Research Methodology Material

Unit 3 to 5

1. Explain the significance of primary data. What are the limitations of primary data?
Explain in brief the stages in data processing.
2. What are the Types of research design- exploratory, descriptive, Casual?
3. Definition and Purpose of research design.
4. Describe the Tools and techniques use for data collection which include
questionnaire, schedule, interview, observation, case study, survey etc.
5. Differentiate Primary vs. Secondary Data.
6. Types of random sampling and non-random sampling.
7. All difference in material is important.
8. Describe the Sampling design Tools for data collection.
9. How to write Research Proposal
10. Write down the format of Report Writing.
11. What is Effective technical writing? How to write Format of research proposal.
12. Write down the Process of reviewing and proofreading your work.
13. What type of feedback is generally use to improve your work
14. How to write Research reports: Write preliminaries, main body of research,
references and bibliography
15. What is Meaning and importance of workshop, seminar, conference, symposium etc.
in research.
16. What is plagiarism? Explain types of plagiarism.
17. How to Avoid Plagiarism?
18. Why is plagiarism unethical?

Unit – 3 Research Design and Data Collection Methods

1. INTRODUCTION
A research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. It specifies
the objectives of the study, the methodology and techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives.
It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It is the plan, structure
and strategy of investigation conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions ... The plan is the
overall scheme or program of research. A research design is the program that guides the investigator in
the process of collecting, analysing and interpreting observations. It provides a systematic plan of
procedure for the researcher to follow.

2. ESSENTIAL OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

The above definitions give the essentials of a good research design. They are:
1. It is a plan that specifies that objectives of the study and the hypotheses to be tested.
2. It is an outline that specifies the sources and types of information relevant to the research questions.
3. It is a blueprint specifying the methods to be adopted for gathering and analysing the data.
4. It is a scheme defining the domain of generalizability, i.e., whether they obtained information can

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be generalized to a larger population or to different situations.

3. TYPES OF RESEARCH DESGIN

All researches can be broadly classified into three groups: exploratory research, descriptive research,
and causal research. These three methods differ in terms of different aspects of conducting the research.
Figure 1.1 exhibits the classification of different types of the research.

Fig. 1.1 Types of Research Design

3.1 EXPLORATORY RESEARH DESIGN
As the name indicates, exploratory research is mainly used to explore the insight of the general research
problem. It is also used to find out the relevant variables to frame the theoretical model. Decision
alternatives are also explored by launching the exploratory research that is purely unstructured and
provides an insight to the problem. While conducting a research, the researcher generally faces a
problem of not knowing anything about the problem. In this situation, the exploratory research is used
to explore the different dimensions of the problem, so that a better understanding of the research
framework can be developed. The research procedure is unstructured, qualitative, and flexible and gives
all freedom to a researcher to understand the problem. In some cases, the researcher talks to the
concerned persons related to the proposed research and generates the required information.
Findings of the exploratory research are generally not conclusive and require further exploratory or
conclusive research. This is required because the exploratory research is unstructured and the sample
used to obtain the information is small and mostly determined on the basis of the convenience of the
researcher. The researchers use a variety of methods to conduct the exploratory research.
These methods are secondary data analysis, expert survey, focus group interviews, depth interview,

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case analysis, and projective techniques. Figure 1.2 shows the methods of conducting exploratory
research.

Fig 1.2 Methods of Conducting Exploratory Research

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3.1.1 Secondary Data Analysis
Secondary data already exist in the environment and are mainly collected for some other purposes. The
researchers generally use the secondary data to understand the problem and explore the dimensions of
the problem. The secondary data are not only used for problem understanding and exploration but are
also used to develop an understanding about the research findings. In recent times, after the introduction
of the computers, the Internet, and other computer-related facilities, accessibility to the secondary data
has become convenient and easy. In most of the cases, use of the secondary data for the research purpose
is time and cost efficient and it really provides an insight to the problem.

3.1.2 Expert Survey

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To get the authentic information about the problem, the researchers sometimes consult the experts of
the concerned field. These experts provide authentic and relevant information useful for the research,
which otherwise is difficult to obtain. For example, an automobile company would like to penetrate in
the rural market segment and would like to understand the requirements of the potential rural customers.
Apart from the directly interviewing customers, information can also be obtained from the dealers and
retailers who have been operating in this field since long time. Thus, with respect to their continuous
interactions with the rural customers, dealers, and retailers, the company can well identify the
aspirations and expectations of the rural segment. In addition, the dealers and retailers can provide that
category of information, which will not be possible for the researcher to obtain through interviews, as
the interviews will make the prospective customers conscious. Although some experts do not directly
involved in the selling process, they can also provide substantial information. For example, in the
automobile case, engineers, workers, production managers, and consultants can also provide important
and categorical information.

3.1.3 Focus Group Interviews

Focus groups are widely used in the investigation of applied-research problems and are recognized as
distinct research methods.3 In a focus group, a small number of individuals are brought together in a
room to sit and talk about some topic of interest to the focus group sponsor.4 In fact, the focus group
interview is a qualitative research technique in which a trained moderator leads a small group of
participants to an unstructured discussion about the topic of interest. It generally involves 8 to 12
individuals who discuss a particular topic under the direction of a moderator, who promotes the
interaction and guides the discussion on the topic of interest.

3.1.4 Depth Interviews

A depth interview is a probing between a highly skilled interviewer and a respondent from the target
population to unfold the underlying opinions, motivations, emotions, or feelings of an individual
respondent, on a topic generally coined by the researcher. In addition to the focus group interview, the
depth interview is also a widely used qualitative research technique for data collection. In the depth
interview, one-on-one information is obtained from a member of the target population by a skilled
interviewer. Similar to the focus group interview, unstructured and qualitative information is collected
in a depth interview also. In the focus group research, the respondents can be influenced by peers and
coping with this situation will be difficult for the moderator. In the depth group interview, through a
one-on-one interaction process, an interviewer can explore the in-depth information, which is not
possible through a focus group interview.

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3.1.5 Case Analysis
A case study research method actually combines the record analysis and observations from individual
and group interviews. The case studies become particularly useful when one needs to understand some
particular problem or situation in great depth and when one can identify the cases rich in information.8
In the case study research method, the researcher collects the information from various existing sources
such as company brochures, sales data, newspaper and magazine articles, direct observation, and so on.
This information is combined with the interview data obtained from the participants. Unconstrained by
the rigid limits of questionnaires and models, it can lead to new and creative insights, development of
new theory, and have high validity with practitioners—the ultimate users of the research.

3.1.6 Projective Techniques

Projective technique is achieved by presenting the respondents with ambiguous verbal or visual stimulus
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materials, such as bubble cartoons, which they need to make sense of by drawing from their own
experiences, thoughts, feelings, and imagination before they can offer a response. The projective
technique is used to generate the information when the researcher believes that the respondent will or
cannot reveal the desired meaningful information by direct questioning. This is particularly useful when
the respondent is unwilling to share his feelings because of the requirement of exhibiting socially
desirable behaviour or any other reason. In this technique, a respondent is asked to explain the behaviour
of another person in a given situation rather than to explain his or her own behaviour. In this process of
explaining the behaviour of others, the respondents indirectly project their own behaviour in terms of
their inner motivation, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings in a given situation. By explaining the behaviour of
the other person in a given situation, the respondent actually describes his or her own behaviour when
placed in a given situation. These are the feelings, emotions, attitudes, or opinions that the respondents
will not like to share by answering a direct question.

• Word Association

• Completion Task (incomplete sentence, story, argument, or conversation)

• Construction (Drawing /3rd person question)

• Expressive Task (Role Play/ Picture showing)

3.2 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARH DESIGN

As evident from the name, descriptive research is conducted to describe the business or market
characteristics. The descriptive research mainly answers who, what, when, where, and how kind of
questions. It attempts to address who should be surveyed, what, at what time (pre- and post-type of
study), from where (household, shopping mall, market, and so on), and how this information should be
obtained (method of data collection). However, descriptive designs are not capable of addressing any
of the why questions associated with a given research problem.
Descriptive researches are generally used in segmenting and targeting the market. They are mainly
conducted to describe the characteristics of some relevant groups for the research, to understand the
demographic and other characteristics of the population, to understand the consumer perception about
any product or services, to understand the degree of association between marketing variable, and to
make some forecasting about sales, production, or other phenomenon of interest. For example, a
consumer durable company has conducted a descriptive research to understand the consumption pattern
for its product. Descriptive research has revealed that 80% of the customers are government employees,
10% are businessmen, and the remaining 10% are scattered in different segments of society. The
research has also revealed that 70% of the customers are men and 30% are women.
The descriptive research is conducted on the basis of some previous understanding of the research
problem and does not completely explore the research phenomenon as in the case of the exploratory
research. Unlike the exploratory research, specific hypotheses are formulated before conducting the
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descriptive research. Hence, this is structured and pre-planned in comparison with the exploratory
research. The structural nature of this research provides it a clear direction of information collection.
Hence, information obtained from this research is not loosely structured. In short, unlike the exploratory
research, it involves a clear definition of the problem, formulation of specific hypotheses, and collection
of structured, detailed, and relevant data. It can be further classified into cross-sectional study and
longitudinal study.

3.2.1 Cross-Sectional Study

Cross-sectional study is popular in the field of business and marketing research. Cross-sectional
research design involves the collection of information from a sample of a population at only one point
of time. In this study, various segments of the population are sampled so that the relationship among
the variables may be investigated by cross -tabulation.18 Sample surveys are cross-sectional studies in
which the samples happen to be a representative of the population. The cross-sectional study generally
involves large samples from the population; hence, they are sometimes referred as “sample surveys.”
3.2.2 Longitudinal Study
Longitudinal study involves survey of the same population over a period of time. There is a well-defined
difference between a cross-sectional study and a longitudinal study. In a longitudinal study, the sample
remains the same over a period of time. In a cross-sectional design, a representative sample taken from
the population is studied at only one point of time. Addressing a question such as, “What is the
effectiveness of an advertisement campaign for an air conditioner?” is an example of cross-sectional
study. Whereas, “How have consumers changed their opinion about the performance of air conditioner
as compared with that last summer?” is an example of longitudinal study. Longitudinal surveys usually
combine both extensive (quantitative) and intensive (qualitative) approaches.
In some cases, researchers use the term “panel” instead of longitudinal study. A panel is a sample of
respondents who have agreed to provide responses over a specified time interval. Panels are also of two
types: traditional panels and omnibus panels. In case of traditional panels, same questions are asked to
the respondents on each panel measurement. For example, firms are interested in knowing the change
in attitude, opinion, feeling, or emotion of the customers about a particular product over a specific time

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interval. In this case, brand switching studies are common. In the case of omnibus panels, different set
of questions are asked to the respondents on each panel measurement. Hence, different set of
information is obtained using omnibus panels. Use of panels is based on the objective of the research
and the nature of the problem. Like traditional panels, the omnibus panels are also representatives of
the target population and are demographically matched to some extent.

Both the cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have relative advantages and disadvantages. The
longitudinal studies are mainly conducted to detect the change in the attitude, opinion, or feeling of the
customers. Cross-sectional studies are not capable of detecting change. As discussed, longitudinal
studies are conducted on panels. Panel members are generally compensated for their participation in
research; hence, data collection is relatively easier in longitudinal study as compared with cross-
sectional study. In addition, cross- sectional studies are based on the past-recall capacity of the
respondents, which makes the collected data less accurate. In the longitudinal study, the same panel is
used for the research, and thus there is no question of testing the past-recall capacity of the consumers.
There are at least two major disadvantages of the longitudinal study. The respondents may not be true
representatives of the population. Refusal to participate will elicit the inclusion of new respondents in
the research, which ultimately generates a response bias. Cross-sectional studies have got a relative
superiority in these two aspects. In a cross-sectional design, data are collected only once from a
population, and hence, there is no question of response bias. The cross-sectional studies are not designed
to generate responses from the same group of respondents over a period of time, thus, there is no issue
of non-cooperation by the respondents being studied previously.

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3.3 CAUSAL RESEARCH (CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH)
Causal research is conducted to identify the cause-and-effect relationship between two or more business
(or decision) variables. Many business decisions are based on the causal relationship between the
variables of interest. For example, a cement manufacturing company is working on the assumption that
the increase in advertisement expenditure is going to increase the sales of the company. Although this
assumption seems to be true, a strict validation of the assumption by conducting a formal research is
essentially required.
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As discussed, the descriptive research is able to answer who, what, when, where, and how kind of
questions but not the “why” part of the question. The causal research is designed to address the why part
of the question. Unlike the exploratory research but similar to the descriptive research, causal research
is a well-structured research design. In this design, the independent variables are manipulated in a
controlled environment to identify the causal relationship between two or more variables. It discovers
the functional relationship between the causal factors and its predicted impact on the dependent variable
under the research investigation

Sampling Design
- Sampling is the widely used tool for gathering important and useful information from
the population.
- Sampling saves time
- Sampling saves money
- Sampling broadens the scope of study in the light of scarcity of resources.
- In most cases complete census is not possible and sampling is the only option.

1. Population
• Population refers to the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the
researcher wishes to investigate.
• For instance, if the CEO of a computer firm wants to know the kinds of advertising
strategies adopted by computer firms in the Silicon Valley, then all computer firms
situated there will be the population.
• For instance, If a banker is interested in investigating the savings habits of blue-collar
workers in the mining industry in the United States, then all blue-collar workers in that
industry throughout the country will form the population.
2. Element:

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 • An element is a single member of the population. If 1,000 blue-collar workers in a
particular organization happen to be the population of interest to a researcher, each blue-
collar worker therein is an element.
3. Sampling:
• Sampling is the process of selecting a sufficient number of elements from the population,
so that a study of the sample and an understanding of its properties or characteristics
would make it possible for us to generalize such properties or characteristics to the
population elements.
4. Sample:
• A sample is a subset of the population. It comprises some members selected from it. In
other words, some, but not all, elements of the population would form the sample. If 200
members are drawn from a population of 1,000 blue-collar workers, these 200 members
form the sample for the study.

Random sampling
• Each unit of the population has the same probability (chance) of being selected as a part
of the sample.
• In random sampling, the chance factor comes into play in the process of sample selection.

Non Random sampling

• In non-random sampling, members of the same sample are not selected by chance. Some
other factors like familiarity of the researcher with the subject, convenience, etc are the
basis of selection.

Random Sampling Non-random Sampling

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 Definition

Random sampling is a sampling technique Non-random sampling is a sampling

where each sample has an equal technique where the sample selected will
probability of getting selected be based on factors such as convenience,
judgement and experience of the
researcher and not on probability

Biases involved in Sampling

Random sampling is unbiased in nature Non-random sampling is biased in nature

Based on

Based on probability Based on other factors such as

convenience, judgement and experience of
researcher but, not based on probability

Representation of Population

Random sampling is representative of the Non-random sampling lacks the

entire population representation of the entire population

Chances of Zero Probability

Never Zero probability can occur

Complexity

Random sampling is the most simple Non-random sampling method is a

sampling technique somewhat complex sampling technique

Types of Random Sampling:

A. Simple Random Sampling

• In simple random sampling, each member of the population has an equal chance of being
included in the sample.
• In sample random sampling, first a complete list of all the members of the populations is
prepared.
• Each element is identified by a distinct number (say from 1 to N). Then n items are
selected from a population of size N, either using random number tables or the random
number generator.
• Random number generator is usually a computer program that generates random numbers.

B. stratified random sampling

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• Stratified random sampling is based on the concept of homogeneity and heterogeneity. In
SRM, elements in population are divided into homogenous group called strata.
• Then, researchers use the simple random sampling method to select a sample from each
group of strata. Each group called stratum.
• In stratified random sampling, stratum should be relatively homogenous and the strata
should contrast with each other. This process of dividing heterogeneous populations into
relatively homogenous groups is called stratification.

C. Cluster sampling
• In cluster sampling, we divide the population into non-overlapping areas.
• In stratified sampling, strata happen to be homogenous but in cluster sampling, clusters
are internally heterogenous. A cluster contains a wide range of elements that are good
representatives of the population.
• For example, a fast-moving consumer goods company wants to launch a new product and
wants to conduct a market study. For this, the country can be divided into clusters of cities
and then individual customers within cities can be selected for the survey. In this case,
clusters of cities may be too large for surveying individuals.
• In order to overcome this difficulty, the city can be divided into clusters of blocks and
consumers can be selected randomly from the blocks. This technique of dividing the
original cluster into a second set of clusters is called two stage sampling.

D. Multi stage sampling

• As the name indicates, multi-stage sampling involves the selection of units in more than
one stage. The population consists of primary stage units and each of these primary stage
units consists of secondary stage units.
• In the process of multi-stage sampling, first a sample is taken from primary stage units
and then a sample is taken from the secondary stage units.
• For example, a researcher wants to select 200 urban households from the households from
the entire country and wants to use multi-stage sampling for this. For this purpose, he may
first select 27 states from the entire country as the primary sampling unit. During the
second stage, 50 districts from these 27 states may be selected. Finally 4 households from
each district may be randomly selected. Thus, a researcher will obtain the required 200
urban households in two stages.

E. Area sampling
 It involves sampling from a map, an aerial photograph, or a similar area frame. It is often
the sampling method of choice when a sampling frame isn't available. For example, a city
map can be divided into equal size blocks, from which random samples can be
drawn.

F. Systematic (or quasi random) sampling

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 • In systematic sampling, sample elements are selected from the population at uniform
intervals in terms of time, order or space. For obtaining samples in systematic sampling,
first of all, a sampling fractions is calculated.
• For example, a researcher wants to take a sample of size 30 from a population of size 900
and he has decided to use systematic sampling for this purpose. In this case, sample
fraction would be 900/30 = 30.

Non Random Sampling

Judgement sampling
A pharmaceutical company wants to trace the effects of a new drug on patients with specific
health problems (muscular dystrophy, sickle cell anemia, rheumatoid arthritis, etc.). It then
contacts such individuals and, with the group of voluntarily consenting patients, tests the drug.
This is a judgment sample because data are collected from appropriate special groups.

Quota Sampling
• Suppose a firm wishes to investigate consumers who currently subscribe to an HDTV
(high definition television) service. The researchers may wish to ensure that each brand
of HDTV televisions is included proportionately in the sample. Strict probability sampling
procedures would likely underrepresent certain brands and overrepresent other brands. If
the selection process were left strictly to chance, some variation would be expected.
• The purpose of quota sampling is to ensure that the various subgroups in a population
are represented on pertinent sample characteristics to the exact extent that the
investigators desire.
• For example, an interviewer in a particular city may be assigned 100 interviews, 35 with
owners of Sony TVs, 30 with owners of Samsung TVs, 18 with owners of Panasonic TVs,
and the rest with owners of other brands.
• The interviewer is responsible for finding enough people to meet the quota. Aggregating
the various interview quotas yields a sample that represents the desired proportion of each
subgroup.

Snowball Sampling
In snowball sampling, an initial group of respondents is selected, sometimes on a random
basis, but more typically targeted at a few individuals who are known to possess the desired
characteristics of the target population. After being interviewed, these respondents are asked
to identify others who also belong to the target population of interest. Subsequent respondents
are selected based on the referrals. By obtaining referrals from referrals, this process may be
carried out in waves, thus leading to a snowballing effect.

Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling (also known as grab sampling, accidental sampling, or opportunity
sampling) is a type of non-probability sampling that involves the sample being drawn
from that part of the population that is close to hand. This type of sampling is most useful
for pilot testing.
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 Unit – 4
RESEARCH PROPOSAL & REPORT WRITING

1. WRITING RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A research proposal is a document proposing a research project, generally in the sciences or academia,
and generally constitutes a request for sponsorship of that research. A research proposal is a concise
and coherent summary of your proposed research.
A research proposal is a simply a structured, formal document that explains what you plan to research
(i.e., your research topic), why it’s worth researching (i.e., your justification), and how you plan to
investigate it (i.e., your practical approach).
The purpose of the research proposal (it’s job, so to speak) is to convince your research supervisor,
committee, university or organisation that your research is suitable and manageable (given the time and
resource constraints you will face).
Research proposal should set out the central issues or questions that researcher intends to address. It
should outline the general area of study within which research falls, referring to the current state of
knowledge and any recent debates on the topic, as well as demonstrate the originality of your proposed
research.

2. CONTENT OF A GOOD RESEARCH PROPOSAL

It should contain at most three chapters. Every chapter of the research proposal should begin with a
brief introduction to guide the reader into the main contents of that chapter. Similarly, every chapter
should end with a brief summary capturing the main points that have been discussed in that chapter.

2.1 Introduction
According to Wilkinson (1991) the introduction is the part of the paper that provides readers with the
background information for the research reported in the paper. Its purpose is to establish a framework
for the research, so that readers can understand how it is related to other research.
In Introduction, the problem statement should be clearly defined, the research purpose well formulated
and the research questions clearly articulated. The significance of research should be sound and with a
strong motivation (i.e., the relevance to practice and preferably also to theory). A brief description of
the research approach should be included in this chapter. The chapter should end with a clear outline of
the structure of the document.

2.2 Literature Review

The literature review provides the background to study and demonstrates the significance of the

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proposed research. Specifically, it is a review and synthesis of prior research that is related to the
problem the researcher is setting forth to investigate. Essentially, researcher’s goal in the literature
review is to place his/her research study within the larger whole of what has been studied in the past,
while demonstrating to reader that work is original, innovative, and adds to the larger whole.
As the literature review is information dense, it is essential that this section be intelligently structured
to enable reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning the study. However, this can be easier to state
and harder to do, simply due to the fact there is usually a plethora of related research to sift through.
Consequently, a good strategy for writing the literature review is to break the literature into conceptual
categories or themes, rather than attempting to describe various groups of literature you reviewed.

2.3 Research Methodology

It should consist of the research strategy, research setting and where applicable, the study population,
sampling method, operationalization and measurement of key variables, data collection methods
(including draft research instruments like interview protocols and surveys), data processing and data
analysis and the techniques that will be used to ensure validity and reliability of the results. This chapter
should end with anticipated limitations during the empirical phase and how these can be overcome.

3. RESEARCH REPORT
3.1 Purpose of Report
The report may be meant for the people in general, when the investigation has not been carried out at
the instance of any third party. Research is essentially a cooperative venture and it is essential that every
investigator should know what others have found about the phenomena under study. The purpose of a
report is thus the dissipation of knowledge, broadcasting of generalizations so as to ensure their widest
use.
3.2 Meaning of Report
Reporting simply means communicating or informing through reports. The researcher has collected
some facts and figures, analyzed the same and arrived at certain conclusions. He has to inform or report
the same to the parties interested. Therefore “reporting is communicating the facts, data and information
through reports to the persons for whom such facts and data are collected and compiled”.
3.3 Types of Report
Broadly speaking reporting can be done in two ways:

a) Oral or Verbal Report: reporting verbally in person, for example; presenting the findings in a
conference or seminar or reporting orally to the superiors.
b) Written Report: Written reports are more formal, authentic and popular. This can be further divided

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 into following categories:
1) Technical Report: A technical report is used whenever a full written report (ex: Ph.D. thesis) of the
study is required either for evaluation or for record keeping or for public dissemination. The main
emphasis in a technical report is on:
a) The methodology employed.
b) The objectives of the study.
c) The assumptions made / hypotheses formulated in the course of the study.
d) How and from what sources the data are collected and how have the data been analyzed.
e) The detailed presentation of the findings with evidence, and their limitations.

2) Popular Report: A popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. Its
aim is to make the general public understand the findings and implications. Generally, it is simple.
Simplicity is sought to be achieved through clear language and minimization of technical details.
Attention of the readers is sought to be achieved through attractive layout, liberal use of graphs, charts,
diagrams and pictures. In a popular report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy
implications.

3) Research Article: Sometimes the findings of a research study can be published in the form of a short
paper called an article. This is one form of dissemination. The research papers are generally prepared
either to present in seminars and conferences or to publish in research journals. Since one of the
objectives of doing research is to make a positive contribution to knowledge, in the field, publication
(publicity) of the work serves the purpose.

3.4 Different steps in writing research report

Research reports are the product of slow, painstaking, accurate inductive work. The usual steps involved
in writing report are:
(a) Logical analysis of the subject-matter;
(b) Preparation of the final outline;
(c) Preparation of the rough draft;
(d) Rewriting and polishing;
(e) Preparation of the final bibliography; and
(f) Writing the final draft. all these steps are self-explanatory, yet a brief mention of each one of these
will be appropriate for better understanding.

Logical analysis of the subject matter: It is the first step which is primarily concerned with the
development of a subject. There are two ways in which to develop a subject (a) logically and (b)
chronologically. The logical development is made on the basis of mental connections and associations
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between the one thing and another by means of analysis. Logical treatment often consists in developing
the material from the simple possible to the most complex structures. Chronological development is
based on a connection or sequence in time or occurrence. The directions for doing or making something
usually follow the chronological order.

Preparation of the final outline: It is the next step in writing the research report “Outlines are the
framework upon which long written works are constructed. They are an aid to the logical organisation
of the material and a reminder of the points to be stressed in the report.”

Preparation of the rough draft: This follows the logical analysis of the subject and the preparation of
the final outline. Such a step is of utmost importance for the researcher now sits to write down what he
has done in the context of his research study. He will write down the procedure adopted by him in
collecting the material for his study along with various limitations faced by him, the technique of
analysis adopted by him, the broad findings and generalizations and the various suggestions he wants
to offer regarding the problem concerned.

Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft: This step happens to be most difficult part of all formal
writing. Usually this step requires more time than the writing of the rough draft. The careful revision
makes the difference between a mediocre and a good piece of writing. While rewriting and polishing,
one should check the report for weaknesses in logical development or presentation. The researcher
should also “see whether or not the material, as it is presented, has unity and cohesion; does the report
stand upright and firm and exhibit a definite pattern, like a marble arch? Or does it resemble an old wall
of mouldering cement and loose brick.”4 In addition the researcher should give due attention to the fact
that in his rough draft he has been consistent or not. He should check the mechanics of writing—
grammar, spelling and usage.

Preparation of the final bibliography: Next in order comes the task of the preparation of the final
bibliography. The bibliography, which is generally appended to the research report, is a list of books in
some way pertinent to the research which has been done. It should contain all those works which the
researcher has consulted. The bibliography should be arranged alphabetically and may be divided into
two parts; the first part may contain the names of books and pamphlets, and the second part may contain
the names of magazine and newspaper articles. Generally, this pattern of bibliography is considered
convenient and satisfactory from the point of view of reader, though it is not the only way of presenting
bibliography.

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3.5 Structure of the Research Report
Under this head, the format/outline/sketch of a comprehensive technical report or research report is
discussed below. A technical report has a number of clearly defined sections. The headings of the
sections and their order may differ from one situation to another. The following chart summarizes the
broad sequence of the contents of a research report.

The contents of a report can broadly be divided into three parts as:
1) The front matter or prefactory items.
2) The body or text of the report.
3) The back matter or terminal items.

A) Prefactory Items
The various preliminaries to be included in the front pages of the report are briefly narrated hereunder:

1) Title Page: The first page of the report is the title page. The title page should carry a concise and
adequately descriptive title of the research study, the name of the author, the name of the institution
to whom it is submitted, the date of presentation.
2) Approval Sheet: If a certificate of approval is required either from the research supervisor or
from the institution which provided the research facilities, it must be given.
3) Researcher’s Declaration: Generally, the researcher has to declare/certify that it is his/her
bonafide and original work done by him/her.
4) Dedication: If the author wants to dedicate the work to whomsoever, he/she likes, he/she may do
so.
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 5) Preface or Acknowledgements: A preface includes the background and reasons for the study.
This is an appropriate place for him/her to make acknowledgements also. But if the researcher has
opted to discuss the significance, reasons of the study elsewhere in the report he/she may not write
‘preface’. But he/she may use the page for only acknowledgements. In acknowledgements the
researcher acknowledges the assistance and support received from individuals and organizations in
conducting the research. It is intended to express his/her gratitude to them.
6) Table of Contents: A table of contents gives an outline of the contents of the report. It contains
a list of the chapters and their titles with page numbers. It facilitates easy location of topics in the
report. The chapter headings may be typed with capital letters.
7) List of Tables: The researcher must have collected lot of data and analyzed the same and
presented in the form of tables. These tables may be listed chapter wise and the list be presented
with page numbers for easy location and reference.
8) List of Graphs/Charts/Figures: If there are many graphs and charts, they should also be listed
with page numbers, after the list of tables separately.
9) List of Cases/Exhibits: If there are many cases/exhibits they should also be listed.
10)Abstract: An abstract is a synopsis. It should be as brief as possible and run about one or two
pages. It is placed at the prefactory part of the report so that a reader can get a quick over view of
the report. It contains a brief and precise statement of the purpose and a bare summary of the findings
or the results of the study.
B) Body
After the preliminary items, the body of the report is presented. It is the major and main part of the
report. The body presents a broad and detailed study of the research. It consists of six sections:
background, research objective, research methodology (sample, sample size, sample profile, sampling
techniques, scaling techniques, questionnaire, test statistic, and fieldwork), results, conclusions and
recommendations, and limitations of the research. If researcher finds that one of the sections is
becoming lengthier, he or she can introduce suitable subsections to make the chapters convenient to
read.

1) Introduction: This section, also referred to as the background, contains some basic background
information that describes the problem, and it focuses mainly on the specific circumstances, in the light
of which the researcher has launched the study. It connects the reader with the background
circumstances that led to conducting the research. For example, a researcher, comparing the difference
in consumer attitude in pre and post liberalization period in India, has to first present the basic
information about the consumer attitude in India, impact of liberalization, some visible changes in
consumer attitude due to liberalization, and the Indian economy before and after liberalization. There is
no rigid guideline available to decide what should be incorporated in the introduction part and this is
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left to the discretion of individual researchers; what he or she feels is important to be included in this
part of the written report. The introduction also contains some similar studies conducted by other
researchers on the same topic in different parts of the world. It opens the discussion dimension of the
findings of these studies and highlights how the present study may have similar or different dimensions.

2) Research Objective
The research objective may be incorporated in the introduction section or it can be a separate section.
This section must contain the general problem, which the proposed research is going to address and the
specific objectives of the research. It must also contain a brief discussion about the rationale of the
specific objectives and their relevance to the problem at hand. Specific hypotheses constructed in
relation to the problem must also be included in this section.

3) Research Methodology
The research methodology contains a detailed discussion of sample, sample size, sample profile,
sampling techniques, scaling techniques, questionnaire, test statistic, and fieldwork. This section
focuses on the sample group and how these samples should be selected. It provides the details of sample
and sampling techniques, the sample size and its rationale, and the sample size profile. The research
methodology section also focuses on scaling techniques. In this connection, the questionnaire and its
format are also discussed. The test statistics, which are used to test the hypotheses, and the rationale of
using it to test the hypotheses is dealt with. This section also incorporates some discussion about the
fieldwork, that is, the manner in which respondents are contacted and difficulties are overcome to get
the questionnaire filled.
The type of research, that is, exploratory, descriptive, or conclusive and the type of data used in the
study, that is, whether only primary or secondary data are to be used or a combination of both are to be
used are also discussed in this section. Secondary data sources are also mentioned.

4) Results and Findings

The results and findings section mainly discusses the outcome of the statistical analyses performed to
test different hypotheses. For example, if a researcher is using the one-way Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) technique to compare various means, ANOVA tables must be incorporated.

In addition, the rationale of using this technique must also be discussed. All the tables must be logically
arranged to address the research question and hypotheses. Statistical interpretation of the result must
also be presented along with the tables. Acceptance or rejection of null or alternative hypothesis with

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the concerned level of significance must also be mentioned.

5) Conclusions and Recommendations

The conclusion is derived from the acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis. As discussed in the
results and findings section, statistical tests are performed to test the hypothesis. The researcher may
either accept the null hypothesis or he or she may reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative
hypothesis. The acceptance or rejection of null hypothesis is very important for results and leads to a
non-statistical conclusion in which the researcher or readers of the reports are mainly interested. Thus,
the conclusion is the non-statistical explanation of the statistical result. The conclusions are supported
by some previous research or existing studies and are made with direct reference to the research
objective.
Recommendations are slightly different from that of conclusions. The recommendations are generated
from the critical thinking of the researcher. The researcher examines every conclusion and suggests the
actual course of action to address the problem or opportunity at hand. The conclusions happen in the
form of non-action statements, whereas the recommendations are action statements and guide the
research sponsor agency to take action to solve the problem or to take action to explore the untapped
opportunity.

6) Limitations of the Research

Every researcher attempts to conduct a flawless research, free from all limitations. However, this is
possible only in theory, real-life circumstances are entirely different and limitations are bound to be
observed while conducting any research. Some of the most common limitations of business research
are sampling bias, sample size, time and cost problems, and measurement error, to name a few. The
limitations of the research should not be overemphasized rather the aim should be to aid the decision
maker in taking the appropriate action.

C) Terminal Items
This section follows the text. First comes the appendices section, then the bibliography and glossary.
Each section is separated by a divider page on which only the words Appendices, Bibliography or
References, or Glossary all in capital letters appear.
1) Appendices: Any information that is of significance to the researcher and reader but cannot be placed
in the body part of the research report is placed in the appendix. There is no fixed universally accepted
rule regarding the information, which should be included in the appendix, rather it is the researcher’s
discretion, what he or she feels is important to be included in the appendix. In general, the appendix
includes copies of data collection forms, statistical output details, general tables which are not included

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in the body, bibliography, and other required support material.
2) Bibliography or References: A bibliography contains the source of every reference cited in the
footnote and any other relevant works that the author has consulted. It gives the reader an idea of the
literature available on the subject that has influenced or aided the author.
3) Glossary: A glossary is a short dictionary giving definitions and examples of terms and phrases
which are technical, used in a special connotation by the author, unfamiliar to the reader, or foreign to
the language in which the book is written. It is listed as a major section in capital letters in the table of
contents.
What do you mean by Data Analysis?
The glossary appears after the bibliography. It may also appear in the introductory pages of a book after
the lists of tables and illustrations.
Data analysis is a systematic process of examining facts and figures to reach conclusions about a specific
topic or question. It involves gathering data from various sources, transforming it to make it
understandable, and then analyzing it to find patterns and trends. Here are some important aspects of
data analysis.
Analysis refers to dividing a whole into its separate components for individual examination. Data
analysis is a process for obtaining raw data, and subsequently converting it into information useful for
decision-making by users. Data is collected and analyzed to answer questions, test hypotheses, or
disprove theories.

Write down Structured approach to reviewing and finalizing your work,

focusing on the processes of reviewing, proofreading, and incorporating
feedback effectively:

1. Understand the Purpose of Reviewing and Proofreading

 Reviewing involves looking at the overall content, organization, clarity, and effectiveness of
your work.
 Proofreading focuses on correcting spelling, grammar, punctuation, and formatting errors.

2. Implement a Detailed Proofreading Process

 Focus on One Type of Error at a Time: For example, first check for spelling mistakes, then
grammar, followed by punctuation.
 Use Tools Wisely: Use tools like spell checkers, grammar checkers, and style guides but do not
rely solely on them. They may not catch every mistake or provide context-specific suggestions.
 Check Formatting: Ensure that fonts, spacing, margins, and any other formatting elements
comply with the required standards or guidelines.

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3. Use Feedback Effectively to Improve Your Work
 Seek Feedback from Multiple Sources: Get input from peers, mentors, or experts who can
provide diverse perspectives.
 Review Feedback Objectively: Look for patterns or common points raised in the feedback.
Focus on constructive criticism and specific suggestions for improvement.
 Create an Action Plan: List the changes you need to make based on the feedback, prioritize
them, and work through them systematically.

5. Finalize Your Work

 Revise Based on Feedback: Make necessary changes to content, structure, and clarity based on
the feedback received.
 Perform a Final Proofread: Conduct a thorough proofread one last time to catch any remaining
errors.
 Check for Compliance: Ensure the work meets all the specified guidelines, formatting
requirements, and submission criteria.

6. Reflect on the Process

 Analyze What You Learned: Reflect on what you’ve learned from the review and feedback
process. Consider what worked well and what could be improved in future projects.
 Apply Insights to Future Work: Use this knowledge to enhance your skills in writing,
reviewing, and proofreading for future assignments or projects.

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 Unit – 5 Plagiarism
What is Plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the act of using someone else's words, ideas, research, or work without proper . Plagiarism
is the act of using someone else's work without giving credit to the original author, and it can be considered
a form of academic misconduct and cheating. It's important to understand plagiarism because it can take
away the originality and trustworthiness of content

Types of Plagiarism:

There are several types of plagiarism. In this article, we will get to know the common ones:

 Complete Plagiarism: Complete Plagiarism is the most extreme form of plagiarism. In this
plagiarism, a person completely copies someone else’s work such as a research paper, article,
image, etc, and represents it as their own work. This form of plagiarism is similar to identity theft
or stealing.

 Verbatim: Verbatim is also known as direct plagiarism. When we read a book we must have
observed that if any statement that a famous person has made is always represented in double
quotations and is highlighted so that we get to know that it is said by this particular person.
Similarly consider a person writing an article and mentioning someone’s else work or words that
too exactly the same. But this person doesn’t represent it in quotation marks. Then that person is
said to be exhibiting direct plagiarism. Hence copying another person’s work word to word and
not representing it in quotation marks is known as Verbatim or direct plagiarism.

 Self Plagiarism: This kind of plagiarism is the duplication of a person’s own work. It is also
known as auto plagiarism. It occurs when a person copies some words of his own published work
and uses the same for another work. This form of plagiarism is commonly observed in research
journals. Researchers may make re-use of their research work for another research work, however,
the percentage of re-usage must be according to those set by the publishing journals if they allow
them to do so.

 Source-Based Plagiarism: This form of plagiarism is most commonly observed in research work.
In the research paper one needs to provide references that have contributed to their work, If a
person provides wrong references that do not exist, or that are not relating to the work then it is
known as source-based plagiarism. The falsification of data or its fabrication is also source-based
plagiarism. Falsification and fabrication of data are manipulating or representing false or non-
existing data.

 Accidental Plagiarism: This kind of plagiarism mostly occurs due to a lack of knowledge. If we

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 don’t know how to paraphrase, cite and quote a research work we leave the work as it is and it
results in accidental plagiarism.

How to Avoid Plagiarism

 Proper Citation: Always credit the original source of information, ideas, or data using the
appropriate citation style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
 Quotations and Paraphrasing: Use quotation marks for direct quotes and provide citations.
When paraphrasing, ensure you are genuinely rewriting the content in your own words and not
just changing a few words.
 Use Plagiarism Detection Tools: Utilize tools like Turnitin, Grammarly, or Copyscape to check
for potential plagiarism.
 Understand the Material: Engage deeply with the content to understand it fully, which helps
you to express the ideas in your own words.
 Learn and Follow Ethical Guidelines: Familiarize yourself with the guidelines and policies on
plagiarism of your institution or organization.

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