Biochemistry

Doneta Lyn S. Mejasco, RN

The Working
Genetic Code
Nucleic Acid
 Nucleic Acid
● polymers of nucleotides
● a chain of nucleotides which stores genetic information
● creates DNA and RNA, which store the information
needed by cells to create proteins
*This information is stored in multiple sets of three
nucleotides, known as codons.
● containing the essential blueprint or “source code” for
making cells
Codons
 Nucleic Acid
● composed of nucleotides (monomer of nucleic acid)
Main Classes

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

 Nucleotide
● Nucleotides are the basic units of a nucleic acid.

Composed of:

 5-carbon sugar
 Nitrogenous
base
 Phosphate group
 Nucleotide
5-carbon Sugar
 Distinguishing factor between DNA and RNA

DNA RNA
 deoxyribose in DNA  Ribose in RNA
 pentose (5-carbon
sugar) biological
molecule
The 1’ carbon is bound to a nitrogenous base:
• Adenine (A)
• Thymine (T)
• Guanine (G)
• Cytosine (C)
• Uracil (U) (for RNA)
 Nucleotide

Complementary Base Pairing

 Within nucleic acid polymers, purine bases pair exclusively
with their complementary pyrimidine bases.

DNA RNA
 Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)  Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U)
 Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C).  Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)
Enzymes
Enzymes
 A class of proteins capable of catalyzing reactions
 Bind substrates in their binding site and cause some type of
reaction
 Binding sites are highly specific

 Enzymes bind with chemical reactants called substrates

 Enzymes
 Involved in a wide variety of biologic functions, including:
 Metabolism
 Cellular respiration
 Growth an development
 Digestion
 Coagulation
2 Primary Models That Help Explain How Enzymes
Work
Fischer Lock And Key Model (Older Model)
 Postulates that the substrate fits into the enzyme’s binding site like a key
fitting into a lock

Koshland Induced Fit Model (Newer Model)

 Postulates that the enzyme’s binding site is close to fitting, but not a perfect
fit for, the substrate
 This means that when the substrate binds, there is a slight conformational
shift in the enzyme → tension is stored as potential energy
 This tension/energy then acts on the substrate, causing the reaction to
occur.
 Common Enzymes in the Human Body
● Lipases: This group of enzymes help digest fats in the gut.
● Amylase: In the saliva, amylase helps change starches into sugars.
● Maltase: This also occurs in the saliva, and breaks the sugar maltose into glucose.
● Trypsin: These enzymes break proteins down into amino acids in the small intestine.
● Lactase: Lactase breaks lactose, the sugar in milk, into glucose and galactose.
● Acetylcholinesterase: These enzymes break down the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine in nerves and muscles.
● Helicase: Helicase enzymes unravel DNA.
● DNA polymerase: These enzymes synthesize DNA from deoxyribonucleotides.
 Protein
Synthesis
Protein
 1 of the 3 major macronutrients used in the body
 are made up of amino acids (AAs) and have an extensive range
of functions in the body, including:

1. Structural functions 2. Movement

 Maintaining shape and physical integrity  Moving substances within cells
E.g., collagen, keratin, elastin E.g., kinesin
 Muscle contraction

E.g., myosin
 Protein
 are made up of amino acids (AAs) and have an extensive range of
functions in the body, including:

3. Catalysis 4. Regulatory And Signaling

Proteins
 cause (an action or process)
to begin  Receptors
Example:  Hormones
 Digestive enzymes  Transcription factors
 catalyzing metabolic and catabolic
processes (e.g., Krebs cycle)
 Clotting cascade
 Protein
 are made up of amino acids (AAs) and have an extensive range of
functions in the body, including:

5. Transport and storage

6. Immunologic functions
molecules

Example:  Antibodies
 Albumin (IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD, and IgE)
 Ferritin
 Apolipoproteins
 membrane channels
 Protein Function
s tructure
T ransport
E nzyme
P rotection
Amino Acid

 the building blocks of protein

 Each protein has its own sequence of amino acids.

 when you combine them in various ways, you make different

proteins with different structure and function
 You can think of amino acids like the letters of the
alphabet.
 When you combine letters in various ways, you make
different words.
 Types of Amino Acid

Essential Amino Acids Nonessential Amino Acids

 Body cannot make  Body can produce

 Must get them from the food

you eat
 Some nonessential amino acids are classified as
conditional.
 This means they’re only considered essential when
you’re ill or stressed.
 Essential Amino Acid
● Histidine: Histidine helps make a brain chemical (neurotransmitter)
called histamine. Histamine plays an important role in your
body’s immune function, digestion, sleep and sexual function.
● Isoleucine: Isoleucine is involved with your body’s muscle
metabolism and immune function. It also helps your body make
hemoglobin and regulate energy.
● Leucine: Leucine helps your body make protein and growth
hormones. It also helps grow and repair muscle tissue, heal wounds
and regulate blood sugar levels.
● Lysine: Lysine is involved in the production of hormones and energy.
It’s also important for calcium and immune function.
● Methionine: Methionine helps with your body’s tissue growth, metabolism and
detoxification. Methionine also helps with the absorption of essential minerals,
including zinc and selenium.
● Phenylalanine: Phenylalanine is needed for the production of your brain’s
chemical messengers, including dopamine, epinephrine and norepinephrine.
It’s also important for the production of other amino acids.
● Threonine: Threonine plays an important role in collagen and elastin. These
proteins provide structure to your skin and connective tissue. They also help
with forming blood clots, which help prevent bleeding. Threonine plays an
important role in fat metabolism and your immune function, too.
● Tryptophan: Tryptophan helps maintain your body’s correct nitrogen balance.
It also helps make a brain chemical (neurotransmitter) called serotonin.
Serotonin regulates your mood, appetite and sleep.
● Valine: Valine is involved in muscle growth, tissue regeneration and making
energy.
 Nonessential Amino Acid
● Alanine-It is used to break down tryptophan and vitamin B-6. It is a
source of energy for muscles and the central nervous system.
● Arginine -stabilize proteins against aggregation, especially in the
process of protein refolding
● Asparagine-helps to break down toxic ammonia within cells, is
important for protein modification, and is needed for making a certain
molecule that transmits signals in the brain (a neurotransmitter).
● Aspartic Acid- It also helps send chemical signals through the
nervous system.
● Cysteine-It's found in beta-keratin. This is the main protein in nails,
skin, and hair. Cysteine is important for making collagen.
 Nonessential Amino Acid
● Glutamic Acid-t helps in metabolism, brain, and cardiac functions. It
is also an excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system of
vertebrates.
● Glutamine-important for removing excess ammonia (a common
waste product in the body). It also helps your immune system function
and may be needed for normal brain function and digestion.
● Glycine-acts as neurotransmitter in central nervous system and it has
many roles such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, cryoprotective,
and immunomodulatory in peripheral and nervous tissues.
● Proline-important roles in protein synthesis and structure,
metabolism (particularly the synthesis of arginine, polyamines, and
glutamate via pyrroline-5-carboxylate), and nutrition, as well as
wound healing, antioxidative reactions, and immune responses.
● Serine- critical for the production of the body's proteins, enzymes and
muscle tissue. Serine is needed for the proper metabolism of fats and
fatty acids. It also helps in the production of antibodies. Serine is used
as a natural moisturizing agent in some cosmetics and skin care
products.
● Tyrosine-helps produce melanin, the pigment responsible for hair
and skin color. It helps in the function of organs responsible for
making and regulating hormones, including the adrenal, thyroid, and
pituitary glands
Protein Synthesis

2 Steps:

1. Transcription 2. Translation
 synthesis of RNA from a DNA  synthesis of a protein from an
template where the code in the mRNA template where the code
DNA is converted into a in the mRNA is converted into an
complementary RNA code amino acid sequence in a protein
 Protein Synthesis
An enzyme (RNA
polymerase) connects
RNA bases to DNA

RNA bases bond

together to form single
stranded mRNA
 Protein Synthesis

mRNA goes out to nucleus

And go to cytoplasm and

attached to ribosomes
made of rRNA
Protein Synthesis

In the cytoplasm there are

tRNA

tRNA delivers amino acid

to the ribosome
tRNA delivers amino
acid to the ribosome
 Protein Synthesis
Using the message from the
mRNA for selection on which
amino acid will be utilized

tRNA finds a
complementary bases on
mRNA
Protein Synthesis
tRNA transfer amino acid
to mRNA

When tRNA bring the

amino acid, it reads the
base-presented by letters
It reads in triple letters not one
letter at a time called Codon
Codon
-is a three-nucleotide or triplet
sequence found on mRNA that codes
for a certain amino acid during
translation

Anticodon
-is a three-nucleotide sequence found
on tRNA that binds to the
corresponding mRNA sequence
Protein Synthesis
Amino acid held together
via peptide bond and keep
growing

New tRNA brings code

then transfers amino acid
to the mRNA and so forth
Protein Synthesis
End of mRNA there is a
stop codon

Ribosome reaches it
indicates

Protein building is FINISHED

Group Reporting. (September 12, 2024)

Group 1 – Amino Acid Synthesis (Essential)

Group 2 - Amino Acid Synthesis (Non-essential)
Group 3 – Amino Acid Catabolism (Essential)
Group 4 – Amino Acid Catabolism (Non-essential)
Group 5 – Glycogenolysis
Group 6 – Gluconeogenesis
Hormones
 Hormones
 chemical-signaling molecules

 are secreted by endocrine cells

 act to control or regulate specific

physiological processes, which
include growth, development,
metabolism, and reproduction