Ecological Applications, 17(3), 2007, pp.

675–691
Ó 2007 by the Ecological Society of America

LIFE-CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF NET GREENHOUSE-GAS FLUX FOR

BIOENERGY CROPPING SYSTEMS
PAUL R. ADLER,1,4 STEPHEN J. DEL GROSSO,2,3 AND WILLIAM J. PARTON3
1
Pasture Systems and Watershed Management Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research
Service, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802 USA
2
Soil Plant Nutrient Research Unit, United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service,
Fort Collins, Colorado 80526 USA
3
Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523 USA

Abstract. Bioenergy cropping systems could help offset greenhouse gas emissions, but
quantifying that offset is complex. Bioenergy crops offset carbon dioxide emissions by
converting atmospheric CO2 to organic C in crop biomass and soil, but they also emit nitrous
oxide and vary in their effects on soil oxidation of methane. Growing the crops requires energy
(e.g., to operate farm machinery, produce inputs such as fertilizer) and so does converting the
harvested product to usable fuels (feedstock conversion efficiency). The objective of this study
was to quantify all these factors to determine the net effect of several bioenergy cropping
systems on greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions. We used the DAYCENT biogeochemistry
model to assess soil GHG fluxes and biomass yields for corn, soybean, alfalfa, hybrid poplar,
reed canarygrass, and switchgrass as bioenergy crops in Pennsylvania, USA. DAYCENT
results were combined with estimates of fossil fuels used to provide farm inputs and operate
agricultural machinery and fossil-fuel offsets from biomass yields to calculate net GHG fluxes
for each cropping system considered. Displaced fossil fuel was the largest GHG sink, followed
by soil carbon sequestration. N2O emissions were the largest GHG source. All cropping
systems considered provided net GHG sinks, even when soil C was assumed to reach a new
steady state and C sequestration in soil was not counted. Hybrid poplar and switchgrass
provided the largest net GHG sinks, .200 g CO2e-C
m2
yr1 for biomass conversion to
ethanol, and .400 g CO2e-C
m2
yr1 for biomass gasification for electricity generation.
Compared with the life cycle of gasoline and diesel, ethanol and biodiesel from corn rotations
reduced GHG emissions by ;40%, reed canarygrass by ;85%, and switchgrass and hybrid
poplar by ;115%.
Key words: biofuel; carbon sequestration; greenhouse gas (GHG); life-cycle assessment; nitrous oxide.

INTRODUCTION strategies is not possible (Robertson and Grace 2004).

Changes in land use and combustion of fossil fuels The major sources of GHG fluxes associated with crop
have been the largest human impacts on the global production are soil nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions, soil
carbon cycle (Janzen 2004). Burning fossil fuels has CO2 and methane (CH4) fluxes, and CO2 emissions
added tremendous quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) to associated with agricultural inputs and farm equipment
the atmosphere; more than 400 times the earth’s current operation (Robertson et al. 2000, Del Grosso et al.
net primary productivity were required to produce the 2001a, West and Marland 2002). Crop systems emit
quantity of fossil fuels burned in 1997 (Dukes 2003). To N2O directly, produced through nitrification and deni-
stabilize atmospheric CO2 at 500 ppm and prevent trification in the cropped soil, and also indirectly, when
doubling of the preindustrial concentration of 280 ppm, N is lost from the cropped soil as some form other than
Pacala and Socolow (2004) identified 15 carbon-mitiga- N2O (NOx, NH3, NO3) and later converted to N2O off
tion strategies based on known technologies already the farm. Independent of GHG accounting, NO3
deployed at an industrial scale that could be scaled up; leaching is also important from a water-quality perspec-
biofuels were identified as one of the options. However, tive because it contributes to aquatic eutrophication and
production of biofuels requires fossil-fuel inputs and can pose a health risk to humans.
impacts the fluxes of non-CO2 greenhouse gases. Bioenergy cropping systems vary with respect to
Without a complete accounting of net greenhouse-gas length of the plant life cycle, yields, feedstock conversion
(GHG) fluxes, developing and evaluating mitigation efficiencies, nutrient demand, soil carbon inputs, nitro-
gen losses, and other characteristics, all impacting
management operations. These factors affect the mag-
Manuscript received 20 December 2005; revised 21 June
nitude of the components contributing to net GHG flux
2006; accepted 10 July 2006. Corresponding Editor: B. A.
Hungate. and N loss vectors. N2O emissions and NO3 leaching
4 E-mail: [email protected] vary with amount of N fertilizer applied and the
675
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Ecological Applications
676 PAUL R. ADLER ET AL.
Vol. 17, No. 3

integration of rainfall, soil temperature and texture, and CENT simulates crop production, soil organic-matter
crop rotation. Soil organic carbon (SOC) sequestration changes, and trace-gas fluxes. Key submodels include
is affected by crop management decisions, which impact soil water content and temperature by layer, plant
the quantity and quality of crop residue added to the soil production and allocation of net primary productivity
and rate of decomposition (Paustian et al. 2000, Jarecki (NPP), decomposition of litter and soil organic matter
and Lal 2003). Crops have different requirements for (SOC), mineralization of nutrients, N gas emissions
farm machinery inputs from crop planting, soil tillage, from nitrification and denitrification, and CH4 oxida-
fertilizer and pesticide application, and harvest (West tion in nonsaturated soils. Flows of C and N between
and Marland 2002). Several studies have evaluated the the different pools are controlled by the size of the
energy balance (Marland and Turhollow, 1991, Sha- pools, C/N and lignin content of material, and abiotic
pouri et al. 2002, Farrell et al. 2006) and GHG fluxes water/temperature controls. The ability of DAYCENT
(Sheehan et al. 1998, 2004, McLaughlin et al. 2002, to simulate NPP, SOC, N2O emissions, NO3 leaching,
Heller et al. 2003, Spath and Mann 2004, Updegraff et and CH4 oxidation has been tested with data from
al. 2004, Kim and Dale 2005) of specific bioenergy various native and managed systems (Del Grosso et al.
crops, but there is limited information comparing a 2001b, 2002, 2005). Simulated and observed grain yields
range of crops (Kim and Dale 2004b) and a need to for major cropping systems in North America agreed
integrate factors contributing to the impact of land-use well with data at both the site (r2 ¼ 0.90) and regional
change on GHG fluxes. The biogeochemistry model levels (r2 ¼ 0.66) (Del Grosso et al. 2005). The CH4
DAYCENT can integrate climate, soil properties, and oxidation submodel correctly simulated the high uptake
land use (Del Grosso et al. 2001a) and can dynamically rates observed in deciduous forests, the intermediate
evaluate the impact of cropping systems on crop rates observed in coniferous and tropical forests and
production, soil organic carbon, and trace-gas fluxes. grasslands, and the low uptake rates observed in
Ethanol and biodiesel from corn and soybean are cultivated soils (Del Gross et al. 2000). N2O emission
currently the main biofuel crops in the United States, data from eight cropped sites and NO3 leaching data
but the perennial crops alfalfa, hybrid poplar, reed from 3 cropped sites showed reasonable model perfor-
canarygrass, and switchgrass have been proposed as
mance with r2 values of 0.74 for N2O and 0.96 for NO3
future dedicated energy crops (McLaughlin et al. 2002,
leaching (Del Grosso et al. 2005).
Lamb et al. 2003, Lewandowski et al. 2003, Spath and
Mann 2004). Rotations of annual and perennial crops Model simulations
are common and the diversity of individual crops will
Simulations of net greenhouse-gas (GHG) fluxes using
affect GHG fluxes of the cropping system (Robertson et
DAYCENT were performed for the following bioenergy
al. 2000). Corn–soybean and corn–soybean–alfalfa
crops grown in Pennsylvania: corn (Zea mays L.),
rotations are common cropping systems in Pennsylva-
soybeans (Glycine max Merr.), alfalfa (Medicago sativa
nia, USA. Crop residues have also been proposed as a
L.), hybrid poplar (Populus spp.), reed canarygrass
current source of biomass for energy production (Kim
(Phalaris arundinacea L.), and switchgrass (Panicum
and Dale 2004a) such as including corn stover (leaves
virgatum L.). Five bioenergy cropping systems were
and stalks of corn) harvest (Sheehan et al. 2004),
although this practice is not without controversy (Lal compared: (1) switchgrass, (2) reed canarygrass, (3)
2005). We considered conversion of biomass to ethanol corn–soybean rotation (2 years of corn followed by 1
or biodiesel and gasification of biomass for electricity year of soybeans), (4) corn–soybean–alfalfa rotation (3
generation for the perennial grasses and hybrid poplar years corn, 1 year soybeans, followed by 4 years of
but only conversion to ethanol or biodiesel for the alfalfa), and (5) hybrid poplar. Conventional and no
rotations involving corn, soybean, and alfalfa. Our tillage were compared within the corn–soybean and
objective was to use DAYCENT (Del Grosso et al. corn–soybean–alfalfa rotations. All simulations were for
2001a) to model the net GHG fluxes of bioenergy 30 years.
cropping systems in Pennsylvania for inclusion in a full Daily weather data for central Pennsylvania (USA)
assessment of GHG emissions associated with energy required to drive DAYCENT were acquired from
production from crops. DAYMET. DAYMET (Thornton et al. 1997, 2000,
Thornton and Running 1999; program available online)5
METHODS generates meteorological data at 1-km2 resolution for
DAYCENT model description the United States using weather-station observations
and an elevation model. To represent central Pennsyl-
DAYCENT is the daily time-step version of the
vania, weather from the 1-km2 cell that was closest to
CENTURY (Parton et al. 1994) biogeochemical model.
the area-weighted geographical center of cropped land
DAYCENT (Parton et al. 1998, Del Grosso et al. 2001a)
in Centre County, Pennsylvania, was selected. Soil
simulates fluxes of carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) between
properties representative of central Pennsylvania were
the atmosphere, vegetation, and soil. From weather
(daily maximum and minimum air temperature, precip-
itation), soil-texture class, and land-use inputs, DAY- 5 hhttp://www.daymet.org/i
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
April 2007 LCA OF NET GHG FLUX FOR BIOENERGY CROPS 677

obtained from the erosion–productivity impact calcula- vegetation followed by tree clearing, plowing, and about
tor (EPIC, Sharpley and Williams 1990). Soil physical 200 years of cropping were simulated. Native vegetation
properties needed for model inputs were calculated from was assumed to be the potential vegetation from
texture class and Saxton et al.’s (1986) hydraulic VEMAP (1995) analysis. Plow out was assumed to
properties calculator (available online).6 Soil texture occur in the year 1789. Historically accurate cropping
class was loam (30% sand, 48% silt, and 22% clay), the systems were simulated and improved cultivars and
mean annual air temperature was 9.28C, and total mean fertilizer applications were introduced at appropriate
annual precipitation was 111 cm. times. The simulations of the different biofuel systems
Land-use parameters were defined for each crop, all used identical initial conditions that included the
including crop growth dynamics, N application rate, legacy effects of 215 years of conventional tillage
harvest schedule, and tillage. Crop yields from DAY- cropping.
CENT simulations were calibrated using 10-year aver-
Net greenhouse-gas flux determination
ages from agricultural statistics in Centre County,
Pennsylvania, for corn, soybeans, and alfalfa (USDA- Two scenarios comparing net greenhouse-gas (GHG)
National Agricultural Statistics Service 2004); and for fluxes for the bioenergy cropping systems were evaluat-
switchgrass (Adler et al. 2006), reed canarygrass ed, near- and long-term net GHG emissions, including
(Cherney et al. 2003), and hybrid poplar (Walsh et al. the net GHG emissions from crop production through
2003) were based on regional estimates. To minimize energy generation or fuel use, cradle-to-grave or ‘‘well-
erosion and maintain tolerable soil-loss limits (Nelson to-wheel’’ in life-cycle assessment terminology. The
2002, Sheehan et al. 2004), only 50% of the corn stover near-term net GHG emissions were calculated as: net
was harvested for biofuel. greenhouse gas (GHGnet) ¼ (Cdff) þ (DCsys) þ (6CFC)
Production parameters for management of alfalfa as a þ (CCH4 ) þ CN2 O Dir þ CN2 O Ind þ CChIn þ CAgMa, where
biofuel were based on Lamb et al. (2003). Only alfalfa the sinks were the amount of fossil fuel (e.g., gasoline,
stems were used for production of biofuel, while leaves diesel, and coal) displaced by electricity generated from
were assumed separated for use as a protein source for gasification of biomass or ethanol or biodiesel (displaced
livestock. The quantity of alfalfa biomass for use as fossil-fuel C, Cdff), the change in soil organic carbon
biofuel was calculated by multiplying the yield from (SOC) and belowground biomass C (change in system C,
DAYCENT by 0.5, since alfalfa stems account for DCsys), the amount of CO2e (carbon dioxide equivalents)
;50% of total alfalfa biomass when it is managed as a emitted from fossil fuels used in feedstock transport to
biofuel crop (Lamb et al. 2003). Nitrogen fertilizer the biorefinery, conversion to biofuel, and subsequent
application rates were 12.7 g N
m2
yr1 for corn, 5.6 g distribution (6feedstock-conversion C, CFC; this can be
N
m2
yr1 for switchgrass, 15.4 g N
m2
yr1 for reed positive or negative depending on the size of the
canarygrass with half applied in the spring and the other electricity credit for combustion of the coproduct lignin
after the first harvest, and 8.4 g N/m2 in years 3, 5, 7, at the biorefinery during production of ethanol from
and 9 for hybrid poplar. Nitrogen from soybean and biomass; other coproducts described below can reduce
alfalfa supplemented the first year of N applied to corn the quantity of energy allocated to feedstock conver-
following the legume crops. In corn following soybean in sion), and CH4 uptake by the soil (CCH4 ); the sources
the 2-year corn–1-year soybean rotation, 3.7 of the 12.7 were CO2e of direct (CN2 O Dir ) and indirect (CN2 O Ind ) N2O
g N
m2
yr1 was assumed to come from soybeans. In emissions, CO2 emission from manufacture of chemical
inputs (CCI), and fuel used by agricultural machinery for
corn following alfalfa in the 3-year corn–1-year soy-
tillage, planting, fertilizer and pesticide application,
bean–4-year alfalfa rotation, 8.7 of the 12.7 g
harvesting, and drying corn grain (CAgMa). The long-
N
m2
yr1 was assumed to come from alfalfa. About
term GHGnet assumed that DCsys was zero because soils
one third of the N applied to corn was at planting, the
were equilibrated and no longer sequestering additional
remainder was applied mid-June. Corn, soybeans, and
C. The components for GHGnet were either from
switchgrass were harvested in the fall annually. Alfalfa
DAYCENT output or calculated as described below.
and reed canarygrass were harvested twice annually in
DAYCENT outputs were used to determine Cdff, DCsys,
late June and September. Hybrid poplar was harvested
CN2 O Dir , CN2 O Ind , and CCH4 for the GHGnet calculations.
once every 10 years. Output from DAYCENT was
All DAYCENT outputs are presented as annual means
compiled for above- and belowground NPP with grain
over the entire 30-yr simulation period.
yields included separately, SOC changes, and trace-gas
The ethanol yield for cellulosic biomass crops was
fluxes.
determined by multiplying the aboveground biomass by
Model outputs are sensitive to current SOC levels,
about 90% of the theoretical ethanol yield (U.S.
which in turn are influenced by previous vegetation
Department of Energy 2006a) and ethanol yields, using
cover and land management. To acquire reasonable
oven-dried biomass (dm) were as follows: corn stover,
modern SOC levels, about 1800 years of native
381 L/Mg dm; alfalfa stem, 303 L/Mg dm; hybrid
poplar, 413 L/Mg dm; reed canarygrass, 311 L/Mg dm;
6 hhttp://www.bsyse.wsu.edu/saxton/soilwateri and switchgrass, 391 L/Mg dm. Yields assumed for corn
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Ecological Applications
678 PAUL R. ADLER ET AL.
Vol. 17, No. 3

grain ethanol were 467 L/Mg dm (Wang 2001) and from calculated to be 293.3 CO2e-C/L ethanol (Shapouri et al.
soybean grain for biodiesel were 234 L/Mg dm (Ahmed 2002) and for soybean grain was 132.4 CO2e-C/L
et al. 1994). The amount of electricity produced from biodiesel (Sheehan et al. 1998).
gasification of the various biomass sources was calcu- Various coproducts are also generated during pro-
lated from the product of yield, higher heating value of duction of ethanol and biodiesel from crops. Coproducts
the biomass (the energy released as heat when a such as lignin from biomass converted to ethanol, were
compound undergoes complete combustion with oxy- already factored into CFC for biomass and was the
gen), and conversion efficiency of the gasification reason it was negative, a net generator of energy. Other
system. The higher heating values were determined from coproducts are generated, such as distiller’s dried grains
literature (Miles et al. 1996, Brown 2003, Dien et al. with solubles from corn grain during ethanol produc-
2006, U.S. Department of Energy 2006b) as follows: tion, and soy meal and glycerin from soybean grain
corn stover, 18.0 MJ/kg; alfalfa stem, 18.6 MJ/kg; during biodiesel production. Since these coproducts
hybrid poplar, 19.3 MJ/kg; reed canarygrass, 17.7 have a positive economic value and displace competing
MJ/kg; and switchgrass, 18.5 MJ/kg. The conversion products that require energy to make, energy from
efficiency of the biomass gasification system was production needs to be allocated to the coproducts. To
assumed to be the same 37.2% for all biomass sources determine the amount of energy allocated to coproducts,
(Heller et al. 2004). the displacement method was used, which credits
The quantity of fossil fuel displaced by biofuel was coproducts with the energy required to produce a
calculated from either the product of biofuel yield of functionally equivalent quantity of the nearest substitute
ethanol or biodiesel from the bioenergy crops and the (Farrell et al. 2006). The coproduct energy and emission
fuel economy ratio of fossil fuel to biofuel (fuel economy credits allocated to corn grain were 109.4 g CO2e-C/L
values are from Sheehan et al. [2004]) [6.75 km/L ethanol (Wang 2001) and to soybean grain were 172.3 g
ethanol divided by 10.3 km/L gasoline] and based on CO2e-C/L biodiesel (Ahmed et al. 1994). In the future,
Sheehan et al. [1998] [0.203 L diesel/bhp-h divided by other coproducts will be extracted from crops at the
0.231 L biodiesel/bhp-h] where ‘‘bhp-h’’ means ‘‘brake biorefinery and credited, thereby reducing the energy
horsepower-hour’’) or the product of the quantity of and emissions associated with biofuel production.
electricity generated from gasification of biomass Methane uptake from the soil (CCH4 ) was determined
(megajoules of electricity per square meter) and the heat from the mean annual CH4 uptake over the simulation
rate of coal (3.00 MJ/MJ electricity). The heat rate is the period with DAYCENT. CH4 uptake was converted to
amount of energy required in fuel to generate 1 MJ of CO2e by assuming that its global-warming potential is
electricity by the power plant and accounts for all the 23 times that of CO2 on a mass basis (IPCC 2001).
electricity it consumes to operate. The lower the heat Two ways in which N fertilizers contribute to GHG
rate, the more efficient an electrical power plant is in emissions were modeled by DAYCENT: direct N2O
turning fuel energy into electrical energy. emissions from the soil (CN2 O Dir ) and indirect N2O
The quantity of greenhouse gases from the life cycle of emissions from offsite denitrification of NO3 and
fossil fuel displaced by biofuel (Cdff) was calculated from volatilized N that is deposited offsite and converted to
the product of the quantity of fossil fuel displaced by N2O (CN2 O Ind ). The CN2 O Dir was the mean annual N2O
biofuel (as described above) and the total emissions of emissions over the simulation period. To calculate
CO2, CH4, and N2O during the fossil-fuel life cycle indirect N2O, we combined DAYCENT outputs for
(based on Sheehan et al. [2004] for gasoline [;671.3 g NO3 leached and N volatilized with IPCC (1997)
CO2e-C will be emitted per liter of gasoline consumed], methodology. IPCC (1997) methodology assumes that
Sheehan et al. [1998] for diesel [;857.7 g CO2e-C will be 2.5% of NO3-N leached is eventually denitrified to N2O-
emitted per liter of diesel consumed], and on Heller et al. N in water ways and that 1% of volatilized N
[2004] for electricity generated from the U.S. grid (NOxþNH3) is deposited on soil and converted to
average [;74.9 g CO2e-C will be emitted per megajoule N2O. N2O emissions were converted to CO2e by
of electricity consumed from the U.S. grid]). The DCsys assuming that its global warming potential is 296 times
was the average annual change in SOC to a depth of 20 that of CO2 on a mass basis (IPCC 2001). For
cm and belowground biomass C. The average annual comparison with direct N2O emissions generated from
DCsys was calculated as the mean of annual differences DAYCENT, direct N2O emissions were also determined
between initial and final system C levels. using the IPCC (2000) protocol and calculated by
The feedstock-conversion C (CFC) was determined multiplying 1.25% by the sum of N in crop residue,
separately for ethanol production from corn stover and aboveground N fixed by crops, and 90% of fertilizer N
other biomass sources and corn grain, biodiesel produc- applied to soils.
tion from soybean grain, and electricity generation from Fuel used by agricultural machinery for tillage,
biomass sources. The CFC for corn stover was calculated planting, fertilizer and pesticide application, harvesting,
to be 135.2 CO2e-C/L ethanol produced at the and drying corn grain (CAgMa) (Table 1) were deter-
biorefinery (Sheehan et al. 2004) and was applied to mined with the following protocol. Using agricultural
the other biomass sources. The CFC for corn grain was machinery management data documented in the Amer-
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
April 2007 LCA OF NET GHG FLUX FOR BIOENERGY CROPS 679

TABLE 1. Fossil-fuel energy requirements and carbon dioxide emissions from agricultural machinery.

Conventional tillage No-till

Fuel usage Energy CO2 emissions Fuel usage Energy CO2 emissions
Farm operation (L/ha) (GJ/ha) (kg C/ha) (L/ha) (GJ/ha) (kg C/ha)
Tillage
Plow 20.05 0.78 17.01









Disk 5.48 0.21 4.65









Seedbed preparation 5.15 0.20 4.37









Cultivation 5.12 0.20 4.34









Planting
Corn planting 4.64 0.18 3.94 11.25 0.43 9.54
Grain drill planting 3.57 0.14 3.03 8.53 0.33 7.24
Crop management
Fertilizer application 1.58 0.06 1.34 1.58 0.06 1.34
Pesticide application 2.63 0.10 2.23 2.63 0.10 2.23
Lime application 1.58 0.06 1.34 1.58 0.06 1.34
Grain crop harvest
Corn grain harvest 33.18 1.28 28.15 33.18 1.28 28.15
Soybean harvest 31.33 1.21 26.59 31.33 1.21 26.59
Forage crop harvest
Alfalfa mowing
First harvest 5.09 0.20 4.32 5.09 0.20 4.32
Second harvest 4.73 0.18 4.01 4.73 0.18 4.01
Alfalfa baling
First harvest 4.50 0.17 3.82 4.50 0.17 3.82
Second harvest 3.05 0.12 2.59 3.05 0.12 2.59
Switchgrass mowing
Seeding year 6.64 0.26 5.63 6.64 0.26 5.63
Established stand 8.65 0.33 7.34 8.65 0.33 7.34
Switchgrass baling
Seeding year 8.56 0.33 7.27 8.56 0.33 7.27
Established stand 11.58 0.45 9.83 11.58 0.45 9.83
Reed canarygrass mowing
First harvest 5.29 0.20 4.49 5.29 0.20 4.49
Second harvest 4.90 0.19 4.16 4.90 0.19 4.16
Reed canarygrass baling
First harvest 5.49 0.21 4.66 5.49 0.21 4.66
Second harvest 3.51 0.14 2.98 3.51 0.14 2.98
Forage raking 1.11 0.04 0.94 1.11 0.04 0.94
Tree harvest
Felling 120.89 4.67 102.57









Skidding 115.85 4.48 98.30









Chipping 431.97 16.70 366.52









Herbicide (Roundup 2.63 0.10 2.23









post-harvest)
Post-harvest
Corn grain dryingà 105.46 2.81 52.45 105.46 2.81 52.45
Corn stover mowing§ 5.29 0.20 4.49 5.29 0.20 4.49
Corn stover baling§ 3.51 0.14 2.98 3.51 0.14 2.98
Soybean stubble mowing








4.57 0.18 3.87
Notes: Ellipses indicate that farm operation was not used with no-till practice. Fuel usage values were determined from the
American Society of Agricultural Engineers standards (ASAE 2000). Fuel usage for harvest operations is dependent on crop yield
(all numbers are for dry mass): corn, 5.3 Mg/ha; soybean, 2.2 Mg/ha; alfalfa (1st harvest), 3.8 Mg/ha; alfalfa (2nd harvest), 2.0
Mg/ha; seeding-year switchgrass, 6 Mg/ha; established-stand switchgrass, 10 Mg/ha; reed canarygrass (1st harvest), 5 Mg/ha; reed
canarygrass (2nd harvest), 2.7 Mg/ha; mowing corn stover, 5.3 Mg/ha; baling corn stover, 2.65 Mg/ha; soybean stubble, 1 Mg/ha.
Roundup (glyphosate) was applied after harvest of hybrid poplar.
à Corn grain was dried 10 percentage points (e.g., from 25.5% to 15.5% water) with propane fuel.
§ Corn ‘‘stover’’ refers to the leaves and stalks of corn.
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Ecological Applications
680 PAUL R. ADLER ET AL.
Vol. 17, No. 3

ican Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE) machin- from cropping systems ranged from 14.7 to 18.4
ery management standards (ASAE 2000), the integrated MJ
m2
yr1 for the perennial crops (Table 2).
farm system model (IFSM; Rotz 2004) was used to
calculate fuel use for management practices. Energy use Greenhouse-gas sinks
for the hybrid poplar harvest operation was determined Displaced fossil fuel (Cdff) was the largest greenhouse
as follows: hybrid poplar were felled using a Timberjack gas (GHG) sink (Fig. 2a); hybrid poplar and switchgrass
643 H Feller Buncher (Deere and Company, Moline, displaced the most fossil fuel. System C (DCsys, SOC
Illinois, USA) and transported for processing with a plus belowground biomass C) was the second largest
Timberjack 648 G III Single Arch Grapple Skidder GHG sink (Fig. 2b). Hybrid poplar stored the most C
(Deere and Company) (L. H. Nancarrow [Deere and followed by switchgrass, reed canarygrass, corn–soy-
Company], personal communication), and processed bean rotation, and corn–soybean–alfalfa rotation. No-
using the Peterson Pacific DDC 5000-G Delimber– till corn–soybean and corn–soybean–alfalfa rotations
Debrancher–Chipper (Peterson Pacific Corporation, had higher DCsys than conventional tillage. The amount
Eugene, Oregon, USA) (C. Peterson [Peterson Pacific of CO2 equivqlents (CO2e) emitted from fossil fuels used
Corporation], personal communication; J. Goetsch in feedstock transport to the biorefinery, conversion to
[Daishowa-Marubeni International Ltd., Vancouver, biofuel, and subsequent distribution (feedstock-conver-
British Columbia, Canada], personal communication); sion C, CFC) was negative for the perennial grasses and
Hartsough et al. 2002). The CO2 emissions associated hybrid poplar and positive for the grain crops when both
with the manufacture of chemical farm inputs (fertiliz- biomass and grain were converted to ethanol or
ers, limestone, herbicides, insecticides) were from West biodiesel (Fig. 2c). Methane uptake (CCH4 ) was the
and Marland (2002). For limestone, 50% of the C in smallest GHG sink (data not shown). Hybrid poplar
CaCO3 applied was assumed to be emitted as CO2 (West had the highest CCH4 at 3.98 CO2e-C g
m2
yr1, the
and McBride 2005), the rest leached from the soil other cropping systems increased in CH4 uptake from
profile. 1.41 to 1.57 in the order of switchgrass, conventional
tillage corn–soybean and corn–soybean–alfalfa rotation,
RESULTS
reed canarygrass, and no-till corn–soybean–alfalfa and
Crop and biofuel yield corn–soybean rotation. High CH4 uptake by hybrid
Hybrid poplar, corn, and switchgrass had the highest poplar compared to the other systems is consistent with
harvested biomass yields of the crops considered (Fig. data from various global sites showing that mean CH4
1a). When considering the annualized yields of the uptake rates by deciduous forests exceed those in
cropping systems, hybrid poplar and switchgrass had the grasslands, cropped soils, and non-deciduous forests
highest yields (Fig. 1c) because corn is typically grown in by a factor of 2 or more (Del Grosso et al. 2000).
rotation with soybean, which is much lower yielding. Feedstock conversion to biofuel was a net source of
Biofuel production is directly related to crop yield but energy for hybrid poplar and the perennial grasses (Fig.
not linearly because biomass composition affects con- 2c).
version efficiency. Ethanol and biodiesel yields for the
Greenhouse-gas sources
individual crops ranged from 1.8 to 7.5 MJ
m2
yr1;
corn (grain plus 50% stover) had the highest biofuel The CO2e–C of N2O emissions estimated by the
yield, hybrid poplar and switchgrass were similar but biogeochemical model DAYCENT were the largest
about 10–15% lower than corn, reed canarygrass was GHG source (Fig. 2d). The corn–soybean rotation had
;40% lower, and alfalfa stems and soybean grain had the highest emissions followed by reed canarygrass,
about 75–85% lower biofuel yields (Fig. 1b). The pattern corn–soybean–alfalfa rotation, switchgrass, and hybrid
between crop and biofuel yield among cropping systems poplar. As expected, estimated N2O emissions were
was similar, with hybrid poplar comparable to switch- driven largely by N inputs from fertilizers and fixation.
grass, and corn–soybean rotation, reed canarygrass, Corn rotations under conventional tillage had slightly
corn–soybean–alfalfa rotation having progressively low- higher direct CN2 O (CN2 O Dir ) than under no-till. The
er yields (Fig. 1d). The electricity yields from gasification relationship of direct soil N2O emissions between
of biomass for cropping systems were highest for hybrid cropping systems calculated with the IPCC (2000)
poplar and switchgrass, and reed canarygrass was ;20% protocol differed from those predicted by DAYCENT
lower (Table 2). (Fig. 3). The N2O emissions calculated from IPCC were
The quantity of gasoline and diesel displaced by the highest for the corn–soybean–alfalfa rotation, followed
production of ethanol and biodiesel from cropping by the corn–soybean rotation and reed canarygrass; N2O
systems followed the same pattern as ethanol/biodiesel emissions from hybrid poplar and switchgrass were much
yields, but values were lower (Table 3, Fig. 1d) because less. The difference between IPCC (2000)-calculated N2O
although the energy content of biodiesel and diesel are emissions and DAYCENT were ,20% for hybrid
similar, ethanol has about two thirds the energy content poplar, corn–soybean rotation, and reed canarygrass.
of gasoline. The quantity of coal displaced by the However, the IPCC (2000)-calculated N2O emissions for
production of electricity from gasification of biomass the rotations that featured N fixers were significantly
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
April 2007 LCA OF NET GHG FLUX FOR BIOENERGY CROPS 681

FIG. 1. Crop and fuel yield from bioenergy cropping systems. Yields are expressed either as crop component (a, b) or system (c,
d) yields. Corn yields assumed that only 50% of the corn stover (leaves and stalks) was harvested; alfalfa yields only contained
stems, 50% of the total yield. (a) Component yields are presented; the 2-yr corn and 1-yr soybean (c2b1) rotation and 3-yr corn, 1-yr
soybean, and 4-yr alfalfa (c3b1a4) rotation yields are from the conventional-tillage system. (b) All crop components were converted
to ethanol except soybean grain, which was converted to biodiesel. (c) System yields were combined from crop rotations and
annualized over the rotation cycle. (d) Crop component fuel yields of ethanol and biodiesel were combined to give system yields.

higher than DAYCENT (almost 40% and .50% for the other cropping systems (Table 4, Fig. 2e). Emissions
corn–soybean–alfalfa rotation under conventional and from chemical inputs were high for reed canarygrass and
no-till, respectively). IPCC (2000) estimates of N2O the corn–soybean rotation largely because N fertilizer
emissions from switchgrass are ;35% lower than DAY- inputs are high for these crops.
CENT. Indirect N2O emissions differed widely among The energy required for farm operations varied widely,
crops (combined with direct N2O emissions in Fig. 2d). with CO 2 emissions ranging from 128 kg CO 2 -
NO3 leaching, the major source of indirect emissions in C
ha1
yr1 for corn to ,20 kg CO2-C
ha1
yr1 for
this case, ranged from ;0.5 g N
m2
yr1 for switchgrass, established alfalfa and switchgrass (Table 5). Differences
to ;1 g N
m2
yr1 for hybrid poplar, to .2 g are a result of the frequency of farm implement use, the
N
m2
yr1 for reed canarygrass and the corn rotations. load the equipment was under during operation, and the
Emissions from chemical inputs were low for hybrid required crop-specific equipment. These data are similar
poplar and switchgrass and somewhat higher for the to those collected by others (West and Marland 2002, Lal
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Ecological Applications
682 PAUL R. ADLER ET AL.
Vol. 17, No. 3

TABLE 2. Energy yields and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from gasification of biomass for
production of electricity.

Biomass Type
Reed Hybrid
Energy and emissions parameters Switchgrass canarygrass poplar
Energy yield (MJ
m2
yr1) 5.80 4.90 6.15
Coal displaced (MJ
m2
yr1) 17.4 14.7 18.4
Displaced fossil fuel (g CO2e-C
m2
yr1) 435 367 460
Net GHG emissions (%) 93 85 93
Net GHG emissions (g CO2e-C/MJ) 69 64 70
Net GHG emissions ratio (gasification : ethanol)à 2.42 3.65 2.37
Notes: Carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e) of carbon is the common currency used for
comparison purposes. N2O emissions and CH4 uptake were converted to CO2e by assuming that its
global-warming potential is 296 and 23 times that of CO2 on a mass basis, respectively (IPCC
2001).
Reduction in net GHG emissions associated with using biomass gasification compared with
coal expressed either as a percentage (quotient of values in Fig. 4d divided by values above under
displaced fossil fuel) or unit biomass energy yield (quotient of values in Fig. 4d divided by values
above under energy yield).
à Ratio of long-term net GHG emissions (quotient of values in Fig. 4d divided by values in 4b)
displaced by gasifying biomass and substituting for coal compared to conversion to ethanol or
biodiesel and substituting for gasoline or diesel.

2004), but the integrated farm system model (IFSM; belowground biomass was considered negligible in the
Rotz 2004) allowed comparison of current energy use long term (Fig. 4b). The sinks were even greater when
from agricultural machinery between all farm operations biomass was converted to electricity by gasification at
under standardized conditions. The exception was for the power plant, and there was a similar relationship
hybrid poplar; since IFSM does not include forestry among cropping systems (Fig. 4c, d). On a unit-area
operations, data from separate sources, as described basis of crop production, gasification of the grasses and
above (see Methods: Net GHG flux. . .), were used. hybrid poplar yielded more than twice the GHG
Perennial cropping systems can have lower agricultural
reduction than did converting these crops to ethanol
machinery inputs than annual systems thereby reducing
(Table 2). Net GHG emissions were from about 8 to
CaAgMa as seen in this study (Fig. 2f). The exception to
9 g CO2e-C/MJ ethanol for corn rotations, but about
this trend is hybrid poplar because energy costs of
harvesting are high (Table 6). Propane was used to dry 18 g CO2e-C/MJ for reed canarygrass and less than
corn and usually accounted for about one third of the C 24 g CO2e-C/MJ for switchgrass and hybrid poplar
emissions for the corn rotations. Tillage accounted for (Table 3). This resulted in a reduction of GHG emissions
almost 30% of the C emissions in the corn rotations but for corn rotations in the near term of about 50–65%,
less than 10% in the switchgrass and reed canarygrass
and less than 2% in hybrid poplar, where tillage was only TABLE 3. Quantity of gasoline and diesel displaced by
used the first year. Harvesting was responsible for the production of ethanol and biodiesel and reduction of
majority of emissions for the hybrid poplar and perennial greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from life cycle of ethanol
and biodiesel compared with gasoline and diesel.
grass systems and at least 30% for the corn rotations.
Feedstock conversion to biofuel was a net consumer of Net GHG
energy for all the corn, soybean, and alfalfa rotations emissions
Gasoline or
(Fig. 2c) and was also a net consumer when the grasses Bioenergy diesel displaced (g CO2e-C/
and hybrid poplar were gasified for electricity generation. cropping system (MJ
m2
yr1) (%) MJ ethanol)

Net greenhouse-gas flux Switchgrass 6.96 114 23.9

Reed canarygrass 4.88 84 17.5
Hybrid poplar and switchgrass provided the largest Corn–soybean
net GHG sinks with both systems having net CO2 e-C Conventional tillage 6.05 38 8.1
No till 5.84 41 8.6
fluxes of less than 200 g
m2
yr1 for the near term
scenario when biomass and grain are converted to Corn–soybean–alfalfa
Conventional tillage 4.24 41 8.6
ethanol and biodiesel (Fig. 4a). The sink for reed No till 4.16 43 9.0
canarygrass was about 120 g
m2
yr1 and the sink
Hybrid poplar 7.45 117 24.3
for the conventional-till corn–soybean–alfalfa rotation
was the smallest at about 50 g
m2
yr1 for the near- Reduction in net GHG emissions associated with using
term scenario. Trends among the different cropping ethanol or biodiesel compared with gasoline or diesel expressed
either as a percentage (quotient of values in Fig. 4b divided by
systems for the long-term scenario were similar, but the values in Fig. 2a) or unit ethanol consumed (quotient of values
sinks were smaller because C storage in soil and in Fig. 4b divided by values in Fig. 1d).
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
April 2007 LCA OF NET GHG FLUX FOR BIOENERGY CROPS 683

FIG. 2. Components of the net greenhouse-gas (GHGnet) profile from different bioenergy cropping systems. Displaced fossil
fuel and feedstock conversion are based on displacement of gasoline and diesel and conversion of crop components to either
ethanol or biodiesel. CO2e stands for ‘‘CO2 equivalent’’; see Table 2 note for definition.

reed canarygrass ;120%, and about 145% and 165% for ;85%, and ;115% for switchgrass and hybrid poplar
switchgrass and hybrid poplar, respectively, compared compared with the life cycle of gasoline and diesel (Table
with the life cycle of gasoline and diesel (Fig. 5). In the 3). The GHGnet reduction from gasifying biomass
long term, where soil C sequestration was assumed to no instead of coal was about 64 to 70 g CO2e-C/MJ,
longer occur, this resulted in a reduction of GHG an 85–93% reduction in greenhouse gases compared
emissions for corn rotations of ;40%, reed canarygrass with the coal life cycle (Table 2).
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Ecological Applications
684 PAUL R. ADLER ET AL.
Vol. 17, No. 3

DISCUSSION
Crop and biofuel yield
Yields for cropping systems depended on the compo-
nent crops. Since soybean and alfalfa had lower yields
than the other crops, their inclusion in the crop rotation
reduced overall yield of the corn cropping system. If
100% of the corn stover (stalks and leaves) was
harvested, that too would have increased the biomass
yield of the corn rotations. However, only 50% of the
stover was harvested, to provide residue to reduce soil
erosion (Nelson 2002).
Both crop yield and composition affect biofuel
production from energy crops. There are more differ-
ences in the components of composition between grain
and biomass that affect energy yield than between
different sources of biomass (U.S. Department of Energy
2006a) resulting in greater differences in biofuel yield
than crop yield when comparing grain and biomass
crops. The effect of composition on biofuel yield is why
corn biofuel yield was 10–15% higher than hybrid poplar
and switchgrass even though crop yields of corn, hybrid
poplar, and switchgrass were all within ;5% of each
other. Based on composition, grain has higher conver-
sion efficiency to ethanol per unit mass than non-grain
biomass, ;20% higher than switchgrass. Therefore some
differences between crop yield and ethanol and biodiesel
yield are expected, as was seen in this study. Since the
composition between non-grain biomass sources is
similar, ethanol yield differences per unit mass are small
(U.S. Department of Energy 2006a) and biomass yield is
the most important factor determining biofuel produc-
tion from a cropping system. As expected, the crops with
the highest biofuel yield were those with the highest
biomass yield. Corn is typically grown in rotation with
F IG. 3. DAYCENT (Del Grosso et al. 2001a) and other crops and in this study the crops in the rotation
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2000) with corn—soybean and alfalfa—had much lower
calculated direct N2O emissions from bioenergy cropping biofuel yields than corn; therefore the system yields were
systems. lower than the other cropping systems. We assumed that
electricity generation was only from gasification of
biomass in cropping systems and did not include grain.
Therefore we only considered switchgrass, reed canary-

TABLE 4. Carbon dioxide emissions from production of N, P, K, limestone, and pesticides used in
bioenergy cropping systems.

CO2 emissions (g CO2-C
m2
yr1)

Bioenergy cropping
systems N P K Limestone Herbicides Insecticides
Switchgrass 4.48 0.37 0.49 1.70 0.04 0.00
Reed canarygrass 12.33 1.04 2.50 3.02 0.03 0.00
Corn–soybean
Conventional tillage 6.12 1.01 1.09 3.02 1.05 0.04
No till 6.12 1.01 1.09 3.02 2.44 0.04
Corn–soybean–alfalfa
Conventional tillage 3.12 0.89 1.45 3.26 0.78 0.16
No till 3.12 0.89 1.45 3.26 1.63 0.16
Hybrid poplar 2.88 0.19 0.26 0.85 0.14 0.11
Limestone, CaCO3 equivalents.
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
April 2007 LCA OF NET GHG FLUX FOR BIOENERGY CROPS 685

TABLE 5. Fossil-fuel energy requirements and carbon dioxide emissions for operation of agricultural machinery from the six
bioenergy crops.

Conventional tillage, CT No-till, NT

Fuel usage Energy CO2 emissions Fuel usage Energy CO2 emissions
Crop (L/ha) (GJ/ha) (kg C/ha) (L/ha) (GJ/ha) (kg C/ha)
Cornà 194.03 6.23 127.60 167.10 5.19 104.76
Soybean§ 75.27 2.91 63.87 51.28 1.98 43.51
Alfalfa
Seedling year, SY|| 59.89 2.32 50.80 31.33 1.21 26.60
Established stand, EST} 28.00 1.08 23.80 28.00 1.08 23.80
Final year, FY||} 30.63 1.18 26.00 30.63 1.18 26.00
Switchgrass
Seedling year, SY# 59.14 2.29 50.18 30.58 1.18 25.95
Established stand, EST 21.81 0.84 18.51 21.81 0.84 18.51
Reed canarygrass
Seedling year, SYàà 55.82 2.16 47.37 27.26 1.05 23.13
Established stand, EST§§ 24.56 0.95 20.84 24.56 0.95 20.84
Hybrid poplar|||| 72.88 2.82 61.84









Notes: Ellipses indicate that the crop was not produced using no-till practice. Total fuel usage, energy, and carbon emissions for
cropping systems would be calculated as follows: switchgrass [1(SY) þ 14(EST)]; reed canarygrass [1(SY) þ 14(EST)]; corn–soybean
[2(corn) þ 1(soybean)]; corn–soybean–alfalfa [3(corn) þ 1(soybean) þ 1(alfalfa FY) þ 2(alfalfa EST) þ 1(alfalfa FY)]; hybrid poplar
[10(hybrid poplar)].
NT corn, soybean, alfalfa SY, switchgrass SY, and reed canarygrass SY operations are the same as respective CT crop
operations except: substitute CT planting with NT planting; eliminate plow, disk (two times), and seedbed preparation; add an
additional pesticide application; for NT soybean operations add soybean stubble mowing.
à CT corn operations: plow, disk (two times), seedbed preparation, corn planting, fertilizer application (two times), pesticide
application, corn grain harvest, grain drying, stover [leaves and stalks] mower, stover baling.
§ CT soybean operations: plow, disk (two times), seedbed preparation, fertilizer application, grain drill planting, pesticide
application, soybean harvest.
|| CT alfalfa SY operations: plow, disk (two times), seedbed preparation, fertilizer application, grain drill planting, pesticide
application (three times), alfalfa mowing (1st harvest), forage raking, alfalfa baling (1st harvest).
} CT and NT alfalfa EST and FY operations: fertilizer application (two times), pesticide application (two times), alfalfa mowing
(1st and 2nd harvest), forage raking (two times), alfalfa baling (1st and 2nd harvest); plus for alfalfa (FY) add pesticide application.
# CT switchgrass SY operations: plow, disk (two times), seedbed preparation, fertilizer application, grain drill planting, pesticide
application, switchgrass mowing (SY), switchgrass baling (SY).
CT and NT switchgrass EST operations: fertilizer application, switchgrass mowing (EST), switchgrass baling (EST).
àà CT reed canarygrass SY operations: plow, disk (two times), seedbed preparation, fertilizer application, grain drill planting,
pesticide application, mowing (1st harvest), forage raking, baling (1st harvest).
§§ CT and NT reed canarygrass (RCG) EST operations: fertilizer application (two times), forage raking (two times), RCG
mowing (1st and 2nd harvest), RCG baling (1st and 2nd harvest).
|||| Hybrid poplar energy usage and carbon emission values were annualized over a 10-yr crop cycle. Hybrid poplar operations:
disk (two times 1st year), tree transplanting (1st year), pesticide application (two times 1st year; one time 2nd year; one time 10th
year), cultivation (three times 1st year; two times 2nd year; one time 3rd year), lime application (3rd year), fertilizer application
(3rd, 5th, 7th, and 9th years), felling (10th year), skidding (10th year), chipping (10th year).

TABLE 6. Relative contribution of management practices to CO2 emissions from operation of agricultural machinery from the
seven bioenergy cropping systems.

Bioenergy cropping systems Tillage (%) Harvesting (%) Other (%) Propane (%) Annual (kg CO2-C/ha)
Switchgrass 9.9 81.9 8.2 0.0 20.6
Reed canarygrass 9.0 77.9 13.0 0.0 22.6
Corn–soybean
Conventional tillage 28.8 30.7 7.6 32.9 106.4
No till 0.0 40.2 18.4 41.5 84.3
Corn–soybean–alfalfa
Conventional tillage 26.9 33.7 11.9 27.6 71.4
Corn–soybean–alfalfa
No till 0.0 42.8 22.8 34.4 57.2
Hybrid poplar 1.5 91.8 6.7 0.0 61.8
Fertilizing, planting, and herbicide application.
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Ecological Applications
686 PAUL R. ADLER ET AL.
Vol. 17, No. 3

FIG. 4. Net greenhouse-gas (GHGnet) emissions from different bioenergy cropping systems with conversion to ethanol or
biodiesel (a, b) or gasification of biomass (c, d). Near-term GHGnet is the sum of displaced fossil fuel, net change (D) in system C,
feedstock conversion, direct and indirect N2O emissions, fossil fuel used to produce chemical inputs, and fossil fuel used in
agricultural-machinery operations. Long-term GHGnet is the sum in near-term GHGnet except D(system C), because soils will come
to equilibrium with C inputs, and further soil C sequestration will not occur.

grass, and hybrid poplar for electricity generation from associated with generation of electricity from coal
gasification. The energy content of biomass for conver- gasification compared with gasoline and diesel (CON-
sion to electricity by gasification follows the C content CAWE 2004). Therefore, the C dff from biomass
(Brown 2003) and decreased in the order of hybrid gasification was greater than from liquid biofuels.
poplar, switchgrass, and reed canarygrass as described by Storage of carbon in soil resulted from changes in C
the heating values in the above section (see Methods: Net inputs, tillage intensity, and residue decomposition. Soil
GHG flux. . .). There was about a 10% difference in C inputs from root turnover, crop residue, and live root
energy content between the lowest (reed canarygrass at biomass varied with crop. Although the perennial grass
17.7 MJ/kg) and highest materials (hybrid poplar at 19.3 crops reed canarygrass and switchgrass had larger C
MJ/kg). Therefore the differences in electricity produc- inputs from roots, most of the aboveground biomass
tion between cropping systems in this study are due to was removed with harvest and not returned to the soil.
biomass yield, not energy content. However, only 50% of the corn stover was removed,
resulting in large soil C inputs in corn rotations from
Greenhouse-gas sinks aboveground biomass. Soil organic carbon (SOC) levels
Displaced fossil fuel (Cdff) was the largest greenhouse- increase with crop residue input such as when higher
gas (GHG) sink. There is a higher emission of CO2e-C yielding crop species are planted (Campbell et al. 2005),
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
April 2007 LCA OF NET GHG FLUX FOR BIOENERGY CROPS 687

increased fertilizer applied (Studdert and Echeverria

2000, Campbell et al. 2005), and with cropping
frequency when fallow is part of the crop rotation
(Campbell et al. 2005). A decrease in residue decompo-
sition due to reduced soil tillage (Paustian et al. 2000,
West and Post 2002) and reduced quality of crop
residues (Heal et al. 1997) also increases SOC. Results
from this study are consistent with these previous
findings; the higher yielding crop species with lower
quality residues had higher SOC. The no-till corn
rotations also had higher SOC compared to conven-
tional-tillage rotations.
Increased crop diversity in rotations will increase SOC
if subsequent crops included in the rotation add greater
amounts of residue to the soil and/or decrease SOC
decomposition, such as crops with more recalcitrant
residue or perennials that have reduced tillage. Mono-
culture corn has been observed to have higher SOC than
corn–soybean rotation (Havlin et al. 1990, Studdert and
Echeverria 2000, West and Post 2002) since soybean
provides less residue input to the soil than corn.
Replacing wheat with lower-yielding flax reduced SOC
(Campbell et al. 2005). Perennial crops can increase SOC
through elimination of tillage and increased root
biomass relative to annual crops. However, in contrast
to Russell et al. (2005), alfalfa reduced SOC when added
to the corn–soybean rotation.
The change in SOC and belowground biomass C, D
system C (DCsys) will approach zero as soil C levels reach
equilibrium for a given quantity of C inputs and C losses
from decomposition (Paustian et al. 2000). However,
even though changes in soil C will approach zero, some
cropping systems will have higher long-term SOC
storage due to higher inputs and/or reduced decompo-
sition. The long-term C sequestration potential of soils is
also affected by soil properties such as texture, and some FIG. 5. Comparison of the life-cycle greenhouse-gas (GHG)
will saturate at higher SOC levels than others (Six et al. emissions associated with the quantity of gasoline and diesel
2002). Therefore the potential long-term storage of SOC displaced by ethanol and biodiesel produced from the cropping
systems (displaced fossil-fuel C [Cdff]) with the quantity of
will depend on the cropping system and how it is GHG emissions associated with the life cycle of biofuel (ethanol
managed, and the specific soil. Variation in SOC under and biodiesel) production (feedstock-conversion C [CFC] þ CCH4
the same crop is expected due to the identity of other þ direct CN2 O þ indirect CN2 O þ chemical-inputs C [CCI] þ
crops in the rotation, crop yield, tillage intensity, and agricultural-machinery C [CAgMa]); near-term includes change
in system C [DCsys]). The percentage reduction in GHG
soil texture. emissions was calculated as the difference in the biofuel
The feedstock-conversion C (CFC) varied from being emissions and fossil-fuel emissions displaced from biofuel
positive (a net consumer of energy) to negative (a net produced by a given crop expressed as a percentage of the
producer of energy). Initially, this may seem to be a displaced fossil-fuel emissions.
surprising result. However, negative values result from
an electricity credit at the conversion facility for Cropping systems with grain crops had higher CFC than
combustion of the lignin fraction of biomass (Sheehan biomass crops because they lacked the coproduct lignin,
et al. 2004). The lignin fraction of biomass is not which was a source of energy when combusted.
converted to ethanol, but to electricity when combusted.
Cropping systems with a smaller electricity credit are net Greenhouse-gas sources
consumers of energy for this component and have There were four sources of greenhouse gases quanti-
positive values. Hybrid poplar, switchgrass, and reed fied in this study, direct soil N2O emissions (CN2 O Dir ),
canarygrass were net producers of energy during indirect N2O emissions from offsite denitrification of
conversion (Fig. 2c) and the corn–soybean–alfalfa NO3 and volatilized N that was deposited offsite and
rotation used less energy than the corn–soybean rotation converted to N2O in soil (CN2 O Ind ), CO2 emissions from
due to higher production of biomass relative to grain. manufacture of fertilizers, lime, and pesticides (chemi-
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Ecological Applications
688 PAUL R. ADLER ET AL.
Vol. 17, No. 3

cal-inputs C, CCI), and CO2 from fuel used by only one third of the N was applied at planting, to
agricultural machinery for tillage, planting, fertilizer ensure greater N-use efficiency. DAYCENT predicted a
and pesticide application, harvesting, and drying corn small reduction in NO3 leaching under no-till compared
grain (CAgMa). It has often been observed that N2O to conventional tillage in crop rotations. Soil NO3
emissions increase with conversion of conventional concentrations tend to be higher under conventional
tillage land to no-till (Six et al. 2004, Smith and Conen tillage but the volume of water flowing through the soil
2004). However, Six et al. (2004) found that while N2O tends to be higher under no-till, leading to variable
emissions were higher the first 10 years after conversion results on the effect of tillage on NO3 leaching (Dinnes
to no-till from conventional tillage, 20 years after no-till et al. 2002).
adoption, N2O emissions were higher in conventional- The CO2 costs of chemical inputs were mainly due to
tillage systems as was observed in this study. Our fertilizer production, followed by limestone, herbicides,
simulations were for 30 years and estimating higher N2O and insecticides. N production was responsible for most
emissions with conventional tillage would be consistent of the CO2 costs from fertilizer input for all the cropping
with what has been observed in other studies (Six et al. systems. However, because N was only applied in years
2004). corn was grown in the corn rotations and in the other
The comparison of Integrate Panel on Climate years soybean and alfalfa legume crops contributed fixed
Change (IPCC 2000)-calculated N2O emissions with N, the average N application rate for the corn cropping
those determined by DAYCENT varied with cropping systems was much lower than the annual N application
system (Fig. 3). As the proportion of legumes in the crop for corn. Reducing synthetic N use is important to
rotations increased, the overestimate of N2O emissions decreasing GHG emissions from cropping systems
by IPCC relative to DAYCENT increased as observed whether through use of legumes in the cropping systems,
with the corn–soybean–alfalfa rotation. These results or more efficient N-use strategies or crops.
are consistent with previous work showing that DAY- CAgMa and CCI are affected by both the choice of crop
CENT and IPCC (2000) methodology estimated similar and management practices. Reducing farm operations
emissions for non-N-fixing crops, but IPCC (2000) through reducing tillage, planting, and N fertilizer
methodology was about twice as high for N fixers (Del applications significantly reduced net GHG emissions
Grosso et al. 2005). Data from soybean and alfalfa as shown in this study (Table 5) and others (West and
cropping in Canada (Rochette et al. 2004) and Michigan Marland 2002, Kim and Dale 2004b). However, the fuel
(Robertson et al. 2000) suggest that IPCC (2000) savings from less plowing with no till is partially offset
methodology overestimates N2O emissions from N by higher emissions from herbicide inputs (Table 4).
fixers. In contrast to the N-fixing crops, IPCC (2000) Some of these decisions are inherent with the specific
estimates of N2O emissions from switchgrass were lower crop chosen, e.g., no tillage with perennial crops or no N
than DAYCENT. Since IPCC (2000) methodology application with legume crops. However, other manage-
bases N2O emissions strictly on N inputs from fixation, ment practices, such as no-till vs. conventional tillage for
fertilization, and aboveground residue, IPCC does well annuals, are decisions made by the farm manager.
estimating N2O fluxes from crops where the majority of
N comes from these sources. However switchgrass does Global-warming potential
not fix N, has low N fertilizer inputs, and aboveground The near-term scenario combined all the GHG sinks
inputs of N from residue are close to 0 because virtually and sources evaluated in this study, and considered how
all of the biomass is harvested. More N comes from using biofuels would reduce GHGnet compared to
decomposition of SOC and roots, a source not continuing to use fossil fuels in the near-term. The
considered by IPCC. In DAYCENT, N2O emissions displaced fossil-fuel C (Cdff) was the dominant factor in
are based not only on N inputs from fixation, determining GHGnet. In general, switchgrass and hybrid
fertilization, and aboveground residue, but also on N poplar had higher yields, greater soil C sequestration,
inputs from decomposition of belowground residue and reduced GHG emission from feedstock conversion,
mineralization of soil organic matter. Consequently, reduced soil N2O emissions, and reduced GHG emis-
DAYCENT estimates higher emissions than IPCC sions from chemical input manufacture and agricultural
(2000) methodology for this crop. Indirect N2O emis- machinery operation.
sions from NO3 leaching and volatilization, like direct The long-term GHGnet assumed that DCsys was zero
soil N2O emissions, varied across cropping systems because soils were equilibrated and no longer seques-
largely as a function of N inputs from fertilizer and tering additional C (Six et al. 2002). This scenario
fixation. This is because other factors that influence N considers how using biofuels would reduce GHGnet
losses (soil texture, weather) were considered constant compared to continuing to use fossil fuels in the long
for this study. The rate and time of N fertilizer term. All cropping systems were still GHG sinks
application are critical components of N fertilizer compared to their fossil fuel counterparts. Biofuels have
management (Dinnes et al. 2002) and followed standard been considered to have a near-zero net emission of
recommendations in this study. Farmers will often apply greenhouse gases (McLaughlin et al. 2002). However,
all the nitrogen at corn planting; however, in this study, coproducts such as lignin and protein, along with soil C
 19395582, 2007, 3, Downloaded from https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/05-2018 by Benin Hinari NPL, Wiley Online Library on [02/07/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
April 2007 LCA OF NET GHG FLUX FOR BIOENERGY CROPS 689

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