ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY

Vector Algebra:
Scalar: A scalar is a quantity that has only magnitude. The examples of scalar quantities are charge,
distance, energy, length, mass, speed, temperature, time, volume, electric potential.

Vector: A vector is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction. A vector is commonly represented
by a line segment in a specific direction, indicated by an arrow. Typical examples of vector quantities are
acceleration, displacement, force, velocity, electric current

Unit vector: A vector 𝐴⃗ has both magnitude and direction. The magnitude of 𝐴⃗ is a scalar written as A or
|A|. A unit vector 𝑎⃗𝐴 along with 𝐴⃗ is defined as a vector whose magnitude is unity and its direction is
along with 𝐴⃗ that is,
𝐴
𝑎⃗𝐴 = |A|
|𝑎⃗𝐴 | = 1
Let 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 be the vector in Cartesian co-ordination then
2 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗⃗𝑥 +𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗⃗𝑦 +𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗⃗𝑧
|𝐴⃗|=√( 𝐴𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 ) + (𝐴𝑧 )2 𝑎⃗𝐴 = 2
√( 𝐴𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 ) +(𝐴𝑧 )2

Vector addition
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )𝑎⃗𝑥 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )𝑎⃗𝑦 + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 )𝑎⃗𝑧
𝐴⃗ + 𝐵⃗⃗ +𝐶⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶𝑥 )𝑎⃗𝑥 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶𝑦 )𝑎⃗𝑦 + (𝐴𝑧 + 𝐵𝑧 + 𝐶𝑧 )𝑎⃗𝑧
Vector subtraction
𝐴⃗ - 𝐵
⃗⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 )𝑎⃗𝑥 + (𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 )𝑎⃗𝑦 + (𝐴𝑧 − 𝐵𝑧 )𝑎⃗𝑧
𝐴⃗ - 𝐵
⃗⃗ -𝐶⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 − 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐶𝑥 )𝑎⃗𝑥 + (𝐴𝑦 − 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐶𝑦 )𝑎⃗𝑦 + (𝐴𝑧 − 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐶𝑧 )𝑎⃗𝑧

Vector multiplication: (i) dot product (ii) cross product

(i) Scalar product (or) Dot product (or) inner product of two vectors is defined as the product of
magnitude of the vectors multiplied by the cosine angle between them.
𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗|||𝐵
⃗⃗ |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗ and projection of 𝐴⃗ on 𝐵
The scalar product is same as the product of 𝐵 ⃗⃗ or product of 𝐴⃗ and projection
⃗⃗ on 𝐴⃗ as shown in Fig.
of 𝐵

𝐴⃗
𝐴⃗. 𝐵 ⃗⃗| 𝑋 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴⃗ 𝑜𝑛 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝐵 ⃗⃗

⃗⃗
𝐵
Fig. scalar product of vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗
Suppose 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ be the vectors then dot product is
𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗|||𝐵
⃗⃗ |𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝐴𝐵 ; [output is scalar]
Where Ө is the angle between two vectors
2
|𝐴⃗|=√( 𝐴𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 ) + (𝐴𝑧 )2 ⃗⃗|=√( 𝐵𝑥 )2 + (𝐵𝑦 )2 + (𝐵𝑧 )2
|𝐵
(ii)Vector product (or) cross product:
Suppose 𝐴⃗, 𝐵
⃗⃗ be the vectors then cross product is
𝐴⃗X 𝐵⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗| |𝐵
⃗⃗| sin Ө 𝑎⃗𝑁
Where, Ө is the angle between the two vectors ; [output is scalar]
𝑎⃗𝑁 is a unit vector vector
 [Note: if angle is not given then you should use below formula]
𝑎⃗𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑧
𝐴⃗ X 𝐵⃗⃗ = [ 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 ] ;[ output is vector]
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
𝐴⃗ X 𝐵⃗⃗ =𝑎⃗𝑥 (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 - 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 ) -𝑎⃗𝑦 ( 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 - 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 ) + 𝑎⃗𝑧 ( 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )
Vector multiplication by scalar
Vector multiplication operation by scalar quantity for a given vector 𝐴⃗ and 𝐶⃗ is the resultant vector after
the multiplication of vectors by scalar quantity. The scalar quantity (multiplication factor) α is multiplied
with vector 𝐴⃗. 𝐶⃗=α 𝐴⃗
Example: 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ; α=5 then 𝐶⃗ = 5𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 5𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 5𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 .

Identical vector: If two vectors are said to be identical, if the difference is zero
𝐴⃗-𝐵
⃗⃗=0 ie., 𝐴⃗ = 𝐵 ⃗⃗
Scalar triple product : Let 𝐴⃗ 𝐵
⃗⃗ and 𝐶⃗ be the vector then scalar triple product is
𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
⃗𝑨 ⃗⃗ X ⃗𝑪⃗) = [ 𝑩𝒙
⃗⃗.( ⃗𝑩 𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒛 ]
𝑪𝒙 𝑪𝒚 𝑪𝒛
Vector triple product: Let 𝐴⃗ 𝐵 ⃗⃗ and 𝐶⃗ be the vector then vector product is
⃗⃗⃗ X (𝑩
𝑨 ⃗⃗)= 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗ X 𝑪 ⃗⃗⃗ (𝑨 ⃗⃗) - 𝑪
⃗⃗. 𝑪 ⃗⃗ (𝑨
⃗⃗⃗. 𝑩
⃗⃗⃗)
 two vectors ⃗𝑨⃗ and ⃗𝑩
he condition for parallel of ⃗⃗ is ⃗𝑨⃗X ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗=0
𝑎⃗𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑧
𝐴⃗ X 𝐵
⃗⃗ = [ 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 ]=0
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
 The condition for perpendicular of two vectors ⃗𝑨⃗ and ⃗𝑩 ⃗⃗ is ⃗𝑨
⃗⃗. ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗=0
𝐴⃗. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 =0

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 Unit-1
Coordinates System: (i) Cartesian coordinate
(ii) Cylindrical Coordinate
(iii) Spherical Coordinate

Cartesian Coordinate or Rectangular Coordinate

 In the Cartesian coordinate system, the coordinate point are(x,y,z )

 x,y,z are customary to make use of the right hand axes.
 x,y,z are mutually perpendicular and mutually right angle to each other
 Consider a point(x,y,z) in a space at a distance r from the origin
 The 𝑟⃗ can be expressed 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧
 The unit vector
𝑟⃗ 𝑥𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝑦𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧
𝑎⃗𝑟 = =
|𝑟⃗| √(𝑥)2 + (𝑦)2 + (𝑧)2
 Consider P(x,y,z) and Q (x+dx,y+dy,z+dz) in rectangular coordinate system is shown in Fig and
it shows six planes define a parallel pipes.
 Differential length 𝑑𝑙 = √(𝑑𝑥)2 + (𝑑𝑦)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2
 Differential surface 𝑑𝑠⃗𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑧
𝑑𝑠⃗𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑥
𝑑𝑠⃗𝑦 = 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑦
 Differential volume 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
 The ranges of coordinate variables are
-œ < x < œ in m
-œ < y < œ in m
-œ < z < œ in m
 The vector A in Cartesian coordinate system written as 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧
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 Cylindrical Coordinate

 The cylindrical coordinate system is three dimensional version of the polar coordinates of analytic
geometry
 In the cylindrical coordinate system, the coordinate point are(ρ,Ø,z ) . where
ρ= radius of distance of a point P from the Z axis
Ø= angle measured from-axis in the xy plan known as azimuthal angle
z=distance of the point P along the z-axis from the xy plane
 At any point as the intersection of three mutually perpendicular surfaces
a circular cylinder ( radius ρ constant)
a vertical palne (ϕ constant)
a another plane (z constant)
 The ranges of coordinate variables are
0 ≤ ρ < œ in m
0 ≤ Ø <2π in radian
-œ < z < œ in m
 The differential incremental are (𝑑𝜌, 𝑑Ø, 𝑑𝑧)
 Differential length 𝑑𝑙 = √(𝑑𝑝)2 + (𝜌𝑑Ø)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2
 Differential surface
𝑑⃗𝑠⃗𝑧 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌 𝑑Ø𝑎 ⃗⃗𝑧

𝑑𝑠⃗𝜌 = 𝜌𝑑Ø 𝑑𝑧𝑎⃗𝜌

𝑑𝑠⃗Ø = 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗Ø
 Differential volume 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌 𝑑Ø 𝑑𝑧
 The vector 𝐴⃗ in Cylindrical coordinate system written as
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 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧
Spherical Coordinate

 In the Spherical coordinate system, the coordinate point are P(r,Ө,Ø)

r= distance of the point from origin
Ө=angle between the z-axis and the position vector P
Ø= angle measured from-axis in the xy plan known as azimuthal angle

 The ranges of coordinate are

0 ≤ r < œ in m
0 ≤ Ө < π in radian
0 ≤ Ø <2π in radian
 The differential incremental are (𝑑𝜌, 𝑑𝜃, 𝑑Ø)
 Differential length 𝑑𝑙 = √(𝑑𝑟)2 + (𝑟𝑑Ө)2 + (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ𝑑Ø)2

 Differential surface 𝑑𝑠⃗Ø = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑Ө𝑎⃗Ø

𝑑𝑠⃗𝑟 = 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө 𝑑Ө𝑑Ø 𝑎⃗𝑟
𝑑𝑠⃗Ө = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ 𝑑Ø 𝑑𝑟 𝑎⃗Ɵ

 Differential volume d𝑣 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө𝑑𝑟 𝑑Ɵ𝑑Ø

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  The vector 𝐴⃗ in Spherical coordinate system written as 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴Ө 𝑎⃗Ɵ + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø
Hint:
Cartesian (or) Spherical
Content Cylinder (or) Circular
Rectangular
Co-
x, y, z ρ,Ø,z r,Ө,Ø
ordinates
Rectangular plane (x) Cylinder (ρ) Sphere(r)
Objects Rectangular plane (y) Rectangular plane (Ø) Cone (Ө)
Rectangular plane (z) Rectangular plane (z) Rectangular plane (Ø)

-œ < x < œ 0≤ρ<œ 0≤r<œ

Ranges -œ < y < œ 0 ≤ Ø < 2π 0≤ Ө ≤π
-œ < z < œ -œ < z < œ 0 ≤ Ø ≤ 2π

‘x’ in m ‘ρ’ in m ‘r’ in m

Units ‘y’ in m ‘Ø’ in deg ‘Ө’ in deg
‘z’ in m ‘z’ in m ‘Ø’ in deg

Vector 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴Ө 𝑎⃗Ɵ + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø

=𝑑𝑟𝑎
⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑Ө𝑎
⃗⃗Ө + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө𝑑Ø𝑎
⃗⃗Ø
length
Differentia

=𝑑𝜌𝑎
⃗⃗𝜌 + 𝜌𝑑Ø𝑎
⃗⃗Ø + 𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗𝑧
=𝑑𝑥𝑎
⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎
⃗⃗𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎
⃗⃗𝑧
= √(𝑑𝑟)2 + (𝑟𝑑Ө)2 + (𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ𝑑Ø)2
(dl)

= √(𝑑𝑝)2 + (𝜌𝑑Ø)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2

= √(𝑑𝑥)2 + (𝑑𝑦)2 + (𝑑𝑧)2
l

𝑑𝑠⃗Ø = 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑Ө𝑎⃗Ø
Differential

𝑑𝑠⃗𝑧 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗𝑧 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌 𝑑Ø𝑎
⃗⃗𝑧
𝑑𝑠⃗𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑥 𝑑𝑠⃗𝜌 = 𝜌𝑑Ø 𝑑𝑧𝑎⃗𝜌 𝑑𝑠⃗𝑟 = 𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө 𝑑Ө𝑑Ø 𝑎⃗𝑟
surface

𝑑𝑠⃗𝑦 = 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑦 𝑑𝑠⃗Ө = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ 𝑑Ø 𝑑𝑟 𝑎⃗Ɵ

(ds)

𝑑𝑠⃗Ø = 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗Ø
Differential

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө𝑑𝑟 𝑑Ɵ𝑑Ø
volume

𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑣 = 𝜌𝑑𝜌 𝑑Ø 𝑑𝑧
(dv)

𝐴𝑥 𝑎
⃗⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎
⃗⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎
⃗⃗𝑧 𝐴𝜌 𝑎
⃗⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎
⃗⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎
⃗⃗𝑧 𝐴𝑟 𝑎
⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝐴Ө 𝑎
⃗⃗Ɵ + 𝐴Ø 𝑎
⃗⃗Ø
Unit
vector 2
√( 𝐴𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 ) + (𝐴𝑧 )2
2
√( 𝐴𝜌 ) + (𝐴Ø )2 + (𝐴𝑧 )2 √( 𝐴𝑟 )2 + (𝐴Ɵ )2 + (𝐴𝑧 )2

 Sometime ‘r’ will be used instead

of ‘ρ’
 Sometime the units of ‘Ө’ and
Hint __  Sometime the units of ‘Ø’ may be ‘Ø’ may be in radian
in radian

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 Point Conversion
Coordinates Cartesian Cylinder Spherical

Cartesian x 𝜌 = √(𝑥)2 + (𝑦)2 𝑟 = √(𝑥)2 + (𝑦)2 + (𝑧)2

y
Ø = tan−1
𝑦 𝑧
z 𝑥 Ө = cos −1
𝑟
𝑧=𝑧 𝑦
Ø = tan−1
𝑥

Cylinder 𝑥 = 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø ρ
𝑦 = 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø ø ___
𝑧=𝑧 z

Spherical 𝑥 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø r
𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø ___ 𝜃
𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠Ө ø

 Distance between two points

Let (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 ) be the points in Cartesian co-ordinate system then
𝑑 = √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2
Let (𝜌1 , Ø1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝜌2 , Ø2 , 𝑧2 ) be the points in cylindrical co-ordinate system then
2
𝑑 = √ 𝜌1 2 + 𝜌2 2 − 2𝜌2 𝜌1 cos(Ø2 − Ø1 ) + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )
Let (𝑟1 , Ө1 , Ø1 ) and (𝑟2 , Ө2 , Ø2 ) be the points in Spherical co-ordinate system then
𝑑 = √𝑟2 2 + 𝑟1 2 − 2𝑟2 𝑟1 cos Ө2 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ө1 − 2𝑟2 𝑟1 sinӨ2 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө1 cos(Ø2 − Ø1 )

Vector Transformation

Rectangular to other Coordinate

(i) Transformation of vector from Cartesian to cylinder coordinate

(ii) Transformation of vector from Cartesian to spherical coordinate

(i) Transformation of vector from Cartesian to cylinder coordinate

The given vector 𝐴⃗ in cartesian coordinates system is 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 where𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 be the
components of vector 𝐴⃗ in (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) direction. The vector 𝐴⃗ is desired to be expresses in cylindrical
coordinate system. The vector 𝐴⃗ in cylindrical coordinate system is given by 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧

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Where𝐴𝜌 , 𝐴Ø , 𝐴𝑧 are be components of vector 𝐴⃗ in (𝜌, Ø, 𝑧)direction. The following step will be followed
for vector transformation.
Step 1: Changing the point
Just imagine the rectangular and cylinder objects in 3D view, the ρ and Ø direction of cylindrical object
is formed from x and y direction of rectangular object and the z-direction is same as rectangular object z-
direction while you converting 3D-rectangular object into 3D-cylindrical object. The cylindrical
coordinates (𝜌, Ø, 𝑧) is obtained
𝑦
ρ=√(𝑥)2 + (𝑦)2 Ø=tan−1 𝑥 z=z
Step 2: Changing the components of vector
𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 be the components of vector 𝐴⃗ in (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) direction and the desired components are 𝐴𝜌 , 𝐴Ø , 𝐴𝑧 ,
The𝐴𝜌 , 𝐴Ø components are changing based on x and y coordinates and it’s obtained by taking the dot
product of vector with unit vector in the desired direction and 𝐴𝑧 component and its unit vector is same as
rectangular coordinate.

𝐴𝜌 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝜌 =(𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎𝜌 =𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 ) Eqn(1)
𝐴Ø = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗Ø = (𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎Ø = 𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) Eqn(2)
𝐴𝑧 =𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑧 = (𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎𝑧 =𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) Eqn(3)
Step 3: Analyzing the unit vector
The 𝑎⃗𝑥 , 𝑎⃗𝑦 , 𝑎⃗𝑧 are the unit vectors in cartesian coordinates in (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) directions which are mutually
perpendicular(angle between axis is 90 ) to each other. The following values are obtained by using dot
product.

𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝑥 = |𝑎⃗𝑥 ||𝑎⃗𝑥 |𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 1 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 = |𝑎⃗𝑥 ||𝑎⃗𝑦 |𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝑍 = |𝑎⃗𝑥 ||𝑎⃗𝑍 |𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0
𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝑥 = 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 = |𝑎⃗𝑦 ||𝑎⃗𝑦 |𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 1 𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 = |𝑎⃗𝑦 ||𝑎⃗𝑧 |𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0
𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑥 = 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 = 𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 = |𝑎⃗𝑧 ||𝑎⃗𝑧 |𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 1

The𝑎⃗𝜌 , 𝑎⃗Ø , 𝑎⃗𝑧 are the unit vectors in cylindrical coordinates in (𝜌, Ø, 𝑧) directions which are mutually
perpendicular to each other and following values are obtained by using dot product.

𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 = |𝑎⃗𝜌 ||𝑎⃗𝜌 |𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 1 𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗Ø = |𝑎⃗𝜌 ||𝑎⃗Ø |𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0 𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑍 = |𝑎⃗𝜌 ||𝑎⃗𝑍 |𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0
𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝜌 = 𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗Ø 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗Ø = |𝑎⃗Ø ||𝑎⃗Ø |𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 1 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑧 = |𝑎⃗Ø ||𝑎⃗𝑧 |𝑐𝑜𝑠90° = 0
𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 = 𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ø = 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 = |𝑎⃗𝑧 ||𝑎⃗𝑧 |𝑐𝑜𝑠0° = 1

From the Fig, the other combination is obtained

𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 = 0

𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗Ø = −𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗Ø = 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ø = 0
𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑥 = 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 = 𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 = 𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑧
𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗Ø = 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗Ø = 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ø = 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑧

8
After substituting the above values in Eqn(1),Eqn(2) and Eqn(3)

𝐴𝜌 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝜌 =𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 ) = 𝐴𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø) + 𝐴𝑧 (0)
𝐴Ø = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗Ø = 𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) = 𝐴𝑥 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø) + 𝐴𝑧 (0)
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑧 = 𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) = 𝐴𝑥 (0) + 𝐴𝑦 (0) + 𝐴𝑧 (1)
The vector A in cylindrical coordinate is
𝐴⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝐴𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø)𝑎⃗𝜌 + (−𝐴𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø + 𝐴𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø)𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧

It can also be expressed in matrix form

𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 𝐴𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 0 𝐴𝑥
[𝐴Ø ]=[ 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗Ø 𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗Ø 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ø ] [𝐴𝑦 ] = [−𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 0] [𝐴𝑦 ]
𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝐴𝑧 0 0 1 𝐴𝑧

(ii)Transformation of vector from Cartesian to spherical coordinate

The given vector 𝐴⃗ in Cartesian coordinate is 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 . and desired vector in spherical
coordinate is 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜃 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø

 Changing the point

The spherical coordinate is (r, θ, Ø)

𝑧
𝑟 = √(𝑥)2 + (𝑦)2 + (𝑧)2 θ = cos −1 𝑦
Ø = tan−1 𝑥
𝑟
 Changing the components of vector
𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 be the components of vector A in cartesian coordinates and the desired components are
𝐴𝑟 , 𝐴𝜃 , 𝐴Ø are obtained by taking the dot product of vector with unit vector in the desired direction.
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑟 =(𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎⃗𝑟 =𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝑟 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝑟 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑟 ) Eqn(7)
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝜃 = (𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎⃗𝜃 = 𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝜃 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗𝜃 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ɵ ) Eqn(8)
𝐴Ø =𝐴. 𝑎⃗Ø = (𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎⃗Ø =𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗𝑦 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) Eqn(9)
From Fig
𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎Ө = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎Ø = −𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎Ø = 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎Ø = 0
9
Substitute the values in Eqn(7-9)
𝐴𝑟 =𝐴𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝐴𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝐴𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø − 𝐴𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐴Ø = −𝐴𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø + 𝐴𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø

The vector A in sphercial coordinate is

𝐴 = (𝐴𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝐴𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑎𝑟 +(𝐴𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝐴𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø − 𝐴𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑎𝜃 +
( −𝐴𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø + 𝐴𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø) 𝑎Ø

Fig: Fig:

It can also be expressed in matrix form

𝐴𝑟 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑟 𝐴𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴𝑥
[𝐴𝜃 ]=[ 𝑥 . 𝑎𝜃 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝜃 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝜃 ] [𝐴𝑦 ] = [𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ] [𝐴𝑦 ]
𝐴Ø 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑧 𝐴𝑧 −𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 0 𝐴𝑧

Cylindrical to other Coordinate

(i)Transformation of vector from cylindrical to Cartesian coordinate

(ii)Transformation of vector from Cylinder to spherical coordinate

(i)Transformation of vector from cylindrical to Cartesian coordinate

The given vector 𝐴⃗ in cylindrical coordinates is 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 and desired vector in
cartesian coordinate system is 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 .
10
Step 1: Changing the point
The x and y direction of rectangular object is formed from ρ and Ø direction of cylindrical object and z-
direction is same as cylinder object. The cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is obtained
𝑥 = 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑦 = 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø z=z
Step 2: Changing the components of vector
𝐴𝜌 , 𝐴Ø , 𝐴𝑧 , be the components of vector A in cartesian coordinates and the desired components are
𝐴𝑥 , 𝐴𝑦 , 𝐴𝑧 are obtained by taking the dot product of vector with unit vector in the desired direction.
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑥 =(𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎⃗𝑥 =𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑥 ) Eqn(4)
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑦 = (𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎⃗𝑦 = 𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑦 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 ) Eqn(5)
𝐴𝑧 =𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑧 = (𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎⃗𝑧 =𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) Eqn(6)

Step 3: Analyzing the unit vector

The dot product values for various combinations are already described in step-3 of transformation
between cartesian to cylindrical systems. After substituting the necessary values in Eqn(4),Eqn(5) and
Eqn(6) and it becomes.
𝐴𝜌 = 𝐴. 𝑎𝜌 =𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑥 ) =𝐴𝑥 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø) + 𝐴𝑧 (0)
𝐴Ø = 𝐴. 𝑎Ø = 𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑦 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 ) = 𝐴𝑥 (−𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø) + 𝐴𝑧 (0)
𝐴𝑧 =𝐴. 𝑎𝑧 = 𝐴𝑥 (𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴𝑦 (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) = 𝐴𝑥 (0) + 𝐴𝑦 (0) + 𝐴𝑧 (1)
The vector A in cylindrical coordinate is
𝐴⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝐴𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø)𝑎⃗𝜌 + (−𝐴𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø + 𝐴𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø)𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧
It can also be expressed in matrix form
𝐴𝜌 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝜌 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝜌 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝜌 𝐴𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø −𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 0 𝐴𝑥
[𝐴Ø ]=[ 𝑥 . 𝑎Ø 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎Ø 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎Ø ] [𝐴𝑦 ] = [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 0] [𝐴𝑦 ]
𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑥 . 𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝑦 . 𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑧 𝐴𝑧 0 0 1 𝐴𝑧

(ii)Transformation of vector from Cylinder to spherical coordinate

Given vector in cylindrical coordinate is 𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 and desired vector in spherical coordinate
is 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜃 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø
 Changing the point (ρ,Ø,z are given)
𝑥 = 𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑦 = 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑧=𝑧
𝑧
𝑟 = √(𝑥)2 + (𝑦)2 + (𝑧)2 θ = cos −1 Ø = tan−1 𝑥
𝑦
𝑟
 Changing the components of vector
𝐴𝑟 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑟 =(𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎⃗𝑟 =𝐴𝜌 (𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑟 ) + 𝐴Ø (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑟 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑟 ) Eqn(10)
𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝜃 = (𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎⃗𝜃 = 𝐴𝜌 (𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝜃 ) + 𝐴Ø (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝜃 ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝜃 ) Eqn(11)

𝐴Ø =𝐴. 𝑎⃗Ø = (𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). 𝑎⃗Ø =𝐴𝜌 (𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) + 𝐴Ø (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗Ø ) + 𝐴𝑧 (𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) Eqn(12)
From Fig
𝑎𝜌 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎Ø . 𝑎𝑟 = 0 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝑟 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑎𝜌 . 𝑎𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎Ø . 𝑎𝜃 = 0 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎𝜃 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

11
𝑎𝜌 . 𝑎Ø = 0 𝑎Ø . 𝑎Ø = 1 𝑎𝑧 . 𝑎 Ø = 0

Substitute the values in Eqn(10-12)

𝐴𝑟 =𝐴𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + +𝐴𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴𝜃 = 𝐴𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝐴𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐴Ø = 𝐴Ø

The vector A in sphercial coordinate is

𝐴 = (𝐴𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑎𝑟 +(𝐴𝜌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝐴𝑧 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑎𝜃 + ( 𝐴Ø )𝑎Ø
It can also be expressed in matrix form

𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 𝑎⃗𝑟 . 𝑎⃗Ø 𝑎⃗𝑟 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝐴𝜌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 cos 𝜃 𝐴𝜌

[𝐴Ɵ ]=[ 𝑎⃗𝜃 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜃 . 𝑎⃗Ø 𝑎⃗𝜃 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ] [𝐴Ø ] = [cos 𝜃 0 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃] [𝐴Ø ]
𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝜌 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗Ø 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑧 𝐴𝑧 0 1 0 𝐴𝑧

Spherical to other Coordinate

(i) Transformation of vector from Spherical to Cartesian coordinate

(ii) Transformation of vector from Spherical to cylinder coordinate

(i)Transformation of vector from Spherical to Cartesian coordinate

Given vector in cylindrical coordinate is 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜃 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø and desired vector in spherical
coordinate is 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 .

 Changing the point (ρ, 𝜃,z are given)

𝑥 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

12
  Changing the components of vector
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑥 =(𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜃 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø ). 𝑎⃗𝑥 =𝐴𝑟 (𝑎⃗𝑟 . 𝑎⃗𝑥 ) + 𝐴𝜃 (𝑎⃗𝜃 . 𝑎⃗𝑥 ) + 𝐴Ø (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑥 ) Eqn(13)
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑦 = (𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜃 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø ). 𝑎⃗𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟 (𝑎⃗𝑟 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 ) + 𝐴𝜃 (𝑎⃗𝜃 . 𝑎⃗𝑦 ) + 𝐴Ø (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑦 ) Eqn(14)

𝐴𝑧 =𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑧 = (𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜃 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø ). 𝑎⃗𝑧 =𝐴𝑟 (𝑎⃗𝑟 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴𝜃 (𝑎⃗𝜃 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴Ø (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) Eqn(15)
From Fig

𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑎Ø . 𝑎𝑥 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø

𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑎Ø . 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø
𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝑧 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎Ø . 𝑎𝑧 = 0
Substitute the values in Eqn (13-15)
𝐴𝑥 =𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø − 𝐴Ø 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø + 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø + 𝐴Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø
𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝐴𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
The vector A in cartesian coordinate is
𝐴 = (𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø + 𝐴Ө 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø − 𝐴Ø 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø )𝑎𝑥 +(𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø + 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø + 𝐴Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø) 𝑎𝑦 +
( 𝐴𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝐴𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) 𝑎𝑧

It can also be expressed in matrix form

𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗𝜃 𝑎⃗𝑥 . 𝑎⃗Ø 𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø −𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝐴𝑟
𝐴 𝑎⃗
[ 𝑦 ]= [ 𝑦 𝑟 . 𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗ .
𝑦 𝜃𝑎⃗ 𝑎⃗ . 𝑎⃗ 𝐴
𝑦 Ø ] [ 𝜃 ] = [ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø ] [𝐴𝜃 ]
𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝜃 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ø 𝐴Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 𝐴Ø

(ii) Transformation of vector from Spherical to cylinder coordinate

Given vector in spherical coordinate is 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜃 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø and desired vector in cylindrical
coordinate is 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 .
 Changing the point (r, 𝜃,Ø are given)
𝑥 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑐𝑜𝑠Ø 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑠𝑖𝑛Ø 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑦
𝜌= √(𝑥)2 + (𝑦)2 Ø= tan−1 𝑥 𝑧=𝑧
 Changing the components of vector

𝐴𝜌 = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝜌 =(𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜃 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø ). 𝑎⃗𝜌 =𝐴𝑟 (𝑎⃗𝑟 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 ) + 𝐴𝜃 (𝑎⃗𝜃 . 𝑎⃗𝜌 ) + 𝐴Ø (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝜌 ) Eqn(16)
𝐴Ø = 𝐴. 𝑎⃗Ø = (𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜃 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø ). 𝑎⃗Ø = 𝐴𝑟 (𝑎⃗𝑟 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) + 𝐴𝜃 (𝑎⃗𝜃 . 𝑎⃗Ø ) + 𝐴Ø (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗Ø ) Eqn(17)

𝐴𝑧 =𝐴. 𝑎⃗𝑧 = (𝐴𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜃 + 𝐴Ø 𝑎⃗Ø ). 𝑎⃗𝑧 =𝐴𝑟 (𝑎⃗𝑟 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴𝜃 (𝑎⃗𝜃 . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) + 𝐴Ø (𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑧 ) Eqn(18)
From Fig

𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝜌 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎𝜌 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎Ø . 𝑎𝜌 = 0
𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎Ø = 0 𝑎𝜃 . 𝑎Ø = 0 𝑎 Ø . 𝑎Ø = 1
𝑎𝑟 . 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑎Ɵ . 𝑎𝑧 = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎 Ø . 𝑎𝑧 = 0
Substitute the values in Eqn(16-18)
𝐴𝜌 =𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴Ø = 𝐴Ø 𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝐴𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

13
The vector A in cartesian coordinate is
𝐴 = (𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 + 𝐴𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 )𝑎𝜌 +( 𝐴Ø ) 𝑎𝜃 + ( 𝐴𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝐴𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ) 𝑎𝑧
It can also be expressed in matrix form
𝐴𝜌 𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗𝜃 𝑎⃗𝜌 . 𝑎⃗Ø 𝐴𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0 𝐴𝑟
𝐴
[𝐴Ø ]=[ 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗𝜃 𝑎⃗Ø . 𝑎⃗Ø ] [ 𝜃 ] = [ 0 0 1] [𝐴𝜃 ]
𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗𝜃 𝑎⃗𝑧 . 𝑎⃗Ø 𝐴Ø 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 0 𝐴Ø

Divergence:

The divergence of a vector ‘𝐴⃗’ at a given point P is the outward flux per unit volume as the volume shrinks
about P.
∮ 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝐴⃗ = ∇. 𝐴⃗ = Lim 𝑠
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣
That is if 𝐴⃗ is the vector representing flux density, total flux through the closed surface S enclosing the
volume 𝑑𝑣 is given by ∮𝑠 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗

Positive divergence: The divergence of the vector field A at a given point as a measure of how much the
field diverges or emanates from that point. Figure (a) shows that the divergence of a vector field at point
P is positive because the vector diverges (or spreads out) at P.

Negative divergence: In Figure (b) a vector field has negative divergence (or convergence) at P. Zero
divergence: In Figure (c) a vector field has zero divergence at P.
Practical Example:
(i) Leaking air from a balloon yield positive divergence
(ii) Rushing of air into drum under the carriage of a train yields negative divergence
(iii)Water flow in the pipe is an example for zero divergence

Del operator (or) napla: The differential vector operator ∇ is called Del operator (or) napla
and unit is m-1
 Del operator in different co-ordinates
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
 In Cartesian co-ordinates: 𝛻 = 𝜕𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧
𝑎⃗𝑧
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕
 In Cylindrical co-ordinates: 𝛻 = ⃗⃗𝜌 +
𝑎 ⃗⃗
𝑎 + ⃗⃗𝑧
𝑎
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕Ø Ø 𝜕𝑧

14
 𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
 In Spherical co-ordinates: 𝛻= ⃗⃗𝑟 +
𝑎 ⃗⃗Ө +
𝑎 ⃗⃗
𝑎
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕Ө 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө 𝜕Ø Ø
 Divergence in different co-ordinates
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑍
 In Cartesian co-ordinates: 𝛻. 𝐴⃗ = 𝑥 + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕(𝜌𝐴 𝜌 ) 1 𝜕𝐴Ø 𝜕𝐴𝑍
 In Cylindrical co-ordinates: 𝛻. 𝐴⃗ = + +
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜕Ø 𝜕𝑧
1 𝜕(𝑟2 𝐴 𝑟) 1 𝜕(𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө𝐴Ө ) 1 𝜕𝐴Ø
 In Spherical co-ordinates: 𝛻. 𝐴⃗ = + +
𝑟2 𝜕𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө 𝜕Ө 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө 𝜕Ø

Hint:

Solenoidal vector:
 Any vector field which has zero divergence everywhere is called a solenoid field.
 Consider A be the vector in cartesian coordinates, if A is said to be solenoidal vector than its
divergence is zero. Let 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
𝛻. A =div. A = + + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Condition for solenoid is 𝛻 . 𝐴⃗ = div 𝐴⃗=0
Curl:
The curl of A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit
area as the area lends to zero and whose direction is the normal direction of the area when the area is
oriented so as to make the circulation maximum.

∮𝐿 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴 = ∇ 𝑋𝐴 = lim 𝑎𝑛
∆𝑠→0 ∆𝑠
Where the area ΔS is bounded by the curve L and an is the unit vector normal to the surface
ΔS and is determined using the right-hand rule
 Curl in different co-ordinates
𝑎⃗𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
 In Cartesian co-ordinates: 𝛻 𝑋 𝐴⃗ =[ ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
⃗⃗𝜌
𝑎 ⃗⃗Ø
𝜌𝑎 ⃗⃗𝑧
𝑎
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
 In Cylindrical co-ordinates: 𝛻 𝑋 𝐴⃗ = [ ]
𝜌 𝜕𝜌 𝜕Ø 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝜌 𝜌𝐴Ø 𝐴𝑧
⃗⃗𝑟
𝑎 ⃗⃗𝜃
𝑟𝑎 ⃗⃗Ø
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑎
1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
 In Spherical co-ordinates: 𝛻 𝑋 𝐴⃗= [ ]
𝑟2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕Ø
𝐴𝑟 𝑟𝐴Ɵ𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝐴Ø

Hint:
Irrotational vector:

15
 Any vector field which has zero curl everywhere is called a irrotational field. Consider A be the vector
in cartesian coordinates, if A is said to be irrotational vector than its curl is zero
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎𝑧
𝑎𝑥 𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻 XA = curl A = [ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑧
]=0
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
Condition for Irrotational is 𝛻 X 𝐴⃗ = curl 𝐴⃗=0

1.1.4 Gradient
The gradient of a scalar field V is vector that represents both magnitude and direction of the
maximum space rate of increase of V.
 Gradient in different co-ordinates
V= Given scalar expression
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
 In Cartesian co-ordinates: 𝛻.V = ⃗⃗𝑥 +
𝑎 ⃗⃗ +
𝑎 ⃗⃗
𝑎
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑧
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
 In Cylindrical co-ordinates: 𝛻.V = ⃗⃗ +
𝑎 ⃗⃗ +
𝑎 ⃗⃗𝑧
𝑎
𝜕𝜌 𝜌 𝜌 𝜕Ø Ø 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉 1 𝜕𝑉
 In Spherical co-ordinates: 𝛻.V = ⃗⃗𝑟 +
𝑎 ⃗⃗Ө +
𝑎 ⃗⃗Ø
𝑎
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕Ө 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛Ө 𝜕Ø
Properties of the Gradient of a scalar field:
1. 𝛻.V points in the direction of the maximum rate of change in V.
2. The projection of 𝛻.V in the direction of a unit vector 𝑎⃗ is 𝛻.V along 𝑎⃗ and is called
the directional derivative of V along𝑎⃗ . This is the rate of change of V in the direction𝑎⃗ .
3. If 𝐴 = 𝛻.V, V is said to be scalar potential of A

Divergence Theorem
The divergence theorem states that the total outward flux of a vector field A through the closed
surface S is the same as the volume integral of the divergence of A.
⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒗 = ∯ 𝑨
∭ 𝜵. 𝑨 ⃗⃗. 𝒅𝒔
⃗⃗
We can obtain an expression for ∇. 𝐴 in Cartesian coordinates from the definition
∮𝑠 𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑠⃗
𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝐴⃗ = ∇. 𝐴⃗ = Lim (1)
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣
Proof: Suppose we wish to evaluate the divergence of a vector field A at point P(xo,yo, zo); we let the
point be enclosed by a differential volume as in Figure. The surface integral in eqn (1) is obtained from

16
 ∮ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑠 = (∫ +∫ +∫ +∫ +∫ +∫ ) 𝐴. 𝑑𝑠
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

A three-dimensional Taylor series expansion of Ax about P is

𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
𝐴𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐴𝑥 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 ) + (𝑧 − 𝑧𝑜 ) + 𝐻𝑂𝑇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Where HOT= Higher order term

For the front side, 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 + 𝑑𝑥⁄2 and 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑥 then

𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑥
∫ 𝐴 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 [𝐴𝑥 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 ) + ] + 𝐻𝑂𝑇
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥
For the back side, 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 − 𝑑𝑥⁄2 and 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑦(−𝑎𝑥 ) then
𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑥
∫ 𝐴 𝑑𝑠 = −𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 [𝐴𝑥 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 ) − ] + 𝐻𝑂𝑇
𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 2 𝜕𝑥

Hence,
𝜕𝐴𝑥
∫ 𝐴 𝑑𝑠 + ∫ 𝐴 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐻𝑂𝑇 (2)
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝐵𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝜕𝑥

By taking similar steps, in y-direction then we obtain,

𝜕𝐴𝑦
∫ 𝐴 𝑑𝑠 + ∫ 𝐴 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐻𝑂𝑇 (3)
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝜕𝑦
And in z-direction,
𝜕𝐴𝑧
∫ 𝐴 𝑑𝑠 + ∫ 𝐴 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 + 𝐻𝑂𝑇 (4)
𝑡𝑜𝑝 𝐵𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝜕𝑧

Substitute (2),(3),(4) in (1) and nothing that ∇ 𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 we get

∮ 𝐴.𝑑𝑠⃗ ⃗ 𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑍
𝑑𝑖𝑣. 𝐴⃗ = ∇. 𝐴⃗ = Lim 𝑠 ∆𝑣 = + +
∆𝑣→0 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

17
To prove the divergence theorem, subdivide volume v into a large number of small cells. If the kth cell
has volume ∆vk and is bounded by surface Sk.
∮𝑠 𝐴⃗.𝑑𝑠⃗ ∆𝑣𝑘
∮s A. ds = ∑k ∆𝑣𝑘
(5)

Since the outward flux to one cell is inward to some neighboring cells, there is cancellation on every
interior surface, so the sum of the surface integrals over Sk's is the same as the surface integral over the
surface S.

Consider the vector 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧

The divergence of a vector 𝐴⃗ is given by

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻. 𝐴⃗ = ( 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝑎⃗𝑧 ). (𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑍
𝛻. 𝐴⃗ = ( + + )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Taking volume integral on both sides

𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑍

∭ 𝛻. 𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑣 = ∭ ( + + ) 𝑑𝑣 [𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑍
∭ 𝛻. 𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑣 = ∭( + + ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (6)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Considering the R.H.S of the Eqn(1)
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑍
∭( + + ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Integrating along ‘𝑥 ’ direction alone, by considering the line integral from 𝑥1 to 𝑥2

∂Ax
∬ (∫ ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (7)
∂x
𝑥2
∂Ax
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = (Ax )𝑥2 𝑥1 = A𝑥2 − A𝑥1 = Ax
𝑥1 ∂x
Substituting the value in the Eqn(7)

∬ 𝐀 𝒙 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒛 = ∬ 𝐀 𝒙 𝐝𝐬𝒙 (8)
𝒔
Similarly, integrating along ‘y’ direction alone, by considering the line integral from 𝑦1 to 𝑦2
∂Ay
∬ (∫ ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (9)
∂x
𝑦2 ∂A
y 𝑦2
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = (Ay ) = A𝑦2 − A𝑦1 = Ay
𝑦1 ∂x
𝑦1

18
Substituting the value in the Eqn(9)

∬ 𝐀 𝒚 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒛 = ∬ 𝐀 𝒚 𝐝𝐬𝒚 (10)
𝒔
Similarly, integrating along ‘z’ direction alone, by considering the line integral from 𝑧1 to 𝑧2
∂Az
∬ (∫ ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 (11)
∂z
𝑧2
∂Az
∫ 𝑑𝑧 = (Az ) 𝑧2 𝑧1 = A𝑧2 − A𝑧1 = Az
𝑧1 ∂z

Substituting the value in the Eqn(11)

∬ 𝐀 𝒛 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚 = ∬ 𝐀 𝒛 𝐝𝐬𝒛 (𝟏𝟐)
𝒔
Substituting the values of Eqn(8),(10) and (12) in Eqn(6) then
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑍
∭ 𝛻. 𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑣 = ∭ ( + + ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= ∬ 𝐴𝑥 ds𝑥 + ∬ 𝐴𝑦 ds𝑦 + ∬ 𝐴𝑧 ds𝑧
= ∬( 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 )(ds𝑥 + ds𝑦 + ds𝑧 )
= ∬𝒔 𝐀 𝐝𝐬
∭ 𝛻. 𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑣 = ∯𝑠 𝐴⃗ ds

Hence the volume integral of divergence of a vector field over a volume is equal to the surface integral
of the normal component of this vector over the surface bounding the volume.

 Curl grad V=0

 ∇.(∇xA)=0

Stokes’s Theorem

It states that the circulation of a vector field ⃗𝑨

⃗⃗ around a (closed) path L is equal to the surface
⃗⃗ over the open surface S bounded by L provided that A and 𝜵 X𝑨
integral of the curl of 𝑨 ⃗⃗ are
continuous on S.

⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒍⃗ = ∬(𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍 ⃗𝑨⃗). 𝒏

∮ ⃗𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔 = ∬(𝜵 𝑿 ⃗𝑨⃗)𝒏
⃗⃗ 𝒅𝒔
𝒍
𝒔

Proof: The surface S is subdivided into a large number of cells as in Fig. and each cell approximated as
rectangular shape

19
From the definition,
∮𝐿 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴 = ∇ 𝑋𝐴 = lim 𝑎𝑛 (1)
∆𝑠→0 ∆𝑠

Let A be the vector in Cartesian coordinate

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧

Consider the differential area in the yz-plane as in Figure. The line integral in eqn (1) is obtained as

∮ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = (∫ + ∫ + ∫ + ∫ ) 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙
𝐿 𝑎𝑏 𝑏𝑐 𝑑𝑎
𝑐𝑑
We expand the field components in a Taylor series expansion about the center point 𝑃(𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 ) as
given below
𝜕𝐴𝑥 𝜕𝐴𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
𝐴𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝐴𝑥 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 ) + (𝑦 − 𝑦𝑜 ) + (𝑧 − 𝑧𝑜 ) + 𝐻𝑂𝑇
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Where HOT= Higher order term

𝑑𝑧
𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑎𝑏, 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑧0 −
2
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦
∫ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑦 [𝐴𝑦 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 ) − ] (2)
𝑎𝑏 2 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑦
𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑐, 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑦0 +
2
20
 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
∫ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑧 [𝐴𝑧 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 ) + ] (3)
𝑏𝑐 2 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑧
𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑑, 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑦𝑎𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 = 𝑧0 +
2
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦
∫ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = − 𝑑𝑦 [𝐴𝑦 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 ) + ] (4)
𝑐𝑑 2 𝜕𝑧
𝑑𝑦
𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑑𝑎, 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑧𝑎𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑦0 −
2
𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝐴𝑧
∫ 𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 = − 𝑑𝑧 [𝐴𝑧 (𝑥𝑜 , 𝑦𝑜 , 𝑧𝑜 ) − ] (5)
𝑑𝑎 2 𝜕𝑦
Substituting (2),(3),(4), (5) in to (1) and nothing that ΔS= 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 we have
𝐴. 𝑑𝑙 𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦
lim ∮ = −
∆𝑆→0 𝐿 ∆𝑠 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝐴𝑧 𝜕𝐴𝑦
or (𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐴)𝑥 = −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The definition ∇× 𝐴in eqn (1) is independent of the system. In the Cartesian coordinates the curl of A is
easily found using
𝑎⃗𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻 X𝐴⃗ = curl 𝐴⃗ = [ ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑌 𝜕𝑧
𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
The differential surface area in Cartesian co-ordinate is described as

𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑎⃗𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑎⃗𝑧

∮ 𝐴⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∬(𝛻 𝑋 𝐴⃗)𝑛⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠

𝑙
𝑠

Types of Integral:
Line integral: The line integration of function can be denoted by ∫𝑐 𝐸 𝑑𝑙
Where 𝐸 = scalar function and 𝑑𝑙= differential length
Surface integral: The surface integral is denoted by ∫ 𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑠 𝑠
Where 𝐴⃗ = vector function and 𝑑𝑠= differential surface
Volume integral: The volume integration of F is given by ∫𝑣 𝐹 𝑑𝑣
Where 𝐹 = vector function and 𝑑𝑣= differential volume

21
 Unit-2
Coulombs Law
Coulomb stated that the force between two very small objects separated in a vacuum or free space by a
distance which is large compared to their size is proportional to the charge on each and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. The force 𝐹 between the charges can be expressed
as
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹𝛼
𝑟2
Where 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are the positive or negative quantities of charge in Coulomb’s (C), 𝑟 is the distance
between the charges in meters (m) and 𝐹 is the force in Newton(N) . Fig. gives an idea about how are the
charges separated in vacuum or free space.

𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑟

Fig. The charge 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are separated in vacuum or free space

The effect of the medium is introduced in the force equation as constant of proportionality denoted as 𝑘.
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘
𝑟2
1
The proportionality constant (𝑘) is defined as 𝑘=
4𝜋𝜖
Where 𝜖= Permittivity of the medium in which charges are located and the unit is farads/meter (F/m). In
general 𝜖 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟
Where 𝜖 = Absolute Permittivity 𝜖𝑜 =Permittivity of the free space or vacuum
𝜖𝑟 = Relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the medium with respect to free space
For the free space or vacuum, the relative permittivity𝜖𝑟 = 1, hence 𝜖 = 𝜖𝑜
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
1
The permittivity of free space 𝜖𝑜 is, 𝜖𝑜 = × 10−9 = 8.854 × 10−12 F/m
36𝜋

Vector form of Coulombs law

Coulombs law can also expressed in vector form that the force acts along the line joining. The like
charges repel to each other while unlike charges attract to each other as shown in Fig. (a) and Fig. (b)

F 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞1 F F 𝑞2

𝑟 𝑟

(a) (b)

Fig. (a) Charge 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are like charge (b) Charge 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 are unlike charge

22
 𝑞1

𝑟⃗1

𝑟⃗12

𝑟⃗2

𝑞2

𝐹2

Fig.(c) vector form of coulomb’s law

Consider the two point charges 𝑞1 and 𝑞2 located a distance 𝑟⃗1 and 𝑟⃗2 from origin as shown in Fig.C and
𝑟⃗12 represents the directed line from 𝑞1 to 𝑞2 force extracted on 𝑞2 due to 𝑞1 . Hence vector form of
coulomb’s law is
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗2 = 𝑎⃗
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 (|r⃗12 |)2 12
Where 𝑎⃗12 is a unit vector along 𝑟⃗12
r⃗12 r⃗2 − r⃗1
a⃗⃗12 = =
|r⃗12 | |r⃗2− r⃗1 |
The force on 𝑞1 due to 𝑞2 is
𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹⃗1 = 𝑎⃗ = −𝐹⃗2
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 (|r⃗21 |)2 21
r⃗21 r⃗1 − r⃗2
a⃗⃗21 = =
|r⃗21 | |r⃗1− r⃗2 |
The magnitude of force 𝐹⃗1 and 𝐹⃗2 are same but opposite direction. 𝐹⃗1 = −𝐹⃗2
Coulomb’s law’s is linear, if the charge 𝑞1 is multiplied by the some factor 𝑛 than the force exerted also
increases by n times. 𝑛 𝐹⃗1 = − 𝑛 𝐹⃗2
Principle of superposition concept is involved to find the magnitude of force and direction when more
than two point charges are present. A system consists of 𝑛 point charges namely 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 , …, 𝑞𝑛
located at 𝑟⃗1, 𝑟⃗2 ….𝑟⃗𝑛 from an origin than the force on 𝑖 charge is given by the vector sum of all the
th

individual forces. The force 𝐹⃗𝑖 on the 𝑖 th charge can be written as

𝑛 𝑛
𝑞𝑖 𝑞𝑗
⃗
𝐹𝑖 = ∑ 𝐹𝑖𝑗 = ∑⃗ 𝑎⃗
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2 𝑖𝑗 𝑗𝑖
𝑗=1 𝑗=1
𝑗≠𝑖 𝑗≠𝑖
Where 𝑞𝑗 is any of the charge other than 𝑞𝑖 and 𝑟𝑖𝑗 is the distance between the jth and ith charges.

23
Electric field intensity (point charge)
Definition 1: The electric field (or) electric field intensity (E) is defined as the force per unit charge and
is given by
𝑄𝑞 𝑸𝑞
𝐹 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟2 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟2 𝑞
𝐸= = = =
𝑄 𝑄 𝑸 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟2
The unit for E is volt/meter (or) Newton/coulomb

Definition 2: electric field intensity is also defined as a negative gradient of a potential due to the
charge, that is
𝐸 =−∇𝑉

Hint 1: Expression for E in vector form

𝐹 𝑞
𝐸= = 𝑎
⃗⃗⃗
𝑄 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟2 𝑟
Hint 2: Types of charge distribution

Point Charge Line charge Surface charge Volume Charge

𝑞
 For point charge 𝐸= (Note: if distance is given)
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
𝑞 𝑎⃗⃗𝑟
 For point charge 𝐸= (Note: if point is given)
4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝑟 2
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
 For line charge E=∫ 𝑎⃗ 𝑑𝑙 (𝑂𝑅) 𝐸 = ∫𝑙 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑑𝑙
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2
𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠
 For surface charge E=∬ 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑑𝑠 (𝑂𝑅) 𝐸 = ∫𝑠 𝑎⃗ 𝑑𝑠
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝜌𝑣 𝜌𝑣
 For volume charge E=∭ 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑑𝑣 (𝑂𝑅) 𝐸= ∫𝑣 4𝜋𝜀 𝜀 𝑟 2 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑑𝑣
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2 𝑜 𝑟

Electric field intensity (continuous line density – infinite line/ finite line)
Consider a uniformly charged line of length ‘L’ whose linear charge density 𝜌𝑙 in C/m and also consider
a small element ‘𝑑𝑙’ at a distance ‘𝑙’ from one end of the charged line as shown in Fig. Let ‘P’
be any point at a distance ‘r’ from the element ‘𝑑𝑙’.

24
The Electric field at a point ‘P’ due to the charge element 𝜌 𝑑𝑙 is given by
𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐸 =
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑟2
The 𝑥 and 𝑦 components of electric field 𝑑𝐸 are given by

𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝐸𝑥 + 𝑑𝐸𝑦
From Fig, 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 𝑑𝐸 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 and 𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑑𝐸 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Now,
𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐸𝑥 =
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑟2
From Fig, 𝑥 − 𝑙 = ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝜃
−𝑑𝑙 = −ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
ℎ ℎ
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟= = ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝜃
𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜌𝑙 𝒅𝒍 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜌𝑙 𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
Then 𝑑𝐸𝑥 = = =
4𝜋 𝜀 𝒓𝟐 4𝜋 𝜀 (𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝜽)𝟐 4𝜋 𝜀ℎ
The electric field intensity 𝐸𝑥 due to the entire length of line charge is given by
𝜋− 𝛼2 𝜋− 𝛼2 𝜋− 𝛼2
𝜌𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑙
𝐸𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑 𝐸𝑥 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4𝜋 𝜀ℎ 4𝜋 𝜀ℎ
𝛼1 𝛼1 𝛼1
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
𝐸𝑥 = [− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] = [− cos(𝜋 − 𝛼2 ) − (− cos( 𝛼1 ))]
4𝜋 𝜀ℎ 4𝜋 𝜀ℎ
𝝆𝒍
𝑬𝒙 = [𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝜶𝟏 ) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝜶𝟐 )]
𝟒𝝅 𝜺𝒉
𝜌𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
Similarly for 𝑦 component of E 𝑑𝐸𝑦 =
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑟2
𝜌𝑙 𝒅𝒍 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝜌𝑙 𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = = =
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝒓𝟐 4 𝜋 𝜀 (𝒉 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒆𝒄𝜽)𝟐 4𝜋 𝜀ℎ

25
The electric field intensity 𝐸𝑦 due to the entire length of line charge is given by
𝜋− 𝛼2 𝜋− 𝛼2 𝜋− 𝛼2
𝜌𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑙
𝐸𝑦 = ∫ 𝑑 𝐸𝑦 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4𝜋 𝜀ℎ 4𝜋 𝜀ℎ
𝛼1 𝛼1 𝛼1
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
𝐸𝑦 = [𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃] = [sin(𝜋 − 𝛼2 ) − sin(𝛼1 )]
4𝜋 𝜀ℎ 4𝜋 𝜀ℎ
𝝆𝒍
𝑬𝒚 = [𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝜶𝟐 ) − 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜶𝟏 )]
𝟒𝝅 𝜺𝒉
The electric field intensity 𝐸 = 𝐸𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦
𝝆𝒍
𝑬= [𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝜶𝟏 ) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝜶𝟐 )] + [𝐬𝐢𝐧( 𝜶𝟐 ) − 𝒔𝒊𝒏(𝜶𝟏 )]
𝟒𝝅 𝜺𝒉
Case (i): if the point ‘P’ is at bisector of a line then 𝜶𝟏 = 𝜶𝟐 = 𝜶
𝜌𝑙
𝐸= [cos( 𝛼) + cos( 𝛼)] + [sin( 𝛼) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝛼)]
4𝜋 𝜀ℎ
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
𝐸= [2 cos( 𝛼)] = [cos( 𝛼)]
4𝜋 𝜀ℎ 2𝜋 𝜀ℎ
Case (ii): if the line is infinitely long 𝛼 =0
𝜌𝑙
𝐸= [cos( 0) + cos( 0)] + [sin( 0) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛(0)]
4𝜋 𝜀ℎ
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙
𝐸= [1 + 1] + [0 + 0] =
4𝜋 𝜀ℎ 2𝜋 𝜀ℎ

26
Electric field intensity - continuous surface charge density-circular disc

Consider a circular disc of radius ‘R’ is uniformly with charge density of 𝜌𝑠 in C/m2 and ‘P’ be
any point on the axis of the disc at a distance from the centre (origin).

Consider annular ring of radius ‘r’ and thickness ‘dr’ as shown in Fig. the area of the annular
ring is 𝑑𝑠 = 2𝜋 𝑟 𝑑𝑟

The electric filed intensity at point ‘P’ due to the charged annular ring is given by

𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐸 =
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑑2
𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑑𝐸𝑥 + 𝑑𝐸𝑦 =
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑑2
Since horizontal component of electric field intensity is zero(𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 0), and the vertical component is
given by
𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝜌𝑠 𝟐𝝅 𝒓 𝒅𝒓
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑑2 4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑑2
From Fig,
𝑟
𝑟 = ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑑
𝑟
𝑑𝑟 = ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
ℎ
Then
𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 𝑟 𝒉 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 𝑟 ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝒓 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
4𝜋 𝜀( ) 4 𝜋 𝜀 (𝑟)2
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

27
 1 𝟐 1
𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 𝒓 ℎ ( ) 𝑑𝜃 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 ℎ ( ) 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= =
4 𝜋 𝜀 (𝑟)𝟐 4𝜋 𝜀𝑟

𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 ( ) 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑟 4 𝜋 𝜀 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
4𝜋 𝜀( )
𝒉

𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑠 𝟐𝝅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝐸𝑦 = = =
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 𝟐. 𝟐𝝅 𝜀 2𝜀
The total electric field due to the charged disc
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝜌𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑 𝐸𝑦 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ]
2𝜀 2𝜀 2𝜀
𝜃=0 𝜃=0 𝜃=0

𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠
𝐸= [− cos(𝛼 ) − (− cos(0))] = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
2𝜀 2𝜀
From Fig,
ℎ
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑅 2
Then
𝜌𝑠 ℎ
𝐸= (1 − )
2𝜀 √ℎ2 + 𝑅 2
Salient feature of Electric flux density:

1. it has unit of N/C or V/m

2. it is a vector
3. it is depends upon the medium
4. it is depends upon the location of charge
5. when a unit charge at a distance is moved around the fixed charge

28
Electric field intensity (continuous surface charge density- sheet or plane)

Consider an infinite sheet of charge having uniform charge density is 𝜌𝑠 in C/m2, placed in xy plane
as shown in Fig. let us use cylindrical coordinates.The point ‘P’ is at which E to be calculated on ‘z’-
axis.

Consider a small differential surface area ‘ds’ carrying a charge dQ. The normal direction to ds is z
direction hence ds normal to z direction is 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑∅

𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑∅
𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑∅
𝑑𝐸 = 𝑎
⃗ 𝑟 = 𝑎⃗
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑅2 4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑅2 𝑟
−𝑟𝑎⃗⃗𝑟 +𝑧𝑎⃗⃗𝑧
Where 𝑅 = √𝑟 2 + 𝑍 2 and 𝒂
⃗⃗𝒓 =
√𝑟 2 + 𝑍 2
𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑∅ 𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑∅ −𝑟𝑎⃗⃗𝑟 +𝑧𝑎⃗⃗𝑧
𝑑𝐸 = ⃗⃗𝒓 =
𝒂
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑹2 4 𝜋 𝜀 (√𝑟 2 + 𝑍 2 )2 √𝑟 2 + 𝑍 2
There is symmetry about z-axis from all radial direction, all ar components of E are going to cancel each
other.
2𝜋 𝜌𝑠 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑∅ 𝑧𝑎⃗⃗𝑧 2𝜋 𝜌 𝑟 𝑑𝑟 𝑑∅ 𝑧𝑎⃗⃗𝑧
𝐸 = ∫∅=0 ∫𝑟=0 2 2 2 2 2
= ∫∅=0 ∫𝑟=0 𝑠 3
4 𝜋 𝜀 (√𝑟 + 𝑍 ) √𝑟 + 𝑍 4 𝜋 𝜀 (√𝑟 2 + 𝑍 2 ) ⁄2

Put 𝑟 2 + 𝑍 2 = 𝑈 2 and 2𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 2𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑟 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑢 𝑑𝑢
For 𝑟 =0 , U=Z
2𝜋 𝜌𝑠 𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑∅ 𝑧𝑎⃗⃗𝑧
𝐸 = ∫∅=0 ∫𝑢=𝑧 ⁄𝟑
4 𝜋 𝜀 (𝑼 𝟐 ) 𝟐

2𝜋 𝜌𝑠 𝒖 𝑑𝑢 𝑑∅ 𝑧𝑎⃗⃗𝑧 2𝜋 𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑢 𝑑∅ 𝑧𝑎⃗⃗𝑧
= ∫∅=0 ∫𝑢=𝑧 𝟏 = ∫∅=0 ∫𝑢=𝑧
4 𝜋 𝜀 (𝑼 𝟐 ) ⁄𝟐 ( 𝑼 𝟐 ) 4𝜋 𝜀 𝑼𝟐

29
 𝜌𝑠 𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧 2𝜋 𝑑𝑢 𝑑∅
= ∫ ∫
4 𝜋 𝜀 ∅=0 𝑢=𝑧 𝑼 𝟐

𝜌𝑠 𝑎⃗𝑧
𝐸=
2𝜀
Now 𝑎
⃗ 𝑧 is direction normal to differential surface area ds considered. Hence in genera if 𝑎⃗𝑛 is direction
normal to the surface containing charge, then the above expression realized that
𝜌𝑠 𝑎⃗𝑛
𝐸=
2𝜀
Electric flux density (or) Displacement density: electric flux density is defined as the electric flux per
unit area
⃗⃗ = ψ = Q in c/m2
𝐷
A A
Where ψ= total flux and A= total surface area

For sphere surface area 𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

Q Q
⃗⃗ =
𝐷 𝐸⃗⃗ =
But
4π r2 4𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 π r2
𝑄
⃗⃗ = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸⃗⃗ =
𝐷
4𝜋𝑟 2
dψ
⃗⃗ =
Vector form of electric flux density: 𝐷 a⃗⃗r
ds

30
Gauss Law:
The electric flux passing through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by the surface.

𝜓=𝑄
Consider a small element of area 𝑑𝑠 in a plane surface having a charge Q and P be the point in the
element. At every point on the surface the electric flux density D will have the value Ds. let Ds make an
angle 𝜃 with 𝑑𝑠 as shown in Fig. the flux crossing 𝑑𝑠 is the product of the normal component of Ds and
𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝜓 = 𝐷𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 . 𝑑𝑠

𝑑𝜓 = 𝐷𝑠 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐷𝑠 𝑑𝑠

𝑄
𝜓 = ∫ 𝑑𝜓 = ∫ 𝐷𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = ∫ 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄
𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑑𝑠)

Proof: Consider a charge Q at the origin of a spherical

coordinate system whose coordinates are (𝑟, 𝜃, ∅) as shown in
Fig. the radius of the sphere is r.
The electric field intensity due to the charge Q is 𝐸=
𝑄
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑟 2
⃗⃗ = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑄 2
The electric flux density 𝐷 4𝜋𝑟
Consider a small element of area ds on the surface the sphere at a distance r from the origin as shown in
fig.
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑∅ = 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑Ø
The electric flux 𝜓 = ∫ 𝑑𝜓 = ∮𝑠 𝐷 𝑑𝑠

𝑄 2
𝜓=∫ 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑Ø
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑠
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝜓= ∫ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑Ø = ∫ (∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃) 𝑑Ø = ∫ (−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃)𝑑∅
4𝜋 𝜃=0 4𝜋 𝜃=0 4𝜋
∅=0 ∅=0 ∅=0

2𝜋
𝑄 2𝑄
𝜓 = ∫ 2𝑑∅ == (∅) = 𝑄
4𝜋 4𝜋
∅=0

The electric flux crossing the surface is equal to the charge enclosed y the surface.

The gauss law can be stated in the point form as follows

⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
The divergence of electric flux density is equal to the volume charge density ∇. 𝐷

Gauss law applications: point charge-infinite line charge-infinite sheet charge-co-axial cable-
spherical shell of charge- uniformly charged sphere (refer Class notes)

31
 Unit-3
Electric potential: Work is said to be done when the test charge is moved against the electric field.
Consider the charge Q and the test charge Qt. The direction in which the movement has taken place is
denoted by unit vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗.
𝑎𝑟
According to Coulombs Law,
𝑸𝑄𝑡
𝐹= ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂 =𝑬 ⃗⃗. 𝑄
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝒓𝟐 𝒓
𝑑𝑤 = −𝐹 𝑑𝑙 = −𝑄⃗𝑬⃗ 𝑑𝑙
𝐵
𝑤 = − ∫ 𝑄𝐸 𝑑𝑙
𝐴
Potential difference: The potential difference A&B (The point moving from A to B)
𝐵
𝑤 ∫𝐴 𝑄𝐸 𝑑𝑙 𝐵
(VAB) = = − = − ∫𝐴 𝐸 𝑑𝑙
𝑄 𝑄

𝑑𝑙 = 𝒅𝒓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝒓
𝑟𝐵
𝑸 𝑸 1 1
𝑉 = −∫ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝒓 𝒅𝒓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂𝒓 = (− + ) = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵
𝑟𝐴 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝒓 𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
The potential at any point is the difference between that point and chosen point at which the potential is
zero.
1 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = =
1 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
Absolute potential: most widely used reference which is used to develop the concept of absolute
potential is infinity. The potential at infinity is treated to be zero and all the potentials at various points
in the field are defined with reference to infinity
𝑸 1 1 𝑸 1 1 𝑸 1
𝑉= ( − )= ( − )= = 𝑉𝐴
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝑟𝐴 ∞ 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝑟𝐴
This is potential at the point A
Similarly at the point B
𝑸 1
𝑉=
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝑟𝐵
The potential calculation when the reference is other than infinity
𝑸 1
𝑉𝐴 = +𝐶
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝑟𝐴
Where C is constant.

32
Electric potential - (surface charge density-circular)

Consider a circular disc of radius ‘R’ is uniformly with charge density of 𝜌𝑠 in C/m2 and ‘P’ be any point
on the axis of the disc at a distance from the centre (origin).
Consider annular ring of radius ‘r’ and thickness ‘dr’ as shown in Fig. the area of the annular ring is
𝑑𝑠 = 2𝜋 𝑟 𝑑𝑟
The electric filed intensity at point ‘P’ due to the charged annular ring is given by
𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐸 =
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑑2
Since horizontal component of electric field intensity is zero(𝑑𝐸𝑥 = 0), and the vertical component is
given by
𝜌𝑠 𝑑𝑠 𝜌𝑠 𝟐𝝅 𝒓 𝒅𝒓
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑑2 4 𝜋 𝜀 𝑑2
From Fig,
𝑟
𝑟 = ℎ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 =
𝑑
𝑟
𝑑𝑟 = ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑟
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
ℎ
Then
𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 𝑟 𝒉 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐 𝜽 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 𝑟 ℎ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝒓 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
4𝜋 𝜀( ) 4 𝜋 𝜀 (𝑟)2
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽

33
 1 𝟐 1
𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 𝒓 ℎ ( ) 𝑑𝜃 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 ℎ ( ) 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
= =
4 𝜋 𝜀 (𝑟)𝟐 4𝜋 𝜀𝑟
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 ( ) 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 𝑑𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑑𝐸𝑦 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 =
𝑟 4 𝜋 𝜀 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽
4𝜋 𝜀( )
𝒉

𝜌𝑠 2𝜋 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑠 𝟐𝝅 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝑑𝐸𝑦 = = =
4 𝜋 𝜀 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜽 𝟐. 𝟐𝝅 𝜀 2𝜀
The total electric field due to the charged disc
𝛼 𝛼 𝛼
𝜌𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑑 𝐸𝑦 = ∫ = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = [−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ]
2𝜀 2𝜀 2𝜀
𝜃=0 𝜃=0 𝜃=0
𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠
𝐸= [− cos(𝛼 ) − (− cos(0))] = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼)
2𝜀 2𝜀
The electric potential ‘V’ at any point ‘P’ due to the charged disc is
0 0
𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) 0
𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 2𝜀 2𝜀 𝑑
0 0
𝜌𝑠 𝜌𝑠 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) 0
𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 2𝜀 2𝜀 𝑑
𝜌𝑠 (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼) 𝜌𝑠 (1 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶)
𝑉= [𝑥] = 𝒅
2𝜀 2𝜀
From Fig,
ℎ
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 = √ℎ2 𝑑 = √ℎ2 + 𝑅 2
+𝑅 2
Then
ℎ
𝜌𝑠 (1 − )
√ℎ2 + 𝑅2 √ℎ2 + 𝑅 2
𝑉=
2𝜀
𝜌𝑠 (√ℎ2 + 𝑅 2 − ℎ)
𝑉= √ℎ2 + 𝑅 2
2𝜀 √ℎ2
+ 𝑅2
𝜌𝑠 (√ℎ2 + 𝑅 2 − ℎ)
𝑉=
2𝜀

34
Equipotential surface: An equipotential surface is an imaginary surface in an electric field of a given
charge distribution in which all the points on the surface are at the same electric potential.

 The potential difference between two points on the

equipotential is always zero.
 Thus the work done in moving a test charge from one
point to another in equipotential surface is always zero.
 Consider a point charge located at the origin of a sphere,
the potential at a point which is at a radial distance ‘r ‘
from the point charge is given by
𝑸
𝑉 = 𝟒𝝅𝝐 𝝐 𝒓 (1)
𝒐 𝒓
 All the points are at distance r from Q, the potential is same surface joining all such points is
potential surface.
 Similarly r=r1=r2………, there exists other equipotential surface in an electric field of point
charge in the form of concentric spheres as shown in fig.
 From 1, we can say that V is inversely proportional to r.
 The distance ‘r’ increases, ‘V’ decreases
therefore V1> V2>V3

 The equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to E and are equipspaced for fixed increment of
voltage
 If we move a charge along a circular path of radius ‘r’ as shown in Fig. in the direction ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒂∅ then
workdone is zero. This is because E & 𝑑𝑙 are perpendicular.
Conservative field (or) lamellar field: The work done in moving a test charge around any closed path in
static field E is zero. This is because starting and ending is same for closed path. Such an integral over a
closed path is denoted by

∮ 𝑬 𝒅𝒍 = 𝟎
𝒄

∮ (𝛁 × 𝑬)𝒅𝒍 = 𝟎
𝒄

𝛁 ×𝑬 =𝟎
Potential gradient: Consider an electric field E due to positive charge placed at the origin of a sphere
𝑸
𝑉 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 =
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝒐 𝝐𝒓 𝒓
From equipotential concept we can conclude that V is decreases as ‘r’ increases
𝑽𝑨𝑩 = ∆𝑽 = −𝑬∆𝑳
The rate of change of potential with respect to the distance is called the potential gradient.
𝑑𝑉 ∆𝑉
= lim
𝑑𝑙 ∆𝐿→0 ∆𝐿

35
Relationship between E and V: if two points are separated by an infinitesimal distance 𝑑𝑟, the
workdone by an external force is moving a unit positive charge from one point to other will be 𝑑𝑤 =
𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑟
We know that, scalar potential
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑑𝑉 = 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑧 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑥

𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝑎𝑥 + 𝜕𝑦 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑦 + 𝜕𝑧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎𝑧 . (𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑥
𝑥 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑦
𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑧)
𝑧 = −𝐸. 𝑑𝑟
𝜕𝑥

∇𝑉 𝑑𝑟 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑟

𝐸 = −∇𝑉
Thus the electric field strength at any point is just negative of the potential gradient at that point. The
negative sign indicates direction of E and V are opposite.

Current: The current is defined as the rate of flow of charge and is measured in amperes.

𝒅𝒒
𝑰=
𝒅𝒕
Drift current: the current which exists in the conductor due to the drifting of electrons, under the
influence of the applied voltage is called drift current.

Displace current: While in dielectric, there can be flow of charges, under the influence of the electric
field intensity. Such a current is called the displacement current. (Example: Current flowing through the
capacitor)

Current density: It is defined as the current passing through the unit surface area, when the surface is
held normal to the direction of the current. It is measured in A/m2.
𝐼
𝐽=
𝐴

Relationship between I and J:

 Consider a surface S and current I passing through the surface. The direction of current normal
to the surface S and hence direction of J is also ormal to the surface S.
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑠𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛
𝐽 = 𝐽𝑎
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛
The differential current 𝑑𝐼 passing through differential surface 𝑑𝑠 is given by
𝑑𝐼 = 𝐽 𝑑𝑠
When J and 𝑑𝑠 are at right angle then,
𝑑𝐼 = 𝐽𝑎 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛 𝑑𝑠𝑎⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑛 = 𝐽 𝑑𝑠
Integrate both sides

36
 𝐼 = ∫ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
Where J= Current density in A/m2
I= Current in A 𝑑𝑠 = surface area.

Relationship between J and 𝝆𝒗 :

The elementary charge that volume carries is ∆𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑉

From fig, ∆𝑉 = ∆𝑆 ∆𝐿
∆𝑄 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑆 ∆𝐿
We know that
∆𝑄 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑆 ∆𝐿
∆𝐼 = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝐿
We know that = 𝑣𝑥
∆𝑡

∆𝐼 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑆 𝑣𝑥
But ∆𝐼 = 𝐽 ∆𝑠 when J & ∆𝑠 are normal, therefore
𝐽 ∆𝑆 = 𝜌𝑣 ∆𝑆 𝑣𝑥
𝐽 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑣𝑥

Continuity equation: consider a closed surface s with a current density J then the total current(I)
crossing the surface (S) is given by

𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
The current flows outwards from the closed surface. It has been mentioned that the current means the flow
of positive charges. Hence the current I is constituted due to outward flow of positive charges from the
closed surface S. According to principle of energy conservation of charge, there must be decrease of an
equal amount of positive charge inside the closed surface
𝑑𝑄
− = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠 = −
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
From the above ∮𝑠 𝐽 𝑑𝑠 = −𝐼 =
𝑑𝑡
The point form of continuity Eqn can be obtained by divergence theorem.

−𝐼 = ∮ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠 = ∭(∇. 𝐽)𝑑𝑣
𝑠
−𝑑𝑄
= ∭(∇. 𝐽)𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡
But 𝑄 = ∭ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣

37
 𝑑 𝜕𝜌𝑣
∭(∇. 𝐽)𝑑𝑣 = − ∭ 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑣 = − ∭ 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌𝑣
(∇. 𝐽)∆𝑣 = − ∆𝑣
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌𝑣
∇. 𝐽 = −
𝜕𝑡
This is the point form or differential form of the continuity equation of the current.
Steady current: For steady currents which are not the function of time

𝜕𝜌𝑣
=0
𝜕𝑡
∇. 𝐽 = 0
Conductor: The drift velocity is directly proportional to the applied electric field
𝑣𝑑 𝐸
𝑣𝑑 = −𝜇𝑒 𝐸
Where −𝜇𝑒 = mobility of electrons
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚/𝑠 𝑚2
Mobility (𝜇) = = 𝑣/𝑚 = 𝑣−𝑠
𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

According to relationship between J and 𝑣

𝐽 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑣
But in the material, the number of protons and electrons is same as and it is always electrically neutral.
Hence 𝜌𝑣 = 0
𝐽 = 𝜌𝑒 𝑣𝑑
Hence, the charge density 𝜌𝑒 can be obtained as product of number of free electron/m3 and the charge ‘e’
on one electron. Thus 𝜌𝑒 = 𝑛 𝑒 where n is electron/m3.

𝐽 = −𝜌𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝐸

Point form of ohms law:

𝐽 = −𝜌𝑒 𝜇𝑒 𝐸 = 𝜎 𝐸

𝐽= 𝜎𝐸
Where 𝜎 = −𝜇𝑒 𝐸 = conductivity of the material in mho/m

Relationship between J and E: The relationship between J and E is 𝐽 = 𝜎 𝐸

Where J = current density in A/m2.
𝜎 = Conductivity of the material in mho/m
E= electric field intensity in V/m

Resistance of conductor: Consider that the voltage (V) is applied to the conductor of length (L) having
uniform cross section S as shown in Fig.

The electric field applied is an from and its magnitude is given by

38
 𝑉
𝐸=
𝐿
The current I is 𝐼 = ∬ 𝐽 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐽. 𝐴
𝐼
𝐽= =𝜎𝐸
𝐴
𝑉
𝐽=𝜎
𝐿
𝐼𝐿
𝑉=
𝜎𝐴
𝐼𝐿
𝑉=
𝜎𝐴
𝑉 𝐿 𝐿
= =𝜌
𝐼 𝜎𝐴 𝐴
Where 𝜌 = 1/𝜎
𝐿
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴

Conductivity: It may be defined as the current density per unit electric field. And it can also be defined
as reciprocal of resistivity.
1 𝐿
𝜎= =
𝜌 𝑅𝐴

Properties of conductor:

1. No charge and no electric field can exist at any point with in conducting material
2. Charge density is always is zero with in a conductor
3. The conductivity of an ideal conductor is infinite
4. The conductor surface is an equipotential surface.

Relaxation Time: It is defined as the time required by the charge density to decay to 36.8% of its initial
value.
𝜀
𝜏 = sec
𝜎
Consider a conducting material which is linear and homogeneous. The current densit for such material is
𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸
⃗⃗
𝐷
But ⃗⃗ = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸⃗⃗
𝐷 𝐸⃗⃗ =
𝜀𝑜 𝜀 𝑟
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷
𝐽=𝜎
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
The point form of the continuity Equation states that
𝜕𝜌𝑣
∇. 𝐽 = −
𝜕𝑡

39
 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐷 𝜕𝜌𝑣
∇. 𝜎 =−
𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝜕𝑡
𝜎 𝜕𝜌𝑣
∇. 𝐷 = −
𝜖 𝜕𝑡
But ∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑣
𝜎 𝜕𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣 =−
𝜖 𝜕𝑡
𝜎 𝜕𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣 + =0
𝜖 𝜕𝑡
This is a differential Eqn. solve it
𝜎 𝑡
−( )𝑡 −
𝜌𝑣 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑒 𝜀 = 𝜌𝑜 𝑒 𝜏

𝜀
The charge density decays exponentially with the time constant 𝜏= sec. this is called relaxation
𝜎
time.

Dielectric:

The charges in the dielectric are bound by the finite force and hence it is called as bound charges. The
dielectric cannot contribute to the conduction process.

If subjected to an electric field E, they shift their relative positions against the normal molecular and
atomic force. This shift in the relative positions of bound charges allows the dielectric to store the energy.

Dipole:

Dipole may be described by its dipole moment suppose Q is the charge and ‘d’ is the distance than the
dipole moment is given by m = 𝑝 = Q.d

if there are n dipole per unit volume 𝑉, then there are n 𝑣 dipoles and the total dipole moment is
given by
n 𝑉

𝑃 = ∑ 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1

Dielectric polarization:
Polarization is defined as dipole moment per unit volume.
𝑛 ∆𝑉
1
𝑃 = lim ∑ 𝑝𝑖
𝑣→0 ∆𝑉
𝑖=1

40
if the dipole are aligned in random orientation polarization ‘P’ has zero value. where as if dipole are
aligned in same direction polarization has significant value.
Consider the bound charge 𝑄𝑏 across small element surface 𝑑𝑠 in dielectric containing non-polar
molecules then

𝑄𝑏 = − ∮ 𝑃 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
if Q is the free charge enclosed by the surface S, the total charge is 𝑄𝑇 = 𝑄𝑏 + 𝑄
By Gauss’s law, 𝑄𝑇 = ∮𝑠 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = ∮𝑠 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 𝑑𝑠
The free charge enclosed, 𝑄 = 𝑄𝑇 − 𝑄𝑏 = ∮𝑠 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 + ∮𝑠 𝑃 𝑑𝑠 = ∮𝑠 (𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 + 𝑃 )𝑑𝑠
wkt,  = 𝑄 = ∮𝑠 𝐷 𝑑𝑠
Comparing the above equations 𝐷 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 + 𝑃
Polarization ‘P’ can written as 𝑃 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸
Where  = Susceptibility
Now 𝐷 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 + 𝜀𝑜 𝐸 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸(1 +  ) = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸
where 𝜀𝑟 = (1 + )

Dielectric Constant:
 The electric constant 𝜀𝑟 is the ratio of the permittivity of dielectric to that of free space.
 The minimum value of the electric field at which breakdown occurs is called the dielectric strength
material.
 The maximum strength is the maximum electric field that a dielectric can tolerates or with stand
without electrical breakdown.
𝐷 = 𝜀𝑜 𝐸(1 +  ) = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 = 𝐸
Where
= permittivity of the dielectric in F/m
𝜀𝑜 = permittivity of free space
𝜀𝑟 = relative permittivity

Electric Dipole moment: An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign are separated by a small distance.

Let Q and –Q be the two charge and its separated by the small distance d.

The dipole moment m=Qd

Let ‘P’ be any point at a distance of r1, r2 and r from Q, -Q and midpoint.
Potential at point ‘P’ due to Q is

41
 Q
V1 =
4π ϵo ϵr r1
Potential at point ‘P’ due to -Q is
−Q
V2 =
4π ϵo ϵr r2
The resultant potential V=V1 − V2
Q 1 1
V= ( − )
4π ϵo ϵr r1 r2
If the point ‘P’ is too for way from the dipole the distance r1, r2 are
d
r1 = r − ( ) Cosθ
2
d
r2 = r + ( ) Cosθ
2
The electric potential ‘P’ due to the dipole
Q 1 1
V= ( − )
4π ϵo ϵr r − (d) Cosθ r + (d) Cosθ
2 2
Q d cosθ
V= ( )
4π ϵo ϵr d d
(r − (2) Cosθ) (r + (2) Cosθ)

Q d cosθ
V= ( )
4π ϵo ϵr d
(r 2 − ((2) Cosθ)2 )

d
[ << r 2 ]
2

Q d cosθ
V = 4π ϵ ϵ ( 2 )
o r r

m cosθ
V=
4π ϵo ϵr r 2

Hint:
Linear: A materials is said to be linear, if D varies with E
Non-Linear: A materials is said to be nonlinear, if D does not varies with E
Homogeneous: A material for which  does not vary with in the region being considered therefore all
point are said to be homogenous otherwise non-homogeneous
Isotropic: If D and E are in the same direction
Non-isotropic: the D, E & polarization (P) are not parallel.
Polar: dipole exist
Non polar: Dipole arrangement absent

42
 Boundary condition

Boundary condition between dielectric

Let us consider the boundary between two perfect dielectric , one dielectric has permittivity 𝜀1 while
other has permittivity 𝜀2 . The interface is shown in fig.

̅ and 𝐸̅ are to be obtained again by resolving each into two components(i) tangential to the
The 𝐷
boundary and (ii) normal to the surface.

̅ at the boundary
𝑬.

Consider the closed path abcda rectangular in shape having elementary height ∆ℎ and elementary width
∆𝑤, as shown in Fig. it is placed in such a way that ∆ℎ/2 is in dielectric 1 while the remaining is dielectric
2.
̅ along this path, tracing in clock wise direction as a-b-c-d-a
̅ 𝑑𝑙
Let us evaluate the integral of 𝐸.

43
 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐸.

𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎

̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫ 𝐸. ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑

Now ̅̅̅
𝐸1 = ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐸1𝑡 + 𝐸 1𝑁 and ̅̅̅
𝐸2 = ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐸2𝑡 + 𝐸 2𝑁

Both ̅̅̅
𝐸1 and ̅̅̅
𝐸2 in the respective dielectric have both the components, normal and tangential

Let
̅̅̅̅
|𝐸 1𝑡 | = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛1
̅̅̅̅
|𝐸 2𝑡 | = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛2
̅̅̅̅̅
|𝐸 1𝑁 | = 𝐸1𝑁
̅̅̅̅̅
|𝐸 2𝑁 | = 𝐸2𝑁

𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎
∫𝑎 𝐸. ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙 (1)
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
Now rectangle to be reduced at the surface to analyze the boundary conditions, ∆ℎ → 0
𝑐
Therefore ̅ =0
∫𝑏 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 (2)
𝑎
𝑎𝑛𝑑 ̅ =0
∫𝑑 𝐸𝑑𝑙 (3)
𝑏
The above equation becomes ∫𝑎 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫𝑑 𝐸𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
𝑐
Now a-b is dielectric 1 hence the corresponding component of 𝐸̅ is 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛1 as a-b direction is tangential
surface
𝑏
̅ = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛1 ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑙
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫𝑎 𝐸. ̅ = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛1 ∆𝑤 (4)
𝑎
While c-d is in dielectric 2 hence the corresponding components 𝐸̅ is 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛2 as c-d direction is also
tangential to the surface. But direction of c-d is opposite of a-b
𝑑
̅ = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑙
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫𝑐 𝐸. ̅ = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (−∆𝑤) = −𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ∆𝑤 (5)
𝑎
Substitute (2),(3),(4) and (5) in Eqn(1) and obtained
𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛1 ∆𝑤 − 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ∆𝑤 = 0
Simplify the above
𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟏 = 𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐
Thus the tangential components of field intensity at the boundary in both the dielectrics remain same i.e.
electric filed intensity is continuous across the boundary.
̅ and 𝐸̅ is known as 𝐷
The relationship between 𝐷 ̅ = 𝜀𝐸̅
̅ in dielectric 1 and 2
Hence if 𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛1 and 𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛2 are magnitudes of the tangential components of 𝐷
respectively then,
𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛1 = 𝜀1 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛1 and 𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛2 = 𝜀2 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛2
w.k.t 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛1 = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛2
𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛1 𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛2
From the above, =
𝜀1 𝜀2
44
 𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛1 𝜀1 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝜀𝑟1
= = =
𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜀2 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟2 𝜀𝑟2
𝑫𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟏 𝜺𝒓𝟏
=
𝑫𝒕𝒂𝒏𝟐 𝜺𝒓𝟐
Thus tangential component of D undergoes some change across the interface hence tangential D is said
to be discontinues across the boundary.
𝑫𝒏 at the boundary
To find the normal components, let us consider the Gaussian surface in the form of right circular
cylinder placed in such a way that half of its lies in dielectric 1 and while remaining in dielectric 2.

w.k.t, from gauss law ∮ 𝐷 ̅̅̅ = 𝑄

̅ 𝑑𝑠

∮𝐷 ̅̅̅ = ∫ 𝐷
̅ 𝑑𝑠 ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷 𝑑𝑠 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
The height ∆ℎ → 0 hence flux leaving from its lateral surface is zero

∮𝐷 ̅̅̅ = ∫ 𝐷
̅ 𝑑𝑠 ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑫 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
Therefore
̅ ̅̅̅̅
∫𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 + ∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄 (6)
The flux leaving normal to the boundary is normal to the top and bottom surface.
̅ | = 𝐷𝑁1 for dielectric 1 and |𝐷
|𝐷 ̅ | = 𝐷𝑁2
̅̅̅ = 𝐷𝑁1 ∫ 𝑑𝑠
̅ 𝑑𝑠
∫𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ̅̅̅ = 𝐷𝑁1 ∆𝑠 (7)
𝑇𝑜𝑝

∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐷 ̅̅̅ = 𝐷𝑁2 ∫

̅ 𝑑𝑠 ̅̅̅ = 𝐷𝑁1 (−∆𝑠 )
𝑑𝑠 (8)
𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
Substitute (7) and (8) in (6)
𝐷𝑁1 ∆𝑠 − 𝐷𝑁2 ∆𝑠 = 𝑄
There is no free charge available in perfect dielectric hence no free charge can exist on the surface.
𝜌𝑠 = 0
Therefore
𝐷𝑁1 ∆𝑠 − 𝐷𝑁2 ∆𝑠 = 0
Simplify the above
𝑫𝑵𝟏 = 𝑫𝑵𝟐
Hence the normal components of flux D is continuous at the boundary between the dielectrics
𝐷𝑁1 = 𝐷𝑁2
Using the relationship between D and E
𝜀1 𝐸𝑁1 = 𝜀2 𝐸𝑁2
𝐸𝑁1 𝜀2 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟2 𝜀𝑟2
= = =
𝐸𝑁2 𝜀1 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟1 𝜀𝑟1
45
 𝑬𝑵𝟏 𝜺𝒓𝟐
=
𝑬𝑵𝟐 𝜺𝒓𝟏

Boundary condition between dielectric and conductor

Let us consider the boundary between dielectric and conductor, dielectric has permittivity 𝜀1 and electric
field intensity inside the conductor is zero. The interface is shown in fig.

̅ and 𝐸̅ are to be obtained again by resolving each into two components(i) tangential to the
The 𝐷
boundary and (ii) normal to the surface.
̅ at the boundary
𝑬.
Consider the closed path abcda rectangular in shape having elementary height ∆ℎ and elementary width
∆𝑤, as shown in Fig. it is placed in such a way that ∆ℎ/2 is in dielectric while the remaining is in
conductor.
̅ along this path, tracing in clock wise direction as a-b-c-d-a
̅ 𝑑𝑙
Let us evaluate the integral of 𝐸.

̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐸.
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎

̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫ 𝐸. ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
𝑏 1 𝑐 𝑑 2 𝑎
∫𝑎 𝐸. ̅
̅ 𝑑𝑙 + ∫𝑏 𝐸. ̅
̅ 𝑑𝑙 + ∫1 𝐸. ̅
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙
+ ∫𝑐 𝐸. ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙 (1)
𝑑 2

46
The electric field intensity inside conductor is zero. Therefore
𝑐 𝑑 2
̅ = 0 , ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫1 𝐸. ̅ = 0 and ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙
𝑐 𝑑
𝑏
∫𝑎 𝐸. ̅ + ∫1 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫𝑎 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙 (2)
𝑏 2
Now a-b is dielectric hence the corresponding component of 𝐸̅ is 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛1 as a-b direction is tangential
surface
𝑏
̅ = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑙
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫𝑎 𝐸. ̅ = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∆𝑤 (3)
𝑎
While b-1 is in dielectric hence the corresponding components 𝐸̅ is 𝐸𝑁1 and 2-a direction is also normal
to the surface. But direction of 2-a is opposite of b-1
1
̅ = 𝐸𝑁1 ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑙
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫𝑏 𝐸. ̅ = 𝐸𝑁1 (∆ℎ) (4)
𝑎 2
𝑎
̅ = 𝐸𝑁1 ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑙
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫2 𝐸. ̅ = 𝐸𝑁1 (−∆ℎ) (5)
𝑎 2
Substitute (3),(4) and (5) in Eqn(2) and obtained
∆ℎ ∆ℎ
𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∆𝑤 + 𝐸𝑁1 ( ) − 𝐸𝑁1 ( ) = 0
2 2
Simplify the above
𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎
̅ and 𝐸̅ is known as 𝐷
The relationship between 𝐷 ̅ = 𝜀𝐸̅
𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝜀𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 0
From the above, 𝑫𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎
𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝑫𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎
𝑫𝒏 at the boundary
To find the normal components, let us consider the Gaussian surface in the form of right circular
cylinder placed in such a way that half of its lies in dielectric and while remaining in conductor.
w.k.t, from gauss law ∮ 𝐷 ̅̅̅ = 𝑄
̅ 𝑑𝑠

∮𝐷 ̅̅̅ = ∫ 𝐷
̅ 𝑑𝑠 ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷 𝑑𝑠 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
The height ∆ℎ → 0 hence flux leaving from its lateral surface is zero

∮𝐷 ̅̅̅ = ∫ 𝐷
̅ 𝑑𝑠 ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑫 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

Therefore ̅ ̅̅̅̅
∫𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 + ∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄 (6)
The electric flux density is zero inside conductor therefore
̅ ̅̅̅̅
∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 0 (7)
Substitute (7) in (6) ∫𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ̅̅̅ = 𝑄
̅ 𝑑𝑠

47
 ̅̅̅ = 𝐷𝑁 ∫ 𝑑𝑠
̅ 𝑑𝑠
∫𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ̅̅̅ = 𝐷𝑁 ∆𝑠 = 𝑄
𝑇𝑜𝑝
𝑫𝑵 ∆𝒔 = 𝑸
w.k.t
𝝆𝒔 ∆𝒔 = 𝑸
from the above
𝐷𝑁 ∆𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑠
𝑫𝑵 = 𝝆 𝒔
𝐷𝑁 = 𝜀𝐸𝑁 = 𝜌𝑠
𝝆𝒔 𝝆𝒔
𝑬𝑵 = =
𝜺 𝜀0 𝜀𝑟

Boundary condition between conductor and free space

Let us consider the boundary between conductor and free space, the electric field intensity inside
conductor is zero.
To determine the boundary conditions, let us consider the closed path and Gaussian surface as shown in
fig.

̅ and 𝐸̅ are to be obtained again by resolving each into two components(i) tangential to the
The 𝐷
boundary and (ii) normal to the surface.
̅ at the boundary
𝑬.
Consider the closed path abcda rectangular in shape having elementary height ∆ℎ and elementary width
∆𝑤, as shown in Fig. it is placed in such a way that ∆ℎ/2 is in conductor while the remaining is freespace
̅ along this path, tracing in clock wise direction as a-b-c-d-a
̅ 𝑑𝑙
Let us evaluate the integral of 𝐸.

̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐸.
𝑏 𝑐 𝑑 𝑎

̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫ 𝐸. ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝑑
48
 𝑏 1 𝑐 𝑑 2 𝑎
∫𝑎 𝐸. ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙 (1)
𝑏 1 𝑐 𝑑 2
The electric field intensity inside conductor is zero. Therefore
𝑐
̅ = 0 , ∫𝑑 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫1 𝐸. ̅ = 0 and ∫2 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙
𝑐 𝑑
𝑏 1 𝑎
∫𝑎 𝐸. ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ + ∫ 𝐸.
̅ 𝑑𝑙 ̅ =0
̅ 𝑑𝑙 (2)
𝑏 2
Now a-b is dielectric hence the corresponding component of 𝐸̅ is 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛1 as a-b direction is tangential
surface
𝑏
̅ = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑙
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫𝑎 𝐸. ̅ = 𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∆𝑤 (3)
𝑎
While b-1 is in dielectric hence the corresponding components 𝐸̅ is 𝐸𝑁1 and 2-a direction is also normal
to the surface. But direction of 2-a is opposite of b-1
1
̅ = 𝐸𝑁1 ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑙
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫𝑏 𝐸. ̅ = 𝐸𝑁1 (∆ℎ) (4)
𝑎 2
𝑎
̅ = 𝐸𝑁1 ∫𝑏 𝑑𝑙
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∫2 𝐸. ̅ = 𝐸𝑁1 (−∆ℎ) (5)
𝑎 2
Substitute (3),(4) and (5) in Eqn(2) and obtained
∆ℎ ∆ℎ
𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∆𝑤 + 𝐸𝑁1 ( ) − 𝐸𝑁1 ( ) = 0
2 2
Simplify the above
𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎
̅ and 𝐸̅ is known as 𝐷
The relationship between 𝐷 ̅ = 𝜀𝐸̅
𝐷𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝜀𝐸𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 0
From the above, 𝑫𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎
𝑬𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝑫𝒕𝒂𝒏 = 𝟎
𝑫𝒏 at the boundary
To find the normal components, let us consider the Gaussian surface in the form of right circular
cylinder placed in such a way that half of its lies in conductor and while remaining in freespace.
w.k.t, from gauss law ∮ 𝐷 ̅̅̅ = 𝑄
̅ 𝑑𝑠

∮𝐷 ̅̅̅ = ∫ 𝐷
̅ 𝑑𝑠 ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷 𝑑𝑠 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚
The height ∆ℎ → 0 hence flux leaving from its lateral surface is zero

∮𝐷 ̅̅̅ = ∫ 𝐷
̅ 𝑑𝑠 ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑫 𝒅𝒔 + ∫ ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚

Therefore ̅ ̅̅̅̅
∫𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝑑𝑠 + ∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄 (6)
The electric flux density is zero inside conductor therefore
̅ ̅̅̅̅
∫𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 0 (7)

49
Substitute (7) in (6) ∫𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ̅̅̅ = 𝑄
̅ 𝑑𝑠
̅̅̅ = 𝐷𝑁 ∫ 𝑑𝑠
̅ 𝑑𝑠
∫𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝐷 ̅̅̅ = 𝐷𝑁 ∆𝑠 = 𝑄
𝑇𝑜𝑝
𝑫𝑵 ∆𝒔 = 𝑸
w.k.t
𝝆𝒔 ∆𝒔 = 𝑸
from the above
𝐷𝑁 ∆𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 ∆𝑠
𝑫𝑵 = 𝝆 𝒔
𝐷𝑁 = 𝜀𝐸𝑁 = 𝜌𝑠
𝝆𝒔 𝝆𝒔 𝝆𝒔
𝑬𝑵 = = =
𝜺 𝜺𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝜺𝟎

Laplace’s and Poisson’s equation:

According to Gauss law in point form, the divergence of electric flux density is equal to the volume
charge density
⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
∇. 𝐷
⃗⃗ = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸⃗⃗ and 𝜀 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
But 𝐷

∇ . εo εr 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
∇ . 𝜀 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣
∇ . 𝐸⃗⃗ =
𝜀
But 𝐸⃗⃗ = −∇ 𝑉
𝜌𝑣
∇ . (−∇ V ) =
𝜀
𝜌𝑣
∇2 𝑉 = −
𝜀
This is the Poisson’s equation
If volume charge density (𝜌𝑣 ) is zero then ∇2 𝑉 = 0

50
 Capacitor
A capacitor is an electric device which consist of two conductor separated by a dielectric medium.

The two conducting plates of area ‘A’ separated by a dielectric medium whose permittivity is ᵋ. The
space separation between the plated is ‘d’. If ‘V’ is applied across the plate, +Q is deposited on one plate
and –Q is deposited on the other plate.

The capacitance of two conducting planes is defined as the ratio of magnitude of charge on either of
conductor to the potential difference between conductor. It is given by
𝑄
𝐶=𝑉 in coulomb/volt (or) Farad

Assume that there is uniform charge density D over the plates and dielectric medium.

𝑄 Ѱ
𝐷= =
𝐴 𝐴
wkt

𝐷 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝐸
𝑄
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝐸 =
𝐴
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑄
But electric field is given by E =V/d in V/m
𝑉
𝑄 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝐴
𝑑
𝑄 𝐴
= 𝐶 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟
𝑉 𝑑
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having two dielectric media: consider a parallel plate
capacitor consists of two dielectric as shown in fig. The relative permittivity of dielectric medium 1& 2
are 𝜖𝑟1 and 𝜖𝑟2 respectively.
The potential difference across medium 1&2 are V1 and V2 respectively.

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 𝐸1 𝑑1 + 𝐸2 (𝑑 − 𝑑1 )

𝑄
The electric flux density D will be the same in both the media𝐷 = ⁄𝐴 = 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟

𝐷 𝑄
𝐸1 = =
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟1 𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟1

𝐷 𝑄
𝐸2 = =
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟2 𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟2

Therefore
51
𝑉 = 𝐸1 𝑑1 + 𝐸2 (𝑑 − 𝑑1 )

𝑄𝑑1 𝑄(𝑑 − 𝑑1 )
𝑉= +
𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟1 𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟2

𝑄 𝑑1 (𝑑 − 𝑑1 )
𝑉= ( + )
𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟1 𝜖𝑟2
𝑄 𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝐶= =
𝑉 𝑑1 𝑑 − 𝑑1
𝜖 + 𝜖 𝑟1 𝑟2

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor having three dielectric media: Consider a parallel plate
capacitor consists of three dielectric as shown in fig. The relative permittivity of dielectric medium 1, 2
and 3 are 𝜖𝑟1 𝜖𝑟2 and 𝜖𝑟3 respectively.

The potential difference across medium 1,2 &3 are V1, V2 and V3 respectively.

𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 = 𝐸1 𝑑1 + 𝐸2 𝑑2 + 𝐸3 𝑑3

𝐷 𝑄
𝐸1 = =
𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟1 𝐴𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟1
𝐷 𝑄 𝐷 𝑄
𝐸2 = 𝜖 𝜖 = 𝐴𝜖 𝜖 𝐸3 = 𝜖 𝜖 = 𝐴𝜖 𝜖
𝑜 𝑟2 𝑜 𝑟2 𝑜 𝑟3 𝑜 𝑟3

𝑄 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 𝑄 𝐴𝜖𝑜
𝑉= ( + + ) 𝐶= = 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3
𝐴 𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟1 𝜖𝑟2 𝜖𝑟3 𝑉 + +
𝜖𝑟1 𝜖𝑟2 𝜖𝑟3

Capacitance of an isolated sphere: Consider a sphere of radius ‘r’ having a charge Q coulomb as shown
in Fig. The potential is the work done per unit charge in carrying a positive test charge from infinity to the
sphere. The absolute potential is given by
𝑟
𝑉 = − ∫∞ 𝐸 𝑑𝑟
𝑄
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜖 2
𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝑟

𝑟 𝑄
𝑉 = − ∫∞ 4𝜋𝜖 2
𝑑𝑟
𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝑟

𝑄
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝜖 𝑟
𝑜 𝑟

𝑄
𝐶 = 𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝑟

Capacitance of concentric spheres: Consider two concentric spheres of inner radius of ‘a’ and outer
radius of ‘b’ let 𝜖𝑟 be the permittivity of dielectric medium between the inner and outer spheres as
shown in fig.
52
If the charge Q is distributed uniformly over the outer surface of the inner sphere, there will be equal and
opposite charge induced on their outer surface of the inner sphere. The electric field intensity at any
point in between inner sphere and outer sphere (a≤r≤b) is given by
𝑄
𝐸 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝜖 𝑟2 (a≤r≤b)
𝑜 𝑟

The potential difference between the spheres is

𝑎
𝑄
𝑉 = −∫ 𝑑𝑟
𝑏 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 𝑟2

𝑄 𝑎 𝑑𝑟
𝑉 = − 4𝜋𝜖 𝜖 ∫𝑏 𝑟2
𝑜 𝑟
𝑄 1 1
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝜖 (𝑎 − 𝑏)
𝑜 𝑟
𝑄 𝑏−𝑎
𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜖 𝜖 ( 𝑎𝑏 )
𝑜 𝑟
The capacitance of two concentric sphere is
𝑄 𝑎𝑏
C= = 4𝜋𝜖𝑜 𝜖𝑟 ( )
𝑉 𝑏−𝑎

Serial combination of capacitor:

The capacitors are connected in series as shown in Fig. If the potential difference V is applied across two
capacitors, V1 and V2 are the potential difference of capacitors C1 and C2 respectively

V=V1+V2
Since the charge acquired by each capacitor is same, then
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉= +
𝐶1 𝐶2
The equivalent capacitance C is given by
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
=𝐶 +𝐶
𝐶 1 2
1 1 1
= +
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2
If N number of capacitors is connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is
1 1 1 1
= + +⋯
𝐶 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑛

Parallel combination of capacitor:

The capacitors are connected in parallel as shown in Fig. If the potential difference V is applied across it
.
Q=Q1+Q2 = C1V+C2V
CV= C1V+C2V
C= C1+C2
53
If N number of capacitors is connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance is
C= C1+C2+…… Cn
Electrostatic energy:

The capacitor stores the electrostatic energy equal to work done to build up the charge. If a voltage
source is connected across the capacitor, the capacitor charges. Potential defined as the work done per
unit charge

𝑑𝑤
𝑉=
𝑑𝑄
𝑄
The workdone 𝑉 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑤 But 𝑉 = 𝐶
𝑄
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑑𝑄
𝐶
The capacitor is charged to the value of Q. the total workdone is
𝑄
𝑄
𝑤=∫ 𝑑𝑄
0 𝐶
𝑄2
𝑤= Joules
2𝐶
But Q =CV
𝐶𝑉 2
W=
2
Energy density: Consider a elementary cube of side ∆d parallel to the plates of a capacitor as shown in
fig. The capacitance of elemental capacitor is

𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐴 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 (∆𝑑)2
∆𝐶 = = = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 ∆𝑑
∆𝑑 ∆𝑑
Energy stored in the elemental capacitor is
1
∆𝑤 = 2 ∆𝐶 (∆𝑉)2

But potential difference across the elementary cube is ∆𝑉 = 𝐸 ∆𝑑

1
The stored energy ∆𝑤 = 2 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 ∆𝑑 (𝐸 ∆𝑑)2

1 2
= 2 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 (∆𝑑)3

1 2
= 2 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 (∆𝑣)

The energy density is given by

∆𝑤 1 1
= 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝐸 2 = 𝐷𝐸 Joules / m3
∆𝑣 2 2

54
 Unit-4

Magnet: A magnet is a material or object that produces a magnetic field. This magnetic field is invisible
but is responsible for the most notable property of a magnet: a force that pulls on other ferromagnetic
materials, such as iron, and attracts or repels other magnets.

Magnetic Flux(): The total number of magnetic line of force is called a magnetic flux and it is
denoted by . It is measured in weber (Wb).
1 weber = 108 line of force

Magnetic flux density (B): The magnetic flux crossing a unit area in a plane at the right angles to the
direction of flux is called magnetic flux density. It is denoted by B and it is measured in Wb/m2. It is also
called as Tesla.
∅
𝐵=
𝐴
Magnetic field intensity (H): The quantitative measure of strongness or weakness of the field is given by
magnetic field intensity of magnetic field strength. It is denoted by H and measured in N/Wb or AT/m.

It is defined as the force experienced by a unit north pole of one weber strength, when placed at that point.

Lorentz force: A static electric charge E exerts a force on static or moving charge Q. According to
Coulomb’s law. The force 𝐹 𝑒 exerted on electric charge can be obtained
QQ
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑒 = = ⃗E⃗. Q
4πεo εr r 2

where ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑒 = Electric force in N.

Now consider that a charge is placed in steady magnetic field . It experience a force only if it moving.
then the magnetic force ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 exerted on a charge Q moving with a velocity 𝑣⃗ in a steady magnetic field 𝐵
is given by
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 ⃗⃗ × ⃗B⃗)
𝑚 = Q (v
The force on a moving particle due to combined electric and magnetic field is obtained

𝐹 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑒 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑚 = Q ⃗E⃗ + Q (v
⃗⃗ × ⃗B⃗) = 𝑄[E
⃗⃗ + (v
⃗⃗ × ⃗B⃗)]
This called as Lorentz force equation.

The force on current element is 𝑑𝐹 = 𝑑𝑄(v ⃗⃗) = 𝑑𝑄 (dl × B

⃗⃗ × B ⃗⃗) = dQ (dl
⃗⃗⃗⃗ × B ⃗⃗⃗⃗ × B
⃗⃗) = 𝐼 (dl ⃗⃗)
dt dt

55
 𝐹 = 𝐼(l⃗ × B
⃗⃗) = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳

Biot–Savart’s Law: The magnetic flux density produced by a current element at any point in a magnetic
field is proportional to the current element and inversely proportional to square of the distance between.
𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 𝛼 2
𝑟
The magnetic flux density at any point ‘p’ due to current element I 𝑑𝑙 is given by
𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 𝛼 2
𝑟
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑎⃗𝑟
4𝜋 𝑟 2
where 𝜇 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 is permeability of the medium
𝐼 𝑑𝑙= current element
r= distance between point ‘P’ and current element
𝑎⃗𝑟 = unit vector

The magnitude is
𝜇 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳
𝑑𝐵 = 𝑎⃗𝑟
4𝜋 𝑟 2
We know that 𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻
The magnetic field intensity is given by
𝐼 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑎⃗
4𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑟
The magnitude is
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑎⃗𝑟
4𝜋 𝑟 2
Let us express this equation in vector form
𝐼 × 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝐻 = 𝑎⃗
4𝜋 𝑟 2 𝑟
𝑑𝑙= Magnitude of vector length
𝑎⃗𝑟 =unit vector
𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟 = 𝑑𝑙 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 = 𝑑𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟
𝑑𝐻 =
4𝜋 𝑟 2
𝑟⃗
here 𝑎⃗𝑟 =
|𝑟⃗|
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗⃗𝑟
⃗⃗ = ∮
𝐻 A/m
4𝜋 𝑟 2
This is called integral form of Biot-Savart law
⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠 while for volume current
The Biot-Savart law can also be expressed for surface current considering 𝐾
considering 𝐽 𝑑𝑣

𝐾× 𝑎⃗⃗𝑟
⃗⃗ = ∮
𝐻 𝑑𝑠 A/m
4𝜋 𝑟 2

56
 𝐽× 𝑎⃗⃗𝑟
⃗⃗ = ∮
𝐻 𝑑𝑣 A/m
4𝜋 𝑟 2

H due to infinitely long straight conductors:

 Consider an infinitely long straight conductor along z-axis and the current passing through the
conductor is direct current of I in Ampere
 The field intensity H at point p is to be calculated which is at a distance r from the Z-axis as shown
in Fig.

⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 2𝑎⃗⃗𝑟 A/m
𝐻
4𝜋 𝑟
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗𝑧

𝑟⃗ = 𝑟𝑎⃗𝑟 − 𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧

𝑟⃗ 𝑟𝑎⃗𝑟 − 𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧
𝑎⃗𝑟 = =
|𝑟⃗| √𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2
⃗𝑎⃗𝑟
1 ⃗𝑎⃗𝜑 ⃗𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑟 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑
𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟 = [0 0 𝑑𝑧 ] =
√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑟 0 −𝑧
√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2

𝐼𝑟 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑
𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟 =
√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2
According to Biot-Savart law, 𝑑𝐻 at point 2 can be expressed as
𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝐼𝑟 𝑑𝑧 ⃗𝑎⃗𝜑 𝐼𝑟 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑
𝐻=∫ =∫ =∫
4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 (√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 4𝜋 ( 𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2
𝑧=∞ 𝐼𝑟 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗𝜑
𝐻=∫ 3/2
𝑧=−∞ 4𝜋 ( 𝑟2 + 𝑧2 )
From Fig
𝑧
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑟 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑧 = −∞ 𝛳 = − 𝜋/2 𝑧= ∞ 𝛳 = 𝜋/2

𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑

𝐻=∫ 3 =∫ 3
4𝜋 ( 𝑟 2 + (𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)2 )24𝜋 ( 𝑟 2 (1 + (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃)2 )2
𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑
=∫
4𝜋 ( 𝑟 2 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃))3/2
𝜋/2
𝐼 𝑑𝜃 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 𝑑𝜃 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛳 𝑑𝜃 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 𝐼
𝐻=∫ =∫ =∫ = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 )𝑎⃗⃗𝜑
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛳 4𝜋 𝑟 −𝜋/2 4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟

57
 𝐼 𝜋 𝜋 𝐼 2 𝐼
𝐻= (sin (2) − sin (− 2) ) 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 = 4𝜋 𝑟 = 2𝜋 𝑟 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 in A/m
4𝜋 𝑟

µ𝑜 µ𝑟 𝐼
We know that, 𝐵 = µ𝐻 = µ𝑜 µ𝑟 𝐻 = 𝑎⃗Ø in Wb/m2
2𝜋𝑟

H due to straight conductor of finite length:

 Consider a straight conductor of finite lenghh placed along z-axis as shown in Fig.
 It carries a current I . The perpendicular distance of point from Z-axis is r as shown in Fig.
 The conductor is placed such that is one end is at z=z1 and other end is at z=z2
 Consider a small differential element 𝑑𝑙 along Z-axis t a distance Z from Origin.

𝑟⃗ 𝑟𝑎⃗𝑟 − 𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧
𝑎⃗𝑟 = =
|𝑟⃗| √𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2
⃗𝑎⃗𝑟
1 ⃗𝑎⃗𝜑 ⃗𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑟 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑
𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟 = [0 0 𝑑𝑧 ] =
√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑟 0 −𝑧
√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2

𝐼𝑟 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑
𝐼𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟 =
√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2
According to Biot-Savart law, 𝑑𝐻 at point 2 can be expressed as

𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝐼𝑟 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 𝐼𝑟 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑

𝐻=∫ = ∫ = ∫
4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 (√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 4𝜋 ( 𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2

𝑧=∞ 𝐼𝑟 𝑑𝑧 𝑎⃗𝜑
𝐻=∫ 3/2
𝑧=−∞ 4𝜋 ( 𝑟2 + 𝑧2 )
From Fig
𝑧
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑑𝑧 = 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼 𝑑𝛼
𝑟
𝑧
𝑧 = 𝑧1 𝑧1 = 𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 𝛼1 = tan−1 ( 1)
𝑟
−1 𝑧𝑧
𝑧 = 𝑧2 𝑧2 = 𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 𝛼2 = tan ( )
𝑟

𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝛼𝑑𝛼𝑎⃗⃗𝜑

𝐻=∫ 3 =∫ 3
4𝜋 ( 𝑟2 + (𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼)2 )2 4𝜋 ( 𝑟 2 (1 + (𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼)2 )2

58
 𝐼𝑟 𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑
=∫
4𝜋 ( 𝑟 2 (𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼))3/2
𝛼2
𝐼 𝑑𝛼 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 𝑑𝛼 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼𝑑𝜃 𝑎⃗⃗𝜑 𝐼
𝐻=∫ =∫ =∫ = (𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 )𝑎⃗⃗𝜑
4𝜋 𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 4𝜋 𝑟 𝛼1 4𝜋 𝑟 4𝜋 𝑟
𝐼
𝐻= (sin(𝛼2 ) − sin(𝛼1 ) )⃗𝑎⃗𝜑 in A/m
4𝜋 𝑟

µ𝑜 µ𝑟 𝐼
We know that, 𝐵 = µ𝐻 = µ𝑜 µ𝑟 𝐻 = (sin(𝛼2 ) − sin(𝛼1 ) )⃗⃗⃗𝑎⃗Ø in Wb/m2
4𝜋𝑟

H due to circular loop:

Consider a Circular loop carrying a direct current I placed in xy plane with z-axis as its axis as shown in
Fig.

The magnetic field intensity H at point P is at a distance Z from the plane of the circular loop along its
axis. The radius of the circular loop is r and deferential length is 𝑑𝑙

In cylindrical coordinates 𝑑𝑙 = 𝑑𝑟𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝑟𝑑Ø𝑎⃗Ø + 𝑑𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧

But 𝑑𝑙 is in the z=0 plane, therefore only  component is present

𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼 𝑟𝑑Ø𝑎⃗Ø
the unit vector

𝑟⃗ −𝑟𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝑧𝑎⃗𝑧
𝑎⃗𝑟 = =
|𝑟⃗| √𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2

1 ⃗𝑎⃗𝑟 ⃗𝑎⃗𝜑 ⃗𝑎⃗𝑧 𝑧𝑟 𝑑 ⃗𝑎⃗𝑟 + 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑑 𝑎⃗⃗𝑧

𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟 = [0 0 𝑑𝑧 ] =
√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 −𝑟 0 𝑧
√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2
According to Biot-savart law

59
 𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝐼𝑧𝑟 𝑑𝑎⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟 2 𝑑⃗𝑎⃗𝑧
𝐻=∫ =
4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 (√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )2

𝐼 𝑑𝑙 × 𝑎⃗𝑟 𝐼𝑧𝑟 𝑑𝑎⃗⃗𝑟 + 𝑟 2 𝑑⃗𝑎⃗𝑧

𝐻=∫ =
4𝜋 𝑟 2 4𝜋√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 (√𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )2

𝐼𝑧𝑟 𝑑⃗𝑎⃗𝑟 𝐼𝑟 2 𝑑𝑎

⃗⃗𝑧
𝐻=∫ + ∫
4𝜋( 𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2 4𝜋( 𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2

Now 𝑎⃗𝑟 = cos  𝑎⃗𝑥 + sin  𝑎⃗𝑦

𝐼𝑧𝑟 𝑑 cos  𝑎⃗⃗𝑥 𝐼𝑧𝑟 𝑑 sin  𝑎⃗⃗𝑦 𝐼𝑟 2 𝑑⃗𝑎⃗𝑧
𝐻=∫ +∫ +∫
4𝜋( 𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2 4𝜋( 𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2 4𝜋( 𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )3/2

𝐼𝑧𝑟 𝐼𝑟 2
𝐻= 3 (∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑑∅𝑎⃗⃗𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑑∅𝑎⃗⃗𝑦 ) + 3 ∫ 𝑑∅ ⃗⃗𝑧
𝑎
4𝜋( 𝑟2 + 2
𝑧 )2 4𝜋( 𝑟2 + 2
𝑧 )2
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝑧𝑟 𝐼𝑟 2
𝐻= 3 (∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑑∅𝑎⃗𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑑∅𝑎⃗𝑦 ) + 3 ∫ 𝑑∅ 𝑎⃗𝑧
4𝜋( 𝑟2 + 𝑧 2 )2 ∅=0 ∅=0 4𝜋( 𝑟2 + 2
𝑧 )2 ∅=0
2𝜋 2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐼𝑧𝑟 𝐼𝑟 2
𝐻= 3 (∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ 𝑑∅𝑎
⃗𝑥 + ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛∅ 𝑑∅𝑎⃗𝑦 ) + 3 ∫ 𝑑∅ 𝑎
⃗𝑧
4𝜋( 𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 ∅=0 ∅=0 4𝜋( 𝑟 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 ∅=0

𝐼𝑧𝑟 𝐼𝑟 2
3 ())
𝐻= 3(
(𝑠𝑖𝑛∅) + (−𝑐𝑜𝑠∅)) + ⃗⃗𝑧
𝑎
4𝜋( 𝑟2 + 2
𝑧 )2 4𝜋( 𝑟2 + 2
𝑧 )2

𝐼𝑧𝑟 𝐼𝑟 2
𝐻= 3
(0 + 0 − 1 + 1) + 3 (2𝜋 − 0)) 𝑎
⃗⃗𝑧
4𝜋( 𝑟2 + 𝑧 2 )2 4𝜋( 𝑟2 + 2
𝑧 )2

𝐼𝑟 2 𝐼𝑟 2
𝐻= 3 2𝜋𝑎
⃗⃗𝑧 = 3𝑎⃗⃗𝑧
4𝜋( 𝑟2 + 2
𝑧 )2 2( 𝑟2 + 2
𝑧 )2
Wkt
B = µ𝐻 = µ𝑜 µ𝑟 𝐻
µ 𝑜 µ 𝑟 𝐼𝑟 2
𝐵= 3𝑎⃗⃗𝑧
2( 𝑟2 + 2
𝑧 )2

60
Ampere’s Circuit Law:

Ampere’s Circuit Law states that line integral of the magnetic field intensity H about any closed path is
exactly equal to the direct current enclosed by that path

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼
Consider a long straight conductor carrying current I placed along z-axis as shown in fig. and also consider
the closed path of radius r which encloses the straight conductor carrying direct current I.
The point p is at a perpendicular distance r from the conductor. Consider 𝑑𝑙 at a point P which is in 𝑎⃗
direction tangential to circular path at point P.
𝑑𝑙 = 𝑟 𝑑 𝑎 ⃗⃗
when 𝐻 ⃗⃗ obtaind at point P, from Biot-Savart Law due to infinitely long conductor is
⃗⃗ = 𝐼 𝑎
𝐻 ⃗⃗
2𝜋𝑟

𝐼 𝐼
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = ⃗⃗ 𝑟 𝑑 𝑎
𝑎 ⃗⃗ = 𝑑∅
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋
2𝜋
𝐼 𝐼
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = ∫ 𝑑∅ = (∅) = 𝐼
∅=0 2𝜋 2𝜋
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼
⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙
∮𝐻

Hence proved

Relationship between B and H:

The relationship between B and H is 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻
𝜇𝑜 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚

Gauss’s Law for magnetic fields:

If the flux passing through the area is not exactly at the right angles to the plane consisteing the area but
making some angle with the plane then the flux crossing the area is given by

∅ = ∫ ∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠
𝑠
The magnetic flux lines are always exit in the form of closed loop. thus for a closed surface the n.of
magnetic flux lines must be entering equal to the number of magnetic flux line leaving

∅ = ∫ ∫ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑠
This is called as law of conservation of magnetic flux or Gauss’s law in integral form for magnetic field.

Apply the divergence theorem,

∬ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = ∭(∇. 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑣 = 0
⃗⃗ = 0
∇. 𝐵
This is called Gauss’s Law in differential form for magnetic field
61
Scalar Magnetic Potential:
⃗⃗ around a closed path is equal to thee current enclosed.
Ampere’s law stated that line integral of the field 𝐻
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼
if no current is enclosed J=0
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = 0
⃗⃗ can be expressed as negative gradient of a scalar function. 𝐻
Magnetic field 𝐻 ⃗⃗ = −∇𝑉𝑚

Where 𝑉𝑚 is called scalar magnetic potential

⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑚 = − ∫ 𝐻 𝑑𝑙
𝑏
⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑚(𝑎,𝑏) = − ∫ 𝐻 𝑑𝑙
𝑎

This scalar potential also satisfies Laplace equation

wkt ∬ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑠 = ∭(∇. 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ) 𝑑𝑣 = 0
⃗⃗ ) = 0
In free space=(∇. 𝐵
∇. 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑯 = −∇. 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 ∇𝑉𝑚 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 ∇2 𝑉𝑚 = 0
∇2 𝑉𝑚 = 0 This is called as Laplace equation in magneto static fields.

Vector Magnetic Potential:

Scalar magnetic potential exists if there is no current enclosed ∮ 𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0, If current is enclosed, the
⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙
potential which is depends upon current element(vector quantity)is no more scalar but it is vector quantity.
Since the divergence of a vector is a scalar, vector potential is expressed in curl
⃗⃗ = 0
∇. 𝐵
⃗⃗ = ∇ × 𝐴
𝐵
Where A is magnetic vector potential
Take curl on both sides of above expression
∇× 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = ∇ × ∇ × 𝐴
By the identity
∇ × ∇ × 𝐴 = ∇(∇. 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴
∇× 𝐵 ⃗⃗ = ∇(∇. 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴

But ∇ × 𝐵 =  𝐽

 𝐽 = ∇(∇. 𝐴) − ∇2 𝐴
for the steady state DC, ∇. 𝐴 = 0
 𝐽 = −∇2 𝐴

∇ 2 𝐴 = − 𝐽 This is called as Poisson’s equation in magneto static fields.

Magnetic dipole:

62
A small bar magnet with pole strength 𝑄𝑚 and the length 𝑙 may be treated as magnetic dipole whose
magnetic moment is 𝑄𝑚 𝑙

A magnetic dipole is considered as equivalent to current loop with area A and carrying a current I as
shown in Fig. This loop has magnetic moment.

𝑚 = 𝐼 𝐴 = 𝑄𝑚 𝑙

Magnetization:
A bar magnet is composed of a large number of a magnetic dipoles as shown in Fig. If A is area of cross
section of the bar magnet and 𝑙 its axial length, The volume of the material is A 𝑙. The dipole moment of
the bar magnet is 𝑄𝑚 𝑙

The net dipole moment per unit volume is called magnetization. it is represented as Vector M.
𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑄𝑚 𝑙 𝑄𝑚 𝑙 𝑄𝑚
𝑚= = = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 𝐴𝑙 𝐴
M can be defined at any point in the bar magnet by
𝑚
𝑀 = lim
∆𝑉→0 ∆𝑉

Mgnetic Suspectibility: It is defined as the ratio of magnetization to the magnetic filed intensity. It is
defined by 𝑥𝑚
𝑀
𝑥𝑚 =
𝐻

In free space, the flux density is given by 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻

for magnet, the flux density is given by
𝑀
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐻 + 𝑀) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻 (1 + 𝐻 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐻(1 + 𝑥𝑚 ) = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻

𝜇𝑟 = (1 + 𝑥𝑚 )

Boundary condition between dielectrics in magnetic fields:

The conditions of the magnetic field existing at the boundary of the two media when the magnetic field
passes from one medium other medium are called boundary conditions for magnetic fields or simply
magnetic boundary conditions.

When consider magnetic boundary conditions, the conditions 𝐵 ⃗⃗ and 𝐻

⃗⃗ are studied at the boundary. The
boundary between the two different magnetic materials is considered. To study conditions of 𝐵⃗⃗ and 𝐻
⃗⃗ are
resolved in to two components. Here boundary between two isotropic, homogeneous, linear with different
permeability is considered.

63
  Tangential to boundary
 Normal to boundary

Normal component: According to the Gauss’s Law for magnetic fields

∮ 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑠

∮ 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑠 = ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = 0
𝑠 𝑠 (𝑡𝑜𝑝) 𝑠(𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚) 𝑠 (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒)

The h0 ∮𝑠 (𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒) 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = 0

∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 + ∮ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = 𝐵1𝑁 ∆𝑠 − 𝐵2𝑁 ∆𝑠 = 0
𝑠 𝑠 (𝑡𝑜𝑝) 𝑠(𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚)

𝐵1𝑁 = 𝐵2𝑁

We know that 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻

𝐵1𝑁 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟1 𝐻1𝑁 and 𝐵2𝑁 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟2 𝐻2𝑁

𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟1 𝐻1𝑁 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟2 𝐻2𝑁

𝐻1𝑁 𝜇𝑟1
=
𝐻2𝑁 𝜇𝑟2

Tangential Components: According to Ampere’s Circuital Law ∮𝐻 ⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐼

⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙
64
Consider a rectangular path a-b-c-d-a as shown in Fig. it is traced clockwise direction as a-b-c-d-. This
closed path is placed in plane normal to the boundary surface hence ∮ 𝐻⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 can be divided into six part.

̅ =𝐼
̅ 𝑑𝑙
∮ 𝐻.

𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑑 1 𝑎

̅̅̅̅
∫𝐻 ̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
1𝑡 . 𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐻
̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
1𝑁 . 𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐻
̅ ̅̅̅̅
2𝑁 . 𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐻
̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
2𝑡 . 𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐻
̅ ̅̅̅̅̅
2𝑁 . 𝑑𝑙 + ∫ 𝐻
̅
1𝑁 . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼
𝑎 𝑏 2 𝑐 𝑑 1
∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
1𝑡 . 𝑤 + 𝐻1𝑁 ( 𝐻2𝑡 . 𝑤 + 𝐻
̅̅̅̅̅
𝐻 ̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
)+𝐻 2𝑁 ( ) − ̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅
2𝑁 (
̅̅̅̅̅̅
)+𝐻 1𝑁 ( )=𝐼
2 2 2 2

The h0 and the media is dielectric. So, I=0

1𝑡 . 𝑤 − 𝐻2𝑡 . 𝑤 = 0
̅̅̅̅̅
𝐻 ̅̅̅̅̅

̅̅̅̅
𝐻1𝑡 = ̅̅̅̅̅
𝐻2𝑡
𝐵
We know that 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻 and 𝐻=𝜇
𝑜 𝜇𝑟

𝐵1𝑡 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟1 𝐻1𝑡 and 𝐵2𝑡 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟2 𝐻2𝑡

𝐵1𝑡 𝐵2𝑡
=
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟1 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟2

𝐵1𝑡 𝜇𝑟1
=
𝐵2𝑡 𝜇𝑟2

Let the field of angle 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 with the normal to the interface as shown in Fig.
𝐵
In medium 1, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 = 𝐵 1𝑡
1𝑁

𝐵
In medium 2, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 = 𝐵 2𝑡
2𝑁

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 𝐵1𝑡 𝐵2𝑁

= .
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 𝐵1𝑁 𝐵2𝑡

we know that 𝐵1𝑁 = 𝐵2𝑁 and ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅

𝐻1𝑡 = 𝐻 2𝑡

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 𝐵1𝑡 𝐵2𝑁 𝐵1𝑡 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟1 𝐻1𝑡 𝜇𝑟1

= . = = =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 𝐵2𝑁 𝐵2𝑡 𝐵2𝑡 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟2 𝐻2𝑡 𝜇𝑟2

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼1 𝐵1𝑡 𝜇𝑟1

= =
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼2 𝐵2𝑡 𝜇𝑟2

65
Force between two parallel conductor (or) Force between two differential current element:

Consider two straight long parallel conductor P and Q separated by a distance d. let the 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 be the
currents flowing in conductors P and Q respectively. The conductor P produces a magnetic field whose
magnetic flux density is B at conductor Q.

𝜇0 𝐼1
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑑
the force on conductor Q due to P
𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑙
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼2 𝑙 =
2𝜋𝑑

If currents are flowing in opposite direction, there

is a force of repulsion, however the value of force is same and if two currents are flowing in same direction
then there is a force of attraction.

𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑙
𝐹= 𝑖𝑛 𝑁
2𝜋𝑑
If the conductor are infinitely long the force per unit length is

𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐼1 𝐼2
𝐹= 𝑖𝑛 𝑁/𝑚
2𝜋𝑑
Magnetic Torque: When a current loop is placed parallel to magnetic field force act on the loop that tend
to rotate it, The tangential force multiplied by the radial distance at which it acts is called torque (or)
mechanical moment on the loop.

Consider the rectangular loop of length 𝑙 and breath 𝑏 carrying a current 𝐼 in a uniform magnetic field of
flux density 𝐵 as shown in Gig. The loop makes an angle ϴ with respect to magnetic flux density 𝐵.

The force acting on the loop 𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳

If the loop plane is parallel to the magnetic field, the total torque on the loop

𝑇 = 2 × 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒 = 2 × 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑏 𝑙𝑏
𝑇 = 2 𝐵𝐼𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 × ( ) = 2 𝐵𝐼 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐵𝐼 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2 2
The magnetic moment of the loop is IA

The magnetic moment is a vector with the direction given by the unit normal 𝑛̂ to the plane of the loop.

𝑚 = 𝐼𝐴 𝑛̂

𝑇 = 𝑚 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛳 𝑛̂
66
In vector form, Torque can be expressed as 𝑇 = 𝑚 × 𝐵

Energy stored in magnetic field:

Current through inductor is increased from 0 to I with the potential difference across inductor is V then
energy supplied from the source is in time dt given by
𝑑𝑤 = 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 𝐼
𝑑𝑖 𝐼
𝑖2 1
𝑤 = ∫ 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝐿 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝐿 ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑖 = 𝐿 ( ) = 𝐿𝑖 2
0 0 𝑑𝑡 0 2 2

Energy density:
1
Energy stored in magnetic field 𝑊 = 2 𝐿𝑖 2
0 𝑟 𝑁2 𝐴
The inductance of solenoid 𝐿 =
𝑙
1 0 𝑟 𝑁 𝐴
2
0 𝑟 𝑙 𝐴 𝑁𝑖 2   𝑙𝐴 2
𝑊= 𝑖2 = ( ) = 0 𝑟 (𝐻)
2 𝑙 2 𝑙 2
The Energy stored/ unit volume
    𝐻𝐻 1
𝑊 = 0 𝑟 (𝐻)2 = 0 𝑟 = 𝐵𝐻
2 2 2

Inductance: when a coil with N turns carrying current I and the flux produced by it. This flux is with
each turn of the coil. Thus the total flux linkage of the coil having N turns is 𝑁∅
The flux linked with the coil is proportional to the current I flowing through it. The ratio of total flux
linkage to the current produced that flux is called inductance
𝑁∅
𝐿=
𝐼
Self Inductance:
By Faraday’s law, changing current will produce an induced EMF in the circuit to oppose the change in
flux. This phenomenon is known as self induction. Self induction of a circuit is the property of the circuit
by which current induces EMF in the circuit to oppose the changing current. Consider a coil having N
number of turns. If charging current is applied, the EMF is induced in the coil.

The induced EMF is proportional to the rate of change of current

𝑑𝑖
𝑉
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑉=𝐿
𝑑𝑡
Where L is the self inductance,
𝑑
From Faradays Law, the induced EMF is 𝑉 = 𝑁 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑
Equating these equations 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑁 𝑑𝑡
𝑑
𝐿= 𝑁
𝑑𝑖
If the permeability is constant then

67
 𝑁∅
𝐿=
𝐼
The inductance is defined as the rate of total magnetic flux linkage to the current through the coil.

Mutual Inductance:
Consider two coils 1 and 2 are coupled together as shown in Fig. The changing current 𝑖1 produces a flux
1. If a second coil is placed near the first coil, some of the flux links coil 2 say 12. The induced EMF
in coil is given by
𝑑 12
𝑉2 = 𝑁2
𝑑𝑡
Since flux 12 is produced by first coil current 𝑖1 , the induced EMF 𝑉2 in coil 2 is proportional to the
rate of change of current 𝑖1
𝑑𝑖1
𝑉2 
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖1
𝑉2 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡
Where 𝑀 is the mutual inductance between the two coils.
𝑑 12 𝑑𝑖1
Equating these equations𝑁2 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 12
𝑀 = 𝑁2
𝑑𝑖1
If the permeability is constant then
12
𝑀 = 𝑁2
𝑖1
Similarly, if the flux 21 is produced by second coil current 𝑖2 , the induced EMF 𝑉1 in coil 1 is
proportional to the rate of change of current 𝑖2
𝑑𝑖2
𝑉1 
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖2
𝑉1 = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡
From Faraday’s Law
𝑑∅21
𝑉1 = 𝑁1
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑑𝑖
Equating these equations 𝑁1 𝑑𝑡21 = 𝑀 𝑑𝑡2
𝑑21
𝑀 = 𝑁1
𝑑𝑖2
If the permeability is constant then
21
𝑀 = 𝑁1
𝑖2
The mutual inductance between two coils is defined as the rate of induced magnetic flux linkage in one
coil to the current through in other coil.

68
Coupling Coefficient:

The fraction of the total flux produced by one coil linking a second coil is called the co-efficient of
coupling (K)
12 21
𝐾= =
∅1 ∅2
The mutual inductance is given by
21 12
𝑀 = 𝑁1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 = 𝑁2
𝑖2 𝑖1
  𝐾 𝐾 𝑁∅
𝑀2 = (𝑁1 21) (𝑁2 12) = 𝑁1 2 𝑁2 1 = 𝐾 2 𝐿1 𝐿2 (Hint: L= 𝐼 )
𝑖 𝑖
2 𝑖1 𝑖 2 1

𝑀= √𝐾 2 𝐿1 𝐿2 = 𝐾√𝐿1 𝐿2

𝑀
𝐾= K is always less than one ( K<1)
√𝐿1 𝐿2

Dot Rule for Coupled Circuits:

1. If both currents enter dotted ends of coupled coils or if the both currents enter undotted ends, then
the sign of M will be the same as the sign on the L.
2. If one current enter dotted end and the other an undotted end, the sign of M will be the opposite to
the sign of L.

Coupled Coils in series (aiding):

Consider two coupled coils of self inductance 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 . Let M be the mutual inductance between them.
The two coils are connected in series as shown in Fig. Since, the current is entering the both coils at the
dotted terminal, it is called series aiding connection.
By applying KCL,
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝐿1 + 𝑀 + 𝐿2 + 𝑀 = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀) = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
The equivalent inductance L=𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀

Coupled Coils in series (opposing):

The two coils are connected in series as shown in Fig. Since, the current is entering first coil at dotted
terminal and leaving other coil at dotted coil. it is called series opposing connection.i.e. M has the opposite
sign as L.
By applying KCL,
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝐿1 − 𝑀 + 𝐿2 − 𝑀 = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖
(𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀) = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
The equivalent inductance L=𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀
69
Coupled Coils in parallel (aiding): Consider the two coils connected in parallel as shown in fig. Let 𝑖1
and 𝑖2 enter the coils at the dotted terminals
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
𝐿1 +𝑀 = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
𝑀 + 𝐿2 = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Taking Laplace transform

𝐿1 𝑠𝑖1 (𝑠) + 𝑀𝑠𝑖2 (𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)
𝑀𝑠𝑖1 (𝑠) + 𝐿1 𝑠𝑖2 (𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)

𝐿 𝑠 𝑀𝑠 𝐼1 (𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)
( 1 )( )=( )
𝑀𝑠 𝐿2 𝑠 𝐼2 (𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)

𝑉(𝑠) 𝑀𝑠
( )
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐿2 𝑠 𝑉(𝐿2 − 𝑀)
𝐼1 (𝑠) = =
𝐿 𝑠 𝑀𝑠 𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2 )
( 1 )
𝑀𝑠 𝐿2 𝑠
𝐿 𝑠 𝑉(𝑠)
( 1 )
𝑀𝑠 𝑉(𝑠) 𝑉(𝐿1 − 𝑀)
𝐼2 (𝑠) = =
𝐿 𝑠 𝑀𝑠 𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2 )
( 1 )
𝑀𝑠 𝐿2 𝑠
𝑉(𝐿2 −𝑀) 𝑉(𝐿1 −𝑀) 𝑉(𝐿1 +𝐿2 −2𝑀)
The total current I =𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 2
+ =
𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 −𝑀 ) 𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 −𝑀2 ) 𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 −𝑀2 )
𝑉 𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2 ))
𝑠𝐿 = =
𝐼 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 − 2𝑀

(𝐿1 𝐿2 −𝑀2 )
Then 𝐿 =
(𝐿1 +𝐿2 −2𝑀

Coupled Coils in parallel (opposing):

𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
𝐿1 −𝑀 = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖1 𝑑𝑖2
−𝑀 + 𝐿2 = 𝑉(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Taking Laplace transform

𝐿1 𝑠𝑖1 (𝑠) − 𝑀𝑠𝑖2 (𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)
−𝑀𝑠𝑖1 (𝑠) + 𝐿1 𝑠𝑖2 (𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)

𝐿 𝑠 −𝑀𝑠 𝐼 (𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)

( 1 )( 1 ) = ( )
−𝑀𝑠 𝐿2 𝑠 𝐼2 (𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)
70
 𝑉(𝑠) −𝑀𝑠
( )
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐿2 𝑠 𝑉(𝐿2 − 𝑀)
𝐼1 (𝑠) = =
𝐿 𝑠 −𝑀𝑠 𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2 )
( 1 )
−𝑀𝑠 𝐿2 𝑠
𝐿 𝑠 𝑉(𝑠)
( 1 )
−𝑀𝑠 𝑉(𝑠) 𝑉(𝐿1 + 𝑀)
𝐼2 (𝑠) = =
𝐿 𝑠 −𝑀𝑠 𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2 )
( 1 )
−𝑀𝑠 𝐿2 𝑠
𝑉(𝐿2 +𝑀) 𝑉(𝐿1 +𝑀) 𝑉(𝐿1 +𝐿2 +2𝑀)
The total current I =𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 2
+ =
𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 −𝑀 ) 𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 −𝑀2 ) 𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 −𝑀2 )
2
𝑉 𝑠(𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀 ))
𝑠𝐿 = =
𝐼 (𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 2𝑀

(𝐿1 𝐿2 −𝑀2 )
Then 𝐿 = 𝐿 =
(𝐿1 +𝐿2 +2𝑀)

Inductance of solenoid:
Consider a solenoid of N number of turns carrying the current I. if the B is the flux density and A is the
area of cross section of the solenoid, then flux linkage through the solenoid is 𝑁∅ = 𝑁𝐵𝐴
𝑁∅ 𝑁𝐵𝐴
𝐿= =
𝐼 𝐼
𝑁𝐼
But for solenoid 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑙
The value of B is substituted in above
𝑁𝐼
𝑁∅ 𝑁 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑙 𝐴 𝑁2𝐴
𝐿= = = 𝜇 𝑜 𝜇𝑟
𝐼 𝐼 𝑙

Inductance of Toroid:
Consider a toroid of N number of turns carrying current I with mean radius R as shown in Fig.if B is the
flux density in the toroid, then
𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟
𝑙
where 𝑙 = 2𝜋𝑅
𝑁𝐼
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟
2𝜋𝑅
and A= 𝜋𝑟 2
The flux linkage in the toroid is N= NBA

𝑁𝐼
= 𝑁 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜋𝑟 2
2𝜋𝑅
𝑁𝐼
𝑁∅ 𝑁 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝜋𝑟 2 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝑁 2 𝑟 2
2𝜋𝑅
The inductance of the toroid coil is 𝐿 = = =
𝐼 𝐼 2𝑅

Magnetic Circuits: An electric circuit forms a closed path or circuit through which the current flows.
Magnetic flux are continuous and form closed paths. hence a single flux line is a magnetic circuit.
71
Magnetic flux: the magnetic flux through magnetic circuit is defined as the ratio of magnetic motive force
to the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
𝑚𝑚𝑓
Magnetic flux = 𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Magnetic motive force: Magnetic motive force of a magnetic circuit is equal to the line integral of
magnetic field H around the closed circuit.
mmf=∮ 𝐻 𝑑𝑙 = NI Amp-turns

Reluctance: The reluctance is defined as the ratio of total mmf of magnetic circuit to the flux through it.
𝑚𝑚𝑓 ∮ 𝐻 𝑑𝑙 𝐻𝑙 𝐻𝑙 𝑙
Reluctance = = = = =
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝐵𝐴 𝐵𝐴 𝐻𝐴 𝐴

Magnetic circuit with air gap: consider an iron ring with a narrow gap of thickness t as shown in Fig.
By the continuity of the normal component of B the flux density inn the gap is the same as the iron. but
𝐵 𝐵
the field intensity in the ring is 𝐻𝑖 =  =  
𝑜 𝑟

𝐵
and the field intensity in the air gapis 𝐻𝑔 = 
𝑜
Comparison between Electric circuit and magnetic circuit
S.No Electric circuit Magnetic Circuit
The path traced by the current is called an The path traced by the magnetic flux is called a
1.
electric circuit magnetic circuit
2. EMF is the force. it is measured in (V) MMF is the driving force. it is measured in (AT)
Resistance (R) opposes the current flow Reluctance (R) opposed by the magnetic path
3. 𝑉 𝜌𝑙 𝑚𝑚𝑓 𝑙
𝑅= = 𝑅= =
𝐼 𝐴 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝐴
4. Conductivity  Permeability 
5. Field intensity E Field intensity H
𝐼 
6. Current density 𝐽 = 𝐴 Flux density 𝐵 = 𝐴
7. Reciprocal of resistance is conductance(G) Reciprocal of reluctance is permeance(P)
8. Ohms Law V =IR Ohms law Vm= R
9. Kirchhoff’s Law ∑ 𝐼 = 0 Kirchhoff’s Law ∑  = 0

72
 Unit-V
Faraday’s law: Faraday’s law state that the total electromagnetic force (emf) induced in a circuit is equal
to the rate of decrease of the total magnetic flux linking the circuit.
𝑑∅
𝑉=−
𝑑𝑡
If N of turnsin the circuit, then the total flux is N, where  is the magnetic flux
𝑁 𝑑∅
𝑉=−
𝑑𝑡
But by definition, the emf in a circuit is the line integral of the electric field around a closed path
𝑉 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙
According to Gausss’s law the total flux passing through the surface is equal to the surface integral of
magnetic flux density over the surface.
∅ = ∬ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠
Substitute  in emf equation
𝑑 ∬ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝐵 𝑑𝑠
𝑉=− = −∬
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
But 𝑉 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙
𝜕𝐵 𝑑𝑠
Therefore ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 = − ∬ 𝜕𝑡
Apply stoke theorem, ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 = ∬𝑠 (∇ × 𝐸)𝑑𝑠

𝜕𝐵 𝑑𝑠
Then ∬𝑠 (∇ × 𝐸)𝑑𝑠 = − ∬
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐵
∇ ×𝐸 =−
𝜕𝑡
Transformer EMF: The closed circuit in which EMF is induced in stationary and the magnetic flux is
sinusoidal varying with time.
𝑑 ∬ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠
𝑉 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 = −
𝑑𝑡
From the above equation, it is clear that the magnetic flux density is varying with time.
𝜕𝐵
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 = − ∬ 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡
this is similar to transformer action and EMF is called transformer emf. using stoke’s theorem, the line
integral can be converted to the surface integral of above equation.
𝜕𝐵
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 = ∬(∇ × 𝐸)𝑑𝑠 == − ∬ 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡
𝑠
both the side surface integrals taken over identical surface.
𝜕𝐵
∇ ×𝐸 =−
𝜕𝑡
if B is not varying with time then
∇ ×𝐸 =0
∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 = 0

73
Motional EMF: Magnetic field is stationary, constant not varying with time while the closed circuit is
revolved to get the relative motion between them. This action is similar to generator action, hence the
induced emf is called motional emf or generator emf.

consider an electron charge Q is moved in a magnetic field B at a velocity v, then the force on a charge is
given by 𝐹 = 𝑄(𝑣 × 𝐵)
But motional electric field intensity is defined as force per unit charge. it is given by
𝐹 𝑄(𝑣 × 𝐵)
𝐸𝑚 = = =𝑣 ×𝐵
𝑄 𝑄

The induced emf is given by ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 = ∮( 𝑣 × 𝐵 ) 𝑑𝑙

It represents total EMF induced when a conductor is moved in a uniform constant magnetic field.
if the direction of velocity v which conductor is moving and magnetic field B are perpendicular t each
other, then the induce emf is given by
𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣 sin 90 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣

Maxwell’s equation:
 Time varying Field
 Static Field
 Free Space
 Good Conductor
 Harmonically Varying Field

Maxwell’s Equation-I (From Ampere’s Circuital Law)

Maxwell’s Equation-II (From Faradays’s Law)
Maxwell’s Equation-III (From Electric Gauss’s Law)
Maxwell’s Equation-IV (From Magnetic Gauss’s Law)

Maxwell’s Equation-I (From Ampere’s Circuital Law): Ampere’s law states that the line integral of
magnetic field intensity H on closed path is equal to the current enclosed by that path

⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = 𝐼 = ∬ 𝐽. 𝑑𝑠 = ∬(𝐽𝐶 + 𝐽𝐷 )𝑑𝑠

∮𝐻
𝑠 𝑠

In general the total current involves both conduction and displacement current. A current through a
resistive element is called conduction current where as a current through a capacitive element is called
displacement current.

Conduction Current density (𝑱𝑪 ): According to Ohm’s law, the current through a conductor of resistance
R is given by
V
Ic =
R
But
l l
R= =
A A
74
Where  is resistivity
 is conductivity (=1/)
l is the length of the conductor
A is the area of cross section of conductor
V A V
Ic = =
l l
A
If E is the electric field, then voltage V= E.l
A E l
Ic = = A E
l
Ic
=E
A
Jc =  E

𝑑𝑞
Displacement Current density (𝑱𝑫 ): The current the capacitor ID =
dt
But Q=CV
𝑑( 𝐶𝑉 ) 𝐶 𝑑(𝑉 )
ID = =
dt dt
𝐴
The expression for capacitor is 𝐶 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 𝑑
Where,  is the permittivity of the medium
A is area of parallel plate capacitor
d is distance between two plates

𝑑( 𝐶𝑉 ) 𝐴 𝑑(𝑉 )
ID = = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
dt 𝑑 dt
But E=E.d
𝐴 𝜕(𝐸. 𝑑 )
ID = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
𝑑 ∂t

ID 𝑑 𝜕(𝐸 ) 𝜕𝐸 𝜕𝐷
= 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 = 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 =
𝐴 𝑑 ∂t ∂t ∂t
Now Ampere’s law can be written as
𝜕𝐸
⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∬( E + 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟
∮𝐻 )𝑑𝑠
∂t
𝑠
unless or otherwise it is not specified J stands for conduction current density alone., then
𝜕𝐷
⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∬(J +
∮𝐻 )𝑑𝑠
∂t
𝑠
This is Maxwell’s equation in integral form from Ampere’s Law. By applying stoke’s theorem
⃗⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗ = ∬ (∇ × 𝐻)𝑑𝑠
∮𝐻
𝑠
comparing the above equations, then

75
 𝜕𝐷
∬ (∇ × 𝐻)𝑑𝑠 = ∬(J + )𝑑𝑠
𝑠 ∂t
𝑠
𝜕𝐷
(∇ × 𝐻) = (J + )
∂t
𝜕𝐸
(∇ × 𝐻) = (J + 𝜀𝑜 𝜀𝑟 )
∂t
This is Maxwell’s equation in differential or point form from Ampere’s Law

The magnetomotive force around a closed path is equal to the sum of the conduction current and
displacement current enclosed by the path. Inother words, magnetic voltage around a closed path is equal
to the electric current through the path.

Maxwell’s Equation-II (From Faradays’s Law): Faraday’s law states that the total electromagnetic
force (emf) induced in a circuit is equal to the rate of decrease of the total magnetic flux linking the circuit.
𝑑∅
𝑉=−
𝑑𝑡
If N of turns in the circuit, then the total flux is N, where  is the magnetic flux
𝑁 𝑑∅
𝑉=−
𝑑𝑡
But by definition, the emf in a circuit is the line integral of the electric field around a closed path
𝑉 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙
According to Gausss’s law the total flux passing through the surface is equal to the surface integral of
magnetic flux density over the surface.
∅ = ∬ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠
Substitute  in emf equation
𝑑 ∬ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 𝜕𝐵 𝑑𝑠
𝑉=− = −∬
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
But
𝑉 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙
𝜕𝐵 𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗
𝜕𝐻
Therefore ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 = − ∬ 𝜕𝑡 =−µ ∬ 𝜕𝑡 𝑑𝑠⃗
This is Maxwell’s equation in integral form from Faradays’s Law
Apply stoke theorem, ∮ 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 = ∬𝑠 (∇ × 𝐸)𝑑𝑠

𝜕𝐵 𝑑𝑠
Then ∬𝑠 (∇ × 𝐸)𝑑𝑠 = − ∬
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐵
∇ ×𝐸 =−
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐵 𝜕𝐻⃗⃗
∇ ×𝐸 =− = −µ
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
This is Maxwell’s equation in differential or point form from Faradays’s Law

76
The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the magnetic displacement through closed path.
Inother words, electric voltage around a closed path is equal to the magnetic current through the path.

Maxwell’s Equation-III (From Electric Gauss’s Law): Gauss’s law states that electric flux through any
closed surface is equal to the charge enclosed by the surface
=Q
∬ 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑄
or ∭ 𝜌 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑄
Then ∬ 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = ∭ 𝜌 𝑑𝑣
This is Maxwell’s equation in integral form from electric Gauss’s Law
By applying the divergence theorem.
∬ 𝐷 𝑑𝑠 = ∭(∇ 𝐷)𝑑𝑣
Comparing above equations
∭(∇ 𝐷)𝑑𝑣 = ∭ 𝜌 𝑑𝑣
∇. 𝐷 = 
This is Maxwell’s equation in differential or point form from electric Gauss’s Law

The total electric displacement through the surface enclosing a volume is equal to the total charge within
the volume.

Maxwell’s Equation-IV (From Magnetic Gauss’s Law)

Magnetic Gauss’s law states that the total magnetic flux through any closed surface is equal to zero.
=0
∬ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = 0
This is Maxwell’s equation in integral form from magnetic Gauss’s Law
By applying the divergence theorem.
∬ 𝐵 𝑑𝑠 = ∭(∇ 𝐵)𝑑𝑣
Comparing above equations

∭(∇ 𝐵)𝑑𝑣 = 0

∇𝐵 =0
This is Maxwell’s equation in differential or point form from magnetic Gauss’s Law

The net magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.

(Note: Refer Formula sheet for other fields)

77
Poynting Theorem:

The vector product of electric field intensity and magnetic field intensity at any point is a measure of the
rate of change of energy flow per unit area at that point.

P=E × H ; The direction of E and H are perpendicular

The energy flow equation can be obtained from Maxwell equation, From Maxwell 1st equation
𝜕𝐸⃗⃗ 𝜕𝐸⃗⃗
∇𝑋𝐻 ⃗⃗ = 𝜎𝐸⃗⃗ + 𝜀 =𝐽+𝜀
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸⃗⃗
⃗⃗ − 𝜀
𝐽 =∇𝑋𝐻
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸⃗⃗
⃗⃗ − 𝜀𝐸.
if it is multiplied E on both side, it will the power per unit volume 𝐽. 𝐸 = 𝐸. ∇ 𝑋 𝐻 𝜕𝑡

But vector identity says∇. E 𝑋 𝐻 = 𝐻. ∇ x E − E. ∇ xH

or 𝐸. ∇𝑋 𝐻 = 𝐻. ∇ x E − ∇. E xH then

𝜕𝐸⃗⃗
𝐸. 𝐽 = 𝐻. ∇ 𝑋 𝐸 − ∇. E x H − 𝜀𝐸.
𝜕𝑡
But Maxwell’s 2nd equation ∇ 𝑋 𝐸⃗⃗ = −µ
𝜕𝐻 𝜕𝐸
𝐸. 𝐽 = −𝜇𝐻. − 𝜇𝐸. − ∇. E xH
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐻 1 𝜕𝐻 2 𝜕𝐸 1 𝜕𝐸 2
𝐻. 𝜕𝑡 = 2 . and 𝐸. 𝜕𝑡 = 2 .
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜇 𝜕𝐻 2 𝜀 𝜕𝐸 2
Substitute these values in above equation 𝐸. 𝐽 = − 2 −2 − ∇. E x H
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
Integrating over a volume v
𝜕 𝜇 𝜀
∫ 𝐸. 𝐽 𝑑𝑣 = − ∫( 𝐻 2 + 𝐸 2 )𝑑𝑣 − ∫ ∇. E x H 𝑑𝑣
𝜕𝑡 2 2
Using divergence theorem ∫ ∇. E x H 𝑑𝑣 = ∮ 𝐸 𝑋 𝐻 𝑑𝑠 then
𝜕 𝜇 𝜀
∫ 𝐸. 𝐽 𝑑𝑣 = − ∫( 𝐻 2 + 𝐸 2 )𝑑𝑣 − ∮ 𝐸 𝑋 𝐻 𝑑𝑠
𝜕𝑡 2 2
The physical interpretation of this expression from the law of conservation is as follows

Rate of energy dissipated = Rate at which the stored energy + Rate at which the energy is
in a volume in volume v is decreasing entering the volume from outside
Poynting Vector:
The poynting vector (P) measures the rate of flow of energy of the wave as it propagates.
In AC circuit, the instantaneous power is given by product of voltage and the instantaneous current.
The instantaneous power w can be written in terms of instantaneous voltage v and current i as
v = Re[ V 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡 ] = V cos(wt+θV)
i = Re[ I 𝑒 𝑗𝑤𝑡 ] = I cos(wt+θi)
78
The instantaneous power is given by
W= V I cos(wt+θV) cos(wt+θi)
W= V I cos(θV –θi) cos(2wt+ θV +θi)
2
The instantaneous power flow per square meter (P)= E × H
The average power is given by Wav= V I cos(θV –θi)
2
if θV –θi =θ, the angle between voltage and current, then Wav = V I cosθ
2
The reactive power is given by Wrea = V I sinθ
2
The complex power w is defined as W = V I *
2
*
where I is complex conjugate of I
W = V I ejθ
2
W= Wav+ j Wrea
1
The complex power poynting vector P is P= 2 𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗
It consists of real and imaginary power flow per square metre.
1
The real poynting vector is Pav= 2 𝑅𝑒[𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗ ]
1
The imaginary poynting vector is Prea= 2 𝐼𝑚[𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗ ]
1
Th complex poynting vector normal to y-z plane is 𝑃𝑥 = [𝐸𝑦 𝐻𝑧 ∗ − 𝐸𝑍 𝐻𝑦 ∗ ]
2
Relation between field theory and circuit theory:
S.No Circuit Theory Field Theory
1 The analysis originated by its own Evolved from transmission theory
2 Applicable only for portion of RF Beyond RF range
range
3 The dependent and independent Not directly, through E &H
parameters I and V are directly
obtained for the given circuit
4 Parameters of medium are not Parameter of medium are involved in the analysis
involved
5 Laplace transform is employed Maxwell equation is employed
6 Z, Y and H parameters are used S parameter is used
7 Low power is involved Relatively high power is employed
8 Simple to understand Need visualization ability
9 Two dimensional analysis Three dimensional analysis
10 Frequency is used as reference Wavelength is used as reference
11 Lumped components are involved Distributed components are involved

Note: Refer formula sheet and tutorial problem sheet (for problem solving) & also class notes

79