irrigation water is lost during the conveyance and
application in the field. The major reason for
application losses is the lack of knowledge about
irrigation scheduling. In a developing country like
Pakistan, the agriculture sector is flourishing. In
addition to the natural curriculum of rivers, many
man-made structures have been built over the years to ensure water availability and there is a
complex and comprehensive irrigation system. The lack of irrigation water in Pakistan is one
of the major problems in the agriculture sector. And main problems which affect water
availability are the:

• Water polling and runoff.

• Damaging and turning of irrigation system during heavy rains.

• Lack of upgradation and improvements.

• Groundwater is being over-exploited.

• Evaporation losses.
• Wara bandi system.

• Overwatering.

• Poor government policies.

• Lack of reservoirs.

• Water pressure problems.

• Evaporation losses.

These problems are due to malpractice and incompetence of provisions and government

institutions. They do not know about current requirements and future strategies. Their weak

strategies and poor policies can increase the problem of the unavailability of water.

Another problem in irrigation water is water logging and salinity problems. According to

research and surveys, in the Indus Basin Irrigation System, about 43% area of land is affected

adversely by waterlogging. 7.1 million hectare area of land is affected badly which causes a

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
huge economic loss to shares of the

agriculture sector in the GDP of Pakistan.

And when water logging runs out in the soil,

the amount of salts increases automatically

which causes salinity problems. Salt-

affected soils alone cover an area of more

than 6 million hectares and irrigation through tube wells is also a major cause of salinity and

more than 70% of the tube wells in saline areas are pumping out brackish water. The salinity

problem is more severe in areas of Southern Punjab and Sindh than in other regions of Pakistan.

12.1.6. Extension staff

The professional and technical qualifications of the outreach/extension staff (commonly known

as extension workers) do not meet the needs and demands of the rural community. The

country's current agricultural extension system is under extreme pressure and criticism is

outdated and pathetic. In these circumstances, agricultural extension policies need to be

formulated to revive Pakistan's agricultural extension system. The main difficulties faced by

extension workers in Pakistan are the lack of proper transportation facilities and the

unavailability of funds to approach the farmers in rural, backward, and neglected areas. And

another major cause is the lack of cooperation and strong bonding between front-line extension

workers and allied departments. There is no strong integration of public and private agricultural

extension service providers to address the main issues of farmers. Furthermore, the country

does not work to strengthen education, research, and extension links for better communication

and sustainable agricultural developments. Punjab is more developed in the agricultural sector

and meets 76% of annual food grain production, but issues do not resolve here too. In Punjab,

the field services for extension services of agriculture have been shifted to the districts.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
However, the Punjab Assembly has passed a new Local Government Act, 2013 to manage the

extension of agriculture at the provincial level through regional setup but the law is not

implemented yet. Several vacancies of extension officers are empty due to mismanagement

and lack of budget. Punjab is also following the Farmers Field School approach for fruit and vegetable

programs. Since 2012 plant-wise” approaches have been introduced with the support of CABI to

conduct plant diagnostics and data management. The Information and Communication Department is

increasingly using technologies to deliver information to farmers. The Department of Agriculture is

also using SMS, voice calls, and websites to reach more farmers but the problem is that these practices

are not fully implemented.

12.1.7. Poor Infrastructure

The rate of economic growth and development of a country generally depends on the power of

its infrastructure, similarly, development in the agricultural sector also depends on its

infrastructure. After the partition in 1947, Pakistan was improving the status of infrastructure

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
but the rate of growth was very low in the last five decades. According to the surveys and

research of the World Bank, the rate of infrastructure improvements was “among the slowest

for the majority of public infrastructure

sectors”. This slow rate of improvement

has failed to improve the infrastructure

conditions for the citizens of Pakistan

and has caused disproportionate

suffering to the country's poor. In the

middle of the 50s, with the investment in

infrastructure and heavy industry in Pakistan came a fertile agricultural revolution from which

not even a rich India could move forward. But after a short era of development Pakistan faced

the worst political turmoil which combines with numerous social causes, economic waves soon

led to the worst changes like inequality increased and inflation swallowed the weakest poor in

Pakistan. Historically, agriculture has been and continues to be very important for Pakistan's

economic development. The sector employs about 50 percent of the country's labor force,

provides significant input to most of the country's manufacturing sector, contributes a large

share of export earnings, and contributes to providing food for a rapidly growing population.

In addition, there is a broad rural economy beyond agriculture, which includes small business

activities, transportation services, village retail shops, local schools, and clinics, all of which

are estimated to account for 40 to 57% of rural household income. Today, Pakistan is a low-

middle income country with a population of about 230 million people, not only at the bottom

of the Human Development Index (147th out of 188 in a United Nations report) but also living

in poverty, rural and urban populations also face discrimination in terms of income,

development, and infrastructure. Furthermore, the government of Pakistan has faced

international criticism for pursuing development projects when the existing infrastructure in

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
Pakistan is not fully capable of meeting the country's transportation requirements, resulting in

billions of dollars in costs. The so-called white elephant projects are estimated or implemented.

Which are only benefiting the affluent minority

who can afford luxury cars. Pakistan is facing a

lack of almost every type of infrastructure

including advanced irrigation systems, advanced

research centers, updated storage houses, proper

transportation, and roads. In main agricultural

rural areas, there is no proper infrastructure like roads, storage facilities including cold storage

houses, transport, electricity, education, sanitation, health facilities, etc., and they are

inadequate to meet the requirement for the growth of agriculture. The length of roads from

farm to market is not only longer but also roads’ condition is very poor. Electricity is not

available to a major part of the agriculture sector in rural areas. The lack of modern post-harvest

technologies, the absence of ecological-based cropping patterns, smuggling of agricultural

inputs and outputs, are the failures of our system.

12.1.8. Environmental Changes

Vegetables provide all of the nutritional constituents including minerals, vitamins, and other

essential nutrients. The total production of vegetables across the world increased by 100%

within the last 25 years and the current trade of vegetables in the global market is greater than

cereals. Ecological changes including climate change, air pollution, water scarcity, and

salinization endanger horticultural produces, health, and food security. Past surveys

recommend that ecological changes will generously influence future yields of starchy dietary

staples. According to Schneider et al. (2007) vulnerability of any system to climate change is

the degree to which these systems are at risk and unable to persist with the adverse impacts of

climate change. Vegetables are more sensitive to environmental changes compared to

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agronomic crops. The most effective is the change in temperature which affect the crop from

germination to post-harvesting operation of vegetables. Nowadays sudden changes occurred in

temperature cause most of the environmental changes including early frost, out-of-season

rainfall, and sudden fluctuations in temperature which affect the production of vegetables

(explained in “factors affecting vegetable production”). Heavy rains and the speedy melting of

glaciers cause floods which decrease the production area and destroy cultivated crops in the

summer seasons.

12.1.9. Narrow choice of Varieties

In developing countries like Pakistan, we do not have a range of hybrid varieties that have

international standard qualities including the potential to produce crops at a better quality and

production than those already grown, lesser days to harvest, and resistance to environmental

conditions especially for low and high-temperature fluctuations, resistant to pathogenic

diseases including those brought by nematodes, bacteria, viruses, or fungi, seasonal adaptation

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in a specific area, produce should have characteristics desired by buyer and gives stable

performance for years. In Pakistan, almost all of the vegetables are propagated by seed but our

farmers could not get F1 generation of hybrid seeds which is the main obstacle in heavy

production because in Pakistan F1 seeds are not provided by the government or private sector

and imported seeds are very expensive which cannot afford by small landholders. Most of the

vegetables are open-pollinated and they do not produce true-to-type seeds. Seeds packages are

not labeled by minimum germination standards, vegetable name, variety name, whether it has

been treated with any chemical, germination percentage, days required for germination after

sowing, net weight, and details about the company. It is also very important to know the

weaknesses and strengths of a variety. Cultural and pest management practices can be modified

to enhance the best characteristics and overcome poor characteristics.

12.1.10. Financial Condition of Farmers

In Pakistan, 70% of employment is linked with agriculture and this sector has about 20% shares

in GDP. Despite the important role of agriculture in the national economy, farmers in our

country are facing immense difficulties. Causes of financial stress on farms could be as varied

as harvest issues, decreased market prices, crop failures, excessive debt loads, and cash-flow

challenges. It is important not to lay blame on anyone or anything, including the weather. Due

to weak financial conditions, farmers cannot afford the latest machines, newly developed

hybrid varieties, and proper fertilizers and they cannot adopt advanced techniques like drip

irrigation and vegetable forcing, etc. 85% of our farmers in Punjab, Pakistan holds less than

12.5 acre and 10% contains less than 25-acre land, advance technology, and latest machines

are out of their reach. Our government is also not giving any significant subsidy on agricultural

inputs.

Khuda Bakhsh, an agricultural scientist at the Comsats Institute of Information Technology in

Punjab, told the Thomson Reuters Foundation "Providing technical, financial, and institutional

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assistance to poor farmers is the only

solution". Experts also say that without the

help of small farmers, it will not be possible

for the government to achieve its goals of

alleviating food shortages and reducing

poverty. According to a recent report by the

Thomas Reuters Foundation, wealthy farmers, who own more land and are more educated, are

rapidly adopting new farming methods. However, according to an estimate, Pakistan could face

a future in which uncertain climatic conditions will force many farmers to leave the agricultural

sector, cultivating 80% of the country's agricultural land. Unfortunately, if the farmers stop

farming, Allah Almighty knows the best what will happen to mankind, because the only way

to get food, which man has, is the food produced by farming in the fields.

12.2. Management of Problems

As science and technology have progressed, new techniques and methods of farming are

developed and advanced machinery is also invented for better farming, but due to a lack of

resources and economic hardship, most of the farmers are still using the old methods and

implements. Due to this, not only do the farmers have to work hard but also their yield per acre

is very low.

It is very important to rid the farmers of these outdated farming methods. For this purpose, the

government should start "training and development" programs for the farmers and people of

rural areas. The country needs to improve the Department of Agriculture Extension and its link

with practical workers and researchers. In the past, governments have launched programs such

as "Rural Agriculture and Industrial Development" and "Rural Development" which have

failed due to inadequate planning and institutional collusion. The present government should

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learn from the reasons for the failure of these programs and formulate programs that should be

effective and will benefit the farmers, the rural people, and Pakistan.

Farmers are committing suicide due to poverty and debt-ridden farmers spend their entire lives

taking out loans, but they cannot. The government has a huge responsibility to get poor farmers

out of this predicament. The government needs to take revolutionary steps to improve the plight

of the farmers. Farmers, especially small farmers, should be assisted instead of loans, but if

loans are to be given, then interest-free, with easy installments should be given. Urea and DAP

fertilizer prices have been doubled; The farmer needs fertilizer, good certified seeds, water,

pesticides, herbicides, and agricultural machinery to grow the crop. The government should

provide subsidies to farmers on all these inputs.

It is very critical to improve the irrigation system. Canal water is ruled by influential evaders

who easily steal water with the connivance of the irrigation department and ordinary farmers

are deprived of canal water. In this way, the production of small farmers is severely affected.

The water aggression of India, and rapidly depleting water resources could be extremely

dangerous to the country's agriculture. The lack of water resources is not only dangerous but

also a major cause of the power crisis in the country. The construction of small and large dams

in the country on an emergency basis is an important need of the hour to save rainwater and

water wasted in case of floods and flood damage can be controlled.

The farmer is one of the most oppressed sections of our country whose issues are not given any

attention in the mainstream media nor is the voice for their rights given adequate coverage. If

farmers raise their voices for their rights, the administration should take it seriously and take

action against the mafia. The government needs to take practical steps to address the plight of

farmers beyond verbal accruals. Because a prosperous farmer is the guarantee of a prosperous

Pakistan. Pakistan cannot join the ranks of developed countries unless the farmers along with

other sections of the people prosper in this country.

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Crop management and quality
assurance
13
13.1. Crop management

13.1.1. Soil management

For vegetable production, soil preparation involves several operations, which are usually

required for other crops. Proper drainage is very important for early and optimum production

because soils with excessive water retard growth and development. In sandy soils, early

production is possible because these soils have better drainage qualities than heavy soils.

Drainage in the soil can be facilitated using ditches is more advantageous than the drainage

increased by planting crops on ridges because the former not only removes the excess water

but also allows air to enter the soil. Aeration in the soil is essential for the optimum functioning

of roots and proper growth of planted crops and several beneficial soil micro-organisms make

nutrients available to plants that need air for their proper working.

Ploughing is also a critical practice in soil management to soften the soil, break the hardpan,

make the nutrients available to plants, and facilitate aeration and drainage. Management should

be directed toward accomplishing the desired crops with a minimum of labor. Control of

soil erosion, the adoption of crop

rotation, maintenance of organic

matter in the soil, and

clean culture are important soil

management practices.

Application of organic matter in

the form of farmyard manure or

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green manure is essential to maintain the organic matter percentage in the soil.

13.1.2. Fertilization practices

A technical survey, led by the Punjab Agriculture Department has revealed that due to low or

unbalanced use of fertilizers, the natural reserves of organic matter in the soil have become

critically low and soil fertility is declining. According to surveys and reports deficiency of

potassium is most severe for yield than N, P, and Zn. 2 million samples of soil obtained from

far across the province were tested in the laboratory which has proved that nitrogen deficiency

is 98%, Phosphorus deficiency has

reached 90%, potash deficiency 53%

and zinc deficiency has been reached

70%.

If we want to get a high yield and

optimum quality of products according

to our desired qualities, we must apply

all of the required fertilizers in the recommended amount.

• Plants need nitrogen to grow. Nitrogen is an essential element for the height and spread

of leaves and plants.

• Phosphorus is a very important element for strengthening and spreading the roots of

plants.

• Potash strengthens plants against various diseases. In the same way, with the presence

of potassium, the plant can take proper advantage of nitrogen and phosphorus. it is very

important for the healthy growth and quality of fruits and seeds.

• In addition to these three elements (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), a few other

elements such as calcium, iron, zinc, boron, etc. are also required by plants in very small

quantities, which are known as trace elements.

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Although all these elements are available in the market in the form of various chemical

fertilizers.

13.1.3. Tillage, weed management

Before planting, ploughing should be done, and then run the cultivator twice and leave the soil

open. When the required moisture level comes, the ground should be plough and left soft and

smooth with planking so that the weeds can germinate. After the germination of weeds, plough

again and leave the field open. It will destroy the weeds and on the other hand, exposure to the

sun will also eradicate the micro-organisms of many diseases from the soil. Control of weeds

with tillage before sowing crops is the main method to reduce weed density and is

usually referred to as primary tillage. In several crops, weeds are removed by hand or

mechanically like in potatoes, tomatoes, and almost all other vegetable crops. After

plantation blind cultivation and inter-row-cultivation are also practiced to remove the

weeds. Inter-row cultivation is proved more accurate and can be done faster with the

advent of guidance support systems. However, they are developed for low residue

systems, over the past 20 years the

equipment has been modified to be

used in higher residue

systems. Mostly there is more time to

use inter-row cultivation crops in

rows as compared to blind

cultivation.

Weed competition is especially

dramatic when a direct-seeded

vegetable is grown. The critical period

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of weed competition is usually longer in direct seeded than in transplanted crops. Higher

competition with weeds may cause a heavy loss in yield and quality. With no weeds or low

density of weeds, crop performs very well because all the nutrients are available for crop plants,

airflow between plants is well and pests cannot be hidden in weeds. Removal of weeds by

tillage and cultivation helps the soil to become softened, and improvement in soil structure and

nutrients will easily be available to plants.

13.1.4. Irrigation practices and techniques

This is very important to know which are the best irrigation technique that will permit advanced

vegetable production to develop in the future. It means using methods that permit efficient use

of water, labor force, and other resources that will facilitate the production of a quality product.

It is an indisputable fact that water plays a vital role in crop production and its best use enhances

the efficiency of other agricultural interventions. Every crop requires a specific amount of

water according to its habit and growing

season. Winter-season crops need less

amount of water than summer-season

vegetable crops.

Drip, bubbler, conventional sprinkler, rain

gun, centrifuge, etc. are all called modern

irrigation systems in which water is conveyed through pipes to the place of use. In drip or

trickle irrigation systems, plants are fed in the form of drops through very small holes in water

pipes. Bubble irrigation is also very similar to trickle irrigation except for the micro sprinklers

attached to the top of the spikes, through which the plants are watered. In the rain gun irrigation

system, water is pumped through pipes at high pressure and sprayed over the field.

Drip irrigation, also called trickle or micro-irrigation, is a highly efficient technology for

water, fertilizer, and other agricultural inputs. Its basic principle is to deliver irrigation water

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to the roots of the plant slowly and

regularly through special holes

installed in the plastic pipes laid in the

field. Regular and timely supply of

water and agricultural inputs to the

crop at all developmental stages and

availability of adequate soil moisture

increases the productivity of plants.

According to the spokesperson of the Punjab Agriculture Department, the farmers should use

the irrigation and fertilizer for the vegetables planted inside the tunnel promptly and if possible

install the drip irrigation system. Cultivation under a drip irrigation system can give 35 to 50%

more yield and helps to save water up to 80%.

13.1.5. Integrated Pest Management

Crop protection is developed for the control and prevention of crop losses due to insect pests

and pathogens in the field. Pests make a decrease in crop production in various ways, classified

by their way of damage including photosynthetic rate reducers (bacteria, fungi, viruses), stand

reducers (damping-off pathogens), light stealers (weeds, some pathogens), leaf senescence

accelerators (pathogens), tissue consumers (necrotrophic pathogens, chewing

animals). assimilate sappers (pathogens, nematodes, sucking arthropods).

Implementation of plans for crop management practices such as variety selection, timing,

irrigation, and fertilization for fast emergence and growth, as related to historical pest patterns

to assist in cost-efficient pest management. Area-wise crop concerns can help to minimize

insect pest attacks by creating a host-free environment during specific times of the year. Several

cultural practices including timely crop debris destruction and host plant or weed management,

will decrease or sometimes eliminate breeding sites for insects. Herbicide resistance may prove

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more problematic in the future. Insects can be controlled with cost-free or with very low-cost

cultural practices.

Without preventive protection with pesticides, natural enemies, host plant resistance, and other

nonchemical controls, 70% of crops could have been lost to pests. Weeds produce the highest

potential loss (30%), following the loss of 23% and 17% caused by insect pests and pathogens

respectively. The efficiency of control of pathogens reaches 32% and insect pests reach 39%,

and on the other hand weed control is almost 70%. Besides losses caused by pests, about 15%

of losses are caused by economic damage, and a further 15% because of harmful biological

diversity. The most common insects attacking vegetable crops are aphids, jassids, white flies,

caterpillars, cutworms, thrips, grasshoppers, locusts, weevils, mites, and snails.

13.2. Quality assurance

13.2.1. Mulching

Mulching can be defined as a layer of material applied to the surface of the soil. There are two
types of mulching organic and inorganic. Organic mulches include chopped leaves, straws,
grass clippings, compost, wood chips, shredded bark, sawdust, pine needles, and even paper.

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While inorganic mulches consist of plastic sheets, rocks, rubber chips, or non-woven
geotextiles. As we know mulching reduces weed growth, by keeping light from reaching the
soil surface and minimizing water loss from the soil surface which helps maintain soil moisture.
Moderates soil temperatures by keeping it cooler during hot days and warmer during cold
nights. Protect bare soils, reducing
compaction and soil erosion.
Mulching is an important factor to ensure
the quality of several vegetables. It
minimizes the freezing injury in tomatoes.
In some crops, it prevents fruits from
contact with soil. It is also helpful to the
earliness of crops and increases their
productivity. All these factors collectively
improve the quality and yield of vegetables.

13.2.2. Thinning

Thinning is an important practice in vegetable farming. There are two forms of thinning, plant
thinning and fruit thinning. In plants, thinning eradicates affected and extra plants. The
excessiveness of plants in a field reduces crop yield due to intra-crop competition. This results
in a shortage of space, light, nutrients, air, and moisture for individual plants which ultimately
reduces yield. Thinning is a cultural method that helps to prevent the onset and spread of plant
diseases and molds. On the other hand, fruit thinning stands for the removal of affected fruits
or excess fruits to ensure quality and size. Affected fruit may be the cause of inoculum that can
spread out disease among others and throughout the field. Overfruiting is also one of the main
factors that damage the quality of fruits. Therefore, the main purpose of the practice is to
improve the quality and yield of vegetables.

Postharvest management

Successfully taking vegetables to the harvesting stage does not mean that the work is done. The
real challenge then begins with how to safely deliver the product from the field to markets and
customers. Just after harvesting postharvest management play an important role to enhance the
quality of produce. Quality products are produced in the field but the quality of the product is
maintained and enhanced during its harvest and post-harvest management. Pre-sizing, sorting,

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grading, waxing, sizing, packing, and palletizing are common practices that are used to
improve the quality of vegetables.

Pre-sizing: for many agricultural commodities, fruits below a specific size are removed
manually or mechanically by a pre-sizing chain. Below the size fruits are diverted to a culling
conveyor or used for processing.

Sorting: it is an important process that eliminates misshaped, cull, overripe, or otherwise

defective fruit and separates commodities by maturity, color, and ripeness classes (e.g., tomato
and muskmelons). Electronic color sorters are also used in some tomato operations.

Grading: in this process, fruits are sorted by quality into two or more grades according to
international standards or required standards.

Waxing: food-grade waxes are commonly applied to cucumber, eggplant, sweet pepper,
cantaloupe, tomato, and occasionally to some summer squashes. The purpose is to replace some
of the natural waxes removed in the washing and cleaning operations, to reduce water loss, and
to improve appearance. Waxing may be done before or after sizing, and fungicides may be
added to the wax. Application of wax and postharvest fungicides must be indicated on each
shipping container. Waxing and
fungicides are used only in
packinghouse handlings of fruit and
vegetables.

Sizing: after sorting for color and

defects differences, the fruit vegetables
are divided into several sized
categories. Sizing is done manually for
many of the fruit vegetables, including
the soft and hard rind squashes,
legumes, cucumber, chili peppers,
eggplant, okra, pumpkin, watermelon,
and muskmelon. The method of sizing
varies for different vegetables, for
example, sweet pepper may be sized by

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
diverging bar sizers, and tomatoes are commonly sized by diameter with belt sizers or by
weight.

Packing: Mature green and pink tomatoes, sweet and chili peppers, cucumber, okra, and
legumes are usually weighted or volume-filled into shipping containers. All other fruit-type
vegetables and many of the above-mentioned are place-packed into shipping containers by
count, bulk bins (hard rind squashes. pumpkin, muskmelons, and watermelon), or bulk trucks
(watermelon). Fruit-type vegetables that are place-packed are often sized during the same
operation.

Palletizing. Shipping containers of most fruit vegetables in bulk operations are palletized for
shipment. This is a general practice performing for sweet peppers, muskmelons, and tomatoes.
Rather than sweet corn, immature fruit vegetables are often managed in low-volume
operations, whereas palletizing is not common because of the lack of forklifts. In these types
of cases, the products are palletized at a centralized cooling facility or are loaded for transport.
Palletizing is commonly done after hydro-cooling or package-ice cooling but before forced-air
cooling. In field-pack operations, palletizing is generally practiced in the field.

Importance of post-harvest management:

• Maintain the quality of fresh vegetables.

• Protection of vegetables from injury.
• Protection from biotic and abiotic factors.
• Value addition.
• Provide extra food to the consumers by reducing post-harvesting losses.

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Vegetable Production
Technologies

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 Parsnip
Parsnip is a vegetable having edible fleshy roots, closely related to the carrot having a tap root
system. Its botanical name is Pastinaca sativa and genus Pastinaca. It belongs to the family
Apiaceae and the order Apiales. Apiaceae is a large family having about 300 genera and
consists of about 3000 species. 2n chromosomes number of parsnip is 22. It originated from
the Mediterranean region near Turkiye and Greece. Wild-form parsnip was used as food by the
early Romans. During the 16th century, it was introduced as a vegetable crop in the Rhine valley
of Europe. In America, it was introduced by the colonists of Europe and cultivated widely.
The growth behavior of parsnip is biennial. It has smooth creamy fleshy roots which use for
food. Fleshy roots can be grown up to 80cm. It mainly contains starch but exposure to low
temperatures for a period causes the conversion of starch into sugar and gives a sweeter taste.
Frost is necessary for getting the sweeter taste. Roots are cylindrical but some varieties are
bulbous which prefers for processing due to their resistance to injury and breakage. Leaves of
parsnips are of pinnate shape having broad or oval-shaped leaflets. Lower leaves have petioles,
but the upper leaves are sessile and terminal leaves have three lobes. The height of the leaf
stalk is about 20cm, and leaflets are in pair form, each leaflet is about 2-5cm long and 2cm in
width having toothed margins and soft hairy structures. Parsnips produce deep yellow colored
flowers that umbels at the end of flowering stalk similar with carrots. Its schizocarps (dry fruit,
when mature, splits up into mericarps) seeds are oval and flat in shape have spreading short styles.

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Climate and Soil

It is a short-duration, cool season, biennial, root vegetable crop, and grows as an annual crop.
Parsnip is a cold-loving crop and gives the best quality after a heavy frost. Seed germination is
maximum at 10-21oC and the optimum temperature for proper growth is 10-16oC. Due to being
highly sensitive to warm temperatures and sun exposure, it does not require full sunlight and
is most of the time grown in slightly shaded areas.

Parsnip can be grown successfully in loam, sandy loam, and clayey loam soils and gains
maximum size in the muck and mineral-rich soils. Parsnip does not prefer heavy, silty, and
stony soils. It grows best at soil pH range from 6 to 6.8. Parsnips are more sensitive to acidic
soils as compared to carrots. Poor draining soils are not suitable for root growth and soil depth
must be more than 45cm for the development of straight and maximum-sized roots.

Land preparation and sowing

Pre-cultivation ploughing is necessary at the proper depth to soften the soil for developing a
proper soil structure. Level the soil and then make ridges at a 45-75cm distance. The planters
can be used for a uniform distance between rows and plants. Direct seed sowing is practiced
for parsnip, and it cannot be transplanted. A half-inch depth is required for sowing the seeds
and covering them with light soil for maximum germination. Germination starts after 2-3 weeks
after sowing. Distance from plant to plant must be 25-30cm.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Before one month of cultivation, 25-30 tons FYM should be applied and after the germination,
110kg nitrogen per hectare should be applied with proper intervals. Like carrots, parsnip is a
potash-hungry crop and require 100kg/hectare of potash according to soil requirement. The
phosphorus should be applied after the test of the soil. Half the amount of all fertilizers must
be applied at the time of sowing and another half after first hoeing.

Parsnips have higher moisture requirements than other vegetables. Irrigate weekly with 1-1.5
inches of water. And soluble fertilizers can be applied through irrigation water.

Intercultural Practices

Removal of weeds is necessary at the initial stage of germination. Hoeing frequently must be
done to facilitate the aeration and proper development of roots. At the early stage, the crop

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
should be thinned to avoid overcrowding. Weeding and thinning should be done by hand to
avoid mechanical injury to the crop.

Harvesting and yield

It is a long-season crop and is ready for harvesting after 110-130 days but in a few areas
harvesting starts after 95 days. The parsnips harvesting method is the same as carrots. During
harvesting use of gloves are advisable as the toxic sap of foliage can cause severe skin
irritations. Yield is 15,000-30,000 kg per hectare even more depending upon advanced variety.

Storage

For up to 6 months, it can be stored at 98% relative humidity and 0oC temperature. During
winter roots expose to frost to get a sweeter taste as starch is converted into sugar. Before
harvesting a frost stream is necessary to obtain better-quality roots. It can also give a sweeter
taste if stored at 0-1oC for two weeks. The extremely low temperature could damage the tissues.

Varieties

Tender and true, gladiator and white gem are commercially used varieties.

Uses and Health Benefits

Roots are used similarly to carrots, eaten raw or processed. Slices of roots can use for improving
the quality and flavor of the soup and can be used after being boiled or baked. Parsnips have
anti-fungal, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer compounds. Rich in dietary fibers which
facilitate the removal of carcinogens and constipation-causing compounds. It is also low in
calories, having several types of vitamins and minerals. Compounds present in parsnips can
help in the maintenance of blood pressure. Parsnips are rich in Ca, Phosphorus, and all types
of minerals required in the human body.

Seed Production

Root-to-seed and seed-to-seed methods are used for the production of seeds. The root-to-seed
method is more common and produces quality seeds. Parsnip is a biannual crop, and the
flowering stalk emerges after gaining the maximum size of the root. The flowering stalk can
get 2m in height during normal conditions. It is a cross-pollinated crop and honeybees play
important role in pollination.

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Insect Pests and Diseases

Parsnip Fly: It is a type of carrot fly, small white maggots that

attack in several areas. It attacks leaves and roots, is attracted by
the smell, and causes a major loss in yield. Seed treatment with
pesticide, crop rotation, use of resistant varieties, and hot water
treatment is helpful to control the attack of parsnip fly.

Aphids: are small-sized insects that suck the cell sap and toxic
saliva injects inside the plant tissues which causes spoilage of
tissues. Applying proper insecticide, using resistant varieties,
crop rotation, and removal of infected plants are useful in the
control of aphids’ attacks.

Leaf Spot: is caused by fusarium fungus during warm and humid

conditions. Spots and lesions appear on the leaves. Application of
fungicides, seed treatment by copper-based compounds, steam,
and hot water.

Root Rot: is also a fungal disease and causes the rotting and
decaying of roots even after the harvest. Roots become soft and
not able to eat or process. Control measures are seed treatment,
hot water treatment before storage, crop rotation, and use of
fungicides.

Bacterial Soft Rot: is a bacterial disease that attacks fields and

storage places. Roots become soft and watery. Well-drained soils,
seed treatment, crop rotation, use of proper pesticide, and grading
before storage can play an important role in preventing the attack
of bacterial soft rot.

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 Broccoli
Broccoli is a vegetable closely related to cauliflowers having the same family and genus but
different in variety. The botanical is Brassica oleracea, variety Italica, and belongs to
Brassicaceae family also known as Cruciferae family. Same as cauliflower the flowering head
of broccoli is used as vegetable. 2n chromosomes number of broccoli is 18. It is originated
from the Mediterranean region and cultivated 600years before the common era (BCE) in
Northern Mediterranean. During the Roman Empire people of the Italian region considered it
as an incomparable and most valuable vegetable. During the 18th century, Peter Scheemakers
brought broccoli to England. In 1920 broccoli was started to cultivate widely in America where
it was introduced by Italian migrants. British colonists introduce it in the Sub-continent during
the 19th century, but it was cultivated successfully only in a few regions.
Broccoli has a biennial growth habit. During 1st growing season it completes the growth of
leaves and head respectively and during the second growing season completes its reproductive
growth including flowering and seed formation. It is an annual plant and very fast-growing.
Broccoli can be harvested after 60 and up to 150 days of planting. Large and broad leaves are
the same as cauliflower and plant height is up to 90 cm. The central axis and branches bear
dense green clusters of flower buds at their ends. Plant head is the main edible portion but in
some regions, leaves are also being used to eat. Broccoli is an annual crop, but some varieties
can be grown as perennials. Plants produce large oblanceolate round leaves and cross-
pollination is occurred by insects.

Climate and Soil

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Broccoli is a short-duration, winter season, and biennial vegetable crop. It can be grown in cold
and moderate conditions but perform best in a colder climate. Seed germination is best above
20oC temperature and grows best between 18-21oC and it is slightly tolerant to frost. It requires
full sunlight but with the increase in temperature, it starts blooming which is not suitable for
marketing.

Broccoli is a highly exhaustive crop and requires nutrient-rich soil with 6-7 pH. It performs
best in loamy to clayey soils which are well-drained. For early production light soils are
suitable and heavy soils are referred to high yield. Yield could be less with high soil pH because
the crop is very sensitive to magnesium deficiency, and a pH above 7 can reduce the boron
availability to plants. Poorly draining soils can cause suffocation of roots and tends to lower
the yield. Sandy soils also are not suitable due to having poor water-holding capacity.

Land Preparation and Sowing

One to two months before cultivation, FYM should be applied and plough to a proper depth to
develop a proper soil structure. It can sow both direct in the field through seeds and by growing
nurseries in nursery beds. The best time for nursery growing in August-September and the
optimum time for a transplant is October-November. Broccoli can grow on beds, ridges, and
plain fields but perform best on field beds. If cultivate through direct sowing, seeds start
germination after 4-6 days of sowing, and for transplanting nursery should be 40-45 days old.
Distance from row to row is 75-90 cm and between plants, 45 cm but 30 cm is enough for
dwarf varieties. 0.25-0.5 kg seed is required for one hectare.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Apply adequate irrigation at the time of sowing and transplanting. It is very necessary to
maintain moisture at the time of growth and developmental stages. Weekly, ten days or
fortnight irrigation is required according to the moisture requirement of plants and soil
conditions. During normal conditions, 2.5-3.5 cm of water is enough. Some soluble fertilizers
can also apply through irrigation water. Poor drainage practices and over-irrigation can cause
root diseases and produce the poor-quality crop.

15-20 tons FYM is applied during land preparation. Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium
should be applied in amounts of 100:50:60. Half of the amount applied at the time of
transplanting, and the other half apply when the plant starts flowering head formation.

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Intercultural Practices

Removal of weeds is necessary at an early stage. It can be controlled through hand or

weedicide. Hoeing in not necessary but in compact soils it is useful. If sowing is direct through
seeds, thinning is critical at an early stage.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting starts after 60 days when flowering heads gain maximum size for the market. The
harvesting method is the same as cauliflower, cut the flowering head 4-6 cm from the soil
surface with a knife or stickle before the buds loosen, open into flowers, or turn yellow. About
500-1,000grams of broccoli head obtains from one plant and overall yields 20,000-30,000 kg
per hectare.

Storage

Before storing and cooking, heads dip in lightly salted solution for 30 minutes to drive out any
worm inside the head. Broccoli uses fresh at home, for processing, and can be stored in a
refrigerator by packing in a plastic bag for 1-2 weeks. And up to 5 weeks at 0oC and 90%
relative humidity.

Types of Broccoli

Sprouting Broccoli: It produces many stalk branches which are thin and have a small
flowering head

Purple Cauliflower: Closely related to cauliflower and produce tiny flowering buds and the
tip of the flowering bud is purple.

Calabrese Broccoli: This normally refers to simple broccoli.

Chinese Broccoli: Produces similar but smaller heads. It is actually a form of turnip.

Broccolini: This is the result of a cross between broccoli and Chinese broccoli and is also
called “tender stem broccoli”.

Varieties

‘Green Goliath’ and ‘Green Duke’ are heat-tolerant varieties and ‘Paragon’ is a cold-loving
variety.

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Uses and Health Benefits

The use of broccoli can reduce birth defects. Helps in the removal of carcinogens from the
body and prevents the body from cancer. Broccoli is rich in dietary fibers and decreases
constipation chances. It is useful to reduce the acidity of the body and digestive tract. By
decreasing the cholesterol level in the blood broccoli helps in regulating blood pressure. Boost
the immunity against diabetes and helps in maintaining the blood sugar level. It increases eye
health and helps in weight loss. Increase immunity and helps to decrease inflammation and
allergy and prevents heart diseases. It also reduces the toxic effects of eaten food and metabolic
compounds in the body. Broccoli can use after being steamed, boiled, cooked, and processed.
It is rich in minerals, vitamins, proteins, calcium, iron and other useful salts for our body.

Insect Pest and Diseases

Aphids: are small-sized insects that suck the cell sap and toxic
saliva injects inside the plant tissues which causes spoilage of
tissues. Applying proper insecticide, using resistant varieties,
crop rotation, and removal of infected plants is useful in the
control of aphids’ attack.

Cutworms: They chewed the plant just above the soil surface
and the plant will die after a short period of time. On wet soils,
they appear on the surface of the soil, and on the dry surface,
they are found below a few centimeters of the surface where
moisture is present. For controlling cardboard collars puts
around the newly transplanted plant, the use of resistant varieties and crop rotation are useful
practices.

Armyworms: They are pale green when young and at this

stage, they eat the growing tips of the plants and cause heavy
economic loss. Control is the same as cutworms, cardboard
collar puts around the newly transplanted plant, use of resistant
varieties and crop rotation are useful practices.

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Clubroot: This is a fungal disease whose pathogen is soil-
borne. Appeared symptoms are wilting, discoloration, and
roots will be tortured. Due to these roots cannot perform their
functions properly.

Mildew: powdery and downy mildew are the types that attack
broccoli. Powdery mildew appears on the surface of leaves and
downy mildew appears on leaves and newly born shoots. For
control use resistant varieties, collect and burn affected parts
and plants, make sure there is proper draining, and use copper
based fungicides.

Bacterial Soft Rot: Wet and warm conditions facilitate the

attack of this disease. Pathogen attacks from the middle of the
head and within one week, the whole head looks rotten, soft,
and brown in color. Flat-headed broccoli is more susceptible
because of water standing on the head during the rainy season.
During favorable conditions, we should spray protective
pesticides. Using resistant varieties like sprouting broccoli and crop rotation is helpful to reduce
the threat of bacterial soft rot disease.

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 Swiss Chard
Swiss chard is a leafy vegetable same spinach and lettuce but is very closely related to beet.
The botanical name of swiss chard is Beta vulgaris and sub specie is cicla. It belongs to the
Chenopodiaceae family. 2n chromosome number is 18. Due to the similarity with beets, it is
difficult to differentiate between the exact evolution of different varieties of swiss chard. It
originated from the southern region of Europe. The term ‘Swiss’ is used to differentiate swiss
chard from French spinach. In the Mediterranean region, it is very common.

Early varieties originated from Sicily (Islands in the Mediterranean Sea in the Italian region)
and the first records show that proper cultivation of swiss chard was started in Italy. Before the
common era, it was cultivated and used its roots as medicine. Now major producing countries
are Italy, America, and China.

Growth behavior is biennial and used as a vegetable during or after 1st growing season. Mature
leaves are large, broad, and always green but leaf stalks vary in color. Leaves have more
nutritional value than roots and due to this, their leaves are used as edible parts. Its petiolate
leaves can grow up to 37 cm long and 25 cm wide and the color of the petiole may be green,
red, or multi-color. The plant has woody and moderate roots and belongs to the tap root
vegetable group. Irregular shaped seed is a combination of a few seed lets.

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Climate and Soil

Swiss chard is a short-duration, cool season, and biennial leafy vegetable which is grown as
annual. Seed germination is maximum at 15-25oC and germination is very low at 5oC. The
optimum temperature for proper plant growth is 10-17oC. The emergence of flowers starts
when the temperature falls to 4oC or below. Higher temperatures induce rapid growth and
produce comparatively low-quality leaves. It is resistant to change in day length and does not
start bolting with change in day length like other leafy vegetables.

Swiss chard can grow in all types of soil but cannot grows best in heavy soils. It performs best
in sandy loam and loamy soils with a pH range of 6-7, rich in organic matter and well-draining
qualities.

Land Preparation and Sowing

One month before sowing an adequate quantity of FYM applies. Before planting nutrient-rich
organic compost and 60-90kg per hectare of nitrogen are applied in topsoil for rapid early
growth and to maximize the yield. The sowing time is from September to February. Most of
the time direct sowing through seed is being practiced. 7-9 kg of seed is enough for an area of
one hectare. Plant-to-plant distance of 15-20cm and a distance between rows 45-50cm is
necessary. After germination thinning out is practiced to have the total plant population 60,000
to 80,000 per hectare.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Irrigations with intervals of two or three weeks prove good during normal conditions to ensure
better quality and better yield of the crop. Adequate moisture present in soil induced new leaves
properly. Moisture on leaves can cause toughness and slow development of leaves and cause
foliage diseases so sprinkler irrigation is not suitable.

10-15 tons of well-rotted farmyard manure should apply to minimize the deficiency of minor
nutrients. At the time of planting an adequate quantity of nitrogen is applied. Generally
recommended total amount of NPK should be 90:50:50 but could be changed according to soil
conditions and plant requirements.

Intercultural Practices

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Weeds should be removed at an early stage to prevent the wastage of nutrients. Weeding is
practiced by hand or by weedicide but mechanically it is not suitable because a mechanical
injury can cause several diseases. Hoeing is not necessary but in compact soils, hoeing can
facilitate the uptake of nutrients and water and induce rapid and proper growth of roots and
leaves. Thinning should be practiced by hand at an early stage.

Harvesting and Yield

Swiss chard is a short-duration crop and is ready for harvesting after two months of sowing
when leaves gain their maximum size. Leaves should be cut with sharp knife 2 inches above
the ground surface. With proper care, we can obtain 4-5 pickings. Plants remain productive
until bolting starts or the leaf spot becomes very severe. Harvesting after rain is not suitable
because leaves become crisp and sensitive to breakage when wet. During harvesting and
marketing leaves and stems should be protected from injury and breakage. Yellow, rotten, and
damaged leaves should be removed before packaging. Normally 30000-40000 kg yield obtain
per hectare.

Storage

Harvested swiss chard ties in bunches after cleaning. These bunches packs in cardboard boxes,
crates, and round baskets for storage. Store for the duration of up to two weeks we should
provide 0oC temperature and 95-98% relative humidity. Extremely low temperatures can cause
chilling injury and loosen the leaves.

Uses and Health Benefits

Helps in the removal of carcinogens from the body and prevents the body from cancer. It is
rich in dietary fibers and decreases constipation chances. Swiss chard is useful to reduce the
acidity of the body and digestive tract. By decreasing the cholesterol level of the blood swiss
chard helps in regulating blood pressure. Boost the immunity against diabetes and helps in
maintaining the blood sugar level. It increases eye health and helps in weight loss. Enhance
immunity and helps decrease inflammation and allergy and prevents heart diseases. It also
reduces the toxic effects of eaten food and metabolic compounds in the body. Swiss chard can
use fresh, canned, dried, cooked, and processed. It is rich in minerals, vitamins, proteins,
calcium, iron other useful salts for our body.

Insect Pests and Diseases

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Leaf miner: Its larval stage is harmful to plants. Larva
feed on leaves creating patches and tunneling. These
patches and tunnels cause a reduction in photosynthesis
and provide a susceptible site for pathogen attack. For
control, it is necessary to avoid the plant other host
plants like cotton and alfalfa near swiss chard. Attacked
parts should remove and crop rotation practiced to prevent and during the attack of insects, the
pesticide should apply.

Cutworms: At nighttime larvae emerge and feed on leaves. Young plants are most sensitive
to cutworms’ attacks than older plants. These insects cut
the whole plant just after the soil’s surface. On wet soils,
they appear on the surface of the soil, and on the dry
surface, they are found below a few centimeters of the
surface where moisture is present. The field should be
clean of weeds which are alternate hosts of cutworms.
Grow-resistant varieties, crop rotation, and removal of
affected plants are usefully practiced to control cutworm attacks.

Aphid: are small-sized insects that suck the cell sap and toxic saliva injects inside the plant
tissues which causes spoilage of tissues. Applying
proper insecticide, using resistant varieties, crop
rotation, and removal of infected plants are useful in the
control of aphids’ attacks.

Leaf Spot: is caused by fusarium fungus during warm

and humid conditions. Spots and lesions appear on the
leaves. Application of fungicides, seed treatment by
copper-based chemicals, steam, and hot water and keep
the field free of weeds, plant debris, and affected plants.

Curly Top: Symptoms are clearing of veins and leaves

become curly and thickened. Applying proper pesticides
for control and before planting seed treatment is also a
useful practice. Removal of affected parts, crop rotation, and remove of the alternate host plants
can help to reduce the chances of attack.

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 Brussels Sprouts
Brussels sprout is a leafy vegetable closely related to cabbage, but heads are small in size. At
the early stage, it looks just like common cabbage because of it is a cultivar of cabbage.
Botanical name is Brassica oleracea and variety is gemmifera. It belongs to Brassicaceae or
Cruciferae family. 2n chromosomes number is 18. Like other crops of this group, brussels
sprouts also originated in the Mediterranean region of Europe. It was firstly reported during
the fifth century in northern Europe and starts cultivating during the 13th century in Brussels
from that it was named Brussels sprout.

Leafy buds are the edible portion of plants which produce from the axil of each leaf. Small
edible leafy heads are about 3cm in diameter. These buds look like mini-cabbage and attach
closely to the stem. The plant has long, broad, smooth, and leathery leaves which are commonly
green but in some cultivars tend to be purple and set on the main stem alternately. The main
stem grows up to 90 cm in height. Flowering emerges on the top end of the main stem and
lateral buds also produce bolting at later stages and produce flowering stalks same as in
cabbage. Cross-pollination is most often in brussels sprout. Seeds are small and round with a
little angular shape. Like other members of the Brassicaceae family, it has a tap root system.

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Climate and Soil

It is a short-duration, cool-season crop that is sensitive to high temperatures. It is an annually

grown biennial plant. Brussels sprout is a temperate region crop and with high temperatures,
buds become loose and remain not able to market. It requires full sunlight and light frost at
night for proper growth and development of buds. The optimum temperature for plant growth
is 10-25oC.

The crop can grow in every type of soil, but light soils are more suitable. Sandy and silty loam
soils are best for maximum yield. Soils must have good draining and water-holding qualities.
5.8-7.2 soil pH is required for the optimum growth of the plant.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Apply well-rotted FYM before two months of transplanting. Transplanting can be done on
furrows or on beds. Beds and ridges are necessary to facilitate the drainage of excessive
amounts of water during the rainy season. Prepare nursery beds and plant for seedlings during
July-September for an early crop and October-November for a late crop. Like cabbage and
broccoli when a seedling becomes 6-8 weeks transplanting is done by hand. For early
transplanting ridges are more suitable and beds for later. 0.1 to 0.5 kg seed is enough to produce
seedlings for an area of one hectare. Maintain distance between plants about 45 cm and between
rows 60 cm. If direct sowing is practiced through seed then thinning out is necessary for the
early stage.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

An adequate amount of water must apply just after transplanting or seed sowing. Irrigations
should be light and subsequent because brussels sprout requires moist conditions. Irrigate
weekly with 3 cm of water for better quality and high yield.

Brussels sprouts require more manure and fertilizers than cabbage and broccoli. 25-30 tons of
farmyard manure apply before transplanting. Nitrogenous fertilizers apply in three splits which
are not practiced in cabbage and broccoli. Boron deficiency results in small size buds and
causes a heavy loss of yield. Major nutrients NPK required in the amount of 180:50:50.

Intercultural Practices

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One or two hoeings are required to facilitate the aeration and to soften the soil around the root
zone. Removal of weeds is critical at an early stage to prevent the wastage of nutrients and
prevent the crop from being attacked by different insects and diseases.

Harvesting and Yield

It is a cold-season crop and is ready for harvesting after 120 days of harvesting. Harvesting
starts when buds become mature and get a maximum size of 3-4 cm. Mature buds can be
harvested at subsequent intervals. By delaying, buds become loosened or start opening and
losing flavor. To ensure the proper formation of later buds, regular harvesting must be done.
During harvesting prevent the main stem from an injury. Yield can be 10,000-17,000 kg per
hectare and can be changed by advanced cultivars.

Storage

At 20oC shelf life of brussels sprout is only one day and at 0oC is two weeks which can increase
to 4 weeks if storing conditions are 0-1oC temperature and relative humidity 90-95%. Shelf life
can be enhanced to two months in controlled atmospheric conditions.

Varieties

Jade Cross, Royal Marvel, and Hilds Ideal are the varieties commercially cultivated.

Uses and Health Benefits

It is used the same as cabbage in salad, cooking, fresh, canned, and processed. Gives the best
taste when steamed and stir-fried. Like broccoli and other vegetables of this group, brussels
sprout has anticancer properties. It is a source of a chemical (indole-3-carbinol) that helps in
DNA repair in cells and helps to block the growth of cancer cells. Excessive intake is not
suitable for heart patients. Due to having a large number of dietary fibers brussels sprout helps
in relief from constipation and supports the digestive system. It has an adequate number of
vitamins, minerals, proteins, and salts. Helps in regulate blood pressure and reverse blood
vessel damage. Provide immunity against inflammation, reduce the weakness of bones, and
lowers cholesterol levels. It is also rich in calcium, potassium, and phosphorus which are
required for the development of bones and blood.

Insect Pest and Diseases

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Leaf Borer: It is a white and brownish caterpillar that
feeds on leaves and shoots and makes mines on them. At
later stages, the insect enters inside the main stem and
starts wilting and dying. During the attack spray with an
appropriate insecticide. For preventive measures use of
resistant varieties and crop rotation must be practiced.

Cutworms: At nighttime larvae emerge and feed on

leaves. Young plants are most sensitive to cutworm
attacks than older plants. These insects cut the whole
plant just after the soil’s surface. On wet soils, they
appear on the surface of the soil, and on the dry surface,
they are found below a few centimeters of the surface
where moisture is present. The field should be clean of weeds which are alternate hosts of
cutworms. Growing resistant varieties, crop rotation, and removal of affected plants are
usefully practiced to control cutworm attacks.

Cabbage Maggot: The insect feeds on the root surface

and makes tunnels in the roots of young plants. Due to
defective roots plant can-not grow properly and wilting
starts on the severe attack. Control measures are the use
of proper insecticides and the use of resistant varieties.

Bacterial Soft Rot: Chlorotic(yellowing) symptoms

start on the margins and spread inwards gradually. The
veins of leaves become black and later infection enters
the main stem and which also turns black and finally
plant dies. The best control measures are the use of
resistant varieties and crop rotation.

Alternaria Leaf Spot: It attacks during wet conditions. Symptoms are the appearance of
brown lesions on older leaves. Lesions are formed in
large circles and form a Bull’s eye pattern. For
controlling the attack make sure proper drainage and
moisture control, use of resistant varieties, and crop
rotation are the best measures.

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Fusarium Wilt: Most of the time symptoms appear on one side at an early stage and finally
result in wilting and dying of the plant. The main
symptoms are the yellowing of leaves and water-
transporting tissues becoming reddish. Attack will be
severe during wet and warm conditions. Control
measures are fumigation, crop rotation, and the use of
resistant cultivars.

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 Iceberg Lettuce
Iceberg is a specie of lettuce and cold-loving leafy vegetable. The botanical name of the iceberg
is Lactuca sativa (sub sp. Maritima) and belongs to the Asteraceae family. Most of the salad
crops are belongs to the Asteraceae family (daisy family). Among salad crops iceberg is most
widely cultivated all over the world. Lettuce is divided into two main groups that are Head
lettuce (variety captain) and Leaf lettuce (variety longifolia). Head lettuce includes butterhead
lettuce and iceberg, and leaf lettuce includes red and green leaf lettuce. Leaves are used in salad
and eaten raw, in sandwiches, and in many other dishes. 2n chromosomes number is 18. More
than 6500 years ago it was discovered in the Mediterranean region, in Egypt, it was considered
a weed, and during ancient ages, its seeds were used for oil extraction. Later on, commercial
cultivation had been starting and spread worldwide. Plants can be grown up to 6 inches in
height.

Climate and Soil

Iceberg is an annual, cold-loving, and short-season crop that shows biennial growth habit and
produce seeds during the second growing season. Growth remains normal at the temperature
range of 7-24oC, but the optimum temperature is 18oC. Temperature higher than that range may

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cause tip burn, bolting at an early stage, and induce a flowering stage that could be irreversible.
It requires full sunlight for proper growth and maximum size of leaves.

The crop can be grown in all types of soils, but light soils especially loamy and silty loam soils
are most suitable for maximum yield and for better quality. Soils rich in nutrients and organic
matter gives the maximum yield. Soil pH must be ranging from 6-7. Well-drained and having
better water-holding capacity soils gives superior crop.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Before planting one to two ploughings must be done for making proper soil structure. Iceberg
can be grown on ridges or in plain fields but performs better on ridges. Ridges also facilitate
the draining of water during heavy rains. Planting is done direct through seeds because
transplanting is not practiced commonly. Seeds should sow one centimeter below the soil
surface. For one hectare of land 350-500g of seed is enough. Soaking seeds in water before
sowing for 12-16 hours may increase seed germination. If plants are transplanted from nursery
beds, then the plant should be 5 to 6 weeks old. The suitable time for sowing is September to
November but under controlled and protected conditions it can sow throughout the year.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Icebergs have a shallow root system and are very sensitive to drought as well as excessive
water. A uniform availability is required throughout the growing season for proper growth and
better quality. Furrow irrigation, bed irrigation, flood irrigation, and drip methods are used.
Drip irrigation is the most efficient, but furrow irrigation is the most widely used method.

It is not a heavy feeder crop but requires the availability of nutrients during the period of 3 to
2 weeks before harvest because maximum growth of about 80% occurs during this period.
Before planting about 10,000kg of farmyard manure should apply and the general
recommendation of NPK is 60:40:40.

Intercultural Practices

Thinning must be done at an early stage if the crop is sown directly through seed. Removal of
weeds is necessary by hand or by weedicide. Hoeing once or twice for better growth of roots,
uptake of nutrients from the soil, enhance the water holding capacity and facilitate the aeration
process.

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Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting is done at the stage of maturity, maturity can be judged on the basis of head
compactness and the number of leaves per plant. An ideal harvested plant must have 30-35
leaves. If judged through compactness, the plant head should be compact with gentle hand
pressure. The yield of the crop is depending on the total plant population in the field as one
plant gives 35 leaves which leads to a yield of 25,000 to 40,000kg per hectare.

Storage

Harvesting should be done during cold periods of the day and placed in shady and cool areas.
At 0oC temperature and 98% relative humidity, it can be stored for three weeks. Temperature
below -0.2oC cause chilling injury and darkening of leaves. Keep in plastic bags helps to
prevent water loss.

Varieties

Butterhead, Crisp head, Loose-leaf, Chinese lettuce, and summer crisp are the commercially
cultivated varieties.

Uses and Health Benefits

Iceberg is used as a salad vegetable in different types of salad and eaten in sandwiches, burgers,
grilled, cooked, and in very kinds of dishes. It is rich in vitamins C, A, and K and carbohydrates.
Lettuce is a major source of magnesium, calcium, and iron but is low in dietary fiber with
compared to other leafy vegetables. Iceberg Lettuce provides daily requirements of minerals
and most vitamins. Antioxidants, calcium, and vitamins help in strengthen the teeth and bones
and boost the immune system. It improves eye health, prevents blood clotting, enhances night
vision, and supports cell growth. Helps in the reduction of food poisoning, regulates blood
pressure, lowers cholesterol, and sugar levels in the blood, and also helps in the removal of
carcinogens and the repairing of cancerous tissues.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Aphids: are small-sized insects that suck the cell sap and toxic saliva injects inside the plant
tissues which causes spoilage of tissues. Applying proper insecticide, using resistant varieties,
crop rotation, and removal of infected plants is useful in the control of aphid attack.

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Damping off: it is a fungal disease that destroys the roots
and the whole plant died. At the initial stage, its effects are
more drastic. Seedlings may wilt and die. Crop rotation and
seed treatment are the best control measures. In case of a
severe attack, use a sterilized field and apply copper-based
fungicides.

Downey mildew: is also a fungal disease that attacks during

wet conditions and spreads plant to plant through the air. The
disease occurs on the foliage. Apply copper-based fungicide
and crop rotation are the control measures.

Bacterial rot: deficiency of calcium and wet conditions

induce rot in icebergs. Symptoms start from head rotting. To
minimize the attack controlling the moisture, removing plant
debris, seed treatment and crop rotation are the best
practices.

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 Asparagus
Asparagus is a seasonal vegetable, and its edible portion is newly emerged stems. The botanical
name is Asparagus officinalis and belongs to the family Asparagaceae. 2n chromosomes
number is 20. It was used as a medicine and vegetable since 3000 BC in Egypt, but it was
native to Eurasia along the Mediterranean Sea. Due to taste and nutrition, it was spread
throughout Europe and later on to other continents.

Densely branched feathery foliage is attached to the stout stem that grows up to 150 cm in
height. Needle-like leaves attach with cladodes (modified type of stems) that are up to 3 cm in
length and 0.1 cm wide. Leaves are in the form of clusters of 4-5 leaves. Yellow or greenish
color flowers are bell-shaped with six petals fused in the base. Flowers are singly on branchlets
or in cluster form. Male and female flowers are separately on different plants with 0.45-0.65 in
size and the fruit is a small red berry 6–10 mm. The root system of asparagus is adventitious.

Climate and Soil

Asparagus is a cold-loving crop and require freezing and drought spells for better quality and
more yield. It can grow in areas having temperatures ranging from 4oC to 45oC, but warm-area
crop can-not compete with crops in cool areas. Freezing temperatures and drought spells lower

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the growth rate and induce a rest period which is necessary for the best quality and maximum
production.

It can be grown in all types of soils but gives the best yield in light soils like loamy and sandy
loam soils with deep structure and good drainage and surface water qualities. A high yield is
also possible in heavy soils with good cultural practices. The depth of well-drained soils
influences the development of healthier roots of plants that can grow up to 300 cm deep. Unlike
other vegetables, asparagus is slightly tolerant to salt-affected and acidic soil, but these
conditions can reduce the overall life of plants. The optimum pH for proper growth, better
yield, and maximum plant life is 6.5.

Land Preparation and Sowing

The crop remains productive for a very long duration about 20 years, so it is necessary to
maintain fertility and remove weeds regularly. Soil structure improvement practices must start
about one year before planting because it will be very difficult after the planting. Well-rotten
farmyard manure should be applied before planting and after the establishment of crops also
can apply and it could be beneficial. According to soil conditions and plant requirements,
fertilizers apply consequently. The best sowing time is the first two weeks of April and 0.2 kg
seed is enough for an area of one hectare. Distance between rows must be 75-90 cm and
between plants, 5-10 cm is enough. The depth of seeds should not be more than 2 cm and
seedlings will emerge after two weeks of sowing at 25oC temperature.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Asparagus is a very deep-rooted crop, and it can uptake water from a vast region of soil. Deep
roots enhance the irrigation intervals and resistance against drought conditions. But regular
irrigation and the presence of adequate moisture in the soil help in increasing the quality and
overall yield.

Apply animal manure and fertilizer with major and minor nutrients during soil preparation
before planting. 50-70 kg of nitrogen and 70-90 kg of potassium apply yearly in two parts at
regular intervals on the top of the soil. Phosphorus is not required in big quantities, like previous
major nutrients. Apply well rotten farmyard manure or organic compost on the surface of the
soil to improve the structure of the soil and match the requirement of minor nutrients.

Intercultural Practices

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A minimum of one hoeing is necessary for each year to facilitate the aeration and develop a
better soil structure. Removal of weeds is very critical at the initial stage of two years duration
because plants are more sensitive at the early stage. The use of weedicides on a commercial
level is also a useful practice for growers.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting must not be done during the first year of planting because of minimum one year is
required to develop a proper root system and main stem. During the second year, harvesting
should not be severe and maintain the time of 2-3 weeks between two harvestings. When spears
reach a height of 20 cm harvesting must be done with a sharp knife and spears do not allow to
reach a height of 25 cm because of total yield will be reduced with an increase in height of
spears at harvesting. Annual production is 5,000 to 10,000 kg from an area of one hectare.

Storage

Just after harvest spears should cool immediately to prevent bacterial infection. Soaking in
water for a very long may result in microbial spoilage. At the temperature range of 2oC it can
be stored for 3 weeks but at 0oC may changes occur in color and quality after only 10 days.
Harvested asparagus should tie in small bundles and avoid exposure to ethylene gas because it
may cause the hardening of spears.

Varieties

White asparagus, Purple asparagus, and Jersey gem asparagus are the main types that are used
commercially.

Uses and Benefits

Asparagus is a nutrient-rich vegetable that was used as a medicine during ancient ages. It is an
important source of several types of vitamins, minerals, iron, calcium, magnesium, and
phosphorus that are necessary for the proper growth and development of our body. The
availability of dietary fibers helps in the digestive system, relief from constipation, and removal
of carcinogens from the body. It also helps in relief from arthritis, rheumatism, and
inflammation and regulates blood pressure. Lower the sugar and cholesterol levels in the blood,
reduce the risk of heart attack and heart diseases, prevent birth defects and kidney stones, and
minimize the aging effect.

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Insect Pests and Diseases

Gross hoppers: attacks during summer when the

surrounding vegetation is near to end. A large
population of weeds is also a reason for grasshopper
attacks throughout the year. A severe attack may result
in defoliation and a major loss in yield. The field
should be clean of weeds and during the attack, spray
appropriate pesticides helps control grasshoppers.

Aphids: they feed on leaves and newly emerged

shoots and suck the cell sap with the help of a needle-
like structure. The attack may severe if weeds are
present intensively. Heavy rainfall can kill all the
aphids and the field must keep free of weeds to prevent
the attack. If an attack occurs, spray a suitable pesticide.

Asparagus beetles: appear during spring and feed on

spear tips. As a result of severe attack tips or whole
spears turns brownish in color. The application of
pesticides is the only practice that helps to prevent
damage.

Crown rot: is a fungal disease that causes infection in

the crown part and nutrients and water cannot be
uptake due to damage to the xylem and phloem cells.
Use pest-free seedlings and select pest-free soils. Do
not grow asparagus in the field where it is growing
since last five years.

Bacterial soft rot: mostly attacks after harvest and it

may reduce the market value. Prevent spears from
injury during post-harvest practices. Washing and
hydro cooling just after harvesting is also a very useful
practice to prevent pathogen attacks.

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 Artichoke
Artichoke is the tastiest among all exotic vegetables that can grow at home. The botanical name
is Cynara cardunculus, genus is Cynara which contains about ten species and belongs to the
Asteraceae family and is commonly known as “Artichoke Thistle”. Reports and history prove
that it originated in the Mediterranean region near Italy and Sicily (Islands in the Mediterranean
Sea) where it was used as a medicinal plant and cultivated as a food crop since 371 B.C. It was
spread throughout the world and created a vast market since the 1920s. The plant also has
aesthetic values and uses as an ornamental plant and may remain productive for several to many
years.

The edible portion is a leafy bud present around immature florets (known as “choke” or
“beard”) on the top of the stem and fleshy lower portion, the whole edible head is called “heart”.
The size of the head may vary between 8-15 cm in diameter with many triangular scales and
individual flowers are purple in color, developing from florets present inside the head. It
produces arching, light green, and deeply lobed leaves which grow up to 82 cm in length. Plant
height is between 1.2 to 2 meters and up to 180 cm in diameter. Seeds are long and cylindrical
in shape with triangular patches.

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Climate and Soil

Artichoke is a mild winter or summer season crop of temperate regions and grows best in foggy
areas. During warm summers it requires partial shade to prevent injury, caused by direct
sunlight. Direct sunlight and warm conditions may result in low quality and lower yield. At
0oC temperature quality does not affect but below -2oC the head may spoil and the whole plant
could die.

It can be grown in all types of soils but soils with good draining qualities may produce more
yield. Clay soils are not suitable until drainage improves through cultural practices and the
application of manures. The crop prefers soils with a pH ranging from 6.5 to 7.5. The depth of
fertile soil influences the yield, quality, and life of plants.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Irrigate the field thoroughly and plough at the proper depth to improve the structure of soil for
proper growth of roots and to facilitate the uptake of nutrients and enhance the water holding
capacity. Commercially done through vegetative growth which is done through root divisions
but in some areas direct through seeds. Vegetative propagation is more suitable to prevent
diseases and weeds. Plants can be grown direct through seeds as annuals where it is not winter
hardy. Tubers start sprouting within 10-17 days of planting and germinate best at the
temperature of 7oC. Distance must be 180-200 cm if planting is done on beds and 75 cm is
enough if planting on ridges or in rows and the plant-to-plant distance required is 50-60 cm.
The seed required for an area of one hectare is 150-200 kg for vegetative propagation.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Irrigation is the most important factor that affects the quality, size, and tenderness of buds. An
extra amount of water is required to produce large-sized and succulent heads. Three times
irrigation in a week is required during a hot and dry spell at the time of bud formation. Water
deficiency during frost or very cold weather may cause a reduction in yield. Drought conditions
during heavy frost may result in the hardening of buds.

Apply an extra quantity of manure before planting and after germination nitrogenous fertilizer
is necessary once a year. 0.5 kg per plant of nitrogen side dressed at the stage of formation of
the new crown.

Intercultural Practices

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The field must be free of weeds because the plant is very sensitive and vulnerable. Application
of weedicide is common at the commercial level and in compact soils hoeing is also required
once a year.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting starts after the maturity of the crown and when starts proper growth of shoots and
bud should be cut when it is swelled but still firm and close tightly. Harvesting is being
practiced throughout the year, but the yield is maximum during spring and minimum during
frost. Cut the bud from the stem below the 3-4 cm of bud base. Harvesting should be done
carefully to prevent bruising bud leaves. Up to 5 buds are obtained annually with normal
conditions.

Storage

Store harvested artichoke immediately after harvest. It can be stored for up to two weeks at
0oC.

Cultivars

The green cultivar, purple cultivar, and spined cultivar are used at the commercial level.

Uses and Health Benefits

Edible buds are the tastiest among all vegetables and have high nutritional and medicinal
values. These are rich in vitamins, minerals, calcium, and dietary fibers and have antioxidants
that help in reduce the toxicity of the human body. Dietary fibers support the digestive tract
and facilitate the removal of carcinogens and have chemicals that boost the immune system
against cancer. Helps in the regulation of blood pressure and the maintenance of sugar and
cholesterol levels in the blood. Strengthen the bones and is good for the liver.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Artichoke plume moth: Worm-like small-sized larvae

attack the bracts of buds and severe attack may destroy the
whole bud. To control remove the affected parts and
foliage from the field and use an effective insecticide in
case of a severe attack.

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Slugs and snails: are also pests of artichoke buds and most of the time eat the outer surface of
buds and produce holes in stems and leaves. Due to the
decrease in chlorophyll content, photosynthesis decreased,
and the plant starts to wilt. Keeping the field free of weeds
and application of pesticides are suitable control measures.

Curly dwarf: its causal agent is a virus that attacks in

winter and moves to the alternate hosts during the off-
season. Symptoms are curling of leaves, plants, and buds
remaining small in size and a severe attack may kill the
whole plant.

Botrytis Disease: is a fungal disease and most of the time

attacks through damaged and injured tissues. Hot and
humid conditions provide suitable conditions for this
disease. Grey-brown patches develop on attacked tissues.
Removal of the affected plant and controlling insect and
mechanical injury are the most important practices to prevent the attack.

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 Celery
Celery is also an important crop among exotic vegetables but is used in lesser quantities
compared to others. The botanical name of celery is Apium graveolens genus Apium and
belongs to Apiaceae/Umbelliferae family. Genus Apium has about 20 species. 2n chromosomes
number is 22. The plant originated in Europe, places near the Mediterranean sea. It was used
in the Mediterranean region as a medicinal plant by Greek and Roman people for 2000 years.
It was introduced as a leafy vegetable during the early 17th century.

Growth behavior is biennial and used during or at the end of the first growing season. Plants
erect strong odors and grow up to 60 cm in height. The stalk of the plant is fibrous, and all parts
of the plant are edible except the roots. Plants produce pinnate to bipinnate leaves with 3-5 cm
long and 2-4 cm broad rhombic leaflets. Flowers are 0.2-0.3 cm in size with creamy white
color. Leaves are not often used due to their strong odor and are used only in soups for flavor
and as a dried herb. Globose-shaped seeds are 0.15-0.21 cm. Flowers of celery are called
“umbels” and pollinate through cross-pollination. Like other plants of the Apiaceae family, it
also has a tap root system.

Climate and Soil

It prefers cold and wet conditions with an adequate supply of moisture like places like around
the sea in Europe. Seeds can germinate temperature range from 5-30oC but the optimum

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temperature in 21oC and the optimum temperature for plant growth is 12-16oC. A temperature
range of 2-4oC for 10-15 hours may induce the formation of flowers and 5-10oC for a few days
helps in the formation of seed stalks. Transplantation must be done at 16oC. Celery plants are
lightly tolerant to frost.

Celery crops can be grown in every type of soil with high fertility but medium-textured soils
with high organic matter are more suitable for proper growth, quality, and yield. Clayey soils
are not suitable due to their poor draining qualities. Soil pH is required between 6-6.8 but the
optimum pH is 6.5.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Apply an adequate quantity of well-rotted farmyard manure before planting the seedlings in
the field. Make ridges or beds in the field at the proper distance to ensure the drainage of extra
water. 150 to 200gram seed is enough to grow the nursery for an area of one hectare. The plant
population for one hectare must be 75,000 to 135,000. During transplant maintain the distance
between plants to about 15-20cm and the distance between rows must be 80-100cm or plant in
paired rows and the distance between two pairs of rows must be about 100cm.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Because of high moisture requirements, frequent irrigations are required with an adequate
amount of water. During the last month before harvest, moisture requirements increased due to
the rapid growth and maturity of vegetative parts. About 75cm of water is required for the
whole crop.

A large number of manures and fertilizers are required because celery is a heavy feeder crop.
20-25 tons of well-rotted farmyard manure must apply at the time of transplanting and further
requirements of major nutrients are 100 kg of nitrogen, 50 kg of phosphorus, and 50 kg of
potassium is enough for one hectare. Fertilizer should apply in three parts, one-third part is
applied at the time of planting and the other two parts will be side dressed later on.

Intercultural Practices

Perennial weeds must be controlled before transplanting. And seasonal weeds will be removed
through hoeing and by the spraying of appropriate chemicals. Chemicals should not apply
during the first 10 days of transplanting. Plastic mulching is also a useful practice to control
weeds in several cultivation systems.

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Harvesting and Yield

It requires about 16 weeks to reach the harvesting stage and harvesting may start as it gets
marketable size. Cut the whole plant just below the soil surface and the outer leaves will be
trimmed out with a sharp blade and packed in crates. At high production, scale harvesting may
be done by mechanics, tie in bundles, wash with water, and store in receiving sheds. Sometimes
leaves are also preserved fresh or dried to use in soups for enhancing the taste. During normal
conditions, a 25,000-30,000 kg yield can be obtained but in Canada yield has been recorded up
to 50,000.

Storage

Shelf life of celery in more than other winter vegetables. It can be stored for up to two months
at 0-1oC and 98-100% relative humidity. The use of rubber gloves is necessary during harvest
to prevent skin allergies that may cause by the foliage of celery.

Varieties

Celery (Stalk celery), Smallage (Knob celery), and celeriac (Leaf celery) are commercially
cultivated varieties.

Uses and Health Benefits

Celery can be used in many types of dishes including beef and celery stir fry, skillet braised,
tomato celery mince stew, celery and mushroom salad, celery salad with boiled egg, and also
use in soups. Rich in vitamin C and iron, and contains all important minerals and salts. Its
nutritional benefits are improvements in the immune system, reduction in inflammation threats,
prevention of cancer, lower cholesterol and sugar levels in the blood, acting as a diuretic
(removal of access fluid in the body with the help of balance between potassium and sodium),
reduce in joint pains, relief in gout and nervousness, improve the performance of mammary
glands in women, reduce in menstrual cramps and stimulate menstruation cycle, support
digestion and also use as sleeping sedative. Up to 25% extraction of celery is also used as a
mosquito repellent.

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Insect Pests and Diseases

Leaf hoppers: are greenish-yellow, wedge-shaped small

insects and they transmit aster yellows disease. Control
measures are the application of pesticide 3 times after
planting with 10 days interval, removal of weeds, do not
grow other host plants in the surrounding like carrots and
parsnips, and crop rotation.

Aphids: they feed on leaves and newly emerged shoots

by sucking their sap through their needle-like structure
and injecting toxic saliva into the tissues that may cause
damage. Major symptoms are curling in leaves and plants
covered with a sticky blackish substance excreted by
aphids. They can control by the use of pesticides, crop rotation, and keeping the field free of
weeds.

Bugs: may cause the complete destruction of crops. They

attack stalk and as result, breaking down starts just like
the black heart. Clean cultivation is the most effective
control measure practice.

Damping off: are a fungal disease that attacks at an early

stage on small seedlings and the whole plant dies due to
rotting of the root system. To minimize the attack, crops
should grow in sterilized soils, seeds should be treated
before sowing, and control the moisture level and dense
plantation.

Leaf blight: it is also a fungal disease that spread through

wind, implements, and the movement of workers.
Symptoms are the appearance of yellow spots on both sides of the leaves. Leaves and petioles
affect badly. Control measures are the use of treated
seeds, application of fungicides, and removal of affected
plants. Wet conditions facilitate the attack, so moisture
should be controlled in the field.

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Aster yellow: mycoplasma is the causal agent that spreads through leaf hoppers and symptoms
are leaves start twisting, dwarfing, and yellowing plants. Control leaf hoppers and weeds to
prevent crops from the pathogen.

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 Parsley
Parsley is a herb plant with aromatic and beautiful leaves, that grows across the world for its
aesthetic, medicinal and nutritional uses. The botanical name is Petroselinum crispum and
belongs to Apiaceae (Umbelliferae) family. Genus Petroselinum has only two species. 2n
chromosome number is 22 same as other species of the Apiaceae family. It originated from
southern Europe and lower Africa around Tunisia, and southern Italy.

The life cycle of parsley is biennial and grown as an annual, it grows up to 30-45 cm in height.
Dark green leaves are attached with a long stalk and compound umbels flowers are erect and
greenish yellow to white in color. Flowers emerge in the second growing season. The flowering
stalk may grow about 18 inches in height. Ovate and ribbed seeds have smooth surfaces. Oil
extracted from the seeds of parsley is used in perfumes and creams due to its attractive odor.
Strong tap roots can grow up to 24 inches in soft soils.

Climate and Soil

The crop can grow in a variety of climates ranging from tropical to temperate. It is a warm-
season crop in temperate regions. Parsley is a herb crop that performs best in direct sunlight
but in case of more shiny and warm days, they require a partial shade. It can grow at
temperatures ranging from 5-28oC but the optimum temperature for growth is 15-18oC.

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The crop can grow in all types of soils but medium-textured soils with an adequate amount of
organic matter are more suitable. The 6-7 pH range gives the best results. Propagation through
seeds is the most simple and easy way but germination may slow depending on the freshness
of the seeds May 2-5 weeks. Seeds should soak in warm water for one day is very helpful to
facilitate early and rapid germination.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Apply organic manure or compost before 6 weeks of planting in the field and plough well to a
depth of 15 cm. Apply slow-released fertilizers and make beds or ridges for proper drainage.
4-5 kg of seed is efficient for an area of one hectare. Seed planting depth must be one
centimeter. And plant population for one hectare is ranging from 45,000 to 1,00,000 but 60,000
is considered best. Distance between rows 40-60 cm and between plants 20-30 cm is required.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Parsley requires an adequate amount of moisture uniformly for proper and maximum growth.
Water could apply through sprinkler or drip irrigation systems. The required amount of water
does not influence by changes in soil conditions, but seepage and evaporation can affect the
requirement of moisture. Light soils need more frequent irrigation but less amount of water per
irrigation.

Fertilizers must apply for maximum yield and better-quality vegetables. Heavy soils require
fertilizers in less quantity, but lightly textured soils require extra amounts. The total required
amount of NPK is 60:60:60 in normal conditions but may vary according to soil conditions.

Intercultural Practices

Weed control is necessary at the initial stage to prevent the utilization of nutrients by weeds.
Maintenance of the field for proper aeration and water application, adjusting plant population,
and regulation of plant stand are also included in intercultural practices. Topping is a very
important practice in which removing the terminal bud with some of the top leaves to ensure
the stored carbohydrates are in usable part, uniform ripening, and increase the thickness of
leaves.

Harvesting and Yield

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Harvesting is done continuously as leaves become mature. Leaves start to become mature from
base to upward and bulk harvesting is done at the end of the season. Harvesting practice by
hand is more suitable for quality yield but is consume extra Laboure. Leaves cut 2.5 cm above
from soil surface for multiple cuttings. At the time of bulk, harvesting roots must be washed,
and remove discolored leaves for the market. The total production of fresh leaves may vary
between 1500 to 2000 kg per hectare.

Storage

Most of the time harvested leaves use as fresh after washing and removing discolored leaves.
Hydro-cooled parsley is used for shipping to distant places. Hydro-cooling keeps the leaves
crisp and fresh. Polyethylene bags are preferred for packaging parsley storage. Shelf life may
enhance up to four weeks at 0oC and 95-100% relative humidity. The controlled atmosphere
with 10 and 11 percent oxygen and carbon dioxide respectively are useful to maintain freshness
and green color.

Varieties

1. Forest green parsley is most common commercially grown variety.

2. Italian dark green parsley is more selective variety and have higher growth in height.
3. Italian Organic Parsley have flat leaves and stronger flavor than other varieties.

Uses and Health Benefits

Parsley is a very important herb, and all parts of the plant are used as medicine. The basal part
including roots is used as a diuretic, foliage juice is to treat kidney problems and oil is very
helpful to regulate menstrual flow and treat painful menstruation like dysmenorrhea and
amenorrhea. The use of fresh leaves is helpful in the regulation of blood pressure, sugar, and
cholesterol level in the blood. During the ancient ages, it was the most powerful herb against
diseases and was used as an antioxidant and to treat allergic and inflammatory diseases. It
contains an adequate quantity of proteins, fats, fiber content, vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin K,
folate, potassium, and calcium. Normal use of parsley boosts the immune system, but excessive
use is not beneficial. Parsley can be used steamed, boiled, and fresh in soups, salads, as
garnishing, and in various dishes.

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Insect Pests and Diseases

Aphids: sucks the cell sap and injects toxic saliva into
cells and may be the vector of several pathogens.
Biocontrol may be done by ladybird beetle. Crop
rotation, keeping the field free of weeds, and the use of
chemicals are also very beneficial in controlling the
attack of aphids.

Caterpillars: The larval stage is very injurious to

plants, they feed on leaves, petioles, and newly grown
branches and cause feeding injury. It may induce an
attack of pathogens and decrease the market value.
Removal of weeds at their initial stage, crop rotation,
and use of chemicals are the controlling practices.

Flea beetles: adult beetles cause chewing injury and

make holes in leaves and newly born branches. Larvae
and adults remain in the soil during winter and at the
start of spring, they emerge and attack leaves. Removal
of weeds and use of chemicals is practiced to control.

Pythium damping off: is a fungal disease and pathogen

that attacks seedlings and may cause bare patches in the
rows. Excess moisture and warm conditions enhance
the threat of attack. Planting on raised beds, controlling
moisture in the field, using disease-resistant varieties,
crop rotation, seed treatment and use of proper
fungicide are treatment measures.

Septoria leaf spot: is also a fungal disease that produces

spots on leaves and stems and causes defoliation during a
severe attack. It attacks more during warm and wet
conditions, especially after the first cutting. For control,
the seeds must be at least two years old, and seed
treatment and crop rotation also be done.

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Dr. Muhammad Rashid Shaheen, Muhammad Amjid, Ali Shan
 Kohlrabi
It is an annual vegetable that is a stout and low cultivar of cabbage. The botanical name of
kohlrabi is Brassica caulorapa which belongs to the Brassicaceae family and is also known as
the mustard family. The Brassicaceae family contains 338 genera and about 3700 species. It is
also known as “German turnip”. The word kohlrabi is derived from the German words “Kohl”
meaning cabbage and “rabi” meaning turnip and it is native to northern Europe. Similar to other
species of this family, the 2n chromosome number of kohlrabi is 18.

Kohlrabi is a biennial and herbaceous plant whose edible portion is its swollen stem. It has a
vertical stem that is swollen at the lower end close to the soil surface which is very similar to
a turnip and varies in color and may be green, purple, and white according to variety. The fleshy
swollen stem can be grown up to 10 cm in diameter. The leaf structure also resembles a turnip
and has cleaved leaves with scalloped edges. Leaves are not in the form of rosette-like in turnip.
Bolting is induced by any abiotic stress like lack of nutrients and lack of water and by the raise
in temperature. The Kohlrabi plant produces round seeds which are dark reddish in color. 70-
90 days are required to mature and gain maximum size in normal conditions.

Climate and Soil

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Comparatively other cold-season crops, kohlrabi prefers colder weather. It is an annual,
biennial, and herbaceous plant. The optimum temperature for germination is ranging from 15oC
to 30oC and 10-20oC is required for tuber formation. Warmer temperatures for a long time may
induced knob formation. It requires a full sun environment. But due to being highly sensitive
to warm temperatures, it does not require full sunlight during warm conditions, and it grows in
partially shaded areas.

Kohlrabi can be grown in all types of nutrient and organic matter-rich soils, but medium-
textured soils are more beneficial for better quality and more yield. Sandy loam, loam, and
clayey loam soils may give maximum yield and quality. Heavy soils are more suitable for
proper growth and quality of tuber growth. Soil pH is ranging from 5.5 to 6.8. Acidic soils are
not suitable.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Apply an adequate quantity of well-rotted farmyard manure at least two months before planting
the seedlings in the field. Good tilth practices and planking is necessary for leveling the field.
Make ridges or beds at the proper distance to ensure the drainage of extra water. Remove the
weeds and stubbles of the previous crop. It is a transplanting crop, 30 inches long and 6 inches
wide nursery beds should be prepared at the proper distance. 4-6 weeks old nursery is ready
for transplanting. Transplanting must be done on ridges or furrow-like beds. Distance between
plants 25 cm and between rows 45 cm is required in normal conditions. 1.5-2 kg seed is
efficient for an area of one hectare and sowing starts in August and remains till October.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Kohlrabi crop requires an adequate quantity of moisture frequently. First irrigation should be
applied just after transplanting and second irrigation apply after 4-5 days. After established
weekly irrigation must apply but the schedule may change according to soil conditions and
moisture requirements. In heavy soils, good draining practices are also required to prevent roots
and tuber spoilage.

It is a heavy feeder crop and an extra amount of manures and organic matter should apply at
the time of soil preparation. 160 kg of nitrogen is required for an area of one hectare which
applies in 3 parts, one half at the time of transplanting and the other half side dressed after 4-5
weeks of transplanting at the time of earthen up, and the left part at the time of tuber formation.
Phosphorus and potassium are required in amounts of 100 kg and 60 kg respectively.

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Intercultural Practices

Removal of weeds is very critical at the initial stage which is done by hand. Generally, 2 to 3
weeding is required to keep the field free of weeds. After one month of transplanting plants
must be earthen up for proper tuber formation. Thinning must be done to maintain the distance
if direct sowing is done through seeds. In the case of mechanical weeding, an injury may cause
which provide space for a pathogen attack and affect the overall quality and yield of the crop.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting is done by cutting the root just below the tuber with the help of a sharp sickle or
knife before it becomes hard and fibrous. In normal conditions harvesting starts when the tuber
reaches the size of 5-7 cm in diameter. Plants can be pulled out from roots and leaves and roots
must be removed before marketing. 20,000 to 25,000 kg of the tuber is produced per hectare
and it may vary according to variety and climatic conditions.

Storage

At room temperature, it can be stored for 4-5 days. If kohlrabi is cleaned completely and
wrapped into a plastic bag and placed in the refrigerator it can be stored for 2-3 weeks. Shelf
life may increase up to 5-6 weeks at 0oC and 98% relative humidity, but extremely low
temperatures can cause chilling injury and damage the tissues.

Varieties

White Vienna, Purple Vienna, Grand Duke, and White Danube are commercially grown
varieties.

Uses and Health Benefits

Kohlrabi is used fresh in salads in similar ways to carrots, cabbage, and spinach. It is also used
as roasted, use in soaps, and also use to eat raw. Roasted bulbs are crunchy and give a better
taste. Leaves and bulbs are eaten steamed and used in burgers and sandwiches. Kohlrabi is a
nutrient-rich and very valuable crop in many countries. Fresh bulbs and leaves contain vitamin
A, vitamin K, vitamin C, calcium, iron, manganese, copper, potassium, dietary fibers,
antioxidant compounds, and many minerals. It is beneficial for the digestive tract, constipation,
and weight loss and potassium ions improve nerve and muscle functions. Potassium also helps
in regulate blood pressure and prevent the heart from strokes and facilitates fluid regulation

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between cells. It enhances visual health, strengthens the bones, prevents anemia and cancer,
helps in the removal of toxic compounds from the body, and boosts metabolism.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Damping off: is a fungal disease, attacks at the initial

stage of seedlings, damage the succulent stem, and
cause the sudden death of seedlings. Use of sterilized
soils, seed treatment, crop rotation, keeping the field
free of weeds, removal of infected plants and debris
from the previous crop, and use of copper-based
fungicides are the control practices.

Alternaria leaf spot: is also a fungal disease by which

gray to brown spots appear on leaves, they are dark in
color. Angular and round lesions are produced on
leaves with purple and black margins. Disease attacks
during moist conditions. For control, pathogen-free
seeds should be grown in sterilized soils and the use of
proper chemicals is necessary.

Cutworms: they make irregular holes in leaves.

Larvae hide in the soil during the daytime and feed on
leaves at nighttime. Control measures are the removal
of all plant debris, remaining from the previous crop,
removing weeds completely, and the use of
insecticides.

Aphids: small insects that feed on leaves and suck the

cell sap through their needle-like mouth part and inject
the toxic saliva into the cells. Release sticky
compounds that cover the whole surface of leaves.
Control measures are the use of resistant varieties,
removal of weeds, and spraying proper insecticides.

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Thrips: The large population may cover the whole
surface of leaves and leaves looks silvery and leaves
may be distorted. Pale yellow to brown insects are very
small up to 1.5 mm. Control measures are the use of
resistant varieties, the use of reflective mulches, and the
spraying of insecticides.

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 Carrot
The carrot is a biennial vegetable that has edible fleshy roots, and in some regions, leaves also
are eaten. The botanical name is Daucus carota and it belongs to the Apiaceae family. Daucus
is a genus of herbaceous plants and contains about 25 species. 2n chromosome number is 18.
According to history and research, carrots originated from Afghanistan, but Turkiye is known
as a secondary origin. About 1000 years ago it was started to cultivate in Afghanistan as a food
crop, during that time it was a wild plant with whitish, yellowish to light red roots. Quality and
color were improved by genetic engineering in later times.

The growth behavior of carrots is biennial. It has smooth reddish fleshy roots which use as
food. Fleshy roots can be grown up to 80cm. It mainly contains starch and sugars but exposure
to the low temperature for a period causes the conversion of starch into more sugar and gives
a sweeter taste. Frost is necessary for getting a sweeter taste. Roots are cylindrical but some
varieties are somehow bulbous like parsnips, which prefers for processing due to their
resistance to injury and breakage. Leaves of carrots are of pinnate shape having broad or oval-
shaped leaflets. Lower leaves have petioles, but the upper leaves are sessile and terminal leaves
have three lobes. The height of the leaf stalk is about 30cm, and leaflets are in pair form each
leaflet is about 2-4cm long and 1-2cm in width having toothed margins and soft hairy
structures. Carrots produce deep, yellow-colored flowers that umbels at the end of flowering
stalks similar to parsnips. Its schizocarps seeds are oval and flat in shape and have spreading
short styles. It is a cross-pollinated plant and pollination carried by flies especially bees and
pollen viability may change with a change in temperature.

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Climate and Soil

It is a cool season, biennial, root vegetable crop, and grows as an annual. Carrot is a cold-loving
crop but is not tolerant to heavy frost like parsnips. Seed germination is maximum at 18-23oC
and the optimum temperature for proper growth is 12-18oC. Due to being sensitive to warm
temperatures and sun exposure, it does not require full sunlight during the warm season.
Exposure to frost for a long is not suitable for the proper growth of roots.

Carrots can be grown successfully in loam, sandy loam, and clayey loam soils and gain
maximum size in muck and mineral-rich soils. Carrot does not prefer heavy, silty, and stony
soils. It grows best at soil pH range from 6 to 7. Carrots are more sensitive to acidic soils as
compared to parsnips. Poor draining soils are not suitable for root growth and soil depth must
be more than 45cm for the development of straight and maximum-sized roots.

Land preparation and sowing

Pre-cultivation ploughing is necessary at depth of 30-40 cm to soften the soil to develop a

proper soil structure. Level the soil and then make ridges at a 40-60 cm distance. A planter can
be used for a uniform distance between rows and plants. Direct seed sowing is practiced for
carrots, and they cannot be transplanted. A half-inch depth is required for sowing the seeds and
covering them with light soil for maximum germination. Germination starts 5-7 days after
sowing. Distance from plant to plant must be 5-8 cm and between rows, 20 cm is required.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Carrots have higher moisture requirements than other vegetables. Irrigate lightly daily or with
two days intervals until the germination completely occurs and after germination irrigate
weekly with 1-1.5 inches of water but the schedule may change according to rainfall, soil, and
moisture requirements. And soluble fertilizers can be applied through irrigation water.

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Before one month of cultivation, 25-30 tons of FYM should be applied and 110kg nitrogen per
hectare should be applied in three parts. Carrot is a potash-hungry crop and requires 100kg of
potash according to soil requirements. The phosphorus should apply after the test of the soil.
Half the amount of all fertilizers must be applied at the time of sowing and the other half side
dressed after first hoeing.

Intercultural Practices

Removal of weeds is necessary at the initial stage of germination. Suitable time for hand
weeding is ranging from 2 to 4 weeks of germination. Hoeing frequently must be done to
facilitate the aeration and proper development of roots. At the early stage, crops should be
thinned to avoid overcrowding. Weeding and thinning should be done by hand to avoid
mechanical injury to the crop.

Harvesting and yield

It is a long-season crop and is ready for harvesting after 110-120 days but in a few areas
harvesting starts after 95 days. Harvesting is done by hand, pulling the soil with help of a spade
and carrot harvester are also used to save labor. During harvesting use of gloves are advisable
as the toxic sap of foliage can cause skin irritations. Yield is 20,000-35,000kg per hectare even
more depending upon variety, in Australia over 50,000kg per hectare has been recorded.

Storage

For up to 6 months, it can be stored at 98% relative humidity and 0oC temperature. Store for
one month in the refrigerator with proper care, remove foliage completely, place the roots in a
water container, and container store in the refrigerator. During winter roots expose to frost to
get a sweeter taste as starch is converted into sugar. Before harvesting a short frost stream may
induce more sweetness and produce better-quality roots. It can also give a sweeter taste if stored
at 0-1oC for two weeks. The extremely low temperature could damage the tissues. At room
temperature, it may store for four days.

Varieties

Top weight, cape market and top cut are the commercially cultivated varieties.

Uses and Health Benefits

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Roots are eaten raw or processed. Slices of roots can use for improving the quality and flavor
of the soup, used after boiled or baked and cooked with a combination of other vegetables.
Carrot juice is extracted and very common all over the country. Carrots have anti-fungal, anti-
inflammatory, and anti-cancer compounds. Rich in dietary fibers which facilitate the removal
of carcinogens and constipation-causing compounds. It is also low in calories, having several
types of vitamins and minerals. Compounds present in carrots can help in the maintenance of
blood pressure. These are rich in Ca, Phosphorus, and all types of minerals required in the
human body. Freshly extracted juice helps in blood flow, reduce acidity and food poisoning,
maintenance of fluid level, and regulate blood pressure and blood sugar level.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Carrot fly: It is a small white maggot, that attacks the

crop in several areas. It attacks leaves and roots, is
attracted by the smell, and causes a major loss in yield.
Seed treatment with pesticide, crop rotation, use of
resistant varieties, and hot water treatment is helpful to
control the attack of carrot fly.

Aphid: are small-sized insects that suck the cell sap and
toxic saliva injects inside the plant tissues which causes
spoilage of tissues. Applying proper insecticide, using
resistant varieties, crop rotation, and removal of infected
plants are useful in the control of aphids’ attacks.

Leaf Spot: is caused by fusarium fungus during warm

and humid conditions. Spots and lesions appear on the
leaves. Application of fungicides, seed treatment by
copper-based compounds, steam, and hot water.

Root Rot: is also a fungal disease and causes the rotting

and decaying of roots even after the harvest. Roots
become soft and not able to eat or process. Control
measures are seed treatment, hot water treatment before
storage, crop rotation, and use of fungicides.

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Bacterial Soft Rot: is a bacterial disease that attacks
fields and storage places. Roots become soft and watery.
Well-drained soils, seed treatment, crop rotation, use of
proper pesticide, and grading before storage can play an
important role in preventing the attack of bacterial soft
rot.

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 Turnip
Turnip is a root vegetable that is grown in temperate, tropical, and subtropical climates
throughout the world during the cool season. The botanical name of turnip is Brassica rapa
and it belongs to the Brassicaceae family. Genus brassica contains 37 species. The 2n
chromosome number is 20. It originated from Asia especially the sub-continent region where
it was cultivated as a fodder crop, but some research shows it was present at the same time in
cooler regions of Europe and was cultivated by Greek and Romans. In India, it was cultivated
3500 years ago for oil-extracting seeds.

Turnip is a biennial and herbaceous plant whose edible portion is its swollen stem. It has a
vertical stem that is swollen at the lower end close to the soil surface which is very similar to
kohlrabi and varies in color and may be green, purple, and white according to variety. The
fleshy swollen stem can be grown up to 10cm in diameter. The leaf structure also resembles
kohlrabi and has cleaved leaves with scalloped edges. Leaves are in the form of rosettes unlike
in kohlrabi. Bolting is induced by any abiotic stress like lack of nutrients and lack of water and
by the raise in temperature. The turnip plant produces round seeds which are dark reddish in
color. 70-90 days are required to mature and gain maximum size in normal conditions.
Maximum growth of the tuber occurs during the last two weeks before harvesting. Cross-
pollination is occurring and several varieties are sterile due to un-compatible cross, but they
give the best quality tubers.

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Climate and Soil

Comparatively other cold-season crops prefer colder weather. It is an annual, biennial, and
herbaceous plant. The optimum temperature for germination is ranging from 18oC to 23oC, 12-
30oC is required for tuber formation and 10-12oC is required at the time of harvesting. Raise in
temperature induces the hardening and formation of woody tubers. Warmer temperatures for a
long time may induce bolt formation. It requires a sunny environment. But due to being
sensitive to the sunshine of warm temperatures, full bright weather is not good for proper
growth.

Turnip can be grown in all types of nutrient and organic matter-rich soils, but medium-textured
soils are more beneficial for better quality and more yield. Sandy loam, loam, and clayey loam
soils may give maximum yield and quality. Silty loam soils are more suitable for proper growth
and quality of tuber growth. Soil pH is ranging from 5.5 to 6.8. Acidic soils are not suitable.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Apply an adequate quantity of well-rotted farmyard manure for at least two months before
planting the seeds in the field. Good tilth practices and planking is necessary for leveling the
field. Make ridges or beds at the proper distance to ensure the drainage of excess water. Remove
the weeds and stubbles of the previous crop. It is not a transplanting crop. Distance between
plants 10-17 cm and between rows 45 cm is required in normal conditions. 2-3 kg of seed is
efficient for an area of one hectare and sowing starts in August and remains till October.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Turnip crop requires an adequate quantity of moisture frequently. First irrigation should be
applied just after sowing and second irrigation apply after 3-5 days according to moisture
requirements. After established weekly irrigation must apply but the schedule may change

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according to soil conditions and moisture requirements. In heavy soils, good draining practices
are also required to prevent roots and tuber spoilage.

It is a heavy feeder crop, and an extra quantity of manures and organic matter should apply at
the time of soil preparation. 160 kg of nitrogen is required for an area of one hectare which
applies in 3 parts, one half at the time of seed sowing and other half side dressed after 4-5
weeks of germination at the time of earthen up, and the left part at the time of tuber formation.
Phosphorus and potassium are required in the amount of 100 kg and 60 kg respectively.

Intercultural Practices

Removal of weeds is very critical at the initial stage which is done by hand. Generally, 2 to 3
weeding require to keep the field free of weeds. After one month of sowing, plants must be
earthen up for proper tuber formation. Thinning must be done to maintain the plant population
in the field. In the case of mechanical weeding, the injury may cause which provide space for
pathogen attack and affect the overall quality and yield of the crop.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting is done by uprooting the whole plant but in some areas by cutting the root just below
the tuber with the help of a sharp sickle or knife before it becomes hard and fibrous, but in
normal conditions harvesting starts when the tuber reaches the size of 8-10 cm in diameter. The
plant can be pulled out from roots and leaves and roots must be removed before marketing.
25,000 to 40,000kg of the tuber is produced per hectare and it may vary according to variety
and climatic conditions.

Storage

At room temperature, it can be stored for 4-5 days. If tubers are cleaned completely and
wrapped into a plastic bag and placed in the refrigerator, they can be stored for 2-3 weeks.
Shelf life may increase up to 3-4 months at 0oC and 98% relative humidity, but extremely low
temperatures can cause chilling injury and damage the tissues.

Varieties

L1 and Punjab Safed 4 are the two commercially cultivated varieties.

Uses and Health Benefits

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Turnip is used fresh in salads in similar ways to carrots, cabbage, and spinach. It can be used
after roasting, use in soaps, and eaten raw. Roasted bulbs are crunchy and give a better taste
but are not famous enough. Leaves and bulbs are eaten steamed, baked, use in burgers and
sandwiches, and cooked in many dishes. Turnip is a nutrient-rich and very valuable crop in
many countries. Fresh bulbs and leaves contain vitamin A, vitamin K, vitamin C, calcium, iron,
manganese, copper, potassium, dietary fibers, antioxidant compounds, and many minerals. It
is beneficial for the digestive tract, constipation, and weight loss and potassium ions improve
nerve and muscle functions. Potassium also helps in regulate blood pressure and prevent the
heart from strokes and facilitates fluid regulation between cells. It enhances visual health,
strengthens the bones, prevents anemia and cancer, helps in the removal of toxic compounds
from the body, weight loss, prevents body odor and asthma, and boosts the metabolism.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Cutworms: they make irregular holes in leaves. Larvae

hide in the soil during day time and feed on leaves at night
time. Control measures are the removal of all plant debris
remaining from the previous crop, the removal of weeds,
and the use of insecticides.

Aphids: small insects that feed on leaves and suck the cell
sap through their needle-like mouth part and inject the
toxic saliva into the cells. Release sticky compounds that
cover the whole surface of leaves. Control measures are
the use of resistant varieties, removal of weeds, and
spraying proper insecticides.

Damping off: is a fungal disease, attacks at the initial

stage of seedlings, damages the succulent stem, and causes
the sudden death of seedlings. Use of sterilized soils, seed
treatment, crop rotation, keeping the field free of weeds,
removal of infected plants and debris, and use of copper-
based fungicides are the control practices.

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Alternaria leaf spot: is also a fungal disease by which
gray to brown spots appear on leaves, they are dark in
color. Angular and round lesions are produced on leaves
with purple and black margins. Disease attacks during
moist conditions. For control, pathogen-free seeds should
be grown in sterilized soils and the use of proper
chemicals is necessary.

Club root: This is a fungal disease whose pathogen is soil-borne. Appeared symptoms are
wilting, discoloration, and roots will be tortured. Due to this, roots cannot perform their
functions properly. Crop rotation, seed treatment, removal of weeds and affected parts, and use
of copper-based fungicides are the control measures.

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 Cauliflower
Cauliflower is a highly modified form of cabbage having the same genus and same family. The
botanical name of cauliflower is Brassica oleracea Var. botrytis and belongs to the
Brassicaceae family which is also known as the Mustard family. The flowering head which is
produced on the upper end of the stem is used as an edible part and in several areas leaves also
be eaten. The diploid (2n) chromosome number is 18. Genus Brassica contains 37 species.
Like cabbage and broccoli, cauliflower also originated from the Mediterranean region around
Italy, Greece, and especially Cyprus from where it was spread to areas of Syria, Turkiye, Egypt,
and throughout the world including American continent countries. In the Indo-Pak region, it
was introduced in 1822 and cultivation started domestically.

Cauliflower has a biennial growth habit. During 1st growing season it completes the vegetative
growth including leaves and head respectively and during the second growing season
completes its reproductive growth including flowering and seed formation. It is an annual plant
and very fast-growing. Cauliflower can be harvested after 60 and up to 150 days of planting.
Large and broad leaves are resembled with broccoli and somehow prolonged than cabbage,
and plant height is up to 90 cm. The central axis and branches bear dense green clusters of
flower buds at their ends. Plant head is the main edible portion but in some regions, leaves are
also eaten. Cauliflower is an annual crop, but some varieties can be grown as perennials. Plants
produce large oblanceolate round leaves and cross-pollination is occurred by insects.

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Climate and Soil

Cauliflower is a short-duration, winter season, and biennial vegetable crop. It can be grown in
cold and moderate conditions but perform best in a colder climate. Seed germination is best at
temperatures above 20oC and grows best between 15-22oC and it is slightly tolerant to frost. It
requires full sunlight but with the increase in temperature, it starts blooming which is not
suitable for marketing. It can grow in all types of climates including temperate, tropical, and
sub-tropical during winters.

Cauliflower is a highly exhaustive crop and requires nutrient-rich soil with 6-7 pH. It grows in
every type of soil with extensive care but performs best in loamy to clayey soils which are well-
drained. For early production light soils are suitable and heavy soils are referred to high yield.
Yield could be less with high soil pH because the crop is very sensitive to magnesium
deficiency, and a pH above 7 can reduce the boron and magnesium availability to plants. Poorly
draining soils can cause suffocation of roots and tends to lower the yield. Coarse sandy soils
also are not suitable due to having poor water-holding capacity but can be preferred for early
production.

Land Preparation and Sowing

One to two months before cultivation, FYM should be applied and plough to a proper depth to
develop a proper soil structure. It can sow both direct in the field through seeds and by growing
nurseries in nursery beds. The best time for nursery growing in August-September and the
optimum time for a transplant is October-November. Cauliflower can grow on beds, ridges,
and plain fields but perform best on field beds. If cultivate through direct sowing, seeds start
germination after 4-6 days of sowing, and if by transplanting, the nursery should be 40-45 days
old. Distance from row to row is 75-90cm and between plants 45cm but 30 cm is enough for

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dwarf varieties. 0.25 kg of hybrid varieties and 0.5-0.75 kg of local varieties seed is required
for an area of one hectare. At the time of transplanting maintain the population of plants about
35,000-40,000 plants per hectare.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Apply an adequate amount of water at the time of sowing and transplanting. It is very necessary
to maintain moisture at the time of growth and developmental stages. Weekly, ten days or
fortnight irrigation is required according to the moisture requirement of plants and soil
conditions. During normal conditions, 2.5-3.5 cm of water is enough. Some soluble fertilizers
can also apply through irrigation water. Poor drainage practices and over-irrigation can cause
root diseases and produce a poor-quality crop.

15-20 tons of well-rotted farmyard manure is applied during land preparation. The level of
nitrogen per plant is a more influencing factor in the growth of plants in cauliflower. Nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium are applied in amounts of 100:50:60. Half of the amount is applied
at the time of transplanting and the other half apply when the plant starts flowering head
formation.

Intercultural Practices

Removal of weeds is necessary at an early stage. It can be controlled through hand weeding or
by the spray of weedicide. Hoeing in not necessary but in compact soils it is useful. If sowing
is direct through seeds, thinning is critical at an early stage to maintain the plant population
recommended per unit area. Remove stubbles or previous crops completely.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting starts after 60 days when flowering heads gain maximum size for the market. The
harvesting method is the same as broccoli, cut the flowering head 4-6 cm from the soil surface
with a knife or stickle before the buds loosen, open into flowers, or turn yellow. About 750-
1500gram flowering head obtain from one plant and an over-all yield of 25,000-35,000 kg per
hectare.

Storage

Before storing and cooking heads dip them in a lightly salted solution for 30 minutes to drive
out any worms inside the head. Heads may use fresh at home, for processing, and can be stored

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at room temperature for up to four days, in the refrigerator in a plastic bag for 1-2 weeks. And
up to 5 weeks at 0oC and 90% relative humidity.

Varieties

Cheddar, Faisalabad 1, Faisalabad 2, Champa, Chino late and Snow ball are the commercially
cultivated varieties.

Uses and Health Benefits

The use of cauliflower helps in the removal of carcinogens from the body and prevents the
body from cancer. Leaves and the head are rich in dietary fibers and decrease constipation
chances. It is useful to reduce the acidity of the body and digestive tract. By decreasing the
cholesterol level of blood cauliflower helps in regulating blood pressure. Boost the immunity
against diabetes and helps in maintaining the blood sugar level. It increases eye health and
helps in weight loss. Increase immunity and helps to decrease inflammation and allergy and
prevents heart diseases. It also reduces the toxic effects of eaten food and metabolic compounds
in the body. Same as broccoli, cauliflower can use after being steamed, boiled, cooked, and
processed. It can also be cooked in combination with several vegetables like potato and peas
etc. Rich in minerals, vitamins, proteins, calcium, iron, and other useful salts for our body.

Insect Pest and Diseases

Aphids: are small-sized insects that suck the cell sap and
toxic saliva injects inside the plant tissues which causes
spoilage of tissues. Applying proper insecticide, using
resistant varieties, crop rotation, and removal of infected
plants are useful in the control of aphids’ attacks.

Cutworms: They chewed the plant just above the soil

surface and the plant die after a short period at early stage.
On wet soils, they appear on the surface of the soil, and
on the dry surface, they are found below a few
centimeters of the surface where moisture is present. For
controlling cardboard collars puts around the newly
transplanted plant, the use of resistant varieties and crop rotation are useful practices.

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Armyworms: They are pale green when young and at this
stage, they eat the growing tips of the plants and cause
heavy economic loss. Control is the same as cutworms,
cardboard collar puts around the newly transplanted plant,
use of resistant varieties and crop rotation are useful
practices.

Clubroot: Is a fungal disease whose pathogen is soil-borne.

Appeared symptoms are wilting, discoloration, and roots
will be tortured. Due to this root disorder, the plant cannot
perform their functions properly.

Bacterial soft rot: it attacks during cool weather and low

humid conditions. The pathogen enters through injury and
wounds. Insects and field implements are the carriers of
pathogens. Symptoms appear on the head in form of head
rotting and complete plant remains not able to use.

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 Sugar Beet
Sugar beet is a sugar-containing vegetable and about 25% of world sugar production is
processed from sugar beet. The botanical name is Beta vulgaris, sub-specie Vulgaris, and
belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae which is also known as Amaranthaceae.
Chenopodiaceae contains 165 genera and 2040 species. Genus Beta contains 15 species but
only a few species are edible. The 2n chromosome number is 18. Studies show it originated in
the Mediterranean region near Egypt. In Egypt it was cultivated since the ancient ages when it
was used as food and leaves as animal food. . Later on, commercial cultivation has been started
and spreading worldwide.

Growth behavior is biennial, during the first growing season it completes its vegetative growth
and during the second growing season, it completes its reproductive growth including the
formation of bolt, flower, and seed. The plant has a red-colored conical, fleshy, and swollen
tap root. “Betanin” pigment is present in sugar beet which gives the red color to the tubers.
Root pulp contains about 20% sucrose sugar and 75% water. A rosette of leaves on the top end
of the tuber. Oblong leaves are smooth and simple with large petioles and blades, just like swiss
chard, and have reddish veins and green foliage. The stem is condensed. Bolting is induced
with an increase in day length or vernalization period (overwintering) and flowers are terminal,
open panicles, and imperfect without petals, the same as in spinach and iceberg lettuce. Seeds
are angular and 0.3-0.4cm in diameter. Plant height is about 25-35cm, flowering stalk grows
more than one meter and tuber grows up to the weight of one kilogram. Cross-pollination is
common in the reproduction of sugar beets. Sugar extraction is through a diffusion process
unlike extraction from sugarcane which is done through milling. Beet tubers are washed and
cut into thin slices, soak that slices in hot water, Sugar diffuses into the water and makes syrup,
and this syrup is purified again, boiled, and dried to get sugar.

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Climate and Soil

Sugar beet is an annual, cold-loving, and short-season crop that shows biennial growth habit
and produce seeds during the second growing season. Growth remains normal at the
temperature range of 15-21oC, but the optimum temperature is 18oC. Temperature higher than
that range may cause tip burn, bolting at an early stage, and induce a flowering stage that could
be irreversible. It requires full sunlight for proper growth and maximum size of tuber and higher
sugar content.

The crop can be grown in all types of soils, but light soils especially loamy and silty loam soils
are most suitable for maximum yield and for better quality. Soils rich in nutrients and organic
matter gives the maximum yield. Soil pH must be ranging from 6.5-7. Well-drained soils with
better water-holding capacity give superior crops.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Before planting one to two ploughings must be done to develop a proper soil structure. Sugar
beet can be grown on ridges or in plain fields but performs better on ridges. Ridges also
facilitate the draining of water during heavy rains. Planting is done direct through seeds because
transplanting is not practiced commonly. Seeds should sow one centimeter below the soil
surface. For an area of one hectare, 3.6 kg of seed is enough. Plant population is between
1,00,000 and 1,20,000 plants per hectare. Seeds soaked in water before sowing for 12-16 hours
may result in an increase in seed germination. Row-to-row distance must be around 50 cm and
plant-to-plant 10-15 cm. The suitable time for sowing is October to November but under
controlled and protected conditions it can sow throughout the year.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

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The crop needs an adequate amount of moisture regularly. 7-9 irrigations are required generally
but may be changed according to soil conditions and moisture requirements. It is sensitive to
drought and does not grow properly during drought conditions. Water should be drained out or
leached down within 24 hours.

Sugar beet is a nutrient-hungry crop and requires an extra amount of nutrients, organic matter,
and humus for proper growth. 15–20 tons of well-rotted farmyard manure should be applied at
the time of sowing. And major nutrients are required in amounts of 120:100:60, nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium respectively per hectare. One-third amount of fertilizer should be
applied at the time of sowing. Half amount of the remaining should apply at the time of first
hoeing and the remaining part apply when tuber formation starts.

Intercultural Practices

Thinning must be done at an early stage if the crop is sown directly through seed. Removal of
weeds is necessary by hand or by weedicide. Hoeing once or twice for better growth of roots,
uptake of nutrients from the soil, enhance the water holding capacity and facilitate the aeration
process. High winds at the seedling stage are very harmful and plants should be protected from
coming through the ground. Earthing up is also required at the time of tuber formation.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting starts in April and remains till July. Harvesting is done at the stage of maturity, and
maturity can be judged based on tuber size and physical appearance. An ideal harvested plant
must have more than a weight of 0.5 kg. Harvesting may be done by hand. The whole plant
pulls out and remove the foliage with a knife or sickle. Mechanical harvesting is also done to
save labor. The defoliator removes the foliage, and the harvester collects the tuber. The yield
of the crop depends on the total plant population in the field as one plant gives 0.5-1 kg. The
average yield of tuber worldwide is about 60,000kg per hectare, but it may vary from area to
area and according to soil and climatic conditions.

Storage

At room temperature, sugar beet can be stored for 4-5 days. If tubers are cleaned completely
and wrapped into a plastic bag and placed in the refrigerator, they can be stored for 2-3 weeks.
Shelf life may increase up to 3-4 months at 0oC and 98% relative humidity but extremely low
temperatures can cause chilling injury and damage the tissues.

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Varieties

SD-12970, Magnolia, Sandrina, SD-PAK04/06, SD-PAK01/07 and SD-PAK09/07 (with

highest sugar content) are the commercially cultivated varieties.

Uses and Health Benefits

The major product of sugar beet is sugar, but a few by-products also obtain including plant tops
which are used for animal feed, beet pulp which is also used for animal feed, molasses which
is leftover syrup from which sugar produced is used as an additive for silage and as an additive
in animal feed. Fresh tubers are used as juice extraction separately and combined with carrot
juice which is very nutritious and helps in reducing acidity, food poisoning, and maintenance
of sugar and cholesterol in the blood which helps in regulating blood pressure. Fresh juice
contains several minerals, vitamins, iron, calcium, potassium, antioxidants, anti-toxic
compounds, and anti-allergic elements. In several countries like Turkiye, fresh juice is packed
after processing in factories and marketed for throughout the year. For fresh use harvesting
starts after the first frost because frost enhances the sweetness of tuber. In some countries juice
and molasses of sugar beet are used in the beverage industry to produce vinegar and alcohol.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Beet cyst nematode: is the main pest of sugar beet and

causes the yellowing of foliage, stunted growth, wilting of
plants, and plant dying at the end. Pest can be controlled
using pesticides, crop rotation, soil sterilization, and the use
of resistant varieties.

Aphids: are the sucking insects that suck the cell sap by
their needle-like mouth part and inject the toxic saliva into
the tissues and causing spoilage of foliage. It is also a vector
of several diseases. Crop rotation, keeping the field free of
weeds, and use of insecticides are useful to control practices.

Worms: these are chewing-type insects including

armyworms and cutworms. They make holes in leaves and
petioles. Control measures are crop rotation, removal of
weeds, and use of insecticides.

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Virus yellows: vector of this viral genome is the aphid.
Symptoms are chlorosis and lesions formation on foliage.
Control measures are aphid control, crop rotation, and
removal of affected plants.

Damping off: it is a fungal disease that attacks during hot

and humid conditions and destroys the roots and the whole
plant died. The attack may affect adversely the seedlings.
Crop rotation and seed treatment are best for control.

Downey mildew: is a fungal disease that attacks during wet

conditions and spreads plant to plant through the air. The
disease occurs on the foliage. Apply copper-based fungicide
and crop rotation are the control measures.

Root rot: is a fungal disease and a major disease in areas

with a warm and humid climate. In case of high moisture,
it may cause a heavy loss in yield. This pathogen also
attacks after harvest in storehouses. Preventive measures
are seed treatment, crop rotation, and the use of resistant
varieties. In case of a pathogen attack use copper-based
fungicides.

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 Okra
Okra is a warm-season, annual herbaceous plant with edible seed pods. The botanical name is
Abelmoschus esculentus, commonly known as Lady’s finger, and belongs to the Malvaceae
family (mallow family). Genus Abelmoschus contains 15 species. 2n chromosome number is
130, which is high compared to other vegetables. The Malvaceae or Mallow family contains
243 genera and 4225 species. Okra is originated from a region around Ethiopia and firstly
cultivated in ancient Egypt in the 12th century BC. Later on, it spread to central Africa and the
middle east where it was cooked and used as a substitute for coffee and still is used.

Okra is used fresh and known as a vegetable but technically it is a fruit. The plant has heart-
shaped, palmately lobed, broad leaves with a hairy structure on the upper surface and 10-20
cm long and 4-8 cm in diameter. It bears white and yellow flowers that are 4.8 cm in diameter.
Flowers are perfect, self-pollinated, contains 5 petals, and do not require wind and insects to
pollinate. The flower emerges from every axil of leaves. Capsule fruit contains several seeds
and is up to 18 cm in length. Seeds are oval-shaped and dark in color and have an adequate
amount of oil, in some areas oil is extracted and used as cooking oil. The plant has a bristly
erect small stem that can be grown up to 3.5m in height. The root system of okra is a tap root
system in which only one main stem exists and lateral secondary roots emerge from it.

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Climate and Soil

Okra is a warm-season annual plant that grows best in about all regions of the world with a
warm climate. It requires full sunlight for proper vegetative and reproductive growth. The
optimum growth temperature is ranging from 24 to 33oC and the plant is highly sensitive to
cold temperatures. Seed germination will be maximum at the temperature of 18-35oC. The
dropping of flowers starts at a temperature above 40oC.

It can grow in every type of soil including loam, silty loam, sand, clay, and stony soils but
performs best in sandy loam soils with good draining properties. Heavy textured clayey soil is
not suitable for proper germination and growth of plants. Soil pH should be ranging from 6 to
7.5.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Land preparation is an important practice to control weeds and helps to decompose the residues
of the previous crop and develop a better soil structure. Tillage practices before planting
enhance the water-holding capacity of soil and improve drainage quality. Apply an adequate
quantity of farmyard manure one or two months before planting and mix in soil with ploughing.
Level the field with planking and make small ridges at the proper distance. Seed can be sown
in lines without ridges with the help of a drill. Distance between rows should be about 60-75
cm and between plants 15-25 cm. The seed must be sown about one centimeter deep from the
soil surface. Sowing time starts in the month of February and remains till May. 7-8 kg of seed
is enough for an area of one hectare. To decrease the germination time, soak the seeds in water
for 24 hours.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Crop requires an adequate amount of moisture for proper growth. Irrigate lightly just after
sowing but heavy irrigation may reduce the germination rate and growth of seedlings. The plant
is slightly tolerant to drought stress. Weekly irrigation with a 1.5-inch amount of water is
mostly done in normal conditions but intervals may change according to moisture requirements
and soil conditions. Normally 7-9 irrigations apply to the okra field.

Okra is an exhaustive crop and requires an adequate amount of nutrients, organic matter, and
humus in the soil. Apply 20-25 tons of well-rotted farmyard manure before one month of
sowing. The total requirement of NPK is 100:60:50. Full amount of potassium and phosphorus

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and half the amount of nitrogen should apply at the time of sowing and the remaining half of
nitrogen should apply at the time of flowering and pod formation.

Intercultural Practices

Removal of weeds is necessary at the initial stage and keeping the field free of weeds
throughout the crop duration. Hoeing should also be done before the flowering stage to
facilitate aeration and enhance the water-holding capacity of the soil. Thinning is also required
to maintain the plant population in the field. Inspect the field twice a month to find and remove
the disease-affected plants.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting may start after two months of sowing. Pods can harvest when they gain size of 7-
15 cm. Pods are ready to harvest after the 4-6 days of a flower opening. Harvesting is done at
two days intervals or every next day. Pods are cut just below the base with the help of a knife
or cutter and the use of gloves at the time of harvesting is very useful because many varieties
have small spines on the surface and cause irritation on the skin. 10,000-15,000 tons of green
pods are produced from an area of one hectare but yield can be above 20,000 in advanced
agriculture, or 1000-1500kg seeds in case of ripening harvesting.

Storage

Pods can be stored for 2-3 days at room temperature and for one week in the refrigerator.
Canning and salting are useful techniques for long time storage. With 95% relative humidity
and 0oC pods can be stored for two weeks. To store clean the pods and pack them in plastic
bags and move them to the desired place.

Varieties

Sabz pari, Pusa sawani, Punjab selection and Green star are the commercially valuable varieties
use in Pakistan.

Uses and Health Benefits

Okra pods are eaten cooked, roasted, baked, and processed, seeds may use as substitutes for
coffee and oil extraction, fiber is used in the paper industry, and leaves are used in the making
of sugar for the purification of sugarcane juice. Fresh pods are a major source of dietary fibers
and contain calcium, potassium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, thiamine, folate,

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pyridoxine, and vitamin A, C and K. Use of lady’s finger helps in weight loss, prevent from
stroke and heart disease due to presence of pectin, maintain the blood cholesterol and sugar
level, support digestion and facilitates the removal of carcinogens and metabolic wastes from
the body. It is an important food for ladies because folate present in this helps in the formation
of the fetus and neural tube of the fetus and prevents miscarriage.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Aphid: is a sucking insect that feeds on the foliage of the

plant and sucks the cell sap with the help of a needle-like
mouth part and injects the toxic saliva into the plant
tissues. It also produces sticky honeydew which provides
the attacking places for fungal pathogens. Control
measures are keeping the field free of weeds, controlling
the plant population, crop rotation, and spraying
appropriate pesticides.

Worms: these are soft body small insects that make

holes in foliage. Control measures are crop rotation,
removal of weeds, and use of proper pesticides.

Thrips: are small-sized insects, that feed on foliage and

cover the leaves with their coarse stippling and feces.
Onion and garlic should not be included in the cycle of
crop rotation to prevent the attack and the use of
pesticides are the best control measure.

Fusarium wilt: it is a fungal disease that may attack

during moist conditions and is more dangerous at the
seedling stage but also harmful at later stages. Symptoms
are chlorosis and wilting of leaves which may lead the
plant to stunted growth and die. Control measures are
crop rotation, use of resistant varieties, seed treatment,
and use of fungicides.

Powdery mildew: it is also a fungal disease and attacks

during wet conditions. Symptoms are the appearance of

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patches and the covering of foliage with white powdery material. Overhead irrigation, crop
rotation, and the use of fungicides are the control measures.

Leaf curl virus: like cotton, it also attacks okra. The

vector of this disease is aphid. Symptoms are the
production of leathery and thickened leaves, petioles of
leaves becoming twisted, and leaves curling upward in
cup shape. Control measures are the control of aphids and
the removal of affected parts. Good intercultural practices also reduce the attack of this disease.

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 Potato
Potato is a nutritious root vegetable that has edible fleshy tubers. The botanical name is
Solanum tuberosum and belongs to the Solanaceae family which is also known as the
nightshade family. The Solanaceae family is consist of 102 genera and 2500 species. Genus
Solanum contains about 1500 species which is the highest number in a genus in this family.
Potatoes have about 150 tuber-bearing species. 2n chromosome number is 48. According to
history and research, potato is native to South America where it was cultivated by Indian
migrants and used as food. During the 16th century, it was brought to Europe and spread
throughout Europe and become the staple food in Ireland. It was brought to the Sub-continent
region in 1615 by the Portuguese and starts to cultivate domestically. Nowadays potato is the
most important and nutritious crop throughout the world. In terms of consumption in the world,
it placed third after wheat and rice.

Potato is a perennial plant that grows as an annual crop. In scientific terms potato is not a root,
it is a swollen stem morphologically. Tubers emerge directly from the stolon and the Arial stem
develops from the upper part of sprouts. Like the bark of the stem of other plants tubers also
contain lenticels. The aerial stem is branched, green to purplish, angular to round, and may
grow up to one meter in height. The plant bears alternately arranged compound leaves. The
arrangement of leaves on the stem is spiral and along the rachis of about 6-8 leaflets in the form
of pairs. Terminal clusters of adventitious roots are formed from the base of the sprout. Flowers
emerge on the terminal end in the form of clusters. In some climatic conditions, the plant
produces berry fruits (which are inedible and grow up to 4 cm) but only in a few varieties. Like
tomatoes, self-pollination occurs in potatoes, but pollination is not required for tuber formation.

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Growth Stages

Growth in potatoes is divided into five stages. In the first stage emergence of the sprout is
occurred, completing the growth of the aerial vegetative part during the second growth stage,
tuber initiation and tuber bulking occurs during the third and fourth growth stage respectively
and the last stage is the maturation stage during which tubers become mature to harvest.

Climate and Soil

Potato is a long-season and cold-loving crop which is slightly tolerant to frost. It can grow in
all types of climates ranging from coastal areas to temperate regions with an adequate amount
of moisture. The plant requires a cold temperature and a short-day length at the time of tuber
growth. Tuber growth is maximum at about 20oC and it will reduce with an increase in
temperature. Tuber formation affects adversely at 30oC. With high temperatures, the respiration
rate increase, and carbohydrates produced in photosynthesis are used instead of stored in tubers.

It can be grown in almost every type of soil including sand, sandy loam, silty loam, and clayey
soils. Medium textured soils including sandy loam and silty loam with an adequate amount of
organic matter and well-aerated soils give the better crop because they give a more uniform
temperature for growth and tuber formation. Salt-affected and acidic soils are not suitable. Soil
pH must be between 5.5 to 7.0.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Application of farmyard manure and tillage practices are necessary before the sowing to build
a preferable soil structure. Ploughing and planking are being practiced before making the
ridges. Planting may be done in flat beds or on ridges. On ridges, tubers sow on the top of
ridges and irrigation water remains in the furrows. Planting is done by hand but on a large scale,
mechanical planters also are used. In flat beds, when plants get about 12 cm in height, earthing

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should be done. Planting may be done three times a year, during the month of October, January,
and May. The seed rate is about 1,000-1,500kg tubers of round varieties and about 2,000 of
oval varieties for an area of one hectare. Distance between plants 25-30cm and between rows
45-60 cm should maintain.

Irrigation and Fertilizer

Plants require a lower amount of irrigation water at an early stage. Apply light irrigation just
after planting and second irrigation should apply about one month later because the tuber
requires less amount of moisture during sprouting. Further irrigation should apply according to
the requirement of moisture. Most of the time furrow irrigation is done in the tuber crops.

The potato crop is highly nutrient-hungry. In soils with less organic matter about 30,000kg of
farmyard manure must be applied before planting. During normal conditions, the NPK rate for
an area of one hectare must be 150:100:100. One-third of nitrogen and the full quantity of
potassium and phosphorus apply at the time of planting and the remaining nitrogen should
apply at the time of first or second irrigation.

Intercultural Practices

Weeding is done twice to ensure a clean culture and enhance the efficiency of nutrients. Avoid
mechanical weeding, it may cause injury to the underground part which reduces the tuber
formation. Earthing up is also necessary at the time of tuber initiation for better quality and
maximum yield.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting is done at different stages of maturity ranging from 70 to 140 days in early and late
varieties respectively. Harvesting is done with the help of a spade and with a mechanical
harvester. Harvesting by hand is suitable at a small level but it is labor consuming at the large
scale. Potatoes should place under a shade for a couple of days to facilitate the hardening of
their skin. 20,000-25,000 kg of potatoes are produced from an area of one hectare, but yield
could be different according to variety, climate, and cultural practices as in Europe it has been
recorded above 40,000kg per hectare.

Storage

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At room temperature potatoes can be stored for two weeks and up to 4 weeks in the refrigerator.
Cold storage can be stored for 4 months at 0-2oC temperature and 95% relative humidity.
Before storing, injured, insect affected, and diseased potatoes must remove and graded based
on the tuber diameter.

Varieties

Desiree, Lal-a-Faisal, Cardinal, Ultimus, and Raja Symphonia are the varieties with red skin
and Diamant, Patrones, Multa, Sante, and Ajax with white skin are commercially cultivated.

Uses and Health Benefits

Potato is the most widely used vegetable throughout the world. Fresh potatoes are used in chips
making, fries, cooking, soup, and in many vegetable dishes. In the industry, they are used in
beverages, in sauces as a binder and thickener, and in the textile and paper industry as an
adhesive compound. Scientists work to prepare biodegradable packaging material with wastes
from potatoes. The mixture of honey and potato skin is a useful remedy for the burn. Potatoes
are rich in vitamins and carbohydrates. It is a good source of folate which is necessary for
women for maintaining and improvement of reproductive health and a source of proteins and
minerals. Potato is completely free of fats and cholesterol and provides an adequate amount of
dietary fibers which helps in the digestion process and facilitates the removal of carcinogens
and constipation-causing compounds.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Thrips: they are very small insects with a size of 1-2 mm and feed on the lower side of leaves.
Thrips also are the vector of viruses. Symptoms are weakening and wilting of the plant. In case
of a severe attack, leaves start to die and badly affect the yield. It attacks normally in dry
conditions there for irrigation should apply with proper intervals to maintain the moisture level.

Potato tuber moth: it attacks the plant stem, terminals, and tubers. Larvae bore through all
parts of the plant. Attacks on tubers may occur in fields and stores and cause heavy damage in
stores within a short period of time. Keeping the field free of weeds and use of insecticides are
the control measures.

Leaf hopper: it is a sucking type of insect that feed on cell sap and cause the weakness of
plant. The insect also injects the toxic compounds inside the tissues that cause the damage.

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Symptoms are leaf edge burning, leaf yellowing, and leaf rolling. In case of a severe attack, the
plant starts to die.

Early blight: is a fungal disease and attacks during moist and warm conditions. Symptoms are
the appearance of dark circular spots on leaves and branches. Symptoms on tubers are
shriveling appearance of sunken dark lesions surrounded with raised margins. Control
measures are the use of resistant varieties, crop rotation, and the use of fungicides.

Late blight: is also a fungal disease and symptoms are stem rotting and black spots on the
stem. Spots or late blight are watery and light to dark green. The skin of the tuber becomes
brown to purplish and depressed with an irregular pattern. Control measures are the use of
disease-free seeds, avoiding the application of excessive amounts of nitrogen, and application
of fungicides. Late blight was the cause of the famous Irish Famine during the 1840s.

Verticillium wilt: cause the discoloration of the tuber, stem, and branches, wilting of leaflets,
irregular chlorosis on lower leaves, and the early senescence of the plant. Control measures are
crop rotation followed by other family crops, keeping the field clean from weeds, controlling
the population, and attack of nematodes. In case of attack use copper-based fungicides.

Physiological Disorders of Potato

Hollow heart: central tissues of the potato become dark

brown or discolored. Brown tissues of the central core
lead to a hollow heart. A premature hollow heart
generally is led by a brown discoloration that shows
dead cells instigated by plant trauma. Control measures
are the sow the crop in a field with the presence of an
efficient amount of potassium, avoid acidic soils, and not providing excessive irrigation.

Black Heart: is a type of central injury that occurs due

to a low supply of oxygen to the interior part of the tuber.
Appear an irregular pattern in the tuber which is distinct
from the discolored area of the border. It occurs during
the crop in flooded soils with poor aeration. Control
practices are better cultural operations, and provide clean
storage.

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Heat necrosis: tubers that expose to the soil surface are
affected commonly. Symptoms are the appearance of
lesions in vascular tissues and cracks and depressions on
the skin. To control provide irrigation in time and
mulching is also helpful.

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 Cabbage
Cabbage is a leafy vegetable in the group “Cole crops”. The botanical name is Brassica
oleracea var. Capitata, and belongs to the family Cruciferae which is also known as the
Brassicaceae family. 2n chromosomes number is 18. Like all Cole crops cabbage also
originated in Europe especially the Mediterranean region around Greece and Italy. Research
shows the first real-headed cabbage evolved in Germany. During the 16th century, it spread
throughout Europe and later on all over the world.

Cabbage is a herbaceous, dicotyledonous, biennial, cool-season leafy vegetable, that grows as

annual which is also known as “head cabbage” and “heading cabbage”. Leaves are covered
with a waxy, powdery, and delicate coating which is known as “bloom”. Leaves vary in size,
shape, and color as they are glabrous, fleshy, dotted, thick, red, and green to yellowish green.
With plant growth number of leaves increases and form a round head. Leaves grow 25-35 cm
in size, outer leaves are green, and inner leaves are yellowish green and whitish in color. The
stem is unbranched, thick, and short and its peduncle tissues are edible. Plant height varies
from 30 to 40cm. Flowers are racemiform, lax, elongated, and terminal and produce smooth,
globose, and seriate seeds. Due to self-incompatibility, flowers are cross-pollinated. Flower
buds open within two days and pollinate with viable pollen. Cabbage has a shallow root system
that grows up to 36 inches deep. A compound glucosinolate is present in the cabbage which is
the reason for the bitter taste.

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Climate and Soil

Cabbage can be grown in a wide range of climate, but the humid and cold climate is more
useful. The temperature required for growth and head formation is 15-20oC and growth is
stopped with a temperature above 25oC. With lower temperatures, bolting is induced, and
flowering starts abundantly. Full exposure to sunlight is helpful to gain the maximum head
size.

Soils with good water holding capacity, with a pH range of 6-6.5, and an adequate amount of
organic matter is the best for cabbage cultivation. Cabbage can grow in every type of soil, but
sandy loam soils give a heavy yield. It is slightly tolerant to salt-affected soils, but heavily
affected soils may cause dieback and facilitate the diseases’ attack.

Land Preparation and Sowing

One to two months before cultivation, FYM should be applied and plough to a proper depth to
develop a proper soil structure. It can sow by both methods, direct in the field through seeds
and by growing nursery in nursery beds but most common is transplanting method. The best
time for nursery growing is August-October and the optimum time for a transplant is October-
December. Cabbage can grow on beds, ridges, and plain fields but perform best on field beds
and ridges than plain fields. If cultivate through direct sowing, seeds start germination after 4-
6 days of sowing, and for transplanting nursery should be 40-45 days old. Distance from row
to row is 50-60cm and between plants, 30-40cm. 0.25-0.5 kg seed is required for one hectare.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Cabbage is a highly drought-sensitive crop and requires an adequate amount of soil moisture.
First irrigation should apply just after transplanting and further irrigations with the interval of
10-14 days, but the schedule can be changed to maintain moisture according to moisture

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requirements and climatic conditions. At the time of head formation, heavy irrigation should
be avoided. About 6-8 irrigations may require up to harvest.

Cabbage is a nutrient-hungry crop and requires an extra amount of organic matter and humus.
At the time of land preparation, apply about 15,000-20,000 kg of farmyard manure. The general
requirement of NPK is 150:50:50 for medium fertile soils but it can be changed according to
soil conditions and nutrient requirements. At the time of transplanting full of phosphorus and
potassium and half, the amount of nitrogen should be applied, and the remaining half of
nitrogen must apply 30-40 days later.

Intercultural Practices

Intercultural operations are required regularly to facilitate the aeration and proper root growth.
One or two hoeings require controlling the weeds and to soften the soil for easy availability of
nutrients. The use of herbicides is also useful to control weeds on large scale.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting starts when the head gains marketable size. Some early cultivars produce loose
heads at an early stage but become firm at a later stage. Delay in harvesting may induce
cracking after maturity in some varieties and cause a heavy loss in quality. Cut the stem just
below the head with the help of a knife. Harvested heads should move to shade immediately
and remove damaged leaves completely. 25,000-35,000 kg yield can obtain from an area of
one hectare, but it can be more with changes in varieties and climatic conditions.

Storage

Cleaned heads pack in plastic buckets or polythene bags and move to the storage or
marketplace. It can be stored for 2-8 months with a temperature of 0oC and 90-95% relative
humidity. At room temperature or in the refrigerator taste becomes more bitter with the passage
of time. In storage and transportation, avoid overloading because it can cause crushing and
damage to bottom layers.

Varieties

Drumhead early, Bajrang, Drumhead late, Copenhagen market and Golden acre are the
imported commercially cultivated varieties.

Uses and Health Benefits

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Cabbage heads are used in a number of dishes, salads, cooked, fried, baked, in sandwiches, the
topping of several dishes, and give the best taste when steamed and stir-fried but it is very
common as a fresh salad all over the world. Use of fresh leaves in very helpful in reducing food
poisoning, and acidity and preventing cancer of the lungs, stomach, and bladder. Problems of
the digestion tract are cured with cabbage and juice extract from it is used for the rapid healing
of the peptic ulcer. It is a source of a chemical (indole-3-carbinol) that helps in DNA repair in
cells and helps to block the growth of cancer cells. Due to having a large quantity of dietary
fiber, cabbage helps in the relief of constipation and boosts the digestive system. It has a
sufficient amount of vitamins, minerals, protein, and salts. Helps in normalizing blood pressure
and reversing blood vessel damage. Provide immunity against inflammation, and weakness of
bones and reduce cholesterol level. It is also rich in calcium, potassium, and phosphorus which
are required for the development of bones and blood.

Insect Pest and Diseases

Cutworms: They chewed the plant just above the

soil surface and the plant will die after a short period.
On wet soils, they appear on the surface of the soil,
and on the dry surface, they are found below a few
centimeters of the surface where moisture is present.
For controlling cardboard collars puts around the
newly transplanted plant, the use of resistant varieties
and crop rotation are useful practices.

Cabbage maggots: the legless, oblong, small brown

pupae feed on the roots and cause surface injury. They
make tunnels in the roots of seedlings. Symptoms are
the yellowing of outer leaves, wilting, and dying later.
Control measures are the crop rotation and use of
insecticides with proper intervals.

Aphid: are small-sized insects that suck the cell sap

and toxic saliva injects inside the plant tissues which
causes spoilage of tissues. Applying proper
insecticide, using resistant varieties, crop rotation, and

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removal of infected plants is useful in the control of aphids’ attack.

Armyworms: They are pale green when young and at

this stage, they eat the growing tips of the plants and
cause heavy economic loss. Control is the same as
cutworms, cardboard collar puts around the newly
transplanted plant, use of resistant varieties and crop
rotation are useful practices.

Clubroot: Is a fungal disease whose pathogen is soil-

borne. Appeared symptoms are wilting, discoloration,
and roots will be tortured. Due to this root cannot
perform their functions properly.

Mildew: powdery and downy mildew are the types that

attack broccoli. Powdery mildew appears on the surface
of leaves and downy mildew appears on leaves and
newly born shoots. For control use resistant varieties,
collect, and burn affected parts and plants, make sure
there is proper draining, and use copper bases fungicides.

Bacterial Soft Rot: Wet and warm conditions facilitate

the attack of this disease. Pathogen attacks from the
middle of the head and within one-week whole head look
rotten, soft, and brown in color. Flat-headed broccoli is
more susceptible because of water standing on the head
during the rainy season. During favorable conditions, we
should spray protective pesticides. Using resistant varieties like sprouting broccoli and crop
rotation is helpful to reduce the threat of bacterial soft rot disease.

Fusarium Wilt: Most of the time symptoms appear on

one side at an early stage and finally result in wilting and
dying of the plant. The main symptoms are the yellowing
of leaves and water-transporting tissues becoming
reddish. Attack will be severe during wet and warm
conditions. Control measures are fumigation, crop
rotation, and the use of resistant cultivars.

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 Radish
Radish is a root winter-season root vegetable. The botanical name is Raphanus sativus and
belongs to Cruciferae/Brassicaceae family. Raphanus genus contains three species including
wild radish, cultivated radish, and rat-tail radish. 2n chromosomes number of radish is 18. The
exact origin is not known but research and evidence show that originated in western Asia in
the region of Egypt and was cultivated during the reign of the Egyptian Pharaoh. It spread
throughout Europe and central Asia during the 16th century about 5000 years ago. Now it is
one of the most important vegetables throughout the world, especially in Pakistani and Indian
Punjab.

The growth habit of radishes is biennial same as carrots and parsnips. During the first growing
season, it completes its vegetative growth and reproductive growth during the second season.
It is a short-duration and fast-growing vegetable which is ready for harvest after 6-8 weeks of
sowing. Leaves are in the form of the rosette on the upper end of the swollen root. Oblong
leaves with hairy surface cuts on both edges can grow up to 30 cm in length and 5 cm in width.
They are alternately arranged, and the inner leaves are smaller in size than the outer leaves.
Bolting is induced by the change in day length and the effect of temperature. The small flowers
are white in color and terminally arranged the same as in cauliflower. The flowering stalk may
grow up to 45cm in height. Plants have tap root systems and the primary root is swollen to
develop a cylindrical edible part which is ranging from 5cm to 1m in length. Radish is cross-
pollinated plant and pollination occur by mean of bees and flies. Round dry seeds are 0.01-
0.25cm in diameter. Isothiocyanate compound is present in radishes which is the cause of
pungency.

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Climate and Soil

Radishes can grow in a wide range of climates from temperate to tropical and sub-tropical.
Temperature for proper growth and root development is ranging from 10-18oC. The presence
of moisture in the air is also required for growth. With high temperatures and long day lengths
may induce the bolting before the gaining of optimum root size and cause an increase in
pungency and a decrease in quality and yield.

Almost all types of soils with enough nutrients, humus, and organic matter are suitable for the
growth of radishes. Deep and well-drained sandy loam soils are the best for maximum yield
and good quality. Soil pH must be between 6.0 and 6.8 but in muck, soil pH should be 5.2 to
5.6. The soil depth required for cylindrical varieties is 24 inches and 10 inches for globe
varieties.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Land preparation tillage practices are necessary to develop a proper soil structure and facilitate
the aeration process. Two months before sowing, an adequate amount of well-rotted farmyard
manure should apply, and ploughing must be done with a depth of more than 25 inches. Level
the soil with the help of planking and make ridges with uniform inter-distance. Sowing is done
on the top of ridges or on both sides. Distance between rows 20-25cm and between plants 4-
10cm is required. Seed depth should not be more than half an inch. Sowing time is September
to November and 8-10 kg of seed is enough for an area of one hectare.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Radish crops require light and frequent irrigation. First irrigation should apply just after
sowing, the first three irrigations apply with an interval of 7 days and later on with an interval
of two weeks. Excessive moisture in the soil can cause the rotting of roots and facilitate the

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attack of several diseases. The plant is sensitive to drought spells and quality and yield both
are affected by delays in irrigation.

Nutrients are required in large amounts for the better quality and size of the root. 20,000 kg of
well-rotted farmyard manure should apply before sowing. The general requirement of major
nutrients NPK is 150:100:100. One-third of nitrogen and the whole amount of phosphorus and
potassium should apply at the time of sowing, half of the remaining nitrogen apply at the time
of first hoeing, and the remaining part after the 40 days of sowing.

Intercultural Practices

Like other root vegetables, radish is also required intercultural operations for better quality and
maximum root size. Two or three hoeings are required for the removal of weeds and to facilitate
aeration. At the time of the last hoeing, earthing up should be done. After one month of sowing,
crops should be thinned out to maintain the distance between plants and maintain the plant
population per unit area.

Harvesting and Yield

Radish is a short to medium-duration crop and is harvested within 60-80 days of sowing.
Harvesting starts when roots get marketable size. Pull out the plant by hand, remove damaged
leaves and secondary roots completely, washed and tie in bundles. Plastic bags and buckets are
used for the transport of these bundles to market and storage. 18,000-30,000 kg yield can obtain
from an area of one hectare in normal conditions and yield may change with a change in
climate, sowing time, and variety.

Storage

For up to 3 months, it can be stored at 98% relative humidity and 0oC temperature. Radish can
store for two weeks in the refrigerator with proper care, place the roots in a water container and
container store them in the refrigerator. Store at warm temperatures may cause an increase in
pungency and loss in quality. The extremely low temperature could damage the tissues. At
room temperature, it may store for four days.

Varieties

Scarlet long, Scarlet globe, Pusa desi, Lal pari, Local red, Round red, local white, Green neck,
manochi and Shamora are the most grown varieties.

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Uses and Health Benefits

Fresh roots and leaves are used in salads, cooked alone, and mixed with several vegetables. It
is also used after baking, roasting, steaming, and pickles. Fruit is also very useful and is also
more pungent than roots and used in cooking alone and mixed with other vegetables. Roots
and leaves are rich in vitamins, minerals, folate, dietary fibers, calcium, potassium, phosphorus,
and iron. It helps in the improvement the health of digestion tract, food poisoning, and acidity
due to the presence of anti-acidic compounds. Prevents cancer, ulcer, and constipation. Regular
uptake of radish helps to maintain blood sugar levels, and blood cholesterol levels, regulate
blood pressure, boost the immune system, decrease diabetes chances, increase visual health,
and have anti-toxic, anti-inflammatory, and anti-allergic compounds.

Seed Production

The duck method is used to prepare the seeds at home. Select a healthy plant, cut the leaves
above 5cm from the base of the rosette, cut the root about 10cm below, and replant the root in
fertile soil. The replanted plant will produce a flowering stalk that bears pods that contain seeds
inside. At ripening obtain the seeds with crushing or threshing.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Aphids: are small-sized insects that suck the cell sap and
toxic saliva injects inside the plant tissues which causes
spoilage of tissues. It is also a vector of viruses. Symptoms
are wilting and stunted growth. Applying proper
insecticide, using resistant varieties, crop rotation, and
removal of infected plants are useful in the control of
aphids’ attacks.

Flea beetle: cylindrical whitish larvae damage the roots

and leaves affected by adults. Insects chewed the leaves and
make tiny holes in large numbers. Control measures are
crop rotation, dusting of chemicals, and keeping clean the
field from debris and weeds.

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Downy mildew: it is a fungal disease attack during moist
and warm conditions. Symptoms are the appearance of
light green to yellow spots on the leaves and stunted
growth induced. Crop rotation, seed treatment, and the use
of fungicides are the control measures.

Root rot: is also a fungal disease and causes the rotting

and decaying of roots even after the harvest. Roots become
soft and not able to eat or process. Control measures are
seed treatment, hot water treatment before storage, crop
rotation, and use of fungicides.

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 Pumpkin
Pumpkin is an edible pepo fruit whose botanical name is Cucurbita pepo and belongs to the
family Cucurbitaceae. This family contains 95 genera and 965 species. The Cucurbita genus
contains 13-30 species but domesticated are only five including C. pepo, C. mixta, C. maxima,
C. ficifolia, and C. argyrosperma. 2n chromosome number is 40. It originated in North America
near Mexico, seeds of pumpkin were found in Mexico which has a history near 7000 BC. It is
one of the most important cultivated vegetables all over the world.

The word pumpkin is derived from the Greek word “pepon” which means large melon. Broad
leaves are palmately compound, palmately lobed, and alternately arranged. Each leaf may have
3-5 lobes, with a hairy surface and size may vary between 10 to 25cm. The stem is pentangular
and produces hairs on the surface. Pumpkin plants can grow about 20-45feet in length. Short-
duration perennial vine has tendrils for trailing and trellising, tendrils are about 1-4 inches in
length and emerge from the leaf nodes and make 90o angle with the leaf petiole. Flowers are
white, orange, or yellow in color and unisexual, dioicous, and in some plants have male and
female flowers on the same plant. Flowers grow up to 10cm in size. Fruit is known as “pepo”
a type of berry which has a thick rind and can grow from half kg to 35 kg in weight. They have
white to greenish and yellowish to orange furrowed or ribbed and smooth rinds. The fruit is
petiolate and has an angular woody stem. Seeds are oval symmetrically, flat and light green in
color with a whitish outer husk. Some species have huskless seeds and the edible part is their
seeds only. Pumpkins have a shallow root system and roots may grow to 80-100 cm in depth.

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Climate and Soil

Pumpkin is an annual, perennial vine that can survive for a season. It is a warm-season crop,
require full sunshine, and can grow in a wide range of climate. The best climatic conditions are
long days and 23-29oC day temperature and 18-24oC night temperature. Due to being highly
sensitive to frost, it cannot grow in winter but through tunnel farming, an efficient yield is
obtained in winter also. In all seven continents, it is growing at the commercial level. The plant
is also grown as an ornamental plant and harvested mature fruits are also used for
beautification.

It is a highly nutrient-hungry crop. Pumpkins prefer well-drained and nutrient-rich soils with
an excessive amount of organic matter and humus. The plant can grow in soils with a pH
ranging from 5.5 to 6.5 but the optimum pH is 6.5. Production can obtain in all types of soils
but medium to light textured soils are more suitable especially sandy loam soils.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Before two months of sowing add 30,000kg of well-rotted farmyard manure and mix with
ploughing and level the field with planking. Vines are large in size and require about 100 square
feet per plant. Distance between plants is 6-8 feet and between rows 15 feet is required. Sowing
time for the open field is from January to March and for tunnels from September to December.
1-1.5 kg of seed is enough for an area of one hectare.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

Pumpkin crops require frequent moisture supply and are sensitive to drought conditions. First
irrigation should apply just after sowing and weekly irrigate later with a minimum of one inch

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of water. During the flowering and fruiting stages give irrigation regularly otherwise quality
and yield are both affected adversely. Because of shallow roots mulching is also helpful to
preserve moisture on the upper surface of the soil.

It is a heavy feeder crop and requires an adequate quantity of fertilizers and organic matter.
30,000 kg of well-rotted farmyard manure should apply during land preparation. The general
requirement of major nutrients NPK is 100:50:50. Whole amount of phosphorus and one-third
amount of nitrogen apply at the time of sowing, full of potassium, and half of the remaining
nitrogen should apply at the time of flowering and the remaining nitrogen apply after 15 days.

Intercultural Practices

Two to three hoeing is necessary to remove the weeds and facilitate the aeration in the root
zone. Mulching is also done to preserve soil moisture. Mulching may be done with stubbles
and with a polythene sheet. Woody or metallic structures provide for the trailing of the vines.
Thinning is also required to control the plant population per unit area.

Harvesting and Yield

Pumpkin reaches the harvesting stage when gets the marketable size. Mature pumpkins are cut
with the help of a sharp knife and take care not to damage the pumpkin. There is no mechanical
harvester introduced yet. Harvesting may start after 55 days of sowing and go to 150 days with
proper care and fertilizer and water supply. 20,000-35,000kg of pumpkin can obtain from an
area of one hectare.

Storage

Harvested pumpkin can store at room temperature for 3-5 days and up to 30 days in the
refrigerator. At 1-2oC and 90-95% relative humidity, it can store for 30-90 days. Healthy
pumpkins are selected for storage with optimum size. After the harvest cleans the pumpkin,
wash it in a mild solution of chlorine to kill the pathogens present on the surface, and let to dry
completely, dried pumpkins are stored in a dark and cool place.

Varieties

Butternut, Cinderella, Red Kuri, Porcelain doll pink, and Kabocha are the more valuable
varieties that are commercially cultivated.

Uses and Health Benefits

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Pumpkin is eaten cooked lonely or mixed with other vegetables, steamed, roasted, grilled, stir-
fried, and processed. Some pumpkins are used in the formation of musical instruments like
“crimba”, and the first banjo and maracas were manufactured from pumpkin. It is a major
source of vitamins, minerals, proteins, antioxidant compounds, beta carotene, niacin, zinc, iron,
potassium, calcium, and phosphorus. The use of pumpkin helps in maintaining blood sugar and
cholesterol level, regulate blood pressure, and helps in curing the peptic problems like ulcer,
dietary fibers facilitate the removal of carcinogens and constipation-causing compounds. It has
anti-inflammatory and anti-fungal qualities. Fresh pumpkin usage may enhance visual health,
boost the immune system, and increase the smoothness of the skin. It also has compounds that
have the ability to reduce the aging effect.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Aphids: they feed on leaves, fruits, and newly emerged

shoots and suck the cell sap with the help of needle
structure and inject their toxic saliva into the tissues. The
attack may be severe if over-crowding conditions and
weeds are present intensively. Heavy rainfall can kill all
the aphids and the field must keep free of weeds to
prevent the attack. If an attack occurs, spray a suitable pesticide.

Army worms: they are pale green when young and at

this stage, they eat the growing tips of the plants and
cause heavy economic loss. To manage the attack use of
resistant varieties and crop rotation are useful practices.

Flea beetles: cylindrical whitish larvae damage the roots

and flowers and leaves affected by adults. Insects
chewed the leaves and flowers and make tiny holes in
large numbers. Control measures are crop rotation,
dusting of chemicals, and keeping clean the field from
debris and weeds.

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Alternaria leaf blight: it is a fungal disease and attacks
during moist and warm conditions. Symptoms are the
appearance of yellow-brown spots and in case of severe
attack lesions and patches spread throughout the leaves.
Control measures are crop rotation, use of fungicides, and
seed treatment.

Downey mildew: is also a fungal disease that attacks

during wet conditions and spreads plant to plant through
the air. The disease occurs on the foliage. Apply copper-
based fungicide and crop rotation are the control measures.

Bacterial wilt: it attacks during drought conditions.

Symptoms are wilting and dark green spots on leaves and
stems. Control measures are the use of chemicals, crop
rotation, removal of affected plants and stubbles of
previous crops, and hot water treatment.

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 Watermelon
Watermelon is also a pepo fruit and is cultivated for its edible fleshy fruit. The botanical name
is Citrullus lanatus and belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae, it has two sub-divisions including
C. lanatus var. lanatus and C. lanatus var. citroides. Genus Citrullus contains seven species
and C. lanatus is the most important among all seven. The standard (diploid) chromosome
number is 22. Research and studies show it originated in Central Asia and Africa. About 5000
years ago it was cultivated in Egypt during the reign of Pharaoh, and it is depicted on the walls
of Egyptian Pyramids. It was spread throughout the world during the 13th century.

Vine-like plant with succulent fruit, eaten raw or as a table dessert. It produces oblong or
spherical round fruit. The flesh of the fruit is reddish and yellowish which is very low in calories
and provides a number of nutrients. Pepo fruit is a special type of berry having a thick rind and
can grow up to 25cm in diameter and 15kg in weight. The thickness of the rind, shape, color,
and size of fruit varies from variety to variety and some new hybrid varieties produce seedless
fruits. Leaves are deeply lobed and have 3-5 lobes. Large and coarse leaves can grow to a size
of up to 20cm in length and about 15cm in width with a smooth upper surface and a rough
lower surface with distinguished nerves. Flowers emerge from the axils of leaves. Male and
female flowers are separate on the same plant which are solitary, yellow in color and grow up
to 4cm with hairy stalks. With small spines and hairs, the plant stem is angular (five-angled),
long, weak, and trails, and can grow up to five meters in length. Climbing vines trails with the
help of tendrils. Smooth tendrils are about 4 to 6 cm in length. Melons have shallow root system
with a poorly developed tap root. Both cross and self-pollination occur in melons and pollens
carried by bees and flies. In less seeds or seedless varieties fruit size is larger because of
reduction in several chemicals and hormones released by seeds.

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Climate and Soil

Watermelon is a perennial annual vine that can survive for one season. It is a warm-season
crop, require full sunshine, and can grow in a wide range of climate. The best climatic
conditions are long days and 23-29oC day temperature and 18-24oC night temperature. Due to
being highly sensitive to frost, it cannot grow in winter but through tunnel farming, an efficient
yield is obtained in winter also. Most of areas two types of tunnels are used including walk-in
tunnels and high tunnels at the commercial level. The major three producers of watermelon in
the world which produce more than 80% of world production are China, Turkiye, and Iran. The
plant is also grown as an ornamental plant and harvested mature fruits are also used for
beautification.

It is a highly nutrient-hungry crop. Watermelons prefer well-drained and nutrient-rich soils

with an excessive amount of organic matter and humus. The plant can grow in soils with a pH
ranging from 6.5 to 7.5. Production can obtain in all types of soils but medium to light textured
soils are more suitable especially sandy loam soils. Soil structure and fertility affect the plant
growth and size and quality of fruit.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Before two months of sowing add 30,000 kg of well-rotted farmyard manure and mix with
ploughing and level the field with planking. Vines are large in size and require about 80-100
square feet per plant. Distance between plants is 2-3 feet and between rows, 4-6 feet is required.
Sowing time for the open field is February to June and for tunnels October to December. 2-3.5
kg of seed is enough for an area of one hectare.

Irrigation and Fertilizers

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Like other plants of the Cucurbitaceae family watermelon also require frequent moisture
supply and is sensitive to drought conditions. First irrigation should apply just after sowing and
further irrigations should apply at an interval of one week. During the flowering and fruiting
stages give irrigation regularly otherwise quality and yield are both affected adversely. Because
of shallow roots mulching can also be done to preserve moisture in the upper surface of the
soil.

It is a heavy feeder crop and requires an adequate amount of fertilizers and organic matter.
With the combination of FYM, a general requirement of major nutrients NPK is 100:50:50.
Whole amount of phosphorus and one-third amount of nitrogen apply at the time of sowing,
full of potassium, and half of the remaining nitrogen should apply after 3 to 4 weeks of sowing
and the remaining nitrogen apply after 15 days.

Intercultural Practices

Mulching is done in areas with water shortages. Removal of weeds is done by hand and hoeing.
Hoeing is also important to facilitate the aeration of the root zone and to save moisture.
Thinning is required to maintain a uniform population of plants throughout the field. Provide
woody or metallic structures for training and climbing to produce better quality fruits and to
avoid several diseases.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvesting may start after 60-90 days when tendrils near the fruit start turning brown and
decaying. Watermelon ripening also is checked by thumbing, when it produces a dull hollow
sound it is ripened. Most of the time harvesting is done by hand but at a large commercial level
mechanical harvesters have also been introduced. 36,000 to 40,000kg of watermelon fruit can
obtain from an area of one hectare in Pakistan and India but countries like Turkiye are obtaining
heavy yields up to 80,000kg and if it grows for seed production, about 400kg of seed is
produced from an area of one hectare.

Storage

Harvested melons can store for two weeks at room temperature in a shady or dark place. In
controlled conditions with 0oC and, 95% relative humidity can be stored for 4 to 5 weeks. But
in temperatures greater than 10oC it will start decaying after a few days.

Varieties

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Charleston grey, Black diamond, Jubilee, All sweet, and Crimson sweet are the commercially
cultivated varieties with the highest yield and quality.

Uses and Health Benefits

Watermelon is a sweet and popular fruit of the summer season throughout the world, especially
in warm areas. Fruit flesh may use in beverages and wine production and can blend with other
fruits for better taste. In a few countries, flour seeds and roasted seeds are eaten at festivals like
the new year festival. Unripe watermelon is eaten after making pickles stir-fried and cooked.
It has a high nutritional value with an extra amount of water, dietary fibers, vitamins, easily
digestible sugars, calcium, magnesium, potassium, phosphorus, and iron. It helps in the
digestion process, relief in constipation, regulate fluid level in the body, reduce food poisoning
and stomach acidity level, and improves the functionality of the liver. It also contains the
highest level of lycopene compared to other vegetables and fruits. Fruit flesh is also a major
source of folate, niacin, vitamin B-6, riboflavin, and thiamine. It prevents from heart diseases,
muscular problems, cancer, dehydration, muscle soreness, and oxidative stress.

Insect Pests and Diseases

Aphids: they are small-sized insects, that feed on foliage and

newly emerging fruits. They suck the cell sap and toxic
saliva injects inside the plant tissues which causes spoilage
of tissues. Applying proper insecticide, using resistant
varieties, crop rotation, and removal of infected plants are
useful in the control of aphids’ attacks.

Flea beetle: adult beetles cause chewing injury and make

holes in leaves and newly born branches. Larvae and adults
remain in the soil during warm daytime and at night they
emerge and start chewing leaves. Removal of weeds and use
of chemicals is practiced to control.

Fusarium wilt: Most of the time symptoms appear on one

side at an early stage and finally result in wilting and dying
of the plant. The main symptoms are the yellowing of leaves
and water-transporting tissues becoming reddish. Attack will

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be severe during wet and warm conditions. Control measures are fumigation, crop rotation, and
the use of resistant cultivars.

Alternaria leaf blight: it is a fungal disease and attacks

during moist and warm conditions. Symptoms are the
appearance of yellow-brown spots on leaves and in case of
severe attack lesions and patches spread throughout the
leaves. Control measures are crop rotation, use of fungicides,
and seed treatment.

Alternaria leaf spot: it is also a fungal disease and attacks

during wet conditions. Symptoms are the appearance of
brown lesions on leaves. Lesions are formed in large circles
and form a Bull’s eye pattern. For controlling the attack make
sure proper drainage and moisture control, use of resistant
varieties, and crop rotation are the best measures.

Downy mildew: it is also a fungal disease and symptoms are

the appearance of light green to yellow spots on the leaves
and stunted growth induced. Crop rotation, seed treatment,
and the use of fungicides are the control measures.

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 Spinach
Spinach is a leafy vegetable grown in all areas of Pakistan. According to 2012 survey held by
Sindh Agriculture University, the production of spinach varies between 107,964 MT, and the
area under cultivation was 8540 hectares. The top producing countries of spinach are China,
the USA, Japan, Turkiye, France, Italy, India, and Pakistan. The origin of spinach is Iran and
its neighboring countries, in the region of
ancient Persia. In the subcontinent, it was
introduced by Arab traders, and then in
China. In China spinach was known as a
Persian vegetable. In America, it was
introduced in 1800, where it was popular as
garden beet. Biggest producers in the world
are China, USA and Turkiye.

The 2n chromosome number of spinach is 18. The botanical name of spinach is Spinacia
oleracea L and belongs to the family Chenopodiaceae. A cool season leafy vegetable
containing high amounts of minerals like calcium, magnesium, and iron as well as vitamins.

The plant spinach usually dioecious and herbaceous in nature. Its growth habit is biennial and
complete its vegetative growth in one growing season and produce seeds in second growing
season. Plants complete their vegetative growth period within almost 75 days after sowing,
then move to the reproduction stage and start bolting. The plant spinach has a tap root system
with many feeder roots. Edible broad
leaves of spinach are rosette, tender and
succulent, containing a high water
percentage. The flowering stalk emerges in
the axil of the leaf or terminal bud from the
lateral shoots. Flowers are bisexual and
produced in a group of 2-3 in the axil of the leaf. The sessile flower of spinach is bisexual or
hermaphrodite in nature and produces many small and light pollen grains, pollination occurs
through wind, and the crop is cross-pollinated. Two to three seeds are packed together within
a seed boll.

Soil and Climate

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Spinach is a cool-season vegetable which is highly resistant to frost as compared to all other
winter vegetables. Raise in temperature cause bolting which diminishes the market value. The
best growth of spinach occurs when days are short, and temperature is low. It is a short-season
vegetable, and the prevalence of high atmospheric humidity increases in the size of its tender
leaves. The optimum temperature for spinach growth is 16-24◦C. Fertile sandy loam and well-
drained soils are best for maximum production of spinach, but they can be grown in all types
of heavy to loam soil. The presence of organic matter in loam soil increases the productivity of
crops, for this purpose leguminous and cover crops are used to maintain soil fertility. The
optimum pH range of soil for spinach growth is between 6.5 to 7. Because of highly sensitive
to acidic soils, the soil should be tested before the sowing of spinach. The symptoms of highly
acidic soils on plants are less germination rate, tips and margin of leaves becoming yellow and
brown, stunted growth, and browning of roots even plants become dead due to this. Highly
alkaline soils also cause chlorosis and leaves shows yellow color.

Land Preparation and Sowing

A well-prepared land is required for spinach growth, about 15 to 20 tons FYM add to the soil
before 3 months of sowing which increases the fertility of the soil and improves the physical
structure of the soil. Proper leveling of beds is necessary, beds should be free of stubbles and
debris. 2 to 3 ploughing should be done to prepare the field. The best time for sowing in winter
is August, and for summer crops February is best for optimum growth. Summer spinach crop
needs a high amount of water for proper growth. About 20 to 25 kg of seed is enough for one
hectare for both ridges and broadcast methods. Plant-to-plant and row-to-row distances should
be 10-15 cm and 25 cm respectively. The depth of the seed should be 1.5 to 2.5 cm for
maximum germination.

Irrigation and Fertilizer Requirements

As spinach is a leafy vegetable, requires high amounts of nitrogen for gaining the maximum
size of its leaves. As mentioned above 20 tons of FYM should be added to the soil before 3
months of sowing to improve the structure and fertility of the soil. Winter crop of spinach needs
larger quantities of fertilizers as compared to summer crops, especially nitrogen. Per hectare
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash requirements for average soils are 80, 40, and 60kg
respectively, fertilizers are mostly applied by broadcast or with water. Proper germination of
seeds and adequate soil moisture are required, pre irrigation is preferred to get proper soil
moisture. Irrigation must be done after sowing. In summer the irrigation interval should be 4

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to 5 days and in winter field should be irrigated with intervals of 8 to 10 days. During the rainy
season, irrigation is not necessary except during long dry spells.

Intercultural Practices

There is no need for such weeding in spinach because it is a dominant crop and suppresses the
growth of weeds. Sometimes weeds grow abundantly at an early stage then these are removed
by hand because it creates hurdles at the harvesting stage, lightly hoeing is done manually at
an early stage if necessary. Proper use of fertilizers, irrigation, and removal of stubbles from
beds before sowing and pre-sowing weedicide minimize the risk of weeds and increase the
production of crops. After sowing chemical application is not preferred because their residues
remain in leaves and are harmful to human health.

Harvesting and Yield

The leaves of spinach are ready to be harvested after a month of sowing. Cuttings should be
done at intervals of two weeks a sharp knife is used for this purpose. Delay in harvesting
directly affects the quality of leaves. The yield of spinach depends upon the varieties, broad
leaf varieties give a high yield as compared to short leafed. The average yield of spinach leaves
is about 12,000 to 25,000 kg per hectare. About 4 to 5 cuttings obtain in a season. The quantity
and quality of spinach left are adversely affected if harvesting is not done at the proper time.

Storage

Spinach is a leafy vegetable and contains a high amount of water in its leaves up to 85%, high
perishability of spinach decreases the shelf life of its leaves. We can store spinach just for one
day after harvesting at room temperature after 24 hours leaves lose their attractive appearance
and turgidity therefore it sends to market as soon as possible after harvesting. In storage houses,
spinach can be stored for two weeks at 0◦C 90 to 95 percent relative humidity.

Varieties

Desi and Candiari, Local Sindhi, Prickly heat, Pusa Palak, Round leaves, and All green are
some common varieties that are mostly cultivated in Pakistan.

Uses and Health Benefits

Spinach has many medicinal benefits such as it regulates blood pressure and controlling
cholesterol levels. Spinach has anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-aging

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properties as well as minimizing the risk of heart diseases and improving the efficiency of the
human brain. The indigestible part of spinach or dietary fibers cures the problems of the
digestive tract. It strengthens the bones especially teeth due to the abundance of calcium. The
use of spinach reduces the risk of diseases like cough, asthma, night blindness and strengthens
the immune system.

Insects Pests and Diseases

Spinach leaf spot: is a seed borne fungal disease, it attacks

during the moist climate, on susceptible plants. There are
small circular spots are appearing on the surface of the leaf
under favorable climatic conditions, which reduce the
photosynthetic area of the plant and affect the quality of
leaves. The control of leaf spots is the use of disease-free
seeds, hot water treatment of seeds before sowing is also helpful to make it disease free. The
use of copper-based fungicides reduces the risk of leaf spots.

Anthracnose: causes major loss in spinach quality and yield.

Necrosis of leaves occurs in this disease and increases the size
of necrotic areas with the passage of time. Lesions appear on
the leaf surface. Mostly the spores of anthracnose spread by
the mean of wind and water but sometimes, it may be a seed
born. There is no proper control of anthracnose in spinach,
use of resistant varieties is the only solution to minimize the risk.

Leaf Miner: eats plant tissues and adults lay eggs on the
surface of leaves. The larvae of leaf miners make mines and
tunnels for their movement and start feeding. The use of
insecticide is not recommended, just eradicate the affected
leaves.

Spinach Aphids: this is a sucking type of insect, sucks the

cell sap of plant tissues and plants become unhealthy. The
blackish appearance of leaves is the main symptom of aphids.
Plant leaves become greasy due to a viscous fluid secreted by
insects and the stomatal activity of plant break. To control the

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aphid, affected leaves are removed from the field by hand. If the attack of aphids is severe then
use insecticide.

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 Cucumber
Cucumber is a famous salad crop and is cultivated in all regions of the world. The average
annual production in Pakistan is 61,000 tons from cultivated area of 4,600 hectare in 2020, it
is grown in almost all areas of the country. Top producers of cucumber crops are China,
Turkiye, Iran, Russia, USA, Japan, and Spain. It is native to the subcontinent and suggested
that its cultivation started in this region about three thousand years ago. Then it was introduced
to China from India and rapidly to Western countries and according to the present status it is
grown worldwide.

The botanical name of the cucumber is Cucumis sativus and belongs to the family
Cucurbitaceae. It is the main crop of the gourd family. The 2n chromosome number of
cucumber is 14. Botanically it is a berry fruit because it develops from flowers, contains seeds,
and green in color. It is an annual crop, climbing or creeping plant having tendrils, that help in
climbing. Sparingly branched vine of cucumber having a rough surface and covered with small
projections.

The vine of the plant is yellowish green

in color and about 50-250 cm long,
succulent but robust and hairy in
nature. The leaves of cucumber are
rough in appearance and have 3 to 5
pointed lobes. Leaves are simple,
distichous, oval, and angular shaped and have a long petiole. Tendrils are present beside the
leaves that are robust and hispid, 20-30 cm in length, and yellowish green in color. Monoecious
flowers of cucumber have short stalks.
The size of the flower is 3-4 cm and has
a rough hairy appearance, creamy and
yellowish in color. Fruit may vary in
size and the average length is 10-20 cm
and 3-7 cm in width, shape is oblong
and linear cylindrical. Its color is green
to whitish green at maturity with pale green flesh. Fruit is fleshy and contains many seeds.
Plants have a tap root system the main root penetrates up to 4 feet deep with many feeding
roots that are lies in the upper two feet of soil.

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Climate and Soil

The cucumber is a warm-season annual crop very sensitive to cold temperatures and frost. The
production of female flowers is enhanced under high humidity and short-day length.
Germination of seeds is best at 18oC and the optimum temperature for the growth of the plant
is 20 to 30oC while fruit gets maturity at a temperature of 28-30oC. It can grow in all types of
soils but for early and good crops sandy to sandy loam soils are best while heavy soils are best
for maximum yield. Cucumber is slightly resistant to acidic soils whereas highly sensitive to
alkaline soils. The optimum soil pH for production is 5.5 to 6.7, soil should be rich in organic
matter as well as have proper drainage for high yield.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Many systems are followed for cucumber sowing such as the pit method, sowing in furrows or
beds, and land is prepared according to a system that we followed. Generally, 3 to 4 ploughing
should be done for the preparation of land. Furrows are made with the help of a planter or
furrow machine, and a digger is used for making pits. Sowing time varies according to the
climatic conditions of an area. The optimum sowing time for plain areas is February-March,
hilly areas April-May, summer crops March-April, and rainy crops June-July. Cucumber crop
is also grown in tunnels in the winter season to get maximum profit. The average seed rate of
cucumber is 3 to 5 kg per hectare. Pits should be 60 cm deep and 45 cm in diameter and filled
with FYM. On bed sowing 2 seeds per hill are sown with recommended distance and 3 to 4
seeds should be sown per pit. Recommended spacing for sowing is 150cm row to row and 60
to 90cm for the plant to plant. For an early crop, seeds are sown in polythene bags in the month
of December and then transplanted in February.

Fertilizer and Irrigation Requirement

Cucumber requires more nutrients than other crops, before 3 months of sowing 30 to 35 tons
FYM is added to the soil, or green manuring leguminous crop is rotavated in the soil to enhance
the fertility of the soil. The application of inorganic fertilizers depending upon the condition of
the soil, or the number of nutrients naturally present that are found after the testing of the soil.
Normally 100:50:50 kg NPK is used for an area of one hectare. About half the amount of
nitrogen and full phosphorus and potash is applied at the time of sowing and the remaining half
quantity of nitrogen is applied after a month of sowing or before the flowering stage. The field
should be irrigated after four to five days interval. If frequent rains, the interval pattern should

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change according to the requirement of the field. Over-irrigation directly affects the average
yield of the crop and may cause heavy losses. If vines are not trained then leaves turned to pale
yellow in standing water and spoilage of the fruits that are in touch with the soil and the quality
of fruits affects. The application of water at the stage of blooming and fruiting is very useful to
increase production, while dry conditions have adverse effects.

Intercultural Practices

To get maximum production and quality fruits, vines are trained or trellised on a structure with
the help of wire or rope, many structures are used for this purpose such as bamboo and bower
system. These systems help to increase the production of crops and the quality of fruits.
Weeding should be done frequently throughout the season to minimize the competition for
nutrient uptake between crops and weeds. The first weeding should be done at the end of first
month. If weeds are not controlled by weeding then use chemical weedicides.

Harvesting and Yield

After two months of sowing fruits of cucumber are ready for harvesting. Fruit needs 7 to 10
days from fruit setting to marketable size. It is harvested when it gains marketable size, tender,
and still green in color. Over-maturity decreases the quality and market value of the fruit.
Picking should be done at an interval of 2-3 days. The average yield of cucumber is 13,200 kg
per hectare in Pakistan according to government survey in 2021.

Storage

The cucumber is a highly perishable fruit and cannot be stored for long period. The maximum
shelf life of cucumber is less than two weeks, after 14 days, decaying, yellowing of fruit, change
in taste, and deterioration starts. Low temperature is mostly used in the storage house but in the
case of cucumber less than 7oC causes chilling and cooling injury in the fruit tissues that’s why
it is used as fresh.

Uses and Health Benefits

Cucumber has high nutritional values and contains many vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates,
and dietary fibers which are very essential for our daily intake. It is useful in the treatment of
all types of skin problems, especially sunburn. Presence of vitamin B help to avoid the
headache and kill all bacteria in the mouth that cause bad breathing if its slice holds just 30

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seconds on the roof of the mouth. Daily use of cucumber helps to regulate blood pressure as
well as control the cholesterol level of the human body.

Insect Pest and Diseases

Cucumber beetles: the harmful stage of the cucumber

beetle is its adult and larva. Adults feed on the leaves,
flowers, cotyledon, and the rind of the fruit and cause
major loss throughout the world. It is also a vector of
bacterial disease that causes wilting of cucumber leaves.
The larvae of the cucumber beetle feed on its roots and
underground stem. We can control cucumber beetles with the use of a suitable insecticide.

Aphids: both the adult and nymph stages of aphids are

harmful to plants. Aphids suck the cell sap of plant tissues
from the back and the leaf becomes cup shaped
downward. Both production and quality of fruits are
affected. In severe conditions appearance of leaves is
blackish due to viscous liquid spread by aphids, and
honeydew. Necrosis of leaves starts, and the plant shows
stunted growth. It can be controlled by the eradication of affected plants from the field or in
severe conditions the use of a proper insecticide.

Fusarium Wilt: it is a fungal disease and if it attacks the

young plant, seedling becomes dead before or after
emergence while it attacks mature plants the tips of new
leaves start wilting and the slowly plant dies. In the attack
of fusarium wilt, the color of the stem of the plant
changes. We can manage the disease at an early stage by
the removal of affected plants from the field and with the help of use of proper fungicides.

Powdery Mildew: it is also a fungal disease and attacks

when humidity is very high, and temperature is low.
Firstly, it attacks older leaves and then moves to new
ones. White-colored telcon powder appears on the surface
of affected leaves. Certain spots and circular patches on

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the lower side of the leaves are the symptoms of the disease. The quality and quantity of
affected fruits decreases. Use Carbendazim (1ml/liter of water) as soon as possible after the
appearance of the disease to control the powdery mildew.

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 Bitter Gourd
Bitter gourd is the popular vegetable of the gourd family. It is grown in almost all four
provinces of Pakistan. According to the statistics of 2010-11, the average annual production of
Pakistan is 51,217 tons and the area under cultivation is about 5459 hectares. The largest
producers of bitter gourds are India, China, Iran, Turkiye, and Pakistan. The origin history of
bitter gourd is not clear, it is suggested that the Central Indo-Burma is its place of origin. About
hundreds of years ago it was introduced to Brazil from Burma and then spread to the whole
world. Southern China and India are considered the center of bitter gourds domestication. It is
cultivated in almost all regions of the world.

It is commonly called “Karela’’ in Pakistan and India. The botanical name of bitter gourd is
Momordica charantia and belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae, also known as cucurbits, as
well as the gourd family. This family contains almost 965 species and about 95 genera, all
gourds belong to this family including pumpkin, squash, and zucchini.

Bitter gourd is an annual warm-season

vegetable. The vine type plant have
tendrils with trailing habits. The vines
grow very fast and are mostly trained on
bamboo poles, PVC pipes, and sticks
with the help of wires and ropes.
Training and trellising improve the
quality of bitter gourds and make harvesting easier. The length of the plant may vary from 20
to 30 inches. Its plant is monoecious, male, and female flowers are present on the same plant.
The color of the flowers is pale yellow.
The fruit or pods are cylindrical and may
vary in size, the surface is uneven and
lush green in color. The color and size of
the pod also depend upon the cultivar.
Fruit contains many oval-shaped seeds
which are smooth or flattened in
appearance. Seeds are similar to other members of the gourd family. The color of the flesh is
white that consists of numerous seeds. Fruit gives yellow to orange color at the time of maturity.

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The length of an average pod is 20 cm and has a diameter of about 8-10 cm. The leaves of the
plant are rough and 6 lobed. Plants have primary tap roots with many secondary feeding roots.

Climate and Soil

Bitter gourd is a warm-season vegetable and grows best in both tropical and subtropical
climates. Highly frost-sensitive crop and cannot bear high cold temperature spells. The best
germination of seeds occurs at a temperature of 18oC and the optimum temperature for plant
growth in between 20 to 30oC, plant shows its maximum growth at a given temperature. Female
flowers are produced on a large scale when the day length becomes decreases. Plants easily
bear wet and dry spells as well as bear rainy seasons. Bitter gourd can be grown in a wide range
of soils, sandy to sandy loam soils are best for good and early crop production. The optimum
soil pH for growth is 5.5 to 6.7, plant have resistance against alkaline soils and are easily grown
in soils having a pH of 8.0. Soil should be rich in organic matter with the proper drainage
system.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Land should be level with the help of a leveler for proper drainage facility. Proper ploughings
should be done to prepare the land for bitter gourd production. Sowing may be done on beds,
furrows, or pits. The best time for sowing is Feb-March for the summer crop, June-July for the
rainy season crop, and April-May for hilly areas. About 4.5 to 6.5 kg of seed is enough for an
area of one hectare. If sowing is done in pits the size of a pit should be 60 cm deep and 45 cm
in diameter and two to three seeds are sown in a pit at the depth of half an inch, on beds two
seeds should be sown per hill on both sides of the bed. The distance between plants should be
45 cm and between rows should be 60 cm. Before sowing seeds should be soaked in water for
24 hours. Germination of seeds occurs within the time of 48 to 72 hours after sowing.

Fertilizer and Irrigation

About 30 tons of FYM is applied to the soil before three months of sowing. In the case of the
pit, sowing method pits are filled with farmyard manure. The crop of bitter gourd required
balance nutrition, the quantity of organic manure depends upon the fertility status and type of
soil. Generally, the average NPK requirements for the crop are 180:110:120 respectively. Half
the quantity of Nitrogen and Phosphorus and the full amount of Potassium should be applied
at the time of sowing and the remaining half amount of Nitrogen and Phosphorus added to the
soil at the time of blooming. The field should irrigate weekly as bitter gourd is very sensitive

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to dry spells. If the temperature is raised irrigate the field after four days. For the batter yield,
ensures the moisture of the upper 12 inches of soil where roots are present. Bitter gourd bears
rainy season without any damage, but excessive water should be drained out from the field.
Areas where water is scarce use micro irrigation systems to overcome the water problems.

Intercultural Practices

In bitter gourd cultivation, mulching is the best solution to overcome the problem of weeds.
Mostly plastic mulching and organic mulching are used. Organic mulching is much cheaper
than plastic because wheat straws, dry rice straws, and grasses are used for this purpose and
are available easily. Mulching material should be free of seeds of weeds. Before sowing,
mulching should be laid down. Without mulching, 3 to 4 hoeing should be done at proper
intervals. Hoeing should be done manually to minimize the risk of mechanical injury. The use
of weedicide is helpful to control the growth of weeds.

Harvesting and Yield

Fruits of bitter gourd become ready to harvest after two to three months of sowing. Picking of
fruits should be done manually when these are tender and green, tender fruit is preferred by
consumers. Picking of fruits should be done at an interval of two to three days, late harvesting
causes the ripening of fruits because of their fast-growing habit, and the fruit turned green to
red and causing economical loss. Delay in harvesting produces spongy, sour, and yellow or
orange-colored fruits. The growth and development of fruits are directly affected by irregular
harvesting and a decrease the production that causes heavy economical loss. The average yield
of bitter gourd from an area of one hectare is about 10,000 to 15,000 kg, and hybrid cultivars
give 20,000 to 30,000 kg production from the same area.

Storage

After harvesting the disease-affected, discolored, damaged, and low-quality fruits are removed
from the healthy ones. It is recommended that wash the fruits and clean them. Fruits are allowed
to dry under shady conditions and then properly arranged in the basket on newspaper. Clean
and washed fruits can be kept for 72 hours at room temperature. Fruits are stored for two weeks
in a storage house at low temperatures and high humidity.

Varieties

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There are two main varieties of bitter gourd one of them produce large cylindrical and oval-
shaped fruits and light green in color while the other variety produces small fruits that are
oblong shaped and dark green in color, both varieties are bitter in taste. The size of bitter gourd
depends upon the different varieties. The most common varieties of bitter gourd are Faisalabad
No.1, Banarsi, Punjab 14, and Arka Harit in Pakistan.

Uses and Health Benefits

It is a highly nutritious vegetable that contains many vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, and
salts. It is used as a fresh for cooking and dried after chopping for later use. The use of bitter
gourd helps in digestion and constipation problems. In the treatment of HIV (Human Immune
deficiency virus) use of bitter gourd is very helpful. It is reported that in the treatment of Cancer
especially breast cancer, anathematic, in-jaundice, and piles the extracts of bitter gourd are
used. Diabetes patients use as a homeo-medicine.

Insect Pest and Diseases

Bitter Gourd Mosaic: it is the most common viral disease

of bitter gourd that cause heavy economical loss. The
symptoms of the disease appear on the leaves surface of the
upper branches of the plant and are confined to the leaves.
There are yellowish patches and spots on the surface of the
leaves. Veins of the two lobes of leaf cleared in the attack
of bitter gourd mosaic. In severe conditions reduction in the size of leaves. This disease spread
due to vector aphids. To control the mosaic virus, should control its vector using chemical
insecticides.

Bitter gourd Witches' Broom: attack of this disease cause

100 percent loss of the crop, and the plant is not able to bear
fruit in the attack of bitter gourd witches’ broom. Leaves
become abnormal and do not gain their full size. The
flowering of diseased plants starts earlier as compared to
healthier ones. If some fruits are produced, they are seedless
otherwise there is no fruit produced on attacked plant. To control the disease, it is necessary to
control the population of vectors. About 4 to 5 foliar sprays of Carbofuran are applied at
intervals of 10 days.

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Fruit Fly: it is the most dangerous insect pest of bitter
gourd. In young fruits, major damage is due to the maggots
of the fruit fly. The adult fly lays eggs in the flowers, and
on hatching, maggots are produced from the egg when the
fruit is in the developing stage and start feeding there.
Control of the flies is not easy because maggots attack from
inside the fruit. Precautionary sprays and traps are used to control flies at the flowering stage.
Remove the affected fruits from the field to control the population of flies.

Beetles: at the early stage of plant growth, beetles can

attack. Beetles make holes in the cotyledons of the leaves,
and young plants become die in severe conditions. To
control the pest insecticides used. At the seedling stage
spray of Carbaryl (4 g/liter of water) or Metacid (1ml/liter
of water) is very effective to control the insect.

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 Chilies
Chili is the most popular vegetable, grown throughout the world. It is used as a spice in food items
and salads. It is used in both forms green and red. According to a survey (2018-19), the average
production of chili in Pakistan is 126,943 tons and the area under production is 47,349 hectares.
A few years ago, China was the only top producer of chili in the world that was contributing about
half of the total production of chili. But now India becomes the top producer country with an
annual production of 13.75 million tons. Other top producers are Turkiye, Spain, Indonesia, the
United States of America, and almost everywhere in the world. The reasons for its vast cultivation
in all over the world are its essential use in cooking and its suitability with all kinds of weather.

The history of chili is very interesting, it was discovered in America, more specifically the
prehistoric remains in Peru. At first, it was carried by the well-known discoverer Columbus from
areas of America to Spain and then it got famous throughout Europe. It was then introduced by
the Portuguese in the sub-continent (Pakistan-India) at beginning of the 17th century. It was
established in this area so quickly that some botanists think that it originated from the East.

As mentioned above, it is cultivated all over the world and known by different names in various
areas. In Pakistan and India, it is famous as Mirch or Mirchi but most commonly it is referred to
as Pepper. In scientific terms, it is known as Capsicum annuum and Capsicum frutescens belongs
to the family Solanaceae which is also known as the nightshade family. 2n chromosomes number
of chili is 24. It is a cross-pollinated crop, with a shallow root system and woody structure at the
base. It seems spicy to the taste buds and that hotness is due to the compound Capsaicin.

Botanically chili is a herb, some varieties

are shrubby in nature. Perennial and short-
lived shrubs are found, and its basal part is
quite woody. There is the main tap root that
helps in anchoring the plant and it contains
many lateral feeding roots. These small
hairy roots perform the functions of
nutrient and water uptake from the soil. The
height of the plant is about 50-150 cm high,
and its width is 80-90 cm. The lateral
branches of the plant spread wide. Their
compound leaves are different in size and

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contain oval shapes. The length of the Petiole is about 0.5-2.5 cm, having broad lamina and its
base is acute. A single flower or sometimes a group of two or three flowers is produced. Flowers
are dioicous and each contains five to six petals. The color of the flowers may vary from light
yellow to greenish white. The flowers are seemed to be axillary due to the branching formation.
On ripening its seeds are not split out, indehiscent fruit. Single fruit(berry) may contain many
seeds, and it is individually formed at nodes but vary in size, shape, and factor of pungency. The
size of the fruit ranges from 3-30 cm and its color on maturity is green to purplish when it gets
ripened it may become red, yellow, orange, and brown. Seeds are very light in weight and are 0.3
to 0.5 cm long and also have a pale-yellow appearance.

Climate and Soil

Chilies are grown best in warm and hot climates but are slightly tolerant to winters. The optimum
temperature for seed germination is 22-24oC and 25-30oC is best for the proper growth of the
plant, requiring 25oC temperature for the flowering. Highly resistant to drought conditions as
compared to tomato and brinjal. Chilies grow best where average rainfall is about 60-120 mm
annually. Soil should be well-drained and rich in organic matter for the commercial production of
chilies. It can be grown in all types of soils especially in sandy loam successfully. It is highly
sensitive to water-logging soils, plant drops their leaves, and the shedding of fruit takes place in
such type of soils. For getting maximum yield sandy loam, loamy, and rich in organic manure
soils are preferred. The soil pH should be 6-7 for its cultivation, highly sensitive to both of acidic
and alkaline soils. It can also be grown in black soils and is slightly tolerant to salt-affected soils
but the germination of seeds is less.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Direct sowing as well as nurseries are raised for the propagation of chilies. Fine ploughing should
be done for the preparation of land for nursery raising, 4 to 5 ploughings are necessary. About 1.5
to 2 kg seeds are used for growing of nursery for one hectare, more over seed rate depending upon
the varieties. The sowing time of nursery for summer crops is Feb-March and winter for tunnels
is Oct-Nov. After 4 to 6 weeks seedlings are ready for transplanting. Row-to-row and plant-to-
plant distances should be 45-60 cm and 30 cm respectively. Both line sowing and broadcast
methods are used for the sowing of the nursery. It should be protected from frost in the month of
December.

Fertilizers and Irrigation Requirements

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Chili plants need a large number of available nutrients for their proper growth. Organic manures
and commercial fertilizers are used to improve the fertility of the soil. For getting maximum yield
about 20 tons of FYM was added to the soil. The Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium
requirements of the crop are about 80 kg, 40 kg, and 40 kg per hectare. First irrigation should be
done just after transplanting and sowing of seed. Soil and climatic conditions of an area directly
affect the rate of irrigation. The field should be irrigated weekly and keep in mind water doesn’t
touch the stem of the plant in any case.

Intercultural Practices

Two to three hoeing is recommended, and mulching is commonly used to overcome the problem
of weeds’ growth. Mostly rice straws and grasses are used as a mulching material, polythene sheet
is also used for the purpose of mulching. Mulching is also very helpful to conserve the soil water
and nutrients. Weeds should be removed by hand from the field. The use of chemicals is the final
solution to control weeds.

Harvesting and Yield

Generally, the crop needs 8 to 12 weeks to be mature, blooming starts after 40 to 60 weeks of
transplanting or according to the climatic condition of an area and properties of a cultivar. Chilies
are harvested at the green stage for fresh use as a vegetable and at the red stage for spices when
fully ripened. For pickles, both green and red chilies are used. The average production of green
chilies is about 20,000 to 25,000 kg whereas about 5,000 to 10,000 kg of fully ripened dry chilies
are obtained from an area of one hectare.

Varieties

The most common cultivars that are used in Pakistan are Ghotki and Talhari for long pungent
chilies, Sanam and Gola Peshawari for bell-shaped chilies, Tatapuri, Neelam, Faisalabad 1,
Lawangi and Burewala for small and round chilies.

Storage

Due to less perishability chilies have a long shelf life. It can be stored for about 40 days at 0oC
temperature with 95 to 98 relative humidity. Storage of ripened and dried chilies is easy and
possible for long time. If dry chilies are protected from insect pests they can be stored for more
than one month at room temperature.

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Uses and Health Benefits

Chilies are used as a spice and condiment due to their hotness. It is also used in salad. Due to the
plant’s beauty, it is used as ornamental. It is also used to increase the flavor of many dishes. The
extracts of chilies are used as raw material in the manufacturing of different medicines as well as
in the production of beer production and beverage industries. Green chilies are the major source
of vitamin-a, which the most important part of nutrition to increase the night vision.

Insect Pest and Diseases

Thrips: it is a sucking type of insect pest that causes a heavy loss in

chili production. The harmful stage of the insect is the adult and
larval stage. Their piercing mouth punctures the tissues of the plant.
Seeds are not produced in plants that are affected by thrips. The stem
of the plant is destroyed during the severe attack. To control the
disease, removal of weed and affected plants is necessary.

Caterpillar: it is a chewing-type insect, the larval stage is harmful

to plant. It attacks from the lower surface of plant leaves. In a severe
attack, the leaves become die. Sometimes all parts of leaves are
eaten by insects except midribs at the early stage of plant growth.
To control the population of insects, eradicate the affected. After
harvesting, expose the pupae of insects to the sun with deep ploughing.

Dieback: it is a fungal disease, the attack of the disease starts from

the tips of leaves then move to twigs and then toward the stem, due
to this behavior it is called “Dieback”. This disease attacks on
flowering stage, drying of flowers occurs and they are dropped.
Plants do not produce fruits or produce low-quality fruits. To control
the disease, seeds are treated before sowing with hot water.

Bacterial spot: it is a bacterial, seed-borne disease. Symptoms are

the certain spots on the surface of the leaf, necroses of leaves. The
border of the leaves becomes yellow. The disease is spread due to
over-irrigation, the high moisture content in the environment, and
hot climatic conditions. To control the disease, crop rotation is

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necessary, and seedlings should be disease free. Seeds should be treated with hot water and other
chemicals.

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 Brinjal
Brinjal is a summer vegetable crop cultivated worldwide. It was used as a staple food in many
regions since ancient times due to its high nutritional benefits. In Pakistan, it is grown in an area
of 8,670 hectares with an average production of 91,260 tons annually according to a survey in
2010. The largest producers are China, India, Egypt, Iran, Turkiye, Indonesia, and Japan. The
origin of brinjal is not clear to scientists and there are different concepts by various botanists.
According to Vavilov (1928), it originated from Indo-Burma, but Bhaduri (1932) and Baily (1949)
thought it was found in India first. On the other hand, this plant is stated as Burthaker, Hilgall,
Singhi in Amar Kosha, a Sanskrit dictionary. Another scientist De Candole (1886) had a concept
that this plant has been cultivated in Africa since ancient times.

It has different names in the regions where it is

grown. The scientific name of the brinjal is
Solanum melongena and belongs to the family
Solanaceae. Most commonly it is known as
Eggplant or Brinjal worldwide. Botanically it is a
fleshy elongated egg-shaped fruit. In the old ages,
it was first given the name eggplant due to its small and oval fruits obtained by Europeans but
later its size changed and evolved as elongated egg shape fruit due to selection and other breeding
techniques. A few botanists also consider it a berry fruit. Basically, it is a perennial plant but
mostly cultivated as an annual plant. The plant height may vary from 40 cm to 150 cm. Leaves
are broad and lobbed, 10-20 cm in length and 5-
10 cm in width. The stem is rough and thorny, and
some small spikes are present on the outer side of
the surface. The plant produces hermaphrodite
flowers which are white to purplish in color.
When the flower buds are produced, they are of oval or conical shape. The flower is average-sized
with a diameter of almost 3-5 cm. Flowers have 5 petals, and the color of the petals depends upon
the variety of the plant. Corolla has five lobes, and the color of the stamen is yellow and has a
meaty texture. The diameter of the fruit is 4-8 cm generally, but it changes with varieties. The
fruit may contain many small edible seeds inside which are bitter in taste. The tap root system is
found with the main primary root with small secondary roots that can penetrate up to 35 inches
deep in the soil.

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Climate and Soil

Brinjal required a hot climate for its growth. It is a summer vegetable, that grows best in higher
temperatures. Because of warm season crops, low temperatures especially frosts are very
dangerous for its growth fruits are not produced in such conditions. It needs long summers and
high-temperature nights for its proper growth. The suitable temperature range for its growth is
between 16-28oC and 24oC for best seed production. It is noted that long-sized hybrid varieties
are more sensitive to frosts as compared to round hybrid cultivars. Brinjal can be sown in a variety
of soils, from light loamy to heavy clay. For early and average crop production loamy soils are
preferred while for batter yield heavy soils are suitable. Soil should be well drained and deep for
batter growth. Soil pH ranges should be between 5.5 to 6. Highly acidic or alkaline soils are not
favorable for proper development.

Land Preparation and Sowing

The ploughing and preparation of land depend upon the physical conditions of the soil. About 4
to 5 ploughings are compulsory for field preparation of. Nurseries are raised and sowing in nursery
beds may be in lines or broadcast. In line sowing of the nursery distance between plant to plant
should be 5 cm and line to line distance should be 10 cm. To avoid the risk of damping off and
soil-borne diseases field should be properly drained. The seed rate for raising the nursery of one
hectare is about 0.5 to 0.75 kg. Seedlings of brinjal become ready for transplanting after 4 to 6
months of sowing and are 15 cm tall. The distance between plants depends upon the varieties and
growth habits of brinjal. Spacing between long-sized cultivars should be 45 cm and 60 cm in
plants and rows respectively while 60 cm between plants and 90 cm between rows in round
varieties.

Fertilizers and Irrigation Requirements

About 25 to 30 tons of farmyard manure should be applied to the soil at least 40 days before
transplanting. Nurseries beds should be rich in organic manures and compost. For increasing the
yield, manuring is necessary. The application of artificial inorganic fertilizers is very much
important for getting a better yield of brinjal. It is a long-duration crop. The number of fertilizers
totally depends upon the fertility, structure, cultivar, and area of production. In general, the NPK
requirements of crops are 100 kg, 80 kg, and 50 kg per hectare. Half the dose of nitrogen and the
full amount of phosphorus should apply at the time of transplanting, and the remaining quality of
nitrogen added to the soil after 90 days of transplanting.

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The field should be irrigated just after transplanting the seedlings. Weekly irrigation is compulsory
to get batter yield. The field should be irrigated at proper intervals where rainfalls are absent.
Frequent irrigation helps to avoid the danger of frost. To follow modern irrigation techniques, the
trickle or drip irrigation method is used to supply an adequate amount of water and to control
weeds.

Intercultural Practices

Weeds from the field of brinjal are mostly removed by the traditional method of weeding by hand.
Weeds should be eradicated from the field as soon as possible. Hoeing should be done frequently.
If the population of weeds increase, use proper weedicides to control them. In the case of brinjal
cultivation, deep cultivation is not recommended because the rotting of roots starts from any
fungal attack, keeping the soil moist free.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvest the fruits when they attain the proper size and color. Harvested fruit contains calyx (button
of fruit) and petiole. The color of harvested fruit is purplish with a bright and shiny appearance.
Harvest the fruit with proper care. Cutters are used to harvest the fruit from the stem, sometimes
manually.

The average yield of open cross-pollinated cultivars is in the range of 20,000 to 30,000 kg from
an area of one hectare while hybrids varieties produce about 40,000 to 70,000 kg yield per hectare
annually.

Varieties

Pusa Kranti, Pusa purple long, Pusa purple round, Jamuni gola, Pusa purple cluster, Punjab Bahar
and Punjab moti are some most commonly used varieties of Pakistan. Varieties of brinjal are
divided into two groups, long sized and round-sized on the basis of fruit size.

Storage

After harvesting send to market as soon as possible because it cannot be stored for a long time.
At room temperature, it can be stored for 2 to 3 days in the cool season and 2 days in summer.
The maximum storage life of brinjal is just about a week at 10◦C with 85 to 95% relative humidity.
Low temperature causes chilling injury and high temperature deteriorate the fruit.

Uses and Benefits

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It is used as a vegetable throughout the world, many delicious dishes are made after the cooking
process. It is used in pickles as well as in dehydration industries. There are many medicinal uses
of brinjal. The use of white brinjal is recommended for diabetic patients. It is reported that its use
helps to treat liver infections. It is a good appetizer, mostly its seeds are used for appetite. It
contains an adequate amount of dietary fibers that treat constipation and other digestive problems.
It is anti-cancerous, and anti-inflammatory and controls the cholesterol level.

Insect Pest and Diseases

Shoot and fruit borer: this is a major insect pest of brinjal. It is

a chewing type of insect, that makes holes in the shoot and fruit.
Withering and drying of shoots start in a severe attack. It attacks
the plant at an early stage in nurseries. Infested fruits are not able
to use even rotted in a severe attack. To control the borer affected
plants and fruits should remove from the field. Crop rotation
should be followed to control the insect.

Jassid: it is a sucking type insect and sucks the cell sap of healthy
tissues of the plant. Both nymphs and adults harm the plant. It
attacks the lower surface of leaves of newly emerged leaves.
During the severe attack of upward curling, leaves become cup
shaped. Affected leaves become yellowish, discoloring starts
from the margins. It is also a carrier of many viral diseases.

Little leaf of brinjal: it is a viral disease and spread due to vector

leaf hopper. The leaves become light brown to yellow at the early
stage of the attack. The size of the malformed plant becomes
reduced. Infested plants do not bear flowers and fruit. If the plant
bears any fruit, it cannot reach its maturity stage. To control
disease resistance varieties should be used.

Leaf spot: it is a fungal disease. Symptoms of affected plants are

the lesions on the surface of leaves, irregular and angular leaves
produced, and greyish brown in color. Yield becomes reduced in
severe attacks. To control the disease, resistant varieties should

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be used. Remove the affected plants from the field to control the disease, in chemical use, proper
fungicide can be used.

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 Onions
Onion is one of the ancient vegetables that has great commercial as well as economic importance.
It is a bulbous crop that produces bulbs that can be eaten raw and after processing. The small bulbs
can be used in pickles, soups, sauces, and other daily food items. It is grown all over the world, but
the top-producing countries are China, India, Iraq, Turkiye, and Japan. Pakistan has an area of
131,400 hectares under cultivation that produces 1.8 million tons produced annually. Out of that
total production, about 50% is produce by the districts of Sindh and Baluchistan.

In 1492 Christopher Columbus introduced cultivated onion to America. He also observed that wild
type of onion was already found in North America. But it is being cultivated in Asia for 5000 years
ago. All the archeologists and botanists agreed on its origin in Central Asia (Iran and west Pakistan)
and its spread all over the continents from Asia.

The scientific name of onion is Allium cepa and

belongs to the family Amaryllidaceae. In Pakistan,
it is known as Piyaaz, Basal, Vasal, and Gandda in
the local languages. It is a perennial or biannual
herb that grows best in a cool environment. Many
small flowers are collectively making umbels and
that gives rise to the inflorescence. On the emergence of young flowers single spathe divides into
segments. Bulbs are fleshy perishable and concentric broad scales are found. Its bulb consists of
odorous tissues that give a pungent smell on
grinding. The volatile oil is present in the tissues
that are responsible for pungency. Flowers are
produced at the apical part of the stem which
becomes cylindrical and hollow on maturity. Its
cross-sectional view shows it is round and raised
near the middle portion. When the stems which produce seeds are fully expanded then seeds can
be easily collected. The number of seed stems varies from 1-20. Whitish and bluish-colored flowers
are produced. Pollination is done by the crossing of pollen grains between two other flowers or
plants, and the 2n chromosome number is 16.

Climate and Soil

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It can be grown in almost all type of climatic conditions, but a mild climate is best for its optimum
growth and yield, extremely high and very low temperature is not suitable. Both long-day and
short-day varieties are grown in all four provinces of Pakistan, short day length varieties are very
suitable for plains. If the temperature range of 10ºC to 15.6ºC prevails under a short-day length of
9 to 12 hours bulb formation occurs and at 21.1ºC to 26.7ºC temperature bolting of the plant starts,
a flowering stalk is produced. More than 100 cm rain fall annually is not suitable for bulb formation
of onions. For better yield, the soil should be rich in organic matter. It can be grown successfully
in sandy loam to loamy soils. Heavy soils are not proffered for onion production. High acidic and
alkaline soils are not suitable for its growth. pH range of soil should be 5.5 to 6.5 for all types of
long-day and short-day varieties.

Land Preparation and Sowing

About four to five ploughings should be done to prepare the land for the cultivation of onion. There
are three methods of sowing direct sowing, transplanting method, and planting in the form of sets.
Seedlings are transplanted on flat beds with a spacing of 15 to 10 cm. The seed rate for raising a
nursery of one hectare is about 8 to 10 kg. About 5 to 8 kg seeds are enough for planting in sets
and 1000 kg of sets of 1.5 to 2.5 cm diameter are used for a one-hectare area. To get a better yield,
the distance should be 30-40 cm between the plants and on both sides of the beds. The direct sowing
method is used commonly in Pakistan, it needs about 12-15 kg of seeds per hectare. Broadcasting
and drilling of seed are done in direct sowing, the field should be irrigated immediately and sowing
of seeds. The nursery should be transplanted after 4 to 6 weeks after sowing.

Fertilizer and Irrigation Requirements

The amount of inorganic fertilizers depends upon the fertility and condition of the soils. About 20
tons of farmyard manure per hectare should be applied to the soil to improve its fertility and
structure. The ratio of Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium s about 80 kg, 50 kg, and 80 kg/ha
respectively. Half the quantity of all fertilizers should apply at the time of sowing and the remaining
amount added to the soil after a month of transplanting. Onion crop needs less amount water
because their roots are present in the upper soil. Irrigate the field immediately after transplanting.
The field should be irrigated lightly with an interval of 7 to 10 days. Irrigation should be stopped
before 15 days of harvesting which helps to increase the post-harvesting life of the onion. Moist-
free soils are the best for getting good-quality bulbs.

Intercultural Practice

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At the initial stage of the plant, the growth field should be free of weeds. Weeding is necessary to
avoid the attacks of insect pests. The shape of the onion plant resembled many weeds. So, the
eradication of weeds should be manual with proper care. Frequent hoeing should be done at proper
intervals. The priority should be cultural practices to remove weeds and the use of weedicides in
severe attack weeds. The most commonly used chemical is Fluchloralin or Oxyfluorfen to control
the weeds population.

Harvesting and Yield

Crops need 130-150 days to reach their harvesting stage. Dry bulbs are ready for marketing after
5 months and green onions are sent to market after 3 months of transplanting. Harvesting should
be done manually to avoid mechanical injury. Dry stems and roots are removed after harvesting
for storage. The average yield of onions is about 30,000 to 40,000 kg for the winter crop and 25,000
to 30,000 kg for the summer crop, moreover, yield depends upon the varieties, soil conditions,
season, and cultural practices. Small-sized varieties produce half the yield as compared to large-
size cultivars.

Varieties

Faisalabad early, Desi red, Pindi red, Phulkara, Red Nasik, Ghotki, and Local white are some
common cultivars of Pakistan.

Storage

Onions can be stored for a long by reducing the temperature to 2oC with 60 to 70% relative
humidity in the storage house, then remove from the storage house, now able to store at 20oC with
50% of relative humidity. The onion should be stored in a cool and dry place and there should be
an excessive quantity of air. The use of the chemical maleic hydrazide (MH) at 2500 ppm reduces
the sprouting habit of stored onions.

Uses and Health Benefits

Extracts of onion are commonly used in cough and cold syrups. It is an outstanding source of
sulphur compounds, polyphenols, and quercetin that helps to regulate the blood pressure and
cholesterol level of the human body. It is also antioxidant, anti-bacterial anti-inflammatory, and
strengthens the bones. Remove the fats and reduce the risk of heart disease. Reported that the
frequent use of onion improves the sexual abilities of men. Mostly used in salad and eaten raw as
well as a taste enhancer in many soups and processed food items.

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Diseases and Insect Pests

Damping off: a fungal disease spread due to favorable climatic

conditions such as cold weather, moist environment, and frequent
rainfalls. The infested plant becomes stunted, breaking down the
stem. It attacks the early stage of plants, newly emerged plants.
Species of fungus Pythium, Rhizoctonia, or Fusarium are the causal
agents of disease damping off. To control the disease fumigation
and sterilization of soil are necessary. Keep the soil moist free, crop rotation is helpful to practice
to control the disease.

Onion Smut: it is a fungal disease spread by a soil-born fungus.

Grey and black steaks appear on the leaf surface of plants, mostly
attacks on young leaves. Wet soil, moist condition, and poor
drainage are favourable for the attack. To control resistant varieties
should be used. Treatment of seeds before sowing reduces the risk
of attack.

Onion Fly: the appearance of onion flies same as other flies.

Female flies laid eggs in the neck of the onion. Harmful larvae of
the flies are dangerous. They make tunnels and move inside the
onion and causing heavy loss. To control hoeing is the best
practice sun expose the eggs of flies. Use of proper insecticide.

Onion Maggots: the adult maggot looks like a housefly. Females

lay eggs on the soil surface, and on hatching larvae of maggots are
produced that are dangerous for onion bulbs. The plant becomes
yellowish brown and shows stunted growth. Frequent hoeing, crop
rotation, and use of proper insecticides to control the insect.

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 Peas
Pea is a highly nutritive vegetable crop cultivated throughout the world. It is also grown in all areas
of Pakistan. The annual production of peas is about 91,603 tons and cultivated in an area of 11,689
hectares in Pakistan according to statistics from 2010. The largest producers of peas are China,
India, France, the United Kingdom, the USA, Egypt, and Pakistan.

The geographical origin of peas is still controversial among botanists. According to the
archeologists, the seed of peas was cultivated near the regions of Europe and East, in 7000 BC.
Some botanists thought that it originated in Ethiopia, from where it spread to Central
Mediterranean, East Europe, and rather the world. But some scientists believe that center of New
Eastern is the origin of peas.

It is known as Mattar in Pakistan and India, but it is called Pea in rather the world. The technical
or botanical name pea is Pisum sativum and belongs to the family Leguminosae. This family is
well known for nitrogen-fixing crops, crops of this family are mostly used for green manuring. The
diploid chromosome number of peas is 14. Pea is a cool
season annual vegetable and has a short growing season.
This plant may climb type and is trained due to its
tendrils-bearing habit. Both dwarf and tall varieties are
present in this specie. Less than 3 flowers are found in a
cluster, the flower is solitary. Small bracts are found
under the flower. Cross-pollination occurs in pea
flowers. The plant has a thin, soft stem and cylindrical
appearance. The leaves of peas are feathery and contain
three leaflets per leave. The leaflets are oval-shaped. The
fruit of the plant is its small cylindrical pods which
contain many peas and are present on a short stalk. The size of the pod is about 12 to 15 cm and
contains about up to 10 seeds. The color of seeds may vary from green to brown, contain a weight
of up to 240 mg, and rounded and angular shapes. The plant pea has a tap root system, but the main
root is absent, and many feeding or fibrous roots are found there.

Climate and Soil

The plant peas grow well in cool weather. Pea crop is highly resistant to low temperature and bears
low-temperature spells easily, but frequent frosts injured the newly developed flowers and pods. It

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is highly sensitive to hot climate as temperature raised, and the rate of maturity speeds up that
decreasing the yield. The germination of seeds is best at 5-10oC temperature and 16-24oC is
optimum for the best growth of the plant. The best areas for its production are those where
temperature raised slowly. Peas can be cultivated in all types of light loamy to heavy soils but
should be well drained. Rich organic matter soils are not preferred for pea production because they
enhance the vegetative growth of plants and affect the yield. It cannot be grown in highly saline
and basic soils. The suitable pH range for the optimum growth of plants is between 6 to 7.5.

Land Preparation and Sowing

Ploughing of land is necessary to find tilth. About three to four ploughings are enough to prepare
the land. Sowing is mostly done on furrows or ridges. Sowing of seeds can be done on flatbeds as
well as in furrows by the broadcasting of seeds or behind the plough and seeds should be covered
by proper planking. About 50-60 kg is the average seed for one hectare for furrow sowing. The
seed rate for early-sowing varieties is about 100-120 kg per hectare while 80-90 kg per hectare for
late-sowing varieties. The germination rate of the seed reduces if sown so deep. According to the
moisture and texture of the soil, about 5-7 cm depth is optimum for the best germination. Row-to-
row distance between plants should be 22 to 30 cm and spacing between plant to plant should be
10 -12 cm. Pea is grown as a Rabi crop and sown from October to November in plains and from
March to April in hilly areas.

Fertilizer and Irrigation Requirements

Pea is a nitrogen-fixing crop and requires less amount of inorganic nitrogen fertilizer. The
requirements of fertilizers depend upon the fertility and condition of the soil. For batter yield, about
8 to 10 tons FYM should be added to the soil before a month of sowing. NPK requirements of the
crop are 30:50:25 kg per hectare. All amounts of fertilizers should be applied just before sowing.
0.1 percent ammonium molybdate should be applied in the form of a spray to increase the number
of pods, nodules of roots, and TTS. About 3 to 4 irrigations are enough for batter growth. First
irrigation should be done just after the sowing, second should be done before the flowering stage,
and third at the blooming stage.

Harvesting and Yield

About three to four pickings are required to over the crop. Harvesting crops is not preferred on
sunny days, early morning or afternoon is the best time. Tendrometer and Motovometer are used
to check the quality of the fruit. Picking of crops should be done periodically with intervals of 7-

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10 days. Harvesting should be done manually to avoid mechanical injury. Keep in mind seeds
should be matured and hard when picked. For getting dry seeds, leave the pods on the plant and
remove them from the plant when fully dried. The yield of peas depends upon the variety and time
of sowing. Early varieties give about 3 to tons production per hectare while late sowing varieties
give 8,000 to 12,000 kg yield of green pods per hectare. The average yield of seeds is about 1,500
to 2,000 kg per hectare.

Varieties

PF-400, Green Feast, Olympia, Mateor, Climax and Samirina yellow are the most commonly used
cultivars.

Storage

Due to the high perishability of peas, they cannot be stored at room temperature for a long time.
Pods of peas can be stored at 0◦C temperature with a relative humidity of 85-95% for 15 days. It
should be frozen for two weeks at -10◦C. Seeds of peas can also be stored in freezing temperature
for 20 days.

Uses and Health Benefits

Dry peas are used in many delicious soups. Peas have high nutritional values, rich in minerals,
vitamins, dietary fibers, and carbohydrates. Peas are eaten raw in salads and in processed form. It
also uses as a snack after roasting in many countries. The powder of dry peas is also used as a taste
enhancer.

Insect Pests and Disease

Damping Off: it is a fungal disease and attacks the early stage of

the crop. If the moisture of soil prevails long time the attack of
damping off certainly happens. It is a soil and seed-born disease
spread due to the movement of water. It decreases the health of
plants and stunts growth. To control, disease-free should be used.
Ensure the moisture content and quality of the soil. Treat the seed before sowing.

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Bacterial Blight: the attack of bacterial blight depends upon the
climatic conditions, a cool and wet environment is best for the
attack of the disease. It is also a seed-born disease. In a severe
attack, the wilting of leaves starts, and their color turned to
yellow. It can be spread due to frequent rains and wind velocity.
Preventive measures should be taken to control the disease,
remove debris from the field, and sanitation of soil before sowing.

Thrips: it is a dangerous insect of peas that sucks the cell sap of

healthy tissues of the plant. It mostly attacks newly emerged
plants, especially in drought and stress conditions. Proper
supervision and removal of affected plants from the field
minimize the risk of thrips. If the attack is severe use of
insecticides is the only solution to control the attack.

Aphid: this is also a sucking type of insect that suck the cell cap
of plant tissues, plant become weak. This is a very small-sized
insect with a soft body and is green in color. In a severe attack,
the curling of leaves and pods starts a vector of a viral disease,
pea mosaic. The use of resistant varieties and crop rotation is the
best solution to control the population of aphids. It can be
controlled using proper insecticides.

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 Ginger
Ginger is a highly nutritive vegetable and uses as a condiment in the processing of other
vegetables, cultivated from ancient times. It can be grown on all continents of the world where
the climate is tropical and sub-tropical. The total annual production of ginger is about 1683.00
thousand tons and the area under cultivation is about 310.43 thousand hectares throughout the
world. In Pakistan, only the districts of the province of Sindh produce ginger on small scale,
especially Mirpur Khas. The top producers of ginger
are China, India, Nepal, and Thailand. The Origin of
ginger is well known, in Subcontinent Indo-Pak, East
Asia.

Most commonly it is known as Ginger in rather the world but in Pakistan and India, it is called
Adrak in the local language. The scientific name of ginger is Zingiber officinale and belongs
to the family Zingiberaceae. Ginger is a tuber crop, herbaceous perennial, and grown as an
annual.

The edible part of ginger is its underground swollen stem that is a rhizome, and brown in color.
The outermost layer of ginger is pale-yellow in color
and gives a pleasant smell on grinding or cutting. The
color of its flowers is also pale yellow which is
produced on the head of its short stem, cone shaped.
The height of the plant may vary from 30-50 inches,
depending upon the variety. The leaves are narrow,
lengthwise size is 7 cm and 2 cm in width. There is a cluster of shoots wrapped around each
other by an interesting pattern, linear and erect.

Climate and Soil

As mentioned above it can be grown in tropical and subtropical climatic conditions

successfully. Areas that are best for ginger production are those where the climate is moist. To
provide suitable enjoinment it also is grown in shady conditions of orchards of mango and
guava to follow multiple cropping systems. It can be cultivated 300 to 900 meters above sea
level. It can be grown in almost soil of all areas, especially those soil which are loamy to sandy
loam and are rich in organic matter. For ginger production, red soils with alluvial gravel are
also recommended. Highly acidic and alkaline soils are preferred for their cultivation. The soil

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pH range should be between 5.5 to 6.5. Upper 30 cm soil should be rich in organic manure
and well-drained, avoid its cultivation in the same soil for years.

Land Preparations and Sowing

Plough the soil to a fine tilth, about 4 to 5 ploughings are necessary to prepare the land for
ginger production. In areas where root rot attack is common, the soil should be steamed with
help of a polythene sheet and hot air treatment to avoid the risk of attack before cultivation.
Mulching is also recommended to keep the soil moist and the field free of weeds. For mulching,
mostly polythene sheets, 8 tons of paddy rice straws, wheat straws and 10 tons of dry grasses
are used. Seeds should be treated to break the dormancy before sowing by night over soaking
in water or with 5 g Pseudomonas before 10 days of sowing. Mostly the months of March and
April are suited for the planting of ginger. Small beds and furrows are raised for its cultivation.
Tubers are used for its propagation. The size of the tuber should be 20 to 25 grams with a 2 cm
diameter, nodes should be present on tubers where germination starts. The seed rate of tubers
should be 1.5 to 2 tons for plains and 2 to 2.5 tons for hilly areas of an area of one hectare.
Tubers are planted with a depth of 5 cm.

Fertilizers and Irrigation Requirements

Before three months of planting about 20 kg to 25 tons of manure should be added to the soil
to improve its physical structure and fertility status. The Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potash
requirements are 75 kg and 50 kg/ha respectively. Half the amount of phosphorus should apply
at the time of sowing while a half dose of nitrogen and potassium applied after a month of
sowing. The remaining half quantity is applied after 3 months of planting. About 3 kg of boron
and 5 kg of zinc were sprayed for getting a better yield. The field should be irrigated just after
the tuber sowing. The amount of water depends upon the moisture content, average rainfalls,
and condition of the soil. Weekly irrigation is compulsory in the absence of rain. The rate of
seed germination and size of the rhizome are directly dependent on available water.

Intercultural Practices

Hoeing should be done frequently for the aeration of soils. Mulching is the best solution to
control the weeds population. About 3 to 4 weeding should be done at different stages of the
crop. Eradication of weeds at early stages improves the growth rate of plants. Use proper
weedicides when the population of weeds is out of control by cultural practices.

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Harvesting and Yield

About eight months are required to reach the harvesting stage. At the maturity stage, the leaves
of ginger become dried and brown-colored. Browning or drying of stems and leaves are the
signs of harvesting. Earthing tubers is labor-consuming activity. Alkalinity and the number of
fiber contents are less in immature harvested tubers. The yield of harvested rhizomes is about
15,000 to 25,000 kg per hectare.

Storage

After harvesting, wash the tubers of ginger with water and sent them to market after drying. It
can be stored for more than six months at 50 to 60% relative humidity. It should use after the
drying process of two days in shady conditions.

Uses and Health Benefits

Ginger in the most popular condiment and 3rd most used spice in the world. It can be used in
fresh, dried, and powder forms in the cooking and processing of other vegetables and used as
a salad vegetable. The extracts of ginger are quite important for the formation of beer, it is
commonly used in all beer, wine, and other beverage industries for flavoring. It is also used for
making delicious soups, biscuits, and pickles. Medically, its oil extracts are used in the
formation of different medicines that are used in the treatment of vomiting, fever, cough,
stomach disease, digestive problems, hypertension, vision problems, arthritis, piles
hypertension, and dizziness. It is also used as a stimulant, carminative, and expectorant. Juice
of ginger with honey and black pepper is used since ancient times to cure the throat problem.
Pills are made from powder or extracts of ginger for the treatment of gastric problems.

Insect Pest and Diseases

Stem Borer of ginger: it damages the stem of healthy plants

and makes small holes there. It is the major insect pest of ginger
that affect the yield all over the world. The leaves and stem of
the plant become yellow and then dried in a severe attack of
stem borer. To control the disease-infested plants should
remove from the field. Removal of other host weeds is
necessary. Crop rotation is helpful. The use of proper insecticide (monocrotophos 0.1%) is the
final solution, if not controlled by cultural practices.

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Tuber Scales: it directly attacks the tubers of ginger and causes
heavy losses. Tuber scale attacks on both field tubers as well as
stored tubers. Tubers that are stored for seed purposes are highly
affected, reducing in germination rate. It is a sucking type of insect
and sucks the cell sap of tissues. To control the attack, use the
chemical phosphamidon 0.05%.

Tuber Rot disease: it is the main disease of ginger that cause major
economic loss in ginger production. It is a seed born and soil born
disease that spread due to poor drainage of soils. To control seed
tubers should be free of disease. Tubers should be treated with hot
water for 5 to 10 minutes before sowing. Copper based fungicides
are also used to control the disease.

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 Tomato
Tomato is one of the most common and familiar
vegetables which is grown in the whole world.
2n chromosome numbers of tomatoes are 24.
The botanical name of the tomato is Solanum
lycopersicum L, order Solanales, and belongs to
the family Solanaceae, also known as the
nightshade family. The genus Lycopersicum
includes 12 species, but later classified tomato
into two species by Bailey, all of these originated
from South America, and the exact origin of
cultivated tomato is Peru. Cherry is the ancestor
and wild type of cultivated tomato. It is known as “Poor man’s Orange” in the subcontinent
and “Love of Apple” in England. The common name of tomato is varying in different countries
Faan ke’e in China, Tomat in Indonesia, Tomate in Spain and France, Jitomate in Mexico, and
Tomati in Italy. The top producers of tomatoes are China, India, Pakistan, and Turkiye.

Tomato is a warm season self-pollinated

vegetable, that produces little yellow bisexual
flowers which are no bigger than 1 inch in
diameter and inflorescence known as truss,
flower completes growth in 3-5 days. The
edible part of a tomato is its fleshy berry fruit
which has a round, smooth, and oval shape, 3-
15cm in diameter. Immature fruit gives a
greenish and hairy appearance. Ripe fruit
gives red, yellow, and tangerine colors due to
lycopene, carotenoid, and Pro-lycopene
pigments respectively. The leaves are arranged spirally with stems about 10-40 cm long, and
the leaflets are usually oblong and oval, 5-7 cm long. The stem tomato is coarse, hairy, solid,
and glandular. The plant height is usually up to 4 m and shows prostate and erect growth habit.
Tomatoes have a tap root system and the depth in the soil is mostly more than 10 inches. Its
fruit produces too many seeds having kidney or pear-like shapes, about 3-5 mm long and 2-4
mm wide are light brown and give a hairy appearance.

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Climate and Soil

Tomato is an annual crop, as mentioned above it is a warm-season vegetable, very sensitive to

frost. It is a day-neutral plant and about 3 crops are taken in areas where frost causes no damage
to the crop. The optimum temperature for seed germination is 18-30ºC, for plant growth is 20-
24ºC, for Lycopene production is 21-24ºC, and for pollination is 21ºC. The temperature range
which is not suitable for tomatoes is less than 16ºC and above 27ºC. If low temperature
prolongs causes chilling injury and very high-temperature causes sunburn.

Tomato is grown in almost all types of soil that’s why the tomato is the world’s largest
vegetable crop after potato and sweet potato. For an early crop, well-drained loamy soil rich in
organic matter are best while heavy yields are obtained when grown in silt loam or clay loam.
The suitable soil pH range for tomato production is 6.5 to 7.5. It shows stunted growth in acidic
soils having a pH of less than 5. Due to its sensitivity to saline soil salt affected and water-
logged soils are not proffered to produce tomatoes.

Land preparation and Sowing

Nurseries are grown for seedlings of tomato and prepare the land for seedbeds with proper
tillage about 20-25 cm high and 60-120 cm wide seedbeds are prepared for the sowing of seeds.
The number of seedlings depends upon the length of the seedbed. Treat the seeds with
appropriate fungicides before sowing. Sowing should be done in lines with a distance of about
10cm between lines, after sowing beds are covered with sand or mulching of leaves. The seed
rate of tomato for local varieties is about 500-600 g per hectare and 150-250 g per hectare for
hybrid varieties. Open field nurseries are raised in Aug-Sep for production in tunnels, nurseries
are raised in tunnels in the month of December also for tunnel farming, and for open field
production, open field nurseries are grown in January.

After 4 to 6 weeks of sowing, the seedling becomes able for transplanting. For the
transplantation of tomato seedlings, proper ploughing and leveling of soil are requisite. Plough
the land to a fine tilth. About 4 to 5 ploughings are essential to prepare the land and level the
soil if necessary. Ridges and furrows at a spacing of 60 cm are made for the transplanting of
seedlings and the plant-to-plant distance should be 45 cm.

Fertilizers and Irrigation

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To improve the physical condition of the soil about 20-25 tons per hectare of well-rotted FYM
should be applied to the soil before 2 -3 months of transplanting. The application of inorganic
fertilizer is necessary to facilitate the growth of plants. The nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash
requirements of tomatoes are 100 kg, 40 kg, and 80 kg per hectare respectively.

First irrigation should be done immediately after transplanting. Weekly irrigation should be
done in summer and winter field should be irrigated after intervals of 8-12 days. A proper
supply of water at the fruiting stage is essential otherwise it can be destructive for tomato
production. Tomato is highly sensitive to frost its effect can be reduced by slightly irrigation
after intervals of 3-4 days.

Intercultural Practices

Eradication of weeds must be done at an early stage to minimize the competition between
tomato plants and weeds for the uptake of nutrients. Weeds can be controlled by pre-emergence
weedicide and by frequent hoeing. About 3-4 hoeing should be done by hand with proper care
to protect the plants from mechanical injury.

Growth Habit

According to growth habit tomato is divided into three groups determinate, indeterminate, and
semi-determinate tomato.

Determinate: in this type of growing tomato plants first complete their vegetative growth and
then move to reproductive growth. Determinate varieties of tomatoes are mostly practiced in
the open field.

Indeterminate: in this type vegetative and reproductive growth of plants starts together. These
types of verities are commonly practiced in tunnels.

Semi-determinate: this type of growth lies in between the determinate and indeterminate, in
this after the emergence of 10 to 20 leaves plants starts flowering and both reproductive and
vegetative growth starts together. These cultivars are practiced in both tunnels and open fields.

Disorders

Blossom end rot: due to deficiency of calcium in tomato.

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Fruit cracks: it is due to cold and hot spells.

Cat facing: low-temperature damages some tissues of fruit.

Balochi ripening: this irregular ripening of fruits due to disturbing cultural practices.

Herbicide injury: this is due to the effect of growth regulators such as 2-4-D.

Harvesting and Yield

Harvest the fruits when they are light red or sometimes harvested at the green stage but have
attained the normal size according to market preference. After 60 days of transplanting tomato
plants are able for first harvesting or depending upon the condition of the environment. The
average yield is between 25,000 to 40,000 kg per hectare.

Storage

Tomato can be stored at 10ºC to 15ºC for 30 days at the green stage. Ripe fruits can be stored
at 4.5ºc for 10 days with 85-90% relative humidity. Storage at low temperatures causes injury
and affects the quality which is why low temperatures for storage are not proffered. Under
normal conditions, tomatoes can be stored for a week.

Varieties

T10, Moneymaker, Faisalabad white, Faisalabad red, Ajax, Desiree, and Riograndy are some
most common cultivars of tomatoes.

Uses and Health Benefits

There are many medicinal uses of tomato such as it purifies the blood, containing anti-
cancerous compounds, and treated as protective food. Many food items are produced by the
processing of tomatoes like ketchup, soup, sauce, paste, and syrup. It contains vitamin C, sugar,
amino acids, minerals, and dietary fibers which are very essential for a healthy and well-
balanced diet. Tomatoes are eaten processed as well as raw in a salad it is a main component
of the salad. Lycopene compound present in the ripened tomatoes is helpful for male fertility
by increasing the production of healthy sperms.

Insect Pests and Diseases

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Whitefly: it is a very dangerous insect and causes heavy loss
worldwide. White-colored insects, very minute in size and suck
the cell sap of leaves. Whitefly is the vector of Tomato Leaf Curl
Virus (TLCV). Nymph and adult stages of whitefly cause main
loss. Traps should be installed to attract the adult. Removal of
alternate hosts and crop rotation are very effective practices to control the whitefly. The use of
resistant varieties minimizes the risk.

Aphid: it affects the photosynthetic activity, and the plant shows

stunted growth, leaves move downwards. Aphid attacks form
colonies, and due to very slow movement, it affects only some
plants in a field. Eradication of affected plants at an early stage
becomes helpful in control. Removal of alternate hosts and crop
rotation must be done to control the aphid.

Leaf spot: it is a fungal disease that affects the leaves of

tomatoes. Due to the reduction in the photosynthetic area of the
plant, disturbance in metabolic reaction, and finally plant starts
to die. Leaf spots can be controlled by fungicides, pre-sowing
treatment of seed with hot water, and the use of resistant varieties.

Leaf curl: viral disease spread due to whitefly, there is no direct

control leaf curl virus with chemicals. Control practices for the
leaf curl systemic insecticides are used to control its vector, the
whitefly.

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