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SMA-2171-Geometry jomo Kenyatta university of agriculture

and technology
Geometry (Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology)

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SMA 2171: GEOMETRY

⃝Francis
c O. Ochieng
[email protected]

Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics

Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

Course content
• Trigonometry: trigonometric functions, their graphs and inverses for degree and radian measure,
addition, multiple angle and factor formulae, trigonometric identities and equations. Sine and
Cosine formulae: their application to solution of triangles and identities.

• The straight line: the slope and inclination, equation, parallel and perpendicular lines, distance
formula.

• The circle: equations in standard form and with change of origin, distance from a point to a
circle, general equation of tangent to a circle at a point of contact and from an external point,
normal, secant and chord, intersection of two circles and orthogonal circles.

• Ellipse, parabola and hyperbola: equations in standard form and with change of origin, chord,
tangent and normal including parametric form.

• Polar coordinates: graphs and equations.

• Vectors in two and three dimensions: addition, subtraction, multiplication by scalars, resolution,
scalar and vector products.

• Applications to plane trigonometry, geometry of straight line in two and three dimensions, and
resultant force and velocity.

References
[1] Calculus with Analytical Geometry by Swokowski, Earl Williams

[2] Algebra and Trigonometry with Analytical Geometry by Earl Swokowski

[3] Calculus and Analytical Geometry by Finney Ross

Lecture 1

1 Trigonometry
1.1 Circular functions
When a line OA is pivoted at point O and rotates from its initial position OA to its new location OB.
Then, the angle AOB is the measure of rotation of line OA.

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1.2 Trigonometric ratios c

⃝Francis Oketch

The angle θ is usually measured in either degree (o ) or radian

(c ). One complete revolution = 360o . One radian is the angle
B subtended by an arc whose length is equal to the radius of the
circle. The number of radians in one complete revolution is
circumference 2πr
r given by the ratio = = 2π radians Thus,
radius r
2π radians = 3600 . Therefore, the degree and radian are related
θ
O . A by:
r
π c = .180o

1.2 Trigonometric ratios

Consider the right-angled triangle OAB. A simple rule to find the trigonometric ratios of an acute
angle is SOHCAHTOA, as illustrated below.

B Opposite OB 1
sin θ = = cosecθ =
Hypotenuse AB sin θ

Opposite
(90o − θ)
Hypotenuse Adjacent OA 1
cos θ = = sec θ =
Hypotenuse AB cos θ
θ
O . A Opposite OB 1
Adjacent tan θ = = cot θ =
Adjacent OA tan θ

sin θ OB/AB OB
Now, = = = tan θ. Therefore,
cos θ OA/AB OA

sin θ cos θ
tan θ =. and cot θ =.
cos θ sin θ

OB
Similarly, cos(90o − θ) = = sin θ. Therefore,
AB
. o − θ)
sin θ = cos(90

OA2 OB2 OA2 + OB2 AB2

Also, cos2 θ + sin2 θ = + = = = 1. Therefore,
AB2 AB2 AB2 AB2
. 2θ = 1
cos2 θ + sin

Finally, it is easy to show that

. o − θ)
sin θ = cos(90 and . o − θ)
cos θ = sin(90

.
tan θ = cot(90 o
− θ) and .
cot θ = tan(90o
− θ)

.
sec θ = cosec(90 o
− θ) and .
cosecθ = sec(90 o
− θ)

These identities are called the cofunction formulae.

Example(s):

1. Verify the identities

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1.2 Trigonometric ratios c

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(a) sec θ − cos θ = sin θ tan θ.

Solution
We transform the left-hand side into the right-hand side:

1 1 − cos2 θ sin2 θ sin θ

( )
sec θ − cos θ = − cos θ = = = sin θ
cos θ cos θ cos θ cos θ
= sin θ tan θ

(b) sec θ = sin θ (tan θ + cot θ).

Solution
Since the expression on the right-hand side is more complicated than that on the left-hand
side, we transform the right-hand side into the left-hand side:
( )
sin θ cos θ sin2 θ + cos2 θ
( )
sin θ (tan θ + cot θ) = sin θ + = sin θ
cos θ sin θ cos θ sin θ
1 1
( )
= sin θ =
cos θ sin θ cos θ
= sec θ
cos x 1 + sin x
(c) = .
1 − sin x cos x
Solution
Since the denominator of the left-hand side is a binomial and the denominator of the right-
hand side is a monomial, we change the form of the fraction on the left-hand side by
multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator and then
use one of the Pythagorean identities:

cos x cos x 1 + sin x cos x(1 + sin x)

= · =
1 − sin x 1 − sin x 1 + sin x (1 − sin x)(1 + sin x)
cos x(1 + sin x) cos x(1 + sin x)
= 2 =
1 − sin x cos2 x
1 + sin x
=
cos x
1 − sin θ
(d) (tan θ − sec θ)2 = .
1 + sin θ
Solution

sin θ 2
)2
sin θ 1 1
( ) ( )( ) (
2 2 2
(tan θ − sec θ) = tan θ − 2 tan θ sec θ + sec θ = −2 +
cos θ cos θ cos θ cos θ
2
sin θ 2 sin θ 1 2
sin θ − 2 sin θ + 1
= − + =
cos2 θ cos2 θ cos2 θ cos2 θ
1 − 2 sin θ + sin2 θ (1 − sin θ)2
= 2 =
1 − sin θ (1 − sin θ)(1 + sin θ)
1 − sin θ
=
1 + sin θ

Exercise:

1. Prove the following trigonometric identities

(a) 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ

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1.3 Trigonometric ratios of special angles (30o , 45o , 60o ) c

⃝Francis Oketch

(b) 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ

π
2. Let θ be such that 0 < θ < . Establish the following identities
2
1 + tan θ
(a) = tan θ
1 + cot θ
cos θ
(b) tan θ + = sec θ
1 + sin θ
2 tan θ
3. Use the formula tan 2θ = to mark two sides of a right-angled triangle whose included
1 − tan2 θ
angle is 2θ. Use Pythagoras theorem to find the length of the third side in terms of tan θ. Hence,
write down a formula for sin 2θ in terms of tan θ and use it to find the smallest positive value of
θ for which 2 tan θ = cosec θ.

1.3 Trigonometric ratios of special angles (30o , 45o , 60o )

Consider an equilateral triangle

√
30o 30o
From Pythagoras theorem, we have h2 = 2√ 2 − 12 = 3 ⇒ h = 3.
2 2 1 3 1
h=
√
3
From the diagram, sin 30o = , cos 30o = , and tan 30o = √ .
o √ 2 2 3
. 60 60o 3 1 √
Similarly, sin 60o = , cos 60o = , and tan 60o = 3.
1 1 2 2

Consider the right-angled triangle

45o √
1 y=
√
2 From Pythagoras theorem, we have y 2 = 12 + 12 = 2 ⇒ y = 2.
1 1
From the diagram, sin 45o = √ , cos 45o = √ , and tan 45o = 1.
. 45o 2 2
1

1.4 Trigonometric ratios of angles greater than 90o

In this case, we use the unit circle. The unit circle consists of 4 quadrants.

90o Trigonometric ratios of all (A) angles in the 1st quadrant are
positive. Only the sine (S) of angles in the 2nd quadrant is
positive. Only the tangent (T) of angles in the 3rd quadrant
S A
is positive. Only the cosine (C) of angles in the 4th quadrant is
180o . 0o , 360o positive.

T C → Note: positive angles are measured in anticlockwise direction

while negative angles are measured in clockwise direction, from
270o the principal axis.

Example(s):

1. Evaluate sin 210o and cos(−600 ) without using tables or calculator.

Solution

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1.5 Graphs of trigonometric functions c

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90o

S A −0.5 1
From the unit circle, sin 210o = =−
180 o . 0 , 360
o o 1 2
30o 60o 0.5 1
and cos(−60o ) = = .
210o T C 1 2

−60o
270o

2. Simplify the following without using mathematical tables or calculator,

sec2 150o (1 − cos 300o )
. [ans: 1]
1 + tan2 210o (1 + sin 330o )
( )

1.5 Graphs of trigonometric functions

Example(s):

1. Draw the graphs of the following trigonometric functions

(a) y = sin θ
(b) y = cos θ
(c) y = tan θ

Solution
The graphs show the periodic nature of the trigonometric functions. The value of each function
is repeated after a certain interval called the period. The periods of sin θ and cos θ are both 360o
(or 2π radians) while that of tan θ is 180o (or π radians).

 Graph of sin θ and cos θ.

 Graph of tan θ.

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1.5 Graphs of trigonometric functions c

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Exercise:

1. Draw the graphs of the following trigonometric functions

(a) y = sin 2θ
(b) y = cos 3θ
(c) y = tan 2θ

2. Let the trigonometric function f be defined as f (x) = 2 sin 3x

(a) What is the amplitude? [ans: A = 2]

2π
(b) What is the period? [ans: T = ]
3
(c) Sketch two periods of f.

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1.6 Trigonometric equations c

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Lecture 2

1.6 Trigonometric equations

A trigonometric equation is an equation that contains trigonometric expressions. Trigonometric
equations have unlimited number of roots (or solutions). For example, the equation sin θ = 0 is
satisfied by θ = 0o , ±180o , ±360o , · · · , etc. This can be written as θ = nπ, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, · · · .
So, there is a need to specify for what range of values the roots are required.

Example(s):
1
1. Find the solutions of the equation sin θ = − if
2
(a) the angle θ is in the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o .
(b) the angle θ is any real number, express the solutions in radians.

Solution

90o

(a) From the unit circle, sin θ is negative in the 3rd and
S A 4th quadrants. Therefore, 180o ≤ θ ≤ 360o . Let the
180o . 0o , 360o roots be r1 and r2 . The principal value (or reference
30o 30o angle) is given by α = sin−1 ( 12 ) = 30o . Hence, the
r1 T C r2 roots are: r1 = (180o + 30o ) = 210o and r2 = (360o −
30o ) = 330o .
270o

→ Note: if sin θ = x, then the principal value (or reference angle) is the angle α, between
0o and 90o , such that α = sin−1 |x|.
(b) Since the range is not given, the angle θ has infinitely many solutions. In radians, we have
210o 7π o
o = 330 π = 11π . Since the sine function has period 2π, we
210o = π = and 330
180o 6 180o 6
7π 11π
may obtain all solutions of θ by adding multiples of 2π to and . This gives us
6 6
7π 11π
θ= + 2πn and θ = + 2πn
6 6
where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3,, etc.

2. Solve 1 + cos θ = 2 sin2 θ in the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o .

Solution
We first need to express the given equation in terms of cos θ alone and then solve by factoring.
From cos2 θ + sin 2θ = 1
) ⇒ sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ. Substituting in the given equation yields
2 2 cos2 θ + cos θ − 1 = 0. Let cos θ = x. Thus, we have
(
1 + cos θ = 2 1 − cos θ ⇒
1
2x2 + x − 1 = 0 ⇒ (2x − 1)(x + 1) = 0. The roots are given by x = and x = −1. That is,
2
1
cos θ = and cos θ = −1. From the unit circle, we have
2

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1.6 Trigonometric equations c

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90o
r1
1
Case 1: cos θ = .
S A 2
60o From the unit circle, cosine is +ve in the 1st and 4th quadrants.
180 o . 0o , 360o
60o
Let the roots be r1 and r2 .
The principal value is given by α = cos−1 12 = 60o .
( )
T C
r2 Hence, the roots are: r1 = 60o and r2 = (360o − 60o ) = 300o .

270 o

90o

r3 Case 2: cos θ = −1.

S A
From the unit circle, cosine is -ve in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
0o .
180o 0o , 360o Let the roots be r3 and r4 .
0o
The principal value is given by α = cos−1 (1) = 0o .
r4 T C Hence, the roots are: r3 = r4 = 180o .

270o

Therefore, θ = 60o , 180o and 300o .

3. Solve the equation cos 2θ = 0 in the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o .

Solution

From the unit circle, cos 2θ is positive in the 1st and 4th
90o quadrants. Let the roots be r1 and r2 . The principal value
is given by α = cos−1 (0) = 90o . Hence, the roots are:
r1 r1 = 90o , 450o and r2 = 270o , 630o . Thus,
S A
. 90o 2θ = 90o , 270o , 450o , 630o , etc.
180o 0o , 360o
90o

T C r2 Making θ the subject yields

θ = 45o , 135o , 225o , 315o

270o

4. Eliminate θ between the equations x = a sin θ and y = b tan θ.

Solution
x a
 Given x = a sin θ ⇒ sin θ = ⇒ cosecθ =
a x
y b
 Given y = b tan θ ⇒ tan θ = ⇒ cot θ = .
b y
( )2 ( )2
b a b2 a2
Using the identity 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ, we have 1 + = ⇒ 1+ = .
y x y2 x2

Exercise:

1. Solve the following trigonometric equations

(a) cos 2θ = 0.6428 in the range −180o ≤ θ ≤ 180o . [ans: θ = ±25o , ±155o ]
(b) 2 sin2 θ = sin θ in the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o . [ans: θ = 0o , 30o , 150o , 180o , 360o ]
(c) tan θ = 2 sin θ in the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o . [ans: θ = 60o , 300o ]
(d) 4 sin2 θ = 3 cos2 θ in the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o . [ans: θ = 40.9o , 220.9o ]

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1.7 The Addition formulae c

⃝Francis Oketch

(e) sin θ tan θ = sin θ in the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o . [ans: θ = 0o , 45o , 180o , 225o , 360o ]

2. Find the values of x, between 0o and 360o , which satisfy the equations.

(a) 6 sin2 x − 5 cos x − 2 = 0. [ans: x = 60o , 126.87o , 233.13o , 300o ]

(b) 4 tan x − 2 cot x = 5cosecx. [ans: x = 60o , 300o ]

3. Eliminate θ between the equations

(a) x = 1 − sin θ and y = 1 + cos θ. [ans: x2 + y 2 − 2x − 2y = −1]

a2 b2
(b) x = acosecθ and y = b sec θ. [ans: + = 1]
x2 y 2
(c) x = tan θ + cot θ and y = sin θ − cos θ. [ans: x(y 2 − 1) + 2 = 0]
(d) x = a(1 − cosecθ) and y = a(sec θ + tan θ). [ans: xy 2 + a2 (2a − x) = 0]

1.7 The Addition formulae

Formulae expressing the trigonometric ratios of the sum of two angles in terms of the trigonometric
ratios of the separate angles are known as addition formulae (or sum and difference identities).
Consider the figure below.

Formulae for sin(A + B) and cos(A + B) in which the

angle (A+B) is acute can be obtained from the diagram.
From the right-angled triangle SRO, we have
SR
sin(A + B) = (∗)
OR
But SR = SN + NR = MT + NR (∗∗) (since SMTN
is a rectangle by construction). We determine MT and
NR as follows:

 The right-angled triangle OMT gives MT = OT sin A and the right-angled triangle OTR gives
OT = OR cos B. Hence, MT = OR sin A cos B.

 Also from the right-angled triangle RNT, we have NR = RT cos A while the triangle ORT gives
RT = OR sin B. Thus, NR = OR cos A sin B.

Substituting for MT and NR in equation (∗∗) and simplifying yields

SR = OR (sin A cos B + cos A sin B)

Substituting for SR in equation (∗) and simplifying yields

sin(A + B) = sin A.cos B + cos A sin B (1)

Similarly, the right-angled triangle SRO gives

OS
cos(A + B) = (∗)′
OR
But OS = OM − SM = OM − NT (∗∗)′ (since SMTN is a rectangle by construction). We determine
OM and NT as follows:

 The right-angled triangle OMT gives OM = OT cos A and the right-angled triangle OTR gives
OT = OR cos B. Hence, OM = OR cos A cos B.

 Also from the right-angled triangle RNT, we have NT = RT sin A while the triangle ORT gives
RT = OR sin B. Thus, NT = OR sin A sin B.

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1.7 The Addition formulae c

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Substituting for OM and NT in equation (∗∗)’ and simplifying yields

OS = OR (cos A cos B − sin A sin B)

Substituting for OS in equation (∗)’ and simplifying yields

cos(A + B) = cos A.cos B − sin A sin B (2)

Equations (1) and (2) give the fundamental addition formulae. Dividing equation (1) by equation (2)
sin A sin B
and using the fact that tan A = and tan B = , we get
cos A cos B
sin(A + B) sin A cos B + cos A sin B
tan(A + B) = =
cos(A + B) cos A cos B − sin A sin B
( ) ( )
sin A cos B cos A sin B
cos A cos B + cos A cos B tan A + tan B
= ( ) ( ) =
cos A cos B
− sin A sin B 1 − tan A tan B
cos A cos B cos A cos B

Therefore, the addition formula for tan(A + B) is given as:

tan A + tan B
tan(A + B) = . (3)
1 − tan A tan B

By writing −B in place of B and using the fact that sin(−B) = − sin B, cos(−B) = cos B and
tan(−B) = − tan B, equations (1), (2) and (3), respectively, become

sin(A − B) = sin A.cos B − cos A sin B (4)

cos(A − B) = cos A.cos B + sin A sin B (5)

tan A − tan B
tan(A − B) = . (6)
1 + tan A tan B

Example(s):

1. Find without using tables or calculator the exact values of sin 165o , cos 75o , and cos 15o .

Solution

sin 165o = sin(120o + 45o ) = sin 120o cos 45o + sin 45o cos 120o = sin 60o cos 45o − sin 45o cos 60o
(√ ) ( √ √ √
3 1 1 1 3−1 6− 2
) ( )( )
= √ − √ = √ =
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
cos 75o = cos(120o − 45o ) = cos 120o cos 45o + sin 120o sin 45o = − cos 60o cos 45o + sin 60o sin 45o
) (√ ) ( √ √ √
1 1 3 1 3−1 6− 2
( )( )
= − √ + √ = √ =
2 2 2 2 2 2 4
√ √ √
o o o o o o o 1 1 3 1 6+ 2
cos 15 = cos(60 − 45 ) = cos 60 cos 45 + sin 60 sin 45 = · √ + ·√ =
2 2 2 2 4
√
5 1
2. If A and B are acute angles such that sin A = and tan B = , find the values of (A + B) by
5 3
means of the addition formula for sin(A + B).

Solution

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1.7 The Addition formulae c

⃝Francis Oketch

√
5
From sin A = and A is an acute angle means that A is in the 1st quadrant. The base
5 √
(adjacent) of a right-angled triangle with opposite 5 units and√hypotenuse 5 units is: adjacent
√
√ 2 √ √ 2 5 1
= 52 − 5 = 20 = 2 5 units. Thus, we have cos A = . Similarly, from tan B =
5 3
and B is an acute angle means that B is in the 1st quadrant. The hypotenuse √ of a right-angled
√
triangle with opposite 1 units and base (adjacent) 3 units is: hypotenuse = 12 + 32 = 10
1 3
units. Thus, we have sin B = √ and cos B = √ . Now,
10 10
(√ ) ( ) ( √ )(
5 3 2 5 1 1
)
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B = √ + √ =√
5 10 5 10 2

Therefore, A + B = sin−1 ( √12 ) = 45o .

3. If 12 cos x − 5 sin x = R cos(x + α), find the values of R and α and hence solve the equation
12 cos x − 5 sin x = −3 for values of x in the range 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.

Solution
Given R cos(x + α) = 12 cos x − 5 sin x. Expanding the left-hand side using the addition formula
for cosine and simplifying, we get

R cos α cos x − R sin α sin x = 12 cos x − 5 sin x

Equating the corresponding coefficients, we have

R cos α = 12 and R sin α = 5

Now,
R sin α 5 5
= ⇒ tan α = ⇒ α = tan−1 (5/12) = 0.394
R cos α 12 12
and
(R cos α)2 + (R sin α)2 = (12)2 + (5)2 ⇒ R2 = 169 ⇒ R = 13
Therefore, the given equation can be written as
3
13 cos(x + 0.394) = −3 ⇒ cos(x + 0.394) = −
13
Using a unit circle, we have x + 0.394 = π ± 1.3379. Thus, x = 1.4097 and x = 4.0855.

→ Note: if f (x) = R cos(ωx ± α) or f (x) = R sin(ωx ± α), then the amplitude, phase shift, and
the period of f (x) are R, (α/ω) and (2π/ω), respectively.
1 4 2
4. If tan A = , tan B = and tan C = , show that tan(A + B + C) = 1.
5 19 5

Solution
1 4
tan A + tan B 5(+)19 39 3
tan(A + B) = = ( ) = =
1 − tan A tan B 1 − 15 19 4 91 7
3 2
tan(A + B) + tan C 7(+)5( ) 29
tan(A + B + C) = = = =1
1 − tan(A + B) tan C 3
1− 7 5 2 29

π
5. Solve sin−1 θ + sin−1 3θ = .
2

Solution

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1.7 The Addition formulae c

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Let A = sin−1 θ and B = sin−1 3θ. Thus, sin A = θ and sin B = 3θ. Thus, the given equation
can be written as A + B = π/2. Taking cosine on both sides yields

cos(A + B) = cos(π/2) ⇒ cos A cos B − sin A sin B = 0 (∗)

Now, √ √ √ √
cos A = 1 − sin2 A = 1 − θ2 and cos B = 1 − sin2 B = 1 − 9θ2
Substituting into equation (∗) yields
√ √ √
1 − θ2 1 − 9θ2 − 3θ2 = 0 ⇒ (1 − θ2 )(1 − 9θ2 ) = 3θ2 ⇒ (1 − θ2 )(1 − 9θ2 ) = 9θ4
1
Expanding and simplifying, we get 1 − 10θ2 = 0. Solving yields θ = ± √ .
10

Exercise:

1. Without using tables and a calculator, show that:

sin 18o cos 12o + cos 162o cos 102o
(a) =1
sin 22o cos 8o + cos 158o cos 98o
√
(b) cos 59o + sin 59o = 2 cos 14o .
√
a 3 2a − b
2. (a) Given that tan x = and tan y = √ , where a and b are constants. Find the
2b − a b 3
values of (x − y) between 0o and 360o . [ans: (x − y) = tan−1 ( √13 ) = 30o , 210o ]
1 3 1 4
(b) Given that tan α = , tan β = and tan γ = , prove that tan(α + β + γ) = .
5 4 3 7
4
(c) If tan θ = and θ is acute, find without tables or calculator the value tan (θ/2). [hint:
3
1
tan θ = tan( 2θ + 2θ ), ans: tan (θ/2) = −2 or tan (θ/2) = ]
√ 2
−1 ± 1 + x2
(d) Given that tan θ = x, show that tan (θ/2) = and use this result to prove
√ √ x
o o
that tan(15 ) = 2 − 3 and tan(105 ) = −2 − 3.
4 12
3. (a) If sin A = and cos B = , where A is an obtuse angle and B is an acute angle. Find
5 13
the values of
63
(i)
sin(A − B). [ans: 65 ]
56
(ii)
cos(A + B). [ans: − 65 ]
(iii)
sin(2A + B). [ans: − 323
325 ]
13
(iv)
tan(A + B). [ans: − 56 ]
3 17
(b) If tan A = and sec B = , where A and B are acute angles. Find without using tables
4 8
4 sin A + 8 cos B
or calculator the value of . [ans: =]
tan A + sec B
4. (a) Find to the nearest integer the values of θ in the interval −180o ≤ θ ≤ 180o , for which
3 sin2 3θ − 7 cos 3θ − 5 = 0. [ans: θ = ±37o , ±84o , ±157o ]
(b) Find the values of x, between 0o and 3600 , which satisfy the equations
i) tan(450 + x) + cot(45o + x) = 4. [ans: x = 30o , 150o , 210o , 330o ]
ii) 8 cos x + 9 sin x = 7.25.[hint: 8 cos x + 9 sin x = R cos(x − α), ans: x = 101.35o , 355.39o ]
iii) 5 sin x − 6 cos x = 4
iv) cos x + 7 sin x = 5
(c) Express cos x + sin x in the form R cos(x − α) giving the values of R and α. Hence, find
the maximum and minimum values of cos x + sin x. Also, show that the smallest positive
value of x for which
√ the expression cos x√+ sin x takes√its maximum value is 45o . [ans:
o
cos x + sin x = 2 cos(x − 45 ), max = 2, min = − 2]

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(d) Find a positive number S and an angle β between 0o and 360o such that 21 cos θ −20 sin θ =
S sin(θ + β). [ans: S = 29, and β = 133.6o , 313.6o ]
(e) Express the function 4 sin x − 3 cos x in the form R sin(x − α) where R is positive, stating
the values of R and α. Hence, deduce the solution of the equation 8 sin x − 6 cos x = 5 in
the range 0o to 360o . [ans: R = 5, α = tan−1 ( 34 ) = 36.87o , x = 66.87o , 186.87o ]
(f) Express 4 cos(θ − β) − 3 sin(θ − β) in the form R cos(θ − α), finding the numerical values of
3
R and expressing tan α in terms of tan β. Hence, show that tan(β − α) = . [ans: R = 5,
4
4 tan β − 3
tan α = ]
3 tan β + 4
(g) Find pairs of angles between 0o and 180o satisfying the equations sin A + sin B = 0.95 and
A − B = 120o . [ans: A = 131.81o , 168.19o , B = 11.81o , 48.19o ]
√
(h) If f (x) = cos 4x + 3 sin 4x use the addition formula for cosine to express f (x) in the form
A cos(Bx−C). Determine the amplitude, period, and phase shift of f (x). Sketch the graph
of f (x). [ans: f (x) =]
1 + cot A cot B
5. Use the addition formula for the sine and cosine to show that cot(A − B) = .
cot B − cot A
1
Hence, deduce that, if cot A = , cot B = 2 and cot C = 3, then cot(A − B − C) = 3.
2
6. If tan α tan β = k, show that (1 − k) cos(α − β) = (1 + k) cos(α + β).
x y c
7. If x cos α + y cos β = c and x sin α − y sin β = 0, show that = = .
sin β sin α sin(α + β)
8. Show that
5
(a) sin−1 ( 35 ) − sin−1 ( 13 16
) = sin−1 ( 65 ).
π
(b) tan−1 ( 21 ) + tan−1 ( 32 ) + tan−1 ( 74 ) = .
2
π
(c) sin−1 x + cos−1 x = = tan−1 x + cot−1 x.
2
9. If tan−1 a + tan−1 b + tan−1 c = π, show that a + b + c = abc.
π
10. Find the values of x satisfying the equation tan−1 (2x) + tan−1 (3x) = . [ans: x = −1, x = 16 ]
4

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Lecture 3

1.8 Multiple angle formulae

The trigonometric ratios of 2θ are easily found in terms of those of θ by writing A = B = θ in the
addition formulae, as follows:
(1) Substituting A = B = θ in identity (1), we get sin(θ + θ) = sin θ cos θ + sin θ cos θ. Simplifying
yields the following identity

sin 2θ = 2.sin θ cos θ (7)

(2) Substituting A = B = θ in identity (2) and simplifying yields.

cos 2θ = cos.2 θ − sin2 θ (8)

Putting sin2 θ = 1 − cos2 θ in equation (8), we get the alternative form as

cos 2θ = 2.cos2 θ − 1 (9)

Similarly, putting cos2 θ = 1 − sin2 θ in equation (8), we get another form of equation (8) as

cos 2θ = 1.− 2 sin2 θ (10)

Sometimes, especially in the integral calculus, it is useful to be able to express cos2 θ and sin2 θ in
terms of cos 2θ. This can be done by rearranging equations (9) and (10) to get

1 . 1 .
cos2 θ = (1 + cos 2θ) and sin2 θ = (1 − cos 2θ) (11)
2 2

Finally, substituting A = B = θ into equation (3) and simplifying yields

2 tan θ
tan 2θ = . (12)
1 − tan2 θ

Similarly, the formulae for sine, cosine and tangent of 3θ can be found in terms of those of θ by putting
A = θ and B = 2θ in the addition formulae to get

sin 3θ = sin(θ + 2θ) = sin θ cos 2θ + cos θ sin 2θ

( )
= sin θ 1 − 2 sin2 θ + cos θ (2 sin θ cos θ) = sin θ − 2 sin3 θ + 2 sin θ cos2 θ
( )
= sin θ − 2 sin3 θ + 2 sin θ 1 − sin2 θ = sin θ − 2 sin3 θ + 2 sin θ − 2 sin3 θ
= 3 sin θ − 4 sin3 θ

Therefore,

sin 3θ = 3 sin. θ − 4 sin3 θ (13)

Also,

cos 3θ = cos(θ + 2θ) = cos θ cos 2θ − sin θ sin 2θ

( )
= cos θ 2 cos2 θ − 1 − sin θ (2 sin θ cos θ) = 2 cos3 θ − cos θ − 2 cos θ sin2 θ
( )
= 2 cos3 θ − cos θ − 2 cos θ 1 − cos2 θ = 2 cos3 θ − cos θ − 2 cos θ + 2 cos3 θ
= 4 cos3 θ − 3 cos θ

Therefore,

cos 3θ = 4 cos. 3 θ − 3 cos θ (14)

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Finally,
2 tan θ
tan θ + tan 2θ 2 tan θ +
tan 3θ = tan(θ + 2θ) = = (1 − tan θ )
1 − tan θ tan 2θ 2 tan θ
1 − tan θ
1 − tan2 θ
tan θ(1 − tan2 θ) + 2 tan θ 3 tan θ − tan3 θ
= =
1 − tan2 θ − 2 tan2 θ 1 − 3 tan2 θ
Therefore,

3 tan 3
tan 3θ = . θ − tan θ (15)
1 − 3 tan2 θ

→ Note: the formulae for sine, cosine and tangent of other multiples of θ can be found in terms of
those of θ in a similar manner.

Example(s):

3 12
1. Find the values of sin 2θ and cos 2θ if (a) sin θ = and (b) cos θ = , given that theta is acute.
5 13

Solution
3
(a) From sin θ = , the base (adjacent) of a right-angled triangle with opposite 3 units and
5
√ 4
hypotenuse 5 units is: adjacent = 52 − 32 = 4 units. Thus, we have cos θ = and
5
3
tan θ = . Therefore,
4
3 4 24
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ = 2 · · =
5 5 25
( )2 ( )2
2 2 4 3 7
cos 2θ = cos θ − sin θ = − =
5 5 25
12
(b) From cos θ = , the height (opposite) of a right-angled triangle with base (adjacent)
13 √
12 units and hypotenuse 13 units is: opposite = 132 − 122 = 5 units. Thus, we have
5 5
sin θ = and tan θ = . Therefore,
13 12
5 12 120
sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ = 2 · · =
13 13 169
)2 )2
12 5 119
( (
cos 2θ = cos2 θ − sin2 θ = − =
13 13 169
2. Solve the equation 3 cos 2θ + sin θ = 1 in the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o .

Solution
Substituting cos 2θ = 1 − 2 sin2 θ in the given equation, we have
( )
3 1 − 2 sin2 θ + sin θ = 1 ⇒ 6 sin2 θ − sin θ − 2 = 0 ⇒ (3 sin θ − 2) (2 sin θ + 1) = 0

2 1
Solving yields sin θ = or sin θ = − .
3 2

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90o
r2 r1
2
Case 1: sin θ = .
So Ao 3
41.8
.
41.8
From the unit circle, sine is +ve in the 1st and 2nd quadrants.
180o 0o , 360o
Let the roots be r1 and r2 .
The principal value is given by α = sin−1 23 = 41.8o .
( )
T C
Hence, the roots are: r1 = 41.8o and r2 = (180o − 41.8o ) = 138.2o .

270o
90o
1
Case 2: sin θ = − .
2
S A From the unit circle, sine is -ve in the 3rd and 4th quadrants.
180 o . 0o , 360o Let the roots be r3 and r4 .
30o 30o
The principal value is given by α = sin−1 21 = 30o .
( )
r3 T C r4 Hence, the roots are: r3 = (180o + 30o ) = 210o
and r4 = (360o − 30o ) = 330o .
270o

Therefore, θ = 41.8o , 138.2o , 210o and 330o .

3. (a) Solve for θ given that sin 4θ − sin 2θ + 2 cos 3θ = 0 in the range 0o ≤ θ ≤ 360o .

Solution

sin 4θ = sin(3θ + θ) = sin 3θ cos θ + sin θ cos 3θ

sin 2θ = sin(3θ − θ) = sin 3θ cos θ − sin θ cos 3θ

Subtracting yields sin 4θ − sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos 3θ. Therefore, the given equation becomes

sin θ cos 3θ + 2 cos 3θ = 0 ⇒ cos 3θ(sin θ + 1) = 0

Solving yields cos 3θ = 0 or (sin θ + 1) = 0 ⇒ sin θ = −1. From cos 3θ = 0, we

have 3θ = 90o , 270o ⇒ θ = 30o , 90o . From sin θ = −1, we have θ = 270o . Therefore,
θ = 30o , 90o and 270o .
(b) Find the values of θ, in the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, that satisfy the equation sin 5θ + sin 3θ = 0.
π π
[hint: sin 5θ = sin(4θ + θ), sin 3θ = sin(4θ − θ), ans: θ = 0, , ]
4 2
π
4. Find x from the equation 2 sin−1 x + sin−1 (x2 ) = .
2

Solution
Let A = sin−1 x and B = sin−1 (x2 ). Thus, sin A = x and sin B = x2 . Thus, the given equation
can be written as 2A + B = π/2. Taking cosine on both sides yields

cos(2A + B) = cos(π/2) ⇒ cos 2A cos B − sin 2A sin B = 0 (∗)

Now, √ √ √ √
cos A = 1 − sin2 A = 1 − x2 and cos B = 1 − sin2 B = 1 − x4
√
cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin2 A = 1 − 2x2 and sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A = 2x 1 − x2
Substituting into equation (∗) yields
√ √ √ [ √ ]
(1 − 2x2 ) 1 − x4 − 2x3 1 − x2 = 0 ⇒ 1 − x2 (1 − 2x2 ) 1 + x2 − 2x3 = 0
√ √
Hence, 1 − x2 = 0 or (1 − 2x2 ) 1 + x2 − 2x3 = 0. Solving the first equation yields x = ±1.
From the second equation, we have
√
(1 − 2x2 ) 1 + x2 = 2x3 ⇒ (1 − 2x2 )2 (1 + x2 ) = 4x6

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1
Expanding and simplifying, we get 1 − 3x2 = 0. Solving yields x = ± √ . Therefore, the four
3
1 1 1
values of x are −1, − √ , √ ans 1. On substitution in the given equation, only x = √ satisfies
3 3 3
it when we limit ourselves to principal values of the terms sin−1 x and sin−1 (x2 ).
√
5. If tan( x2 ) = cosecx − sin x, prove that tan2 ( x2 ) = −2 ± 5.

Proof. Let tan( x2 ) = t and consider the following diagram

√ Therefore,
1 + t2
t x t x 1
x sin( ) = √ and cos( ) = √
2 2 1+t 2 2 1 + t2
.
1

Now,

x x x x 2t 1 1 + t2
( ) ( ) ( )
sin x = sin + = 2 sin cos = and cosecx = =
2 2 2 2 1 + t2 sin x 2t

Substituting into equation tan( x2 ) = cosecx − sin x, we get

1 + t2 2t (1 + t2 )2 − 4t2
t= − ⇒ t= ⇒ 2t2 (1 + t2 ) = (1 + t2 )2 − 4t2
2t 1 + t2 2t(1 + t2 )

Simplifying yields
t4 + 4t2 − 1 = 0
We need to solve for t2 = tan2 ( x2 ). Using the quadratic formula, we have
√
2 −4 ± 16 + 4 √
t = = −2 ± 5
2
√
Therefore, tan2 ( x2 ) = −2 ± 5.

3
6. Show that cos6 θ + sin6 θ = 1 − sin2 2θ.
4

Solution
Let x = cos θ and y = sin θ. Now, binomial expansion yields

(x + y)6 = x6 + 6x5 y + 15x4 y 2 + 20x3 y 3 + 15x2 y 4 + 6xy 5 + y 6

Making (x6 + y 6 ) the subject, we have

x6 + y 6 = (x + y)6 − 6xy(x4 + y 4 ) − 15x2 y 2 (x2 + y 2 ) − 20x3 y 3

Similarly, from (x + y)4 = x4 + 4x3 y + 6x2 y 2 + 4xy 3 + y 4 , we have

x4 + y 4 = (x + y)4 − 4xy(x2 + y 2 ) − 6x2 y 2

Back substitution yields

[ ]
x6 + y 6 = (x + y)6 − 6xy (x + y)4 − 4xy(x2 + y 2 ) − 6x2 y 2 − 15x2 y 2 (x2 + y 2 ) − 20x3 y 3
[ ]
= (x + y)4 (x + y)2 − 6xy + 24x2 y 2 (x2 + y 2 ) + 36x3 y 3 − 15x2 y 2 (x2 + y 2 ) − 20x3 y 3
( )
= (x2 + y 2 + 2xy)2 x2 + y 2 − 4xy + 9x2 y 2 (x2 + y 2 ) + 16x3 y 3

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But x2 + y 2 = cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, thus we have

x6 + y 6 = (1 + 2xy)2 (1 − 4xy) + 9x2 y 2 + 16x3 y 3

= (1 + 4xy + 4x2 y 2 )(1 − 4xy) + 9x2 y 2 + 16x3 y 3
= 1 − 3x2 y 2

Substituting x = cos θ and y = sin θ and using then identity 2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ, we get
)2
sin 2θ
(
6 6 2 2 2
cos θ + sin θ = 1 − 3 cos θ sin θ = 1 − 3(cos θ sin θ) = 1 − 3
2
3 2
= 1 − sin 2θ
4

7. Show that tan−1 2 + 2 tan−1 3 = π + cot−1 2.

Solution
Let A = tan−1 2 and B = tan−1 3, where A and B are acute. Thus, tan A = 2 and tan B = 3.
Since tan A > 1 ⇒ 45o ≤ A ≤ 90o . Also, tan B > 1 ⇒ 45o ≤ B ≤ 90o ⇒ 90o ≤
2B ≤ 180o . Hence, 2B is obtuse. Now,
tan B + tan B 3+3 3
tan 2B = tan(B + B) = = =−
1 − tan B tan B 1 − (3)(3) 4
Therefore,
3
tan A + tan 2B 2− 1
tan(A + 2B) = = 4 ) =
3
(
1 − tan A tan 2B 2
1−2 −
4
Since tan(A+2B) is positive, A is acute and 2B is obtuse, then A+2B must be a reflex angle (in
1
the 3rd quadrant) i.e., 180o ≤ A + 2B ≤ 270o . From tan(A + 2B) = ⇒ cot(A + 2B) = 2,
2
the principal value is given by α = cot−1 2. Therefore, A + 2B = π + α. Substituting yields
tan−1 2 + 2 tan−1 3 = π + cot−1 2 as required.

Exercise:

1. Find all the values of θ, between 0o and 360o , which satisfy the following equations.

(a) cos 2θ + cos θ + 1 = 0. [ans: θ = 90o , 120o , 240o , 270o ]

(b) sin 2θ cos θ + sin2 θ = 1. [ans: θ = 30o , 90o , 150o , 270o ]
(c) 4 tan θ tan 2θ = 1. [ans: θ = 18.4o , 161.6o ]
(d) 3 cot 2θ + cot θ = 1. [ans: θ = 45o , 59.03o , 120.97o , 135o ]
(e) sin θ = 6 sin 2θ. [ans: θ = 85.2o , 274.8o ]
(f) 12 cos2 θ + sin θ = 11. [ans: θ = 19.5o , 160.5o , 194.5o , 345.5o ]
(g) cos 2θ = sin θ. [ans: θ = 30o , 150o , 270o ]

2. (a) Find the angles between 0o and 360o satisfying the equation cos 3x − 3 cos x = cos 2x + 1.
[ans: x = 90o , 180o , 270o ]
(b) Show that the equation 6 sin2 x − 3 sin x cos x + cos2 x = 2 can be written in the form
5 cos 2x + 3 sin 2x = 3. Hence, or otherwise, find values of x between 0o and 360o which
satisfy the equation. [hint: 5 cos 2x + 3 sin 2x = R cos(2x − α), ans:
o o o o
x = 45 , 165.96 , 255 , 345.96 ]

3. Find the general solution of the equations

(a) 12 sec2 θ − 13 tan θ − 9 = 0 [ans: θ = 18.4 + nπ, 36.9 + nπ, where n ∈ Z]

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π
(b) cos 2θ − 3 cos θ + 2 = 0 [ans: θ = ± + 2nπ, 2nπ, where n ∈ Z]
3
4. Prove the following identities
cot θ − tan θ
(a) = cos 2θ
cot θ + tan θ
(b) (2 cos θ + 1)(2 cos θ − 1)(2 cos 2θ − 1) = 2 cos 4θ + 1
(c) cos 2θ sec θ − 2 sin 3θcosec3θ + 2 cos θ = 0
(d) (2 cos 2θ − 1) tan 3θ = (2 cos 2θ + 1) tan θ
1
5. By writing x = 2 cos θ, verify that the equation x3 − 3x − 1 = 0 reduces to cos 3θ = and hence
2
find the three roots of the equation in x correct to 2d.p. [ans: x = −0.35, −1.53, 1.88,]
π
6. Find the solution of the equations sin(x + y) = 2 sin(x − y) and 2x + y = , for which x and y
2
are positive acute angles. [ans: x = 0.6591, y = 0.2527]
3
7. (a) If sin 3θ = p and sin2 θ = − q, prove that p2 + 16q 3 = 12q 2 .
4
1−x 2 tan( 2θ )
(b) If sec θ − tan θ = x, prove that tan( 2θ ) = . [hint: tan θ = and let
1+x 1 − tan2 ( 2θ )
t = tan( 2θ )]
(c) If t = tan( x2 ), find the values of t which satisfy the equation (a + 2) sin x + (2a − 1) cos x =
2a + 1, where a is √ a non-zero constant. Hence, find two acute angles which satisfy the
equation when a = 3. [ans: t = 21 , t = a1 , x = 53.13o , x = 60o ]
1 1
(d) If A and B are acute angles such that tan A = and tan B = , show without the use
o
5 239
of tables or a calculator that 4A − B = 45 .
π
8. (a) Show that 2 tan−1 ( 21 ) − tan−1 ( 17 ) = .
4
π √
(b) Solve the equation cos−1 ( √x3 ) + 2 sin−1 x = . [ans: x = 0, x = ± 11 12 ]
2

1.9 The Factor formulae

The factor formulae express the sum (or difference) of two sines (or cosines) as the product of sines
and cosines. Consider the addition formulae for sine:

sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

Solving the equations simultaneously, we get

sin(A + B) + sin(A − B) = 2 sin A cos B (i)

sin(A + B) − sin(A − B) = 2 cos A sin B (ii)

Similarly, consider the addition formulae for cosine:

cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

Solving the equations simultaneously, we get

cos(A + B) + cos(A − B) = 2 cos A cos B (iii)

cos(A + B) − cos(A − B) = −2 sin A sin B (iv)

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1
Putting A + B = C and A − B = D, it follows by addition and subtraction that A = (C + D) and
2
1
B = (C − D). Making these substitutions into equations (i) to (iv), we get the factor formulae as:
2

1 1
sin C + sin D = 2 sin .(C + D) cos (C − D) (16)
2 2
1 1
sin C − sin D = 2 cos .(C + D) sin (C − D) (17)
2 2
1 1
cos C + cos D = 2 cos .(C + D) cos (C − D) (18)
2 2
1 1
cos C − cos D = −2 sin . (C + D) sin (C − D) (19)
2 2

Example(s):

1. Show that cos θ + cos 3θ + cos 5θ + cos 7θ = 4 cos θ cos 2θ cos 4θ.

Solution
Using the factor formula for cos C + cos D, we have
1 1
cos θ + cos 3θ = 2 cos (θ + 3θ) cos (θ − 3θ) = 2 cos 2θ cos(−θ)
2 2
= 2 cos 2θ cos θ, [since cos(−θ) = + cos θ]
1 1
cos 5θ + cos 7θ = 2 cos (5θ + 7θ) cos (5θ − 7θ) = 2 cos 6θ cos(−θ)
2 2
= 2 cos 6θ cos θ

Therefore,

cos θ + cos 3θ + cos 5θ + cos 7θ = 2 cos 2θ cos θ + 2 cos 6θ cos θ = 2 cos θ (cos 2θ + cos 6θ)
1 1
[ ]
= 2 cos θ 2 cos (2θ + 6θ) cos (2θ − 6θ)
2 2
= 2 cos θ [2 cos 4θ cos(−2θ)]
= 4 cos θ cos 2θ cos 4θ

2. Find the values of y between 0o and 360o such that, for all values of x, sin(x + y) + sin(x − y) =
sin x.

Solution
Using the factor formula for sin C + sin D, we have
1 1
sin(x + y) + sin(x − y) = 2 sin (x + y + x − y) cos (x + y − x + y) = 2 sin x cos y
2 2
Therefore, 2 sin x cos y = sin x. If this is to be true for all values of x, then 2 cos y = 1 leading to
1
cos y = . Using a unit circle, we get y = 60o , 300o .
2
3. Prove that.

(a) cos 20o + cos 100o + cos 140o = 0

(b) sin 85o − cos 55o = sin 25o

Solution

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(a)
1 1
cos 20o + cos 100o = 2 cos (20o + 100o ) cos (20o − 100o ) = 2 cos(60o ) cos(40o )
( )2 2
1
= 2 cos(40 ) = cos(40o )
o
2
cos 20o + cos 100o + cos 140o = cos(40o ) + cos(140o ) = 2 cos(90o ) cos(50o )
= 0

(b)
1 1
sin 85o − cos 55o = sin 85o − sin 35o = 2 cos (85o + 35o ) sin (85o − 35o )
(2 ) 2
o o 1 o
= 2 cos(60 ) sin(25 ) = 2 sin(25 )
2
= sin 25o

4. If A, B and C are the angles of a triangle, show that sin A+sin B+sin C = 4 cos 21 A cos 12 B cos 12 C.

Solution
Given A + B + C = 180o and using the factor formula for sin C + sin D, we have
1 1 1 1
sin A + sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A − B) = 2 sin (1800 − C) cos (A − B)
2 2 2 2
C A B C C A B
[ ]
= 2 sin(900 − ) cos( − ) = 2 sin(900 ) cos( ) − cos(900 ) sin( ) cos( − )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
C A B
= 2 cos( ) cos( − )
2 2 2
Also, sin C = 2 sin( C2 ) cos( C2 ) and sin( C2 ) = cos(90o − C
2 ). Therefore,

C A B C C
sin A + sin B + sin C = 2 cos( ) cos( − ) + 2 sin( ) cos( )
2 [ 2 2 2 2]
C A B C
= 2 cos( ) cos( − ) + cos(90o − )
2 2 2 2
C 1 A B C 1 A B C
[ ]
o o
= 2 cos( ) 2 cos ( − − + 90 ) cos ( − + − 90 )
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
C A−B−C A − B + C
[ ]
o o
= 2 cos( ) 2 cos( + 45 ) cos( − 45 )
2 4 4
C A + A − 180o 180o − B − B
= 4 cos( ) cos( + 45o ) cos( − 45o )
2 4 4
C A B
= 4 cos( ) cos( ) cos( )
2 2 2
(20)

Exercise:

1. Show that

(a) sin θ (cos 2θ + cos 4θ + cos 6θ) = sin 3θ cos 4θ.

(b) sin2 (A + B) − sin2 (A − B) = sin 2A sin 2B.
(c) sin θ sin 3θ + sin 2θ sin 6θ + sin 3θ sin 9θ = 2 sin 3θ sin 7θ cos 2θ.

2. Find the values of x between 0o and 180o which satisfy the equation cos x = cos 2x + cos 4x.[ans:
x = 20o , 90o ]

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⃝Francis Oketch

Lecture 4

1.10 Solution of triangles

Consider the triangle ABC below.

A The sides of the triangle ABC are usually labeled with small
A letters a, b, c so that a is opposite to vertex A, b is opposite
c b to vertex B and c is opposite to vertex C. The angles of the
triangle are labeled by capital letters corresponding to each
B C vertex. From property of triangle, the sum of the interior
B. C . = 180o .
a angles in a triangle is 180o . Thus, A + B + C

1.10.1 The sine rule/formula

A h
sin B = ⇒ h = c sin B − − − (i)
c
c b h
h sin C = ⇒ h = b sin C − − − (ii)
b
Equating (i) and (ii), we get c sin B = b sin C
y
B. C c b
a Dividing through by sin B sin C yields = − − − (∗)
sin C sin B
y y
Similarly, sin A = ⇒ y = c sin A−−−(iii) and sin C = ⇒ y = a sin C−−−(iv). Equating
c a
c a
(iii) and (iv), we get c sin A = a sin C. Dividing through by sin A sin C yields = −−−(∗∗).
sin C sin A
From equations (∗) and (∗∗), we have.

a b. c
= = (21)
sin A sin B sin C
Equation (21) is called the sine formula for the triangle ABC. The formula is applicable when two
angles are given and only one side is known. Suppose the triangle ABC is inscribed in a circle of
radius R, as shown below.
A
A D The line BD is the diameter of the circle. From properties of
c A a circle, angles subtended by an arc on the circumference are
2R.
equal. So, ⟨BDC = ⟨BAC = A. Also, angle subtended by
the diameter on the circumference is 900 . So, ⟨BCD = 90o .
B
a C

a a
From triangle BCD, we have sin A = ⇒ = 2R. Similarly, it is easy to show that
2R sin A
(b/ sin B) = 2R and (c/ sin C) = 2R. Therefore, the sine formula for triangle ABC inscribed in a circle
of radius R is given as

a b . c
= = = 2R (22)
sin A sin B sin C

1.10.2 The cosine rule/formula

A From triangle ACD, we have

x
c b cos C = ⇒ x = b cos C − − − (i)
h b
h
B. C sin C = ⇒ h = b sin C − − − (ii)
b
(a − x) D x

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⃝Francis Oketch

Using Pythagoras theorem, triangle ABD yields (a − x)2 + h2 = c2 . Expanding yields

a2 − 2ax + x2 + h2 = c2 − − − (iii)

Substituting equations (i) and (ii) into equation (iii) and simplifying, we get
( )
a2 − 2ab cos C + b2 cos2 C + sin2 C = c2 − − − (iv)

But cos2 C + sin2 C = 1, therefore equation (iv) reduces to the simpler form

c2 = a2 + b2.− 2ab cos C (23)

Similarly, it is easy to show that

a2 = b2 + c2. − 2bc cos A (24)

and

b2 = a2 + c2.− 2ac cos B (25)

Equations (23), (24), and (25) are the cosine formula for the triangle ABC. The formula is applicable
when only one included angle and two sides are given.

1.10.3 Area of a triangle

Consider the triangle ABC below
A From the triangle, we have

c b h
h sin C = ⇒ h = b sin C
b
1 1 1
B. a C Area of ∆ABC = × base × height = ah = ab sin C.
2 2 2
1 1
Similarly, it is easy to show that Area of ∆ABC = bc sin A or ac sin B. Therefore,
2 2
1 1 1
Area = ab sin C = . bc sin A = ac sin B
2 2 2
Alternatively, the area of triangle ABC is given by the Heron’s formula, which gives the area of a
triangle in terms of the lengths of its sides as:
√
Area = s(s −.a)(s − b)(s − c) ,

1
where s is the semi-perimeter of the triangle ABC, i.e., s = (a + b + c).
2
Proof. Substituting cos A = 1 − 2 sin2 (A/2) in the cosine formula a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A, we get
[ ]
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc 1 − 2 sin2 (A/2) ⇒ a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc + 4bc sin2 (A/2)

Rearranging yields
a2 − b2 − c2 + 2bc a2 − (b2 − 2bc + c2 ) a2 − (b − c)2
sin2 (A/2) = = =
4bc 4bc 4bc
[a − (b − c)][a + (b − c)] (a − b + c)(a + b − c)
= =
4bc 4bc
(a + b + c − 2b)(a + b + c − 2c) (2s − 2b)(2s − 2c)
= =
4bc 4bc
(s − b)(s − c)
=
bc

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⃝Francis Oketch

Therefore,
√
A .(s − b)(s − c)
( )
sin =
2 bc

Substituting cos A = 2 cos2 (A/2) − 1 in the cosine formula a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A, we get
[ ]
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc 2 cos2 (A/2) − 1 ⇒ a2 = b2 + c2 − 4bc cos2 (A/2) + 2bc

Rearranging yields
b2 + c2 − a2 + 2bc (b2 + 2bc + c2 ) − a2 (b + c)2 − a2
cos2 (A/2) = = =
4bc 4bc 4bc
[(b + c) − a][(b + c) + a] (b + c − a)(b + c + a)
= =
4bc 4bc
(a + b + c − 2a)(a + b + c) (2s − 2a)(2s)
= =
4bc 4bc
s(s − a)
=
bc
Therefore,
√
A s(s − a)
( )
cos =.
2 bc
The area of a triangle is given by
1 1
Area = bc sin A = bc [2 sin(A/2) cos(A/2)] = bc sin(A/2) cos(A/2)
2√ 2 √ √
(s − b)(s − c) s(s − a) s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
= bc = bc
bc bc b2 c2
√
= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

√
Proof. Alternatively, substituting cos A = 1 − sin2 A into the cosine formula a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A
yields
√ √ b2 + c2 − a2
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc 1 − sin2 A ⇒ 1 − sin2 A =
2bc
Squaring both sides and rearranging yields
( )( )
2 (b2 + c2 − a2 )2 b2 + c2 − a2 b2 + c2 − a2
sin A = 1 − = 1− 1+
4b2 c2 2bc 2bc
( )( ) ( )( )
2bc − b2 − c2 + a2 2bc + b2 + c2 − a2 a2 − (b2 − 2bc + c2 ) (b2 + 2bc + c2 ) − a2
= =
2bc 2bc 2bc 2bc
( )( )
a2 − (b − c)2 (b + c)2 − a2 [a − (b − c)][a + (b − c)] [(b + c) − a][(b + c) + a]
( )( )
= =
2bc 2bc 2bc 2bc
(a − b + c)(a + b − c) (b + c − a)(b + c + a)
( )( )
=
2bc 2bc
(a + b + c − 2b)(a + b + c − 2c) (a + b + c − 2a)(a + b + c)
( )( )
=
2bc 2bc
(2s − 2b)(2s − 2c) (2s − 2a)(2s) 2(s − b)(s − c) 2s(s − a)
( )( ) ( )( )
= =
2bc 2bc bc bc
4s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
=
b2 c2
Therefore,
2√
sin A = s(s −. a)(s − b)(s − c)
bc

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1.10 Solution of triangles c

⃝Francis Oketch

The area of a triangle is given by

1 1 2√
( )
Area = bc sin A = bc s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)
2 2 bc
√
= s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c)

Example(s):

1. Given a triangle with sides AB=3cm, AC=2.5cm and ⟨BAC = 49o .

(a) Find the length of side BC.

(b) Find the radius of a circle which passes through the vertices of the triangle ABC.
(c) Find the area of the triangle using the Heron’s formula.

Solution

A
(a) Using the cosine formula, we have
49o

. a2 = (2.5)2 + (3)2 − 2(2.5)(3) cos(49o ) = 5.4091

m

2.5c
3c

√
m

B Therefore, a = 5.4091 = 2.3258 cm.

a C

(b) Using the sine formula, we have

a 2.3258cm 2.3258cm
= 2R ⇒ = 2R ⇒ R= = 1.5409 cm
sin A sin(49o ) 2 sin(49o )

1 1
(c) The semi-perimeter is given as s = (a + b + c) = (2.3258 + 2.5 + 3) = 3.9129 cm.
2 2
Therefore, the area of the triangle ABC is
√ √
Area = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) = 3.9129(1.5871)(1.4129)(0.9129) = 2.8302 cm2

2. Find all the angles of the triangle in which a = 10.4m, b = 12.8m and c = 17.6m.

Solution

A
Using the cosine formula, we have

(10.4)2 = (12.8)2 + (17.6)2 − 2(12.8)(17.6) cos A

.
m

12.8
.6c

(12.8)2 + (17.6)2 − (10.4)2

17

Therefore, cos A = = 0.8111 cm.

m

B 2(12.8)(17.6)
10.4m C

Thus, A = cos−1 (0.8111) = 35.8o . Using the sine formula, we have

b a b sin A (12.8) sin(35.8o )

= ⇒ sin B = = = 0.7199
sin B sin A a 10.4
Thus, B = sin−1 (0.7199) = 46.05o and C = 1800 − (A + B) = 180o − (35.8o + 46.05o ) = 98.15o .

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1.10 Solution of triangles c

⃝Francis Oketch

3. A ship P is 15.7km from a habour H on a bearing of 048o (N048o E) and a ship Q is 24.3km from
H on a bearing of 112o (S068o E). Calculate the distance PQ and the bearing of P from Q.

Solution

N i) Using the cosine formula, we have

R
P
2
15
.7 P Q = (15.7)2 +(24.3)2 −2(15.7)(24.3) cos(64o ) = 502.4940
48o √
Therefore, P Q = 502.4940 = 22.4164 km.
H . 64o
68o
ii) Using the sine formula, we have
24.3
Q 22.4164 15.7 (15.7) sin(64o )
o
= ⇒ sin Q = = 0.6295
S sin(64 ) sin Q 22.4164

Therefore, ⟨P QH = sin−1 (0.6295) = 39.01o . From the diagram, ⟨HQR = 68o . Thus,

⟨RQP = 68o − 39.01o = 28.99o

Thus, the bearing of P from Q is the reflex angle RQP, i.e., (360o − 28.99o ) = 331.01o (or
N28.99o W).

4. A commercial fishing boat uses sonar equipment to detect a school of fish 2 miles east of the
boat and the school of fish is traveling in the direction of N51o W at a rate of 8 miles per hour.

(a) If the boat travels at 20 miles per hour, approximate, to the nearest 0.1o , the direction it
should head to intercept the school of fish. [ans: N75.4o E]
(b) Find, to the nearest minute, the time it will take the boat to reach the fish. [ans: 4.6912
min ≈ 5 minutes]

Solution

(a) Initially, the the school of fish is at Q while the boat is at

B. Let t denote the amount of time required for the boat
N N and fish to meet at P. Thus, the time taken by the boat
P q
to reach point P is t = hours. The time taken by the
20
q b
school of fish to reach point P is t = hours. Since P is
b 8
the point of intersection, we require that
B. B
51o
2m
iles
39o q b
Q = ⇒ q = 2.5b
20 8
S S Using the sine formula, we have

q b b sin(39o ) b sin(39o )
o
= ⇒ sin B = = = 0.2517
sin(39 ) sin B q 2.5b

Therefore, B = sin−1 (0.2517) = 14.6o . So ⟨P BN = 90o − 14.6o = 75.4o . Hence, the boat
should travel in the (approximate) direction N75.4o E.
(b) ⟨BP Q = 180o − (14.6o + 39o ) = 126.4o . Using the sine formula, we have

q 2 2 sin(39o )
= ⇒ q= = 1.5637 miles
sin(39o ) sin(126.4o ) sin(126.4o )

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1.10 Solution of triangles c

⃝Francis Oketch

q 1.5637
Thus, the time taken by the boat to reach point P is t = = = 0.0782 hours (or
20 20
4.6912 minutes). Hence, the time it will take the boat to reach the fish is approximately 5
minutes.
sin(A − B) a2 − b2
5. In a triangle ABC, show with the usual notation that = .
sin C c2

Solution
Using the addition formula for sine, we have
sin(A − B) sin A cos B − cos A sin B sin A sin B
= = cos B − cos A
sin C sin C sin C sin C
a c sin A a a c
From the sine formula, we have = ⇒ = . Also, = ⇒
sin A sin C sin C c sin B sin C
sin B b
= . Therefore,
sin C c
sin(A − B) a b
= cos B − cos A
sin C c c
From the cosine formula, we have

b2 + c2 − a2
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos A ⇒ cos A =
2bc
a2 + c2 − b2
b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos B ⇒ cos B =
2ac
Therefore,
( ) ( )
sin(A − B) a a2 + c2 − b2 b b2 + c2 − a2 a2 + c2 − b2 b2 + c2 − a2
= − = −
sin C c 2ac c 2bc 2c2 2c2
a2 − b2
=
c2
a c √
6. In a triangle ABC, show with the usual notation that sin 2C + sin 2A = 3 given that the
c a
angles A, B, C form an arithmetic progression.

Solution
Using the addition formula for sine, we have

sin 2A = sin(A + A) = 2 sin A cos A and sin 2C = sin(C + C) = 2 sin C cos C

Therefore,
a c a c
sin 2C + sin 2A = (2 sin C cos C) + (2 sin A cos A)
c a c )a
sin C sin A
( ( )
= (2a cos C) + (2c cos A)
c a
sin B sin B
( ) ( )
= (2a cos C) + (2c cos A) (sine formula)
b b
sin B
= [2ab cos C + 2bc cos A]
b2
sin B [ 2 2 2 2 2 2
]
= (a + b − c ) + (b + c − a ) (cosine formula)
b2
= 2 sin B

Since A, B, and C are angles of a triangle, we have

A + B + C = 180o (∗)

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1.10 Solution of triangles c

⃝Francis Oketch

Given further that A, B, C form an arithmetic progression, we have B − A = C − B so that

A + C = 2B (∗∗)

Substituting equation (∗∗) into equation (∗) yields B = 60o . Therefore,

(√ )
a c 3 √
sin 2C + sin 2A = 2 sin 60o = 2 = 3
c a 2

Exercise:

1. Solve the triangle in which b = 7.00cm, c = 3.59cm and A = 47o . [ans: a = 5.255cm,
B = 103.03o , C = 150.03o ]

2. A point P on level ground is 3.0 kilometers due north of a point Q. A runner proceeds in the
direction N25o E from Q to a point R, and then from R to P in the direction S70o W. Approximate
the distance run. [ans: p + q = 4 + 1.8 = 5.8km]

3. When the angle of elevation of the sun is 64o , a telephone pole that is tilted at an angle of 9o
directly away from the sun casts a shadow 21 feet long on level ground. Approximate the length
of the pole. [ans: 33 feet]

4. A parallelogram has sides of lengths 30 centimeters and 70 centimeters and one angle of measure
65o . Approximate the length of each diagonal to the nearest centimeter. [ans: 63cm and 87cm]

5. Approximate the area of triangle ABC if a = 5.0cm, b = 3.0cm, and A = 37o . [ans: 6.4cm2 ]

6. A ship leaves port at 1:00 P.M. and travels S35o E at the rate of 24 miles per hour. Another ship
leaves the same port at 1:30 P.M. and travels S20o W at 18 miles per hour. Approximately how
far apart are the ships at 3:00 P.M.? [ans: 39.3229 miles]

7. A triangular plot of land has sides of lengths 420 feet, 350 feet, and 180 feet. Approximate the
smallest angle between the sides. [ans:]

8. Two points P and Q on level ground are on opposite sides of a building. To find the distance
between the points, a surveyor chooses a point R that is 300 feet from P and 438 feet from Q
and then determines that angle PRQ has measure 37.4o . Approximate the distance between P
and Q. [ans:]

9. In a triangle ABC, show that c(a2 − c2 ) sin(A − B) = b(a2 − b2 ) sin(A − C).

1
10. If the sides a, b and c of a triangle are in arithmetic progression, show that cos (A − C) =
2
1
2 cos (A + C). D is a point on side BC of a triangle ABC such that 2BD = 3DC and the angle
2
a2 + 5(b2 − c2 )
ADB = 60o . Prove that AD = . If further, the angle ABD = 60o and θ denotes
√ 5a
3
the angle DAC, prove that tan θ = .
4

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c
⃝Francis Oketch

Lecture 5

2 The Straight Line

A straight line is the locus of all points P(x,y) such that the angle between AP and the x-axis is a
constant say θ.

2.1 Distance between two points

Let A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) be any two points on the Cartesian plane, as shown below. Denote the
distance between points A and B by dAB .

Since AQ = x2 − x1 , QB = y2 − y1 and
angle AQB a right triangle, then by Pythagoras
theorem, the distance between points A and B
is given by
√
dAB = (x2 − x.1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2

Example(s):

1. Find the distance between the points A(7,9) and B(-4,5).

Solution
Since x1 = 7, y1 = 9, x2 = −4 and y2 = 5, the distance between the points is
√ √
dAB = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 = (−11)2 + (−4)2 = 11.705

Exercise:

1. Given that the point A(x, −3) is 5 units distant from another point B(-1,0). Find the value of
x.

2.2 The Slope and inclination of a line

Consider the two points A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) on line l in the figure below.

 The inclination of line l is the positive angle

θ (measured anticlockwise) the line makes with
the x-axis.

 The slope of line l is the ratio of change in y

to the change in x as point R(x, y) moves from
point A to B. Thus, the slope denoted by m is

∆y . y2 − y1
m= =
∆x x2 − x1

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2.3 Equation of straight line c

⃝Francis Oketch

→ Note: the slope and inclination of line l are related by the formula

tan θ .= m ,

for 0o ≤ θ ≤ 180o . Thus if the line is vertical, the slope is undefined since division by zero is not
possible.

Example(s):

1. Find the slope and inclination of the line passing through points A(2,-7) and B(-9,26).

Solution
∆y 26 − −7 33
m= = = = −3
∆x −9 − 2 −11
θ = tan−1 (−3) = 108.43o

2. Find the value of a so that the slope m of the line through the two points A(2a, 4) and B(−7, 9a)
is m = 3.

Solution
∆y 9a − 4 17
m= ⇒ 3= ⇒ a=−
∆x −7 − 2a 15

Exercise:

1. Find the value of a so that the slope m of the line through the two points is as given.

(a) A(3 + 2a, 5a), B(1, 2a − 1) and m = −3.

(b) A(3a, 2), B(2, 9) and m = 9.

2.3 Equation of straight line

Let A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) be two points on line l such that the slope of the line is m. Let P (x, y)
be any other point on the line. Then, the equation of the line is given by
y − y1
=m
x − x1
This implies that
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
or
y = mx + c
where c = y1 − mx1 is the y-intercept.

→ Note:

 x-intercept of a line is the x coordinate where the line intersects the x-axis. At this point, the
y coordinate is zero. To get the x-intercept, substitute y = 0 into the equation of the line and
solve for x.

 y-intercept of a line is the y coordinate where the line intersects the y-axis. At this point, the
x coordinate is zero. To get the y-intercept, substitute x = 0 into the equation of the line and
solve for y.

Example(s):

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2.4 Angle between two lines c

⃝Francis Oketch

1. Find the equation of the line through points A(7,3) and B(11,9).

Solution
∆y 9−3 6 3
Slope: m = = = =
∆x 11 − 7 4 2
y−3 3 3 15
Equation: = ⇒ y = x−
x−7 2 2 2
2. Find the x and the y intercepts of the line through points A(-3,-28) and B(7,52).

Solution
∆y 52 + 28 80
Slope: m =
= = =8
∆x 7+3 10
y + 28
Equation: = 8 ⇒ y = 8x − 4
x+3
1
Thus, the x-intercept is given by 0 = 8x − 4 ⇒ x = . Similarly, the y-intercept is given by
2
y = 8(0) − 4 ⇒ y = −4.

Exercise:
1. Find the equation of the line passing through the points A(-6,7) and B(-11,-8).
2. Find the equation of a line whose x-intercept is 2 and y-intercept is -3.

2.4 Angle between two lines

Consider two lines l1 and l2 whose inclinations are θ1 and θ2 , as shown below. Their slopes are
respectively m1 = tan θ1 and m2 = tan θ2 .
The angle between the lines is θ2 −θ1
and from compound angle formula,
we have

tan θ2 −
. tan θ1 = m2 − m1
tan(θ2 − θ1 ) =
1 + tan θ2 tan θ1 1 + m2 m1

Example(s):
1. Find the angle between the lines y = 2x + 5 and y = 12x − 1.

Solution
The slopes of the respective lines are m1 = 2 and m2 = 12. Therefore,
m2 − m1 12 − 2 10 2
tan(θ2 − θ1 ) = = = =
1 + m2 m1 1 + (12)(2) 25 5
The angle is therefore tan−1 (2/5) = 21.8o .

Exercise:
1. Find the angle between the lines y − 2x = 2 and y + x = 4.
2. Find the angle between the lines, which pass through the respective, given points.
(a) l1 : (2,8) and (7,3); l2 : (3,6) and (-6,0)
(b) l1 : (-3,2) and (-1,7); l2 : (7,3) and (2,5)
(c) l1 : (4,4) and (6,9); l2 : (-5,7) and (-3,12)
(d) l1 : (9,8) and (-1,2); l2 : (2,4) and (7,3)

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2.5 Perpendicular and parallel lines c

⃝Francis Oketch

2.5 Perpendicular and parallel lines

Two lines are said to be perpendicular if the angle between them is 90o . If the slope of a given line is
m1 , then the slope of any line perpendicular to the given line is

−1
m2 =.
m1

Proof. Let m1 and θ1 be the slope and inclination of the given line and m2 and θ2 be the slope and
inclination of any line perpendicular to the given line, respectively. Then, θ2 − θ1 = 90o and
m2 − m1 sin 90o m2 − m1 1 m2 − m1
tan 90o = ⇒ o
= ⇒ =
1 + m2 m1 cos 90 1 + m2 m1 0 1 + m2 m1
Cross multiplying and rearranging yields m1 m2 = −1.

→ Note: two lines are said to be parallel if m1 = m2 .

Example(s):
1. Find the equation of the line perpendicular to the line y = 5x − 9 and passes through point
(1,14).

Solution
Since m1 = 5, the slope of the line perpendicular to the given line is
−1 1
m2 = =−
m1 5
Let P (x, y) be any other point on the line. Then, the equation of the perpendicular line is given
by
y − 14 1 1 71
=− ⇒ y =− x+
x−1 5 5 5

Exercise:
1. Given the point A (3,-2) and B (2,4). Find the equation of the perpendicular bisector of the
segment AB.

2.6 Distance from a point to a line

The shortest distance from a point to a line is the length of the line segment perpendicular to the line,
from the point to the line. In general, the perpendicular distance from the point P (x1 , y1 ) to the line
Ax + By + C = 0 is given by
Ax1 +. By1 + C
d= √
A2 + B 2

A C
Proof. Expressing the equation of the line Ax+By +C = 0 in the standard form yields y = − x− .
B B
A
Therefore, m1 = − . Thus, the line through point P (x1 , y1 ) and is perpendicular to the given line
B
B B B
has the slope m2 = and equation y = x + y1 − x1 . The points of intersection of the two lines
A A A
is obtained by solving the two equations simultaneously to get

A C B B B 2 x1 − ABy1 − AC
− x− = x + y1 − x1 ⇒ x=
B B A A A2 + B 2
Thus, the value of y at the point of intersection is

ABx1 − A2 y1 + BC
y=−
A2 + B 2

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2.6 Distance from a point to a line c

⃝Francis Oketch

The distance from point P (x1 , y1 ) to the point of intersection (x, y) is given by

d2 = (x − x1 )2 + (y − y1 )2
( )2 ( )2
A2 x1 + ABy1 + AC ABx1 + B 2 y1 + BC
= − + −
A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2
Ax1 + By1 + C 2
)2
Ax1 + By1 + C
( ) (
2
= A + B2
A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2
2 (
(Ax1 + By1 + C) )
= A2 + B 2
(A2 + B 2 )2
(Ax1 + By1 + C)2
=
A2 + B 2
Ax1 + By1 + C
Taking square root on both sides yields d = √ .
A2 + B 2

Example(s):

1. Find the distance from point P(-2,-3) to the line 8x + 15y − 24 = 0 and state the position of the
point in relation to the line and the origin.

Solution
Since A = 8, B = 15, C = −24, x1 = −2 and y1 = −3, the distance is

Ax1 + By1 + C 8(−2) + 15(−3) − 24

d= √ = √ = −5
A2 + B 2 82 + 152
Thus, the distance is 5 units and the negative sign implies the point P(-2,-3) and the origin lie
on the same side of the given line.

2. Let P be a point which is equidistant from the lines 4y = 2x − 3 and y − 3x − 4 = 0. Determine

the locus of P.

Solution
Let P (x, y) be a general point on the required line, l1 : 2x − 4y − 3 = 0 and l2 : −3x + y − 4 = 0.
We need to find the equation of the line which is equidistant from the two given lines. The
distance from P to l1 must be equal to the distance from P to l2 , i.e.,
A1 x + B1 y + C1 A2 x + B2 y + C2
√ = √
A21 + B12 A22 + B22

Since A1 = 2, B1 = −4, C1 = −3, A2 = −3, B2 = 1 and C2 = −4, we have

2x − 4y − 3 −3x + y − 4 √
√ = √ ⇒ 2x − 4y − 3 = 2 (−3x + y − 4)
20 10
√ √ √
Rearranging yields (2 + 3 2)x − (4 + 2)y − (3 − 4 2) = 0.

Exercise:

1. Find the shortest distance from the given point to the given line and state the position of the
point in relation to the line and origin.

(a) P(2,3); y = 8 + 4x
(b) P(-3,6); 5x − 2y − 2 = 0
(c) P(1,-7); x − y + 7 = 8

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(d) P(10,-11); −3x + 5y − 9 = 0

(e) P(-1,5); 7x + 6y − 30 = 0
(f) P(-3,7) y = 2x + 3

2. Let P be a point which is equidistant from the lines 3x−7y +22 = 0 and y +x−3 = 0. Determine
the locus of P.

CAT 1

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c
⃝Francis Oketch

Lecture 6

3 Conic sections
A conic section, also called conic, is obtained by intersecting a double-napped right circular cone with
a plane. By varying the position of the plane, we obtain a circle, a parabola, an ellipse, or a hyperbola.
A conic section takes the general form

Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 +. Dx + Ey + F = 0 ,

where A, B, C, D, E and F are constants. In particular, if A = C ̸= 0 and B = 0, we obtain a circle.

3.1 The Circle

A circle is the locus of a point which moves such that its distance from a fixed point is constant. The
fixed point is called the center of the circle The distance from the point is called the radius.

3.1.1 Equation of a circle

Consider a circle with center C(h, k) and radius r, as shown below.

Let P (x, y) be a general point on the circle.

From the definition of the √ circle, the radius
is given by r = CP = (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 .
Squaring both sides yields the general equation
of the circle, in standard form, as

(x − h)2 + (y. − k)2 = r2

In particular, the equation of a circle with center at the origin and radius r is x2 + y 2 = r2 .

→ Note: if the equation of a circle is given in the form x2 + y 2 + Ax + By + C = 0, then the center
and the radius can be obtained by completing the squares.

Example(s):
1. Find the equation of the circle with center C(1,-2) and radius r = 7 units.

Solution
The standard equation has the form (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 . Since h = 1, k = −2 and r = 7,
the equation becomes (x − 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 49.

2. Find the center and radius of the circle defined by x2 + y 2 − 4x + 10y − 2 = 0.

Solution
Completing the squares, we get

(x2 − 4x + p) + (y 2 + 10y + q) = 2 + p + q
)2 )2
−4 10
( (
where p = = 4 and q = = 25. Thus, the equation becomes
2 2

(x − 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 31
√
Hence the center is C(2,-5) and the radius is 31.

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3. Find the equation of the circle passing through the three points (4,7), (5,6) and (1,8).

Solution
Let the center of the circle be C(h, k), radius be r and (x, y) be a general point on the circle.
The standard equation has the form (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 . Since the given points lie on the
circle, they must satisfy the equation of the circle.

 Using point (4,7), we have x = 4, y = 7. Therefore, the equation becomes

(4 − h)2 + (7 − k)2 = r2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 8h − 14k + 65 = r2 (i)

 Using point (5,6), we have x = 5, y = 6. Therefore, the equation becomes

(5 − h)2 + (6 − k)2 = r2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 10h − 12k + 61 = r2 (ii)

 Using point (1,8), we have x = 1, y = 8. Therefore, the equation becomes

(1 − h)2 + (8 − k)2 = r2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 2h − 16k + 65 = r2 (iii)

Eliminating r2 between equation (i) and (ii), we get 2h − 2k + 4 = 0 (∗).

2
Eliminating r between equation (i) and (iii), we get −6h + 2k = 0 (∗∗).
Eliminating k between equation (∗) and (∗∗), we get −4h + 4 = 0. Therefore,

h = 1, k = 3 and r2 = (4 − h)2 + (7 − k)2 = 25

Hence, the equation is (x − 1)2 + (y − 3)2 = 25.

4. A circle passes through points (2,3) and (4,5) and its center is on the line 2x + 3y = 5. Find the
equation of the circle.

Solution
Let the center of the circle be C(h, k), radius be r and (x, y) be a general point on the circle.
The standard equation has the form (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 . Since the given points lie on the
circle, they must satisfy the equation of the circle.

 Using point (2,3), we have x = 2, y = 3. Therefore, the equation becomes

(2 − h)2 + (3 − k)2 = r2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 4h − 6k + 13 = r2 (i)

 Using point (4,5), we have x = 4, y = 5. Therefore, the equation becomes

(4 − h)2 + (5 − k)2 = r2 ⇒ h2 + k 2 − 8h − 10k + 41 = r2 (ii)

 Since the center C(h, k) lies on the line 2x + 3y = 5, we have x = h, y = k. Therefore,

2h + 3k = 5 (∗)

Eliminating r2 between equation (i) and (ii), we get 4h + 4k − 28 = 0 (∗∗).

Eliminating h between equation (∗) and (∗∗), we get 2k + 18 = 0. Therefore,

k = −9, h = 16 and r2 = (2 − h)2 + (3 − k)2 = 340

Hence, the equation is (x − 16)2 + (y + 9)2 = 340.

Exercise:

1. Find the equation of a circle with center C(3, −2) and passes through the point (-1,1). [ans:
(x − 3)2 + (y + 2)2 = 25]

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2. Find the center and radius of the circle defined by.

(a) x2 + y 2 + 12x − 6y − 7 = 0
(b) x2 + y 2 − 10x − 6y + 34 = 0
(c) 2x2 + 2y 2 + 7x + 6y + 12 = 0

3. Find the equation of the circle through the given points.

(a) (5,2), (2,1) and (1,6) [ans: x2 + y 2 − 5.5x − 7.5y + 13.5 = 0]

(b) (1,2), (3,-4) and (5,-6) [ans: (x − 11)2 + (y − 2)2 = 100]
(c) (2,3), (6,1) and (4,-3)
(d) (-1,2), (3,4) and (2,-1)
(e) (1,1), (2,-1) and (3,2)

4. Find the equation of the circle whose diameter is the line joining the points given.

(a) (2,2) and (7,9)

(b) (6,8) and (12,1)
(c) (-3,1) and (-1,-1)
(d) (8,4) and (2,9)
(e) (7,10) and (21,3)

3.1.2 Distance from a point to a circle

Consider point P1 (a1 , b1 ) outside the circle with center C(h, k) and radius r. Let B1 be a point on the
circle such that it lies on the line segment P1 C, as shown below.
The distance from P1 (a1 , b1 ) to the circle is P1 B1
which is obtained as
√
dP1 B1 = P1 C−B1 C = (a1 − h)2 + (b1 − k)2 −r

Consider another point P2 (a2 , b2 ) inside the

circle lying on the line segment CB2 . The
distance from P2 (a2 , b2 ) to the circle is P2 B2
which is obtained as
√
dP2 B2 = CB2 −CP2 = r− (a2 − h)2 + (b2 − k)2

In general, the distance d from point P (a, b) to a circle with center C(h, k) and radius r is
√
d= (a − h)2 .+ (b − k)2 − r

with d positive if P is outside the circle, negative if P is inside the circle, and zero if P is on the circle.

Example(s):

1. Find the distance from the point P(5,8) to the circle x2 + y 2 + 2x + 6y + 3 = 0 and state whether
the point is outside, inside or on the circle.

Solution
Standard form of the equation of the circle is obtained by completing the squares to get

(x + 1)2 + (y + 3)2 = 7

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√
Therefore, the circle has center C(-1,-3) and radius r = 7. Hence, the distance from point
P(5,8) to the circle is
√ √ √ √
d= (5 − −1)2 + (8 − −3)2 − 7= 157 − 7 = 9.88

Since d is positive, the given point is outside the circle.

Exercise:

1. Find the distance from the point to the circle and state whether the point lies outside, inside or
on the circle.

(a) P(8,7) to the circle x2 + y 2 + 12x − 5y + 3 = 0.

(b) P(4,-3) to the circle x2 + y 2 − 6x + 6y + 5 = 0.
(c) P(-7,6) to the circle 3x2 + 3y 2 + 6x − 5y − 1 = 0.
(d) P(1,1) to the circle 2x2 + 2y 2 − 1 = 0.
(e) P(-6,10) to the circle x2 + y 2 + 16x + 20y + 126 = 0.

3.1.3 Tangent, secant, chord and normal

 Secant - is a line through the circle intersecting with the circle at two points.

 Chord - is a line segment joining any two points on a circle. The chord through the center is
called a diameter of the circle.

 Tangent - is a line that has only a single point of contact P with a circle.

 Normal - is a line through P which is perpendicular to the tangent at P. The normal will always
pass through the center of the circle.

 Equation of the tangent

The equation of the tangent to a circle through a given point P (x1 , y1 ) can be obtained if the center
C(h, k) of the circle is known. The tangent will be perpendicular to the normal which passes through
the given point P on the circle.

Example(s):

1. Find the equation of the tangent to the circle with center C(2,5) at point P(6,3) on the circle.

Solution
The slope of the normal that passes through point P(6,3) is

∆y 5−3 2 1
m1 = = = =−
∆x 2−6 −4 2
Since tangent and normal are perpendicular, therefore, the slope of the tangent at P is
−1
m2 = =2
m1
Let R(x, y) be any other point on the tangent. Then, the equation of tangent at point P is
y−3
=2 ⇒ 2x − y = 9
x−6

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2. Find the equation of the tangent to the circle x2 + y 2 + 10x − 6y − 66 = 0 at the point(3,-3).

Solution
By completing the squares, the given circle has the standard form

(x + 5)2 + (y − 3)2 = 100

Thus, the center is C(-5,3). The slope of the normal that passes through point P(3,-3) is
∆y −3 − 3 −6 3
m1 = = = =−
∆x 3 − −5 8 4
Since tangent and normal are perpendicular, therefore, the slope of the tangent at P is
−1 4
m2 = =
m1 3
Let R(x, y) be any other point on the tangent. Then, the equation of tangent at point P is
y+3 4
= ⇒ 4x − 3y = 21
x−3 3

Exercise:
1. Find the tangent to the circle at the point P (7,12) if the circle has center C (4,8). [ans:
3x + 4y = 69]

2. The equation of a circle is given by x2 + y 2 = 10. Verify that y = 3x + 10 is the tangent to the
circle. [hint: solve simultaneously to show that point of contact is one, ans: point of contact is
(-3,1)]
 Tangent to a circle from a given point

Let point P1 (x1 , y1 ) be a point outside the circle with center C(h, k) and radius r. Let points
D1 (m1 , n1 ) and D2 (m2 , n2 ) be the points on the circle such that the lines through P1 D1 and P1 D2
are tangents to the circle. The problem is to determine the coordinates of points D1 and D2 .

→ Note: The chord through

D1 and D2 is called the chord
of contact of tangents from
the point P1 with respect to
the given circle.

Example(s):
1. Find the points on the circle x2 + y 2 + 12x + 4y + 15 = 0 through which the tangents from the
point P(1,-3) pass. Also find the equation of the chord of contact and the tangents.

Solution
By completing the squares, the given circle has the standard form

(x + 6)2 + (y + 2)2 = 25

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Thus, the center is C(-6,-2). Let D(m, n) be a point on the circle. The slope of the tangent
through P and D is
∆y −3 − n
m2 = =
∆x 1−m
The slope of the normal through C and D is
∆y −2 − n
m1 = =
∆x −6 − m
 Since the tangent and normal and perpendicular, we have m1 m2 = −1, i.e.,
−3 − n −2 − n
( )( )
= −1 ⇒ m2 + n2 + 5m + 5n = 0 (i)
1−m −6 − m

 Since point D(m, n) lies on the circle x2 + y 2 + 12x + 4y + 15 = 0, we have

m2 + n2 + 12m + 4n + 15 = 0 (ii)

Subtracting equation (i) from (ii) yields

7m − n + 15 = 0 (iii)

Eliminating n between equations (ii) and (iii), we get

m2 + (7m + 15)2 + 12m + 4(7m + 15) + 15 = 0 ⇒ m2 + 5m + 6 = 0

Solving for m yields m = −2 ⇒ n = 1 or m = −3 ⇒ n = −6. Therefore, the tangent

points are D1 (−2, 1) and D1 (−3, −6). The equation of the chord through the two tangent points
is 7x − y + 15 = 0. The equation of the two tangents are 3x − 4y − 15 = 0 and 4x + 3y + 5 = 0.

Exercise:
1. Find the equation of the tangents to the given circle from the given external point.

(a) x2 + y 2 − 25 = 0 and P(7,1) [ans: 3x + 4y − 25 = 0 and 4x − 3y − 25 = 0]

(b) x2 + y2 − 6x − 8y = 0 and P(2,11) [ans: 3x + 4y − 50 = 0 and 4x − 3y + 25 = 0]
(c) 3x2 + 3y 2 + 2x + 4y − 6 = 0 and P(5,-3)

2. Find the length of a tangent drawn from the indicated point to the point of contact with the
given circle.

(a) P(5,6); x2 + y 2 = 12. [ans: 7 units]

(b) P(2,8); x2 + y2 + 4x − 10y + 20 = 0.
(c) P(5,6); x2 + y2 − 6x + 10y + 14 = 0.

3.1.4 Intersection of two circles

Consider the two circles x2 + y 2 + A1 x + B1 y + C1 = 0 and x2 + y 2 + A2 x + B2 y + C2 = 0. At the
points of intersection both equations are satisfied and therefore

x2 + y 2 + A1 x + B1 y + C1 = x2 + y 2 + A2 x + B2 y + C2

Simplifying gives the equation of a line

Ax + By + C = 0,

where A = A1 − A2 , B = B1 − B2 and C = C1 − C2 are constants. The points of intersection lie on

this line. Making y the subject and substituting in any of the circle equations and solving will give
the coordinates of the points of intersection.

Example(s):

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1. Find the points of intersection of the circles x2 + y 2 + 5x + 5y = 0 and x2 + y 2 + 12x + 4y + 15 = 0.

Solution
Equating the two equations gives the linear equation 7x − y + 15 = 0. Making y the subject
yields y = 7x + 15. Substituting in the first equation we get the quadratic equation

x2 + (7x + 15)2 + 5x + 5 (7x + 15) = 0 ⇒ x2 + 5x + 6 = 0

Solving for x yields x = −2 ⇒ y = 1 or x = −3 ⇒ y = −6. Therefore, the two circles

intersect at points (-2,1) and (-3,-6).

3.1.5 Orthogonal circles

Consider two intersecting circles with centers C1 and C2 and radii r1 and r2 , respectively. The circles
are said to be orthogonal if their respective tangents at the points of intersection are perpendicular to
each other. From the diagram below,

Triangle C1 P C2 is right-angled since the two tangents

are perpendicular. Using Pythagoras theorem, we
have
C1 C2 =. r12 + r22
2

Hence, two circles are orthogonal if the square of the

distance between their centers is equal to the sum of
squares of their radii.

Example(s):

1. Show that the circles x2 + y 2 + 6x − 4y − 12 = 0 and x2 + y 2 − 20x − 4y − 40 = 0 are orthogonal.

Solution
The circles have the standard forms (x + 3)2 + (y − 2)2 = 25 and (x − 10) 2 2
√ + (y − 2) = 144,
respectively. Thus, the first circle has center
√ C1 (−3, 2) and radius r1 = 25 = 5. The second
circle has center C2 (10, 2) and radius r1 = 144 = 12. The distance between the centers is
√
d= (10 − −3)2 + (2 − 2)2 = 13

Also,
r12 + r22 = 52 + 122 = 169
Since d2 = r12 + r22 , the given circles are orthogonal.

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⃝Francis Oketch

Lecture 7

3.2 The Parabola

A parabola is the set of all points in a plane equidistant from a fixed point F (the focus) and a fixed
line l (the directrix) that lie in the plane.

We shall assume that F is not on l, for this would

result in a line. If P is a point in the plane and P ′
is the point on l determined by a line through P that
is perpendicular to l, then, by the preceding definition,
P is on the parabola if and only if the distances d(P, F )
and d(P, P ′ ) are equal.
The axis of the parabola is the line through F that is
perpendicular to the directrix.
The vertex of the parabola is the point V on the axis
halfway from F to l. The vertex is the point on the
parabola that is closest to the directrix.

3.2.1 Equation of parabola with horizontal or vertical axis of symmetry

To obtain a simple equation for a parabola, place the

y-axis along the axis of the parabola, with the origin at
the vertex V . In this case, the focus F has coordinates
(0, p) for some real number p ̸= 0 (called the focal
length), and the equation of the directrix is y = −p.
(The figure shows the case p > 0.)
By the distance formula, a point P (x, y) is on the
graph of the parabola if and only if d(P, F ) = d(P, P ′ )
- that is, if
√ √
(x − 0)2 + (y − p)2 = (x − x)2 + (y + p)2

We square both sides and simplify to get:

. 1
x2 = 4py or, equivalently, y = x2
4p

→ Note:

 |p| is the distance between the focus F and the vertex V , or the distance between the directrix
l and the vertex V .

 If p > 0, the parabola opens upward. If p < 0, the parabola opens downward.
1 2
 If we interchange the roles of x and y, we obtain y 2 = 4px or, equivalently, x = y . This is
4p
the equation of the parabola with vertex at the origin, focus F (p, 0), and opening right if p > 0
or left if p < 0. The equation of the directrix is x = −p.

3.2.2 Standard equation of a parabola

In general,

 Parabola with vertex V (h, k) and axis of symmetry vertical:

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⃝Francis Oketch

 Equation (x − h) =. 4p(y − k)
2

 Vertex (h, k).

 Focus F (h, k + p).
 Directrix y = k − p.
 Axis of symmetry x = h.

 Parabola with vertex V (h, k) and axis of symmetry horizontal:

 Equation (y − k) =. 4p(x − h)
2

 Vertex (h, k).

 Focus F (h + p, k).
 Directrix x = h − p.
 Axis of symmetry y = k.

Example(s):
1
1. Find the focus and directrix of the parabola y = − x2 , and sketch its graph.
6

Solution

The standard form of the given parabola is

x2 = −6y

The standard equation has the form x2 = 4py,

with 4p = −6 and hence the focal length
3
is p = − = −1.5. Thus, the parabola
2
opens downward and has focus F (0, −1.5). The
directrix is the horizontal line y = 1.5, which is
a distance 1.5 above V , as shown in the figure.

2. (a) Find an equation of a parabola that has vertex at the origin, opens right, and passes through
the point P (7, −3).
(b) Find the focus F of the parabola.

Solution

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(a) The required standard equation has the

form y 2 = 4px, for some number p which
we need to determine. Since P (7, −3) is on
the graph, then substituting 7 for x and −3
for y yields (−3)2 = 4p(7) so that the focal
9
length is p = . Hence, an equation for
28
9
the parabola is y 2 = x.
7
(b) The focus is a distance p to the right of the
vertex.)Thus, the focus F has coordinates
9
(
,0 .
28

3. Given the parabola (x − 3)2 = −6(y − 2), find the vertex, focus, directrix, axis and focal length.

Solution
Here, h = 3, k = 2 and 4p = −6 or, equivalently, the focal length is p = −1.5. Therefore, the
parabola opens downward and

i) The vertex V (h, k) is V (3, 2).

ii) The focus is F (h, k + p) = F (3, 0.5).
iii) The directrix is y = k − p = 3.5.
iv) The axis of symmetry is x = h = 3.

4. Discuss and sketch the graph of 2x = y 2 + 8y + 22.

Solution

The equation can be rewritten as

y 2 + 8y + = 2x − 22 +

Completing the square on the left yields y 2 +8y+

(4)2 = 2x − 22 + (4)2 ⇒ (y + 4)2 = 2(x − 3).
Here, h = 3, k = −4 and 4p = 2 or, equivalently,
the focal length is p = 0.5. Therefore,
i) The vertex V (h, k) is V (3, −4).
ii) The focus is F (h + p, k) = F (3.5, −4).
iii) The directrix is x = h − p = 2.5.
iv) The axis of symmetry is y = k = −4.

5. A parabola has vertex V (−4, 2) and directrix y = 5. Express the equation of the parabola in
the form y = ax2 + bx + c.

Solution

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The required equation has the standard form

(x − h)2 = 4p(y − k),

with h = −4 and k = 2 and with the focal length

p = −3, since V is 3 units below the directrix.
Substituting yields (x + 4)2 = 4(−3)(y − 2),
which on simplifying and rearranging gives
1 2 2 2
y=− x − x+
12 3 3

6. Find the equation of the parabola with directrix y = −2 and focus F (2, 5).

Solution
Since the axis is perpendicular to the directrix, the axis is parallel to the y-axis. Thus, the
required equation has the standard form

(x − h)2 = 4p(y − k)

with directrix y = k − p and focus F (h, k + p). Therefore, h = 2, k − p = −2 and k + p = 5.

Solving for k and p, we get k = 1.5, p = 3.5. Hence, the desired equation is

(x − 2)2 = 14(y − 1.5)

Exercise:

1. Find the vertex, focus, and directrix of the parabola. Sketch its graph, showing the focus and
the directrix:

(a) 20x = y 2
(b) 2y 2 = −3x
(c) (x + 2)2 = −8(y − 1)
(d) (y + 1)2 = −12(x + 2)
(e) y = x2 − 4x + 2
(f) x2 + 20y = 10
(g) y = −x2 − 4x + 5 [hint: standard form (x + 2)2 = −(y − 9), ans: ]

2. Find an equation of the parabola that satisfies the given conditions.

(a) Focus F (2, 0), directrix x = −2

(b) Focus F (−3, −2), directrix y = 1 [ans: (x + 3)2 = −6(y + 0.5)]
(c) Vertex V (3, −5), directrix x = 2
(d) Vertex V (−2, 3), directrix y = 5
(e) Vertex V (−1, 0), focus F (−4, 0)
(f) Vertex V (1, −2), focus F (1, 0)
(g) Vertex at the origin, symmetric to the y-axis, and passing through the point (2, −3).
(h) Vertex at (−3, 5), axis parallel to the x-axis, and passing through the point (5, 9).

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3.2.3 Standard equation of a parabola with slant axis of symmetry

Let the focus of the parabola be F (a, b) and the equation of the directrix be Ax + By + C = 0. Let
P (x, y) be any point on the parabola.

From the ′
√ definition of parabola, we have FP = PP . Now,
FP = (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 . Also, the distance from point
Ax + By + C
P (x, y) to line Ax + By + C = 0 is PP′ = √ .
A2 + B 2
The general equation of the parabola is therefore given by

(Ax + By + C)2
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 .=
A2 + B 2

→ Note: this equation is useful when the directix and focus are known.

Example(s):

1. Find the equation of the parabola with directrix y = −2 and focus F (2, 5).

Solution
(Ax + By + C)2
The general equation has the form (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = with directrix Ax +
A2 + B 2
By + C = 0 and focus F (a, b). Given the directrix y + 2 = 0 and focus F (2, 5), we have
A = 0, B = 1, C = 2, a = 2, b = 5. Substituting yields

(x − 2)2 + (y − 5)2 = (y + 2)2

Expanding and simplifying yields the desired equation, in standard form, as

(x − 2)2 = 14(y − 1.5)

2. Find the equation of the parabola with directrix 3y = −4x + 2 and focus F (3, 4).

Solution
(Ax + By + C)2
The general equation of the parabola takes the form (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = with
A2 + B 2
directrix Ax + By + C = 0 and focus F (a, b). Given the directrix 4x + 3y − 2 = 0 and focus
F (3, 4), we have A = 4, B = 3, C = −2, a = 3, b = 4. Substituting yields

(4x + 3y − 2)2
(x − 3)2 + (y − 4)2 =
(4)2 + (3)2

Expanding and simplifying yields the desired equation as

9x2 − 24xy + 16y 2 − 134x − 188y + 621 = 0

Exercise:

1. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus and directrix are as given below.

(a) F(5,0), directrix x = −5.

(b) F(6,-2), directrix 3y = 8x − 4.

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Lecture 8

3.3 The Ellipse

An ellipse is the set of all points in a plane, the sum of whose distances from two fixed points (the
foci) in the plane is a positive constant. The center of an ellipse is the midpoint of the line segment
joining the two foci.

3.3.1 Equation of ellipse with major axis horizontal or vertical

To determine the equation for the ellipse, we construct
a coordinate system so that the foci (F and F ′ ) for the
ellipse are located at points F (c, 0) and F ′ (−c, 0) for
c > 0, with the center of the ellipse at the origin.
Hence, c is the distance between the center and the
focus and the distance between F and F ′ is 2c. We
let P (x, y) be an arbitrary point on the ellipse. The
constant sum of the distances from P (x, y) to F (c, 0)
and from P (x, y) to F ′ (−c, 0) is denoted by 2a, which
is the length of the major axis. To obtain points that
are not on the x-axis, we must have 2a > 2c, i.e.,
a > c.

By definition of the ellipse, a point P (x, y) lies on the ellipse if and only if

dP F + dP F ′ = 2a

Using the distance formula, we have

√ √
(x − c)2 + (y − 0)2 + (x + c)2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a

This can be written as √ √

(x − c)2 + y 2 = 2a − (x + c)2 + y 2
Squaring both sides of the last equation gives us
√
(x − c)2 + y 2 = 4a2 − 4a (x + c)2 + y 2 + (x + c)2 + y 2

Simplifying and rearranging yields

√
a (x + c)2 + y 2 = a2 + cx

Squaring both sides again yields

a2 [(x + c)2 + y 2 ] = a4 + 2a2 cx + c2 x2

Expanding and simplifying yields

(a2 − c2 )x2 + a2 y 2 = a2 (a2 − c2 )

Dividing both sides by a2 (a2 − c2 ), we obtain the standard form for the equation of the ellipse with
center at the origin and foci on the x-axis as

x2 y. 2
+ 2 =1,
a2 b

where b2 = a2 − c2 . Since c > 0, it follows that a2 > b2 and hence a > b. The x-intercepts of the
ellipse are x = ±a and the y-intercepts are y = ±b. The line segment joining the points V ′ (−a, 0)
and V (a, 0) is called the major axis of the ellipse, with length 2a. The line segment joining the
points M ′ (0, −b) and M (0, b) is called the minor axis of the ellipse, with length 2b.

→ Note:

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 a is the distance between the center and the vertex, b is the distance between the center and the
endpoint of minor axis, and c is the distance between the center and the focus.

 if c = 0, then a2 = b2 , and we have a circle. Also, if c = a, then b = 0, and we have a degenerate

conic, i.e., a line.

 if we interchange the roles of x and y, we obtain the standard form for the equation of the ellipse
with center at the origin and foci on the y-axis as

x2 y. 2
+ 2 =1,
b2 a

where b2 = a2 − c2 , a > b, a > c.

3.3.2 Standard equation of an ellipse

In general, for a > b, a > c and b2 = a2 − c2 , we have

 Ellipse with major axis horizontal and center at point (h, k):

(x − h)2 (y 2
. − k) = 1
 Equation +
a2 b2
 Center at point (h, k).
 Foci F (h + ′
√ c, k) and F (h − c, k),
where c = a2 − b2 .
 The major axis is on the line y = k
and the vertices are V (h + a, k) and
V ′ (h − a, k).
 The minor axis is on the line x = h
and the endpoints of the minor axis
are M (h, k + b) and M ′ (h, k − b).

 Ellipse with major axis vertical and center at point (h, k):

(x − h)2 (y 2
. − k) = 1
 Equation +
b2 a2
 Center at point (h, k).
 Foci√F (h, k + c) and F ′ (h, k − c), where
c = a2 − b2 .
 The major axis is on the line x = h and the
vertices are V (h, k + a) and V ′ (h, k − a).
 The minor axis is on the line y = k and the
endpoints of the minor axis are M (h + b, k)
and M ′ (h − b, k).

Example(s):

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x2 y 2
1. Describe the graph of the equation + = 1.
4 9

Solution
Since 9 > 4, the major axis is vertical and the standard equation has the form

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
b2 a2
√ √ √
Thus, a2 = 9, b2 = 4, h = 0 and k = 0 so that a = 3, b = 2 and c = a2 − b2 = 9 − 4 = √ 5.
Hence, the given
√ equation is an ellipse with center at (0,0) and the foci are located at F (0, 5)
′
and F (0, − 5). The major axis is on the line x = 0 (i.e., y-axis) and the vertices are located
at V (0, 3) and V ′ (0, −3). The minor axis is on the line y = 0 (i.e., x-axis) and the endpoints of
the minor axis are located at M (2, 0) and M ′ (−2, 0). The student to sketch the graph.

2. Sketch the graph of 2x2 + 9y 2 − 18 = 0, and find the foci and length of major and minor axes.

Solution

To write this equation in standard form,

we move the constant term to the right-
hand side and divide both sides by 18 to
obtain a constant of 1 on the right:

x2 y 2
+ =1
9 2
Since 9 > 2, the major axis is horizontal
and the standard equation has the form

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
a2 b2

√ √ √ √
Thus, a2 = 9, b2 = 2, h = 0 and k = 0 so that a = 3, b = 2 and c = a2 − b2 = 9 − 2 = √ 7.
Hence, the√given equation is an ellipse with center at (0,0) and the foci are located at F ( 7, 0)
and F ′ (− 7, 0). The major axis is on the line y = 0 (i.e., x-axis) and the vertices are located
at V (3, 0) and V ′ (−3, 0). The minor
√ axis is on the line
√ x = 0 (i.e., y-axis) and the endpoints of
the minor axis are located at M (0, 2) and M ′ (0, − 2).

3. Discuss and sketch the graph of the equation 16x2 + 9y 2 + 64x − 18y − 71 = 0.

Solution

To obtain the standard form of the given

equation, we complete the squares as follows

16(x2 +4x+p)+9(y 2 −2y+q) = 71+16p+9q,

( )2 )2
4 −2
(
where p = = 4 and q = = 1.
2 2
Substituting yields

16(x2 + 4x + 4) + 9(y 2 − 2y + 1) = 71 + 64 + 9 ⇒ 16(x + 2)2 + 9(y − 1)2 = 144

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Dividing through by 144 yields

(x + 2)2 (y − 1)2
+ =1
9 16
Since 16 > 9, the major axis is vertical and the standard equation has the form

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
b2 a2
√ √
Thus, a2 = 16, b2 = 9, h = −2 and k = 1 so that a = 4, b = 3 and c = a2 − b2 = 16 − 9 =
√
7. Hence,√ the given equation√is an ellipse with center at (−2, 1) and the foci are located at
F (−2, 1 + 7) and F ′ (−2, 1 − 7). The major axis is on the line x = −2 and the vertices are
located at V (−2, 5) and V ′ (−2, −3). The minor axis is on the line y = 1 and the endpoints of
the minor axis are located at M (1, 1) and M ′ (−5, 1).

4. Find the equation of the ellipse with vertices (±4, 0) and foci (±2, 0).

Solution
Since the foci are on the x-axis and are equidistant from the origin, the major axis is on the
x2 y2
x-axis and the ellipse has center (0,0). Thus, a general equation of an ellipse is 2 + 2 = 1.
a b
Since the vertices are (±4, 0), we conclude that a = 4. Since the foci are (±2, 0), we conclude
x2 y2
that c = 2. Hence, b2 = a2 − c2 = 42 − 22 = 12, and an equation of the ellipse is + = 1.
16 12

Exercise:

1. Find the vertices and foci of each ellipse. Sketch its graph, showing the foci:

(a) 4x2 + 16y 2 = 64

(b) 4x2 + 25y 2 = 1
(x − 3)2 (y + 4)2
(c) + =1
16 9
(d) 9x2 + 25y 2 + 54x − 50y − 119 = 0 [ans: foci (−3 ± 4, 1), vertices (−3 ± 5, 1), endpoints of
minor axis (−3, 1 ± 3), major axis y = 1]
(e) 4x2 + y 2 = 2y.

2. Find the equation of the ellipse with center (-4,3), with minor axis of length 6, and with foci
(x + 4)2 (y − 3)2
(−4, 3 ± 4). [hint: h = −4, k = 3, b = 3, c = 4, a2 = b2 + c2 = 25, ans: + = 1]
9 25

3.3.3 Eccentricity
To obtain information about the roundness of an ellipse, we use the term eccentricity (e) of an ellipse,
which is defined by √
distance from centre to focus c a2 − b2
e= = =
distance from centre to vertex a a
Thus for an ellipse, 0 < e < 1. The case e = 0 corresponds to a circle while e = 1 corresponds to
a line. The greater the eccentricity, the more ”stretched” out the graph of the ellipse will be. The
smaller the eccentricity, the more circular the ellipse will look.

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Lecture 9

3.4 The Hyperbola

A hyperbola is the set of all points in a plane, the difference of whose distances from two fixed points
(the foci) in the plane is a positive constant.

3.4.1 Equation of hyperbola

To determine the equations for the hyperbola, we

construct a pair of xy-coordinate axes so that the foci
are located at F (c, 0) and F ′ (−c, 0). The midpoint of
the line segment F ′ F is the center of the hyperbola,
so the center in this case is the origin. Let P (x, y) be
a point on the hyperbola, and let 2a be the constant
distance referred to in the definition of a hyperbola.

Then by definition, a point P (x, y) is on the hyperbola

if and only if
|dP F − dP F ′ | = 2a

Using the distance formula, we have

√ √
(x − c)2 + (y − 0)2 − (x + c)2 + (y − 0)2 = 2a

Squaring both sides of this equation and simplifying, just as we did in deriving the equation for the
ellipse, we obtain the standard form of the equation for the hyperbola with center at the origin and
foci on the x-axis as
x2 y. 2
− 2 =1,
a2 b
where b2 = c2 − a2 . Since b > 0, it follows that c2 > a2 and hence c > a.

→ Note:

 a is the distance between the center and the vertex, b is the distance between the center and the
endpoint of conjugate axis, and c is the distance between the center and the focus.

3.4.2 Graphs and analysis of the hyperbola

x2 y. 2
 Hyperbola with center at the origin and foci on the x-axis: − 2 =1, with b > 0.
a2 b

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The length of the transverse axis

(V ′ V ) is 2a, and the length of the
conjugate axis is 2b. The foci are
a distance c from the origin, where
c2 = a2 + b2 . The vertices are V (a, 0)
and V ′ (−a, 0). The x-intercepts of the
hyperbola are x = ±a. The graph
has no y-intercepts, since the equation
y2
− 2 = 1 has complex roots y = ±bi.
b
The points W (0, b) and W ′ (0, −b) are
endpoints of the conjugate axis W ′ W .
Note that the points W and W ′ are not
on the hyperbola; however, as we shall
see, they are useful for describing the
graph.

x2 y 2 b√ 2
Solving the equation 2
− 2 = 1 for y yields y = ± x − a2 . If x2 − a2 < 0 or, equivalently,
a b a
−a < x < a, then there are no points (x, y) on the graph. There are points P (x, y) on the
graph if x ≥ a or x ≤ −a. The lines y = ±(b/a)x are asymptotes for the hyperbola. These
asymptotes serve as excellent guides for sketching the graph. A convenient way to sketch the
asymptotes is to first plot the vertices V (a, 0), V ′ (−a, 0) and the points W (0, b), W (0, −b). If
vertical and horizontal lines are drawn through these endpoints of the transverse and conjugate
axes, respectively, then the diagonals of the resulting auxiliary rectangle have slopes (b/a)
and (−b/a). Hence, by extending these diagonals we obtain the asymptotes y = ±(b/a)x. The
hyperbola is then sketched as shown, using the asymptotes as guides. The two parts that make
up the hyperbola are called the right branch and the left branch of the hyperbola.

y 2 x. 2
 Hyperbola with center at the origin and foci on the y-axis: − 2 =1, with b > 0.
a2 b

In this case, the vertices of the hyperbola

are V ′ (0, −a) and V (0, a). The endpoints of
the conjugate axis are W ′ (−b, 0) and W (b, 0).
The asymptotes are x = ±(b/a)y, and we
now refer to the two parts that make up the
hyperbola as the upper branch and the lower
branch of the hyperbola.

→ Note:
 The vertices are on the x-axis if the x2 -term has a positive coefficient or on the y-axis if the
y 2 -term has a positive coefficient.

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 It is not always true that a > b, as is the case for ellipses. In fact, we may have a < b, a > b, or
a = b.

3.4.3 Standard Equation of a Hyperbola

In general, for b > 0, c > a and b2 = c2 − a2 , we have
 Hyperbola with transverse axis horizontal and center at point (h, k):

(x − h)2 (y 2
. − k) = 1
 Equation −
a2 b2
 Center at point (h, k).
√
 Foci F (h + c, k) and F ′ (h − c, k), where c = a2 + b2 .
b
 Asymptotes y − k = ± (x − h).
a
 Transverse axis is on the line y = k and the vertices are V (h + a, k) and V ′ (h − a, k).
 Conjugate axis is on the line x = h and the endpoints of the minor axis are W (h, k + b)
and W ′ (h, k − b).

 Hyperbola with transverse axis vertical and center at point (h, k):

(y − k)2 (x 2
. − h) = 1
 Equation −
a2 b2
 Center at point (h, k).
 Foci√F (h, k + c) and F ′ (h, k − c), where
c = a2 + b2 .
b
 Asymptotes x − h = ± (y − k).
a
 Transverse axis is on the line x = h and the
vertices are V (h, k + a) and V ′ (h, k − a).
 Conjugate axis is on the line y = k and the
endpoints of the minor axis are W (h + b, k)
and W ′ (h − b, k).

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Example(s):
1. Discuss and sketch the graph of 9x2 − 4y 2 = 36.

Solution

To express the given equation in a standard form,

we divide both sides by 36 and simplify, obtaining

x2 y 2
− =1
4 9
Hence, the graph is a hyperbola with center at the
origin. The transverse axis is horizontal and the
standard equation has the form

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− =1
a2 b2
Thus, a2 = 4, b2 = √ 9, h = 0 and
√ k = 0√ so that
a = 2, b = 3 and c = a2 + b2 = 4 + 9 = 13.
√
Hence,
√ the hyperbola has the center at (0,0) and the foci are located at F ( 13, 0) and
′
F (− 13, 0). The transverse axis is on the line y = 0 (i.e., x-axis) and the vertices are located
at V (2, 0) and V ′ (−2, 0). The conjugate axis is on the line x = 0 (i.e., y-axis) and the
endpoints of the conjugate axis are located at M (0, 3) and M ′ (0, −3). The equations of the
3
asymptotes are y = ±(b/a)x = ± x.
2
2. A hyperbola has vertices (±3, 0) and passes through the point P (5, 2). Find its equation, foci,
and asymptotes.

Solution

We begin by sketching a hyperbola with vertices

(±3, 0) that passes through the point P (5, 2), as
shown. From the given vertex, we have a = 3
and the transverse axis is horizontal. Thus, an
equation of the hyperbola has the form

x2 y 2
− 2 =1
32 b
Since point P (5, 2) is on the hyperbola, the x-
and y-coordinates satisfy this equation; that is,

52 22 9
− 2 =1 ⇒ b2 =
32 b 4

x2 y 2
Hence an equation for the hyperbola is − 9 = 1. Now,
9 4

3√
√
2 2 2 9 45 45
c =a +b =9+ = ⇒ c= = 5
4 4 4 2
3√ 3√
( ) ( )
Hence, the foci are F 5, 0 and F ′ 5, 0 . The general equations of the asymptotes are
2 2
3 1
y = ±(b/a)x. Substituting a = 3 and b = yields y = ± x.
2 2

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3. Discuss and sketch the graph of the equation 9x2 − 4y 2 − 54x − 16y + 29 = 0.

Solution

To obtain the standard form of the given

equation, we complete the squares as follows

9(x2 − 6x + p) − 4(y 2 + 4y + q) = −29 + 9p − 4q,

−6 2
( )2
4
( )
where p = = 9 and q = = 4.
2 2
Substituting yields

9(x2 − 6x + 9) − 4(y 2 + 4y + 4) = −29 + 81 − 16

or
9(x − 3)2 − 4(y + 2)2 = 36

Dividing through by 36 yields

(x − 3)2 (y + 2)2
− =1
4 9
Since term containing x is positive, the transverse axis is parallel to the x-axis (i.e., horizontal)
and the standard equation has the form

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− =1
a2 b2
√ √ √
Thus, a2 = 4, b2 = 9, h = 3 and k = −2 so that a = 2, b = 3 and c = a2 + b2 = 4 + 9 = 13.
Hence, √the given equation is √ a hyperbola with center at (3, −2) and the foci are located at
F (3 + 13, −2) and F ′ (3 − 13, −2). The transverse axis is on the line y = −2 and the
vertices are located at V (5, −2) and V ′ (1, −2). The conjugate axis is on the line x = 3 and the
endpoints of the conjugate axis are W (3, 1) and W ′ (3, −5). The equations of the asymptotes are
3
y + 2 = ± (x − 3).
2

Exercise:

1. Discuss and sketch the graph of the following equations:

y 2 x2
(a) − =1
9 4
(b) x2 − 4y 2 = 4
(c) 25x2 − 9y 2 + 225 = 0
(d) 4(x − 3)2 − 25(y − 1)2 = 100
(e) 25x2 − 9y 2 + 100x − 54y + 10 = 0
(f) 25y 2 − 9x2 − 54x − 50y − 281 = 0
(g) 9x2 − 4y 2 + 54x + 8y + 119 = 0

2. (a) Determine the standard form equation of the hyperbola that has vertices at (0,-2) and (6,-2)
(x − 3)2 (y + 2)2
and foci at (-2,-2) and (8,-2). [ans: − = 1]
9 16
(b) Determine the standard form equation of the hyperbola that has vertices at (1,-2) and (1,8)
(y − 3)2 (x − 1)2
and foci at (1,-10) and (1,16). [ans: − = 1]
25 144

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c
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Lecture 10

4 Polar Coordinates
Polar coordinates is another way of representing points in a plane. In polar coordinate system, we fix
a point O called the pole (or the origin) and construct, from the origin, an initial ray called the polar
axis, as shown below. Next, we consider any point P in the plane different from O.
If r = d(O, P ) and θ denotes the measure of
any angle determined by the polar axis and OP,
then r and θ are polar coordinates of P and the
symbols (r, θ) or P (r, θ) are used to denote point
P. As usual, θ is considered positive if the angle
is generated by a counterclockwise rotation of
the polar axis and negative if the rotation is
clockwise. Either radian or degree measure may
be used for θ.
An assignment of ordered pairs of the form (r, θ) to points in a plane is a polar coordinate
system, and the plane is the rθ-plane.

→ Note: the point P (r, θ) has infinitely many polar coordinates pairs corresponding to r > 0 and
r < 0.

Example(s):
1. Plot the points P (2, 4π π 2π
3 ), Q(3, − 4 ) and R(−4, 3 ) in the rθ-plane.

Solution

 P (2, 4π 4π
3 ) - turn 3 radians in anticlockwise direction
from the initial ray and move forward 2 units.
 Q(3, − π4 ) - turn π4 radians in clockwise direction from
the initial ray and move forward 3 units.
 R(−4, 2π 2π
3 ) - turn 3 radians in anticlockwise direction
from the initial ray and move backward 4 units.

2. Locate the point P (4, 3π

5 ) in the rθ-plane and find all its polar coordinates pairs.

Solution

3π
The point P (4, 3π
5 ) can be reached by turning 5 radians
in anticlockwise direction from the initial ray and going
2π
forward 4 units. It can also be reached by turning
5
radians in clockwise direction from the initial ray and going
8π
backward 4 units or turning radians in anticlockwise
5
direction from the initial ray and going backward 4 units
7π
or turning radians in clockwise direction from the initial
5
ray and going forward 4 units.

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4.1 Relationships between Cartesian and polar coordinates c

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Therefore, the corresponding polar coordinate pairs of the given point P are P (4, 3π
5 + 2πn) and
P (−4, − 2π
5 + 2πn), where n = 0, ±1, ±2, etc.

Exercise:
1. Locate the following points in the rθ-plane: (a) P (−3, − π6 ), (b) P (−4, 3π 7π
5 ) and (c) P (2, 6 ).

2. Find all the polar coordinates pairs of the point P (2, π6 ). [ans: the corresponding coordinate
pairs of P are P (2, π6 + 2πn) and P (−2, − 5π
6 + 2πn) for n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, · · · ]

4.1 Relationships between Cartesian and polar coordinates

The rectangular (or Cartesian)

coordinates (x, y) and polar
coordinates (r, θ) of a point P on
the plane are related as follows:

x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ
y
r2 = x2 + y 2 , tan θ =
x
These relationships can be proved
from trigonometry and Pythagoras
theorem.

Example(s):
√
1. (a) Find three different pairs of polar coordinates of point P (x, y) = (−1, 3). [ans: (2, 2π
3 ),
(2, − 4π π
3 ) and (−2, − 3 )]
√
(b) Find the rectangular coordinates of point Q(r, θ) = (4, 7π/6). [ans: (x, y) = (−2 3, −2)]

2. Convert the given equations to polar coordinates form.

(a) x2 − y 2 = 16

Solution
Substituting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ yields

(r cos θ)2 − (r sin θ)2 = 16 ⇒ r2 (cos2 θ − sin2 θ) = 16 ⇒ r2 cos 2θ = 16

Therefore, r2 = 16 sec θ.
(b) xy = 4

Solution
Substituting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ yields
1
(r cos θ)(r sin θ) = 4 ⇒ r2 (cos θ sin θ) = 4 ⇒ r2 sin 2θ = 4
2
Therefore, r2 = 8cosec 2θ.
(c) x2 + y 2 − 2ax = 0, where a is a constant.

Solution
Substituting x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ yields

(r cos θ)2 + (r sin θ)2 − 2a(r cos θ) = 0 ⇒ r2 (cos2 θ + sin2 θ) − 2ar cos θ = 0

But cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1, therefore, r2 = 2ar cos θ or r = 2a cos θ.

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4.1 Relationships between Cartesian and polar coordinates c

⃝Francis Oketch

3. Find an equation in x and y that has the same graph as the polar equation r = a sin θ with
a ̸= 0. Sketch the graph.

Solution

r = a sin θ ⇒ r2 = ar sin θ. Substituting

y = r sin θ and r2 = x2 +y 2 yields x2 +y 2 −ay =
0. Completing the square in y gives us
)2 )2
−a −a
( (
x2 + y 2 − ay + =
2 2
or )2 )2
a −a
( (
2
x + y− =
2 2
In the xy-plane, the graph of the last equation
is a circle with center (0, a2 ) and radius |a|
2 as
illustrated herein for the case a > 0 (the solid
circle) and a < 0 (the dashed circle).

4. Sketch the graph of the polar equation r = 2 + 4 cos θ.

Solution

We first find the pole values by solving the

equation r = 0 and solve for θ in [0, 2π]:
2π 4π
0 = 2 + 4 cos θ ⇒ θ= ,
3 3
π
Thus, the step-size for θ should be . Next,
3
we construct a table of θ-values from 0 to 2π at
π
intervals of .
3
The graph is called a limacon with an inner loop.

π π π 2π 5π 7π 4π 3π 5π 11π
θ 0 π 2π
6 3 2 3 6 6 3 2 3 6
r 6 5.5 4 2 0 -1.5 -2 -1.5 0 2 4 5.5 6

→ Note: you should use polar coordinate graph paper, which displays lines through O at various
angles and concentric circles with centers at the pole.

Exercise:
√
1. Show that r = 2 sin θ − 2 cos θ is a circle. Find the center and radius.[ans: center (-1,1), r = 2]

2. Convert the given polar equation to the corresponding Cartesian coordinate form

(a) r = 1 + 2r cos θ. [ans: y 2 − 3x2 − 4x − 1 = 0]

√
(b) r cos(θ − π3 ) = 4. [hint: cos(A − B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B, ans: x + 3y = 8]
(c) r = 2. [ans: x4 + x2 y 2 = ay 2 ]
(d) r = a tan θ, where a is a constant. [ans: x2 + y 2 = 4]
6
(e) r = . [ans: 2x − 3y = 6]
2 cos θ − 3 sin θ
(f) r = a(1 + 2 cos θ), where a is a constant. [ans: (x2 + y 2 − 2ax)2 = a2 (x2 + y 2 )]

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4.2 Points of intersection c

⃝Francis Oketch

3. Verify the following graphs of polar equations

π
r = a sin 2θ for a > 0 [hint: step-size = ] r = θ for θ ≥ 0
4

Exercise:

1. Draw the graph of the following polar curves in the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

(a) r = 2 cos 2θ.

(b) r = 2 sin2 θ.
(c) r = 1 + 3 cos θ.

4.2 Points of intersection

If r = f (θ) and r = g(θ) are two intersecting polar curves, then at points of intersection, we have

f (θ) =. g(θ)

Solving this trigonometric equation yields infinitely many values of θ. Thus, a range of the required
values of θ is necessary.

Example(s):

1. Find the points of intersection of the curves r = cos 2θ and r = cos θ in the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

Solution
At the points of intersection of the two polar curves, the right-hand side expressions in both
cases are equal, i.e.,
cos 2θ = cos θ
But from Trigonometry, we have the identity cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ − 1. Substituting into the above
equation yields
2 cos2 θ − cos θ − 1 = 0
Letting x = cos θ, the equation becomes

2x2 − x − 1 = 0
1 1
The roots are x = 1 or x = − . Therefore, cos θ = 1 or cos θ = − . We use the unit circle
2 2
to find the values of θ.

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4.2 Points of intersection c

⃝Francis Oketch

π
2

θ1
Case 1: cos θ = 1.
S Ac
0 From the unit circle, cosine is +ve in the 1st and 4th quadrants.
π . 0, 2π Let the roots be θ1 and θ2 .
0c
The principal value is given by α = cos−1 (1) = 0 rad.
T C Hence, the roots are: θ1 = 0 and θ2 = 2π.
θ2
3π
2
π
2

1
Case 2: cos θ = − .
θ3 2
S A From the unit circle, cosine is -ve in the 2nd and 3rd quadrants.
π/3 .
π 0, 2π Let the roots be θ1 and θ2 .
π/3 ( ) π
The principal value is given by α = cos−1 12 = .
θ4 T C 3 (
( π ) 2π π ) 4π
Hence, the roots are: θ1 = π − = and θ2 = π + = .
3 3 3 3
3π
2

Therefore, the points of intersection of the two curves are (1, 0), (1, 2π), (− 12 , 2π 1 4π
3 ) and (− 2 , 3 ).

Exercise:

1. Find the points of intersection of the following polar curves in the range 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π.

(a) r = 1 + cos θ and r = 1 − cos θ. [ans: (0, 0), (1, π2 ) and (1, 3π
2 )]
√ √
(b) r = 1 + cos θ and r = 1 − sin θ. [ans: (0, 0), ( 2−2 2 , 3π 2− 2 7π
4 ) and ( 2 , 4 )]
(c) r = 4 − 5 sin θ and r = 3 sin θ. [ans: (0, 0), ( 32 , π6 ) and ( 23 , 5π
6 )]

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c
⃝Francis Oketch

Lecture 11

5 Vectors in Two and Three Dimensions

Vectors in two and three dimensions: Addition, subtraction, multiplication by scalars, resolution,
scalar and vector products.
Applications to plane trigonometry, geometry of straight line in two and three dimensions, and
resultant force and velocity.

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