Situational crime prevention

Situational prevention seeks to reduce opportunities for specific categories of crime by increasing the
associated risks and difficulties and reducing the rewards. It is composed of three main elements: an
articulated theoretical framework, a standard methodology for tackling specific crime problems, and a
set of opportunity-reducing techniques. The theoretical framework is informed by a variety of
"opportunity" theories, including the routine activity and rational choice perspectives. The standard
methodology is a version of the action research paradigm in which researchers work with practitioners
to analyze and define the problem, to identify and try out possible solutions, and to evaluate and
disseminate the results. The opportunity-reducing techniques range from simple target hardening to
more sophisticated methods of deflecting offenders and reducing inducements. Displacement of crime
has not proved to be the serious problem once thought, and there is now increasing recognition that
situational measures may result in some "diffusion of benefits" to crimes not directly targeted.

Situational crime prevention can be characterized as comprising measures directed at highly specific
forms of crime that involve the management, design, or manipulation of the immediate environment in
as systematic and permanent a way as possible so as to reduce the opportunities for crime and increase
its risks as perceived by a wide range of offenders. These measures include various forms of target
hardening making the objects of crime less vulnerable, defensible space architecture which encourages
residents in housing projects to exercise territorial surveillance of the public spaces outside their
dwellings, community crime prevention initatives such as neighborhood watch and citizen patrol
schemes and a number of less-easily categorized measures such as improved coordination of public
transport with pub closing times, or more sensitive public housing allocation policies that avoid the
concentration of children in particular housing developments. Traditional criminological theories have
been concerned with the etiology of crime-the fundamental social and psychological causes-and have
provided little support for situational measures not aimed at "root causes.

Situational crime prevention helps explain circumstances that leads to environmental exploitation. Such
factors include poverty, availability of the resources that makes human exploit the environment for their
own gain.
Rational Choice Theory
Rational choice theory is based on the fundamental tenets of classical criminology, which hold that
people freely choose their behaviour and are motivated by the avoidance of pain and the pursuit of
pleasure. Individuals evaluate their choice of actions in accordance with each option's ability to produce
advantage, pleasure and happiness. Rational choice provides a micro perspective on why individual
offenders decide to commit specific crimes; people choose to engage in crime because it can be
rewarding, easy, satisfying and fun. The central premise of this theory is that people are rational beings
whose behaviour can be controlled or modified by a fear of punishment. In this way, it is believed
offenders can be persuaded to desist from offending by intensifying their fear of punishment. In terms
of setting the quantum of punishment, according to this theory, sanctions should be limited to what is
necessary to deter people from choosing crime .

Rational choice is premised on a utilitarian belief that actions are based on a conscious evaluation of the
utility of acting in a certain way. This perspective assumes that crime is a personal choice, the result of
individual decision-making processes. This means that individuals are responsible for their choices and
thus individual offenders are subject to blame for their criminality. In terms of offending, rational choice
posits that offenders weigh the potential benefits and consequences associated with committing an
offence and then make a rational choice on the basis of this evaluation. Therefore, before committing a
crime, the reasoning criminal weighs the chances of getting caught, the severity of the expected penalty
and the value to be gained by committing the act. This means that if offenders perceive the costs to be
too high, the act to be too risky, or the payoff to be too small, they will choose to not engage in the act.

The tenets of this theory are based on a number of assumptions about the decision-making process and
behavioural motivations. It is held that people decide to carry out environmental harm such as
deforestation after careful consideration of the costs and benefits of behaving in a certain manner. This
involves considering both personal factors, which may include a need for money and situational factors
such as the target victim’s vulnerability and the presence of witnesses, guardians, or the police. Rational
choice focuses on the opportunity to commit crime and on how criminal choices are structured by the
social environment and situational variables.

Routine Activities Theory

Routine activities theory is a subsidiary of rational choice theory. Developed by Cohen and Felson
(1979), routine activities theory requires three elements be present for a crime to occur: a motivated
offender with criminal intentions and the ability to act on these inclinations, a suitable victim or target,
and the absence of a capable guardian who can prevent the crime from happening. These three
elements must converge in time and space for a crime to occur.

Routine activities theory provides a macro perspective on crime in that it predicts how changes in social
and economic conditions influence the overall crime and victimization rate. Felson and Cohen (1980)
postulate that criminal activities are a “structurally significant phenomenon,” meaning that violations
are neither random nor trivial events . In consequence, it is the routine of activities people partake in
over the course of their day and night lives that makes some individuals more susceptible to being
viewed as suitable targets by a rationally calculating offender. Routine activities theory relates the
pattern of offending to the everyday patterns of social interaction. Crime is therefore normal and is
dependent on available opportunities to offend. If there is an unprotected target and there are sufficient
rewards, a motivated offender will commit a crime.

In terms of suitable targets, the choice is influenced by the offender’s perception of the target’s
vulnerability; the more suitable and accessible the target, the more likely that a crime will occur. The
number of motivated criminals in the population also affects crime levels. It is held that offenders are
less likely to commit crimes if they can achieve personal goals through legitimate means. This implies
that criminal motivations can be reduced if offenders perceive that there are alternatives to crime.

The presence of capable guardians is also held to deter individuals from offending. Guardianship can be
the physical presence of a person who is able to act in a protective manner or in the form of more
passive mechanical devices such as video surveillance or security systems. These physical security
measures help limit an offender’s access to suitable targets. The essential aspect of routine activities
theory is the interaction of motivation, opportunity and targets. In this way, the presence of guardians
will deter most offenders, rendering even attractive targets off limits. Therefore, the presence of
opportunity coupled with a lack of guardianship increases criminal motivations such as cutting down of
trees and the likelihood of an deforestation taking place.,

Roles of NEMA in protecting the environment.

Coordinating the various environmental management activities being undertaken by the lead agencies.
Promote the integration of environmental considerations into development policies, plans, programmes
and projects, with a view to ensuring the proper management and rational utilization of environmental
resources, on sustainable yield basis, for the improvement of the quality of human life in Kenya.

To take stock of the natural resources in Kenya and their utilization and conservation.

To establish and review land use guidelines.

Examine land use patterns to determine their impact on the quality and quantity of natural resources.

Carry out surveys, which will assist in the proper management and conservation of the environment.

Advise the Government on legislative and other measures for the management of the environment or
the implementation of relevant international conventions, treaties and agreements.

Advise the Government on regional and international conventions, treaties and agreements to which
Kenya should be a party and follow up the implementation of such agreements.

Undertake and coordinate research, investigation and surveys, collect, collate and disseminate
information on the findings of such research, investigations or surveys.

Mobilize and monitor the use of financial and human resources for environmental management.

Identify projects and programmes for which environmental audit or environmental monitoring must be
conducted under this Act.

Initiate and evolve procedures and safeguards for the prevention of accidents, which may cause
environmental degradation and evolve remedial measures where accidents occur e.g. floods, landslides
and oil spills.

Monitor and assess activities, including activities being carried out by relevant lead agencies, in order to
ensure that the environment is not degraded by such activities. Management objectives must be
adhered to and adequate early warning on impending environmental emergencies is given.

Undertake, in cooperation with relevant lead agencies, programmes intended to enhance

environmental education and public awareness, about the need for sound environmental management,
as well as for enlisting public support and encouraging the effort made by other entities in that regard.

Publish and disseminate manual codes or guidelines relating to environmental management and
prevention or abatement of environmental degradation.

Render advice and technical support, where possible, to entities engaged in natural resources
management and environmental protection, so as to enable them to carry out their responsibilities
satisfactorily .
Prepare and issue an annual report on the State of Environment in Kenya and in this regard, may direct
any lead agency to prepare and submit to it a report on the state of the sector of the environment under
the administration of that lead agency.