Why Joint?

Optical fiber links require joints and terminations because:

 Installation Limits: Fibers are typically installed in 2 km lengths, requiring joints for
longer spans.
 Repairs and Testing: Joints are necessary for repairs and equipment testing.
 Building Cabling: Continuous fiber runs aren't practical in buildings, so joints
complete the network.
Joints are essential for functionality and flexibility in fiber systems.
Fiber alignment and joint loss
Fiber alignment and joint losses are primarily caused by two factors:
1. Fresnel Reflection:
o At the joint interface, light reflects back into the transmitting fiber due to step
changes in refractive index (glass–air–glass), leading to attenuation.
o The fraction of light reflected can be calculated using the Fresnel formula,
which depends on the refractive indices of the fiber core and the medium (air).
o This loss can be minimized by using an index-matching fluid in the gap,
reducing Fresnel reflection to very low levels.
2. Misalignment:
o Misalignment of the fiber axes at the joint is a significant source of optical loss,
often greater than Fresnel reflection.
o Smooth, perpendicular fiber ends and precise alignment are critical to
minimizing this loss.
Proper jointing techniques, including alignment and index-matching solutions, are essential to
reducing optical losses at fiber connections.
Types of fiber joints:
(1) Multimode fiber joints
(2) Single-mode fiber joints
Types of Fiber Joints:
1. Multimode Fiber Joints
 Lateral Misalignment Loss:
o Occurs when fiber cores are offset, reducing the overlap region.
o Coupling efficiency ηlat\eta_{\text{lat}}ηlat depends on lateral offset yyy and
core radius aaa.
o Loss varies for step-index and graded-index fibers, influenced by refractive
index gradient α\alphaα.
o Step-index fibers show losses of 0.64(y/ay/ay/a) for guided modes and
0.5(y/ay/ay/a) for guided + leaky modes.
 Angular Misalignment Loss:
o Loss due to angular displacement θ\thetaθ, calculated via angular coupling
efficiency ηang\eta_{\text{ang}}ηang.
o Depends on the relative refractive index difference Δ\DeltaΔ.
 Core Diameter Mismatch:
o Loss arises if the receiving fiber core diameter is smaller than the transmitting
fiber's.
o No loss occurs if the receiving fiber has a larger core.
 Numerical Aperture (NA) Mismatch:
o Loss occurs when the transmitting fiber's NA exceeds that of the receiving fiber.
o Calculated for both step and graded-index fibers.
 Refractive Index Profile Mismatch:
o Loss arises from different refractive index profiles between transmitting and
receiving fibers.
o E.g., 3 dB loss occurs when connecting a step-index fiber (α1=∞\alpha_1 =
\inftyα1=∞) to a graded-index fiber (α2=2\alpha_2 = 2α2=2).
2. Single-Mode Fiber Joints
 Lateral Offset Loss:
o Depends on lateral offset yyy, core radius aaa, and normalized frequency VVV.
 Angular Misalignment Loss:
 o Loss due to angular displacement θ\thetaθ, influenced by core refractive index
n1n_1n1 and numerical aperture NANANA.
o To minimize loss (< 0.3 dB), angular misalignment should be better than 1°.
 Intrinsic Coupling Loss:
o Depends on the spot sizes ω01\omega_{01}ω01 and ω02\omega_{02}ω02 of
the transmitting and receiving fibers.
Summary:
Multimode fibers face losses from lateral and angular misalignments, core diameter, NA, and
refractive index mismatches. Single-mode fibers have stricter alignment requirements, with
losses arising primarily from lateral offsets and angular misalignments. Proper alignment and
fiber compatibility minimize these losses

• lateral and angular misalignment loss

• Lateral misalignment reduces the overlap region between the two fiber cores.
• Assuming uniform excitation of all the optical modes in a multimode step index fiber,
the overlapped area between both fiber cores approximately gives the lateral coupling
efficiency ηlat.

•
• y is the lateral offset of the fiber core axes, and a is the fiber core radius.
• The lateral misalignment loss in decibels may be determined using:
• This assumption is only correct for certain cases of optical fiber transmission.
• Also, certain authors assume index matching and hence no Fresnel reflection (n1/n =
1), which makes the first term in eq. ηlat equal to unity.
• This may be valid if the two fiber ends are assumed to be in close contact (i.e. no air
gap in between) and gives lower predicted losses.
• When the transmitting fiber has a higher numerical aperture than the receiving fiber,
then some of the emitted light rays will fall outside the acceptance angle of the receiving
fiber and they will therefore not be coupled through the joint.
• Assuming a uniform modal power distribution, and fibers with equivalent refractive
index profiles and core diameters, then the loss caused by a mismatch of numerical
apertures can be obtained
•

•
This Eq. is valid for both step and graded index fibers
• where NA1and NA2are the numerical apertures for the transmitting and receiving fibers
respectively.
Fiber splices
A fiber splice is a permanent joint between two optical fibers, formed either in the field or
factory. Splicing is typically used in long-haul optical links to join smaller fiber segments where
repeated connections/disconnections are unnecessary.
Types of Fiber Splicing:
1. Fusion Splicing (Welding):
o Fibers are permanently joined by heating and fusing them together.
2. Mechanical Splicing:
o Fibers are aligned and held together mechanically using a fixture, without
fusing.

Fusion Splicing
Fusion splicing involves heating and fusing two prepared fiber ends under axial pressure to
create a permanent joint. Proper positioning and alignment of stripped fiber ends are crucial
for ensuring transmission continuity.
Process: Basic Arc Fusion:Fiber ends are aligned and fused with an electric arc.
 Pre-Fusion Technique:
o Low-energy discharge rounds fiber ends before fusing, eliminating the need for
fiber end preparation.
o Commonly used for multimode fibers, achieving splice losses of around 0.09
dB.
Challenges with Single-Mode Fibers: Core diameters (5–10 μm) require precise alignment,
with lateral offsets below 1 μm for low-loss joints.
Self-Alignment Effect: Surface tension during fusing compensates for minor lateral offsets.
Insertion losses below 0.3 dB can be achieved.
This process is effective for achieving low-loss, permanent connections, even under
challenging field conditions
Fusion splicing
The fusion splicing of single fibers involves the heating of the two prepared fiber ends to their
fusing point with the application of sufficient axial pressure between the two optical fibers.
It is therefore essential that the stripped (of cabling and buffer coating) fiber ends are
adequately positioned and aligned in order to achieve good continuity of the transmission
medium at the junction point.
A schematic diagram of the basic arc fusion method is given in Figure 1 illustrating how the
two fibers are welded together.
Fig. 1 Electric arc fusion splicing: (a) an example of fusion splicing apparatus
(b) schematic illustration of the prefusion method for accurately splicing optical fibers
• Figure 1(b) shows a development of the basic arc fusion process which involves the
rounding of the fiber ends with a low-energy discharge before pressing the fibers
together and fusing with a stronger arc.
 • This technique, known as pre-fusion, removes the requirement for fiber end
preparation which has a distinct advantage in the field environment.
• It has been utilized with multimode fibers giving average splice losses of 0.09 dB.
• Fusion splicing of single-mode fibers with typical core diameters between 5 and 10 μm
presents problems of more critical fiber alignment (i.e. lateral offsets of less than 1 μm
are required for low-loss joints).
• However, splice insertion losses below 0.3 dB may be achieved due to a self-alignment
phenomenon which partially compensates for any lateral offset.
• Self-alignment, illustrated in Figure 2, is caused by surface tension effects between the
two fiber ends during fusing.

Figure 2. Self-alignment phenomenon which takes place during fusion splicing:

(a) before fusion; (b) during fusion; (c) after fusion

Drawbacks of Fusion Splicing

1. Weakening of Fiber: Tensile strength near the splice reduces to 30% of its original
value.
2. Causes: Handling damage, defect growth during heating, and residual stresses.
3. Fiber Fracture: Often occurs in the heat-affected zone near the splice.
4. Solution: Proper splice packaging reduces tensile stress.
5. Fusion Splicers: Available in sizes from handheld to tabletop for various network
needs.
Mechanical Splicing Techniques
1. Snug Tube Splice:
o Uses a rigid alignment tube (glass/ceramic capillary) for precise fiber
placement.
o Losses as low as 0.1 dB for multimode and single-mode fibers.
o Tolerance issues may lead to up to 0.5 dB loss in commercial products.
2. Loose Tube Splice:
o Oversized metal tube accepts fiber ends without tight tolerance requirements.
o Self-aligning when fibers are curved to the same plane.
o Mean splice loss of 0.073 dB with multimode graded index fibers.

Figure 3. Techniques for tube splicing of optical fibers:

(a) snug tube splice.
(b) loose tube splice utilizing square cross-section capillary
V-Groove Splicing Techniques
1. Simple V-Groove Splice:
o Fibers are aligned by inserting their prepared ends into a V-shaped groove.
o The splice is secured by epoxy resin to hold the fibers in place.
o Suitable for low-loss splicing of fibers.
2. V-Groove with Glass Substrate:
o Fiber ends are sandwiched between a V-groove glass substrate and a flat glass
retainer plate.
 o Losses below 0.01 dB have been achieved when coupling single-mode fibers
using this method.
Multiple Simultaneous Splicing Techniques
1. Fusion Splicing of Ribbon Cables:
o 12-fiber ribbons are prepped by scoring and breaking before pressing onto a
contact plate.
o Electric arc fusion is used to simultaneously splice the fibers.
o Splice time is about 6 minutes for 12 fibers (30 seconds per splice).
o Losses:
 Multimode fibers: Average loss 0.04 dB, max 0.12 dB.
 Single-mode fibers: Average loss 0.04 dB, max 0.4 dB.
2. Mechanical Splicing with V-Groove:
o Uses etched silicon chips for multimode fibers.
o 12 fibers are arranged in trapezoidal grooves of the chip with a comb
structure to align them
Optical Fiber Couplers
An optical fiber coupler is a device that distributes light from one main fiber to one or more
branch fibers. These are commonly used in applications such as data buses, LANs, computer
networks, and telecommunication access networks.
There are two primary types of power transfer mechanisms in optical fiber couplers:
1. Core Interaction Type:
o Power is transferred through the fiber core cross-section.
o This is achieved by butt-jointing the fibers or using imaging optics between
them.
2. Surface Interaction Type:
o Power is transferred through the fiber surface.
o Guided core modes are converted to cladding and refracted modes, enabling
the power-sharing mechanism

Types of Multiport Optical Fiber Couplers

1. Three- and Four-Port Couplers:

o Used for signal splitting, distribution, and combining signals.

2. Star Couplers:

o Designed for distributing a single input signal to multiple outputs.

3. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) Devices:

o Specialized couplers for multiplexing (combining di erent wavelengths) or

demultiplexing (separating di erent wavelengths) optical signals on a single
fiber.
Key Features and Challenges

 Ideal Performance:

o No scattering loss or generation of noise.

o Insensitivity to light distribution between fiber modes and polarization states.

 Practical Considerations:

o Couplers are not always treated as individual components with fixed parameters.

o Compromises are necessary in their application, especially when dealing with

factors like light distribution and polarization.