® ®

Electrical Machines
Volume - I
Electrical Engineering (EE)
Electrical & Electronics Engineering (EEE)

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 GATE SYLLABUS
Single phase transformer: equivalent circuit, phasor diagram, open circuit and short circuit
tests, regulation and efficiency; Three-phase transformers: connections, vector groups,
parallel operation; Auto-transformer, Electromechanical energy conversion principles; DC
machines: separately excited, series and shunt, motoring and generating mode of operation
and their characteristics, speed control of dc motors; Three-phase induction machines:
principle of operation, types, performance, torque-speed characteristics, no-load and
blocked-rotor tests, equivalent circuit, starting and speed control; Operating principle of
single-phase induction motors; Synchronous machines: cylindrical and salient pole
machines, performance and characteristics, regulation and parallel operation of
generators, starting of synchronous motors; Types of losses and efficiency calculations of
electric machines

ESE SYLLABUS
Single phase transformers, three phase transformers - connections, parallel operation,
auto-transformer, energy conversion principles, DC machines - types, windings, generator
characteristics, armature reaction and commutation, starting and speed control of motors,
Induction motors - principles, types, performance characteristics, starting and speed
control, Synchronous machines - performance, regulation, parallel operation of generators,
motor starting, characteristics and applications, servo and stepper motors.

SSC-JE/AE SYLLABUS
D.C. Machine (Weightage : 4-6 Marks) : Construction, Basic Principles of D.C. motors and
generators, their characteristics, speed control and starting of D.C. Motors. Method of
braking motor, Losses and efficiency of D.C. Machines.
1 phase and 3 phase transformers (Weightage: 6-8 Marks) : Construction, Principles of
operation, equivalent circuit, voltage regulation, O.C. and S.C. Tests, Losses and efficiency.
Effect of voltage, frequency and wave form on losses. Parallel operation of 1 phase /3 phase
transformers. Auto transformers.
Single Phase Induction Motors (Weightage: 4-6 Marks) : Characteristics and applications.
3 phase Induction Motors (Weightage: 4-6 Marks) : Rotating magnetic field, the principle
of operation, equivalent circuit. Torque-speed characteristics, starting and speed control of
3 phase induction motors. Methods of braking, the effect of voltage and frequency variation
on torque speed characteristics. Fractional Kilowatt Motors.
Synchronous Machines (Weightage: 4-6 Marks) : Generation of 3-phase e.m.f. armature
reaction, voltage regulation. Parallel operation of two alternators, synchronizing, control of
active and reactive power. Starting and applications of synchronous motors.
 CONTENTS

S. No. Chapters Page No.

 Transformer
1. Basics of Magnetic Circuits
2. Single Phase Transformer
3. Three Phase Transformer
 DC Machine
4. DC Machine
 CHAPTER 1
Basics of Magnetic Circuits
 Learning Objectives :
After reading this chapter you should be able to :
 Understand : Basic of magnetic circuit
 Explain leakage flux and fringing
 Explain law of electromagnetism
 Describe coefficient of coupling
 Explain energy stored in magnetic field
 Understand dot convention

Table of Contents
1.1 Magnetic Circuit 1.7 Basic Law of Induced EMF
1.2 Series Magnetic Circuit 1.8 Requirement of Induced EMF
1.3 Parallel Magnetic Circuit 1.9 Types of Induced EMF
1.4 Leakage Flux 1.10 Coefficient of Coupling
1.5 Fringing 1.11 Energy Stored in the Magnetic Field
1.6 Analogy Between Magnetic Field and 1.12 Dot Convention
Electric Field
 ®
1.2 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
1.1  Magnetic Circuit

Definition : The closed path followed by magnetic lines of forces is called the magnetic circuit.
In the magnetic circuit, magnetic flux or magnetic lines of force starts from a point and ends at
the same point after completing its path.
A magnetic circuit is made up of magnetic materials having high permeability such as iron,
soft steel, etc.
Magnetic circuits are used in various devices like Mean core
I length, l
electric motor, transformers, relays, generators,
galvanometer, etc.
Cross section
Figure shows a Solenoid having N turns wound N area, a
on an iron core. The magnetic flux of φ Weber sets
Iron core
up in the core when the current of I ampere is passed I
through a solenoid. The length of the magnetic path is given by the mean circumference is of the
toroid.
In low power electrical machines, magnetic field can be produced by permanent magnets.
But in high-power electrical machinery and transformers, magnetic field is produced by electric
current.
1.1.1 Magnetic Flux (φ)
The number of magnetic lines of forces set up in a magnetic circuit is called Magnetic Flux. It
is analogous to electric current, I in an electric circuit. Its SI unit is Weber (Wb) and its CGS
unit is Maxwell. It is denoted by φ . The magnetic flux measures through flux meter.
1(Wb) = 108 lines of forces/Maxwell
It is analogous to electric current in an electric circuit.
Properties of magnetic flux :
1. They always form a closed loop.
2. They always start from the north pole and ends in the south pole.
3. They never intersect each other.
4. Magnetic lines of forces that are parallel to each other and are in the same direction repel
each other.
1.1.2 Magnetic Flux Density (B)
The magnetic flux density at a point is the flux per unit area at right angles to the flux at that
point. SI unit of flux density is Wb / m 2 and CGS unit is tesla (T).
φ
Flux density, B =
a
1.1.3 Permeability ( μ )
The permeability is defined as the ability or ease with which the magnetic material forces the
magnetic flux through a given medium.
 ®
GATE ACADEMY Basics of Magnetic Circuits 1.3
The flow of flux produced by the magnet not only depends on the magnetic field strength but
also on one important property of the magnetic material called permeability. It is related to the
medium in which magnet is placed. The force exerted by one magnetic pole on other depends
on the medium in which magnets are placed. It is denoted by the symbol μ .
Permeability, μ = μ 0μ r
where, μ 0 = Permeability of air/vacuum = 4π× 10− 7 , μ r = 1 (in case of air/vacuum).

1.1.4 Magnetic Intensity or Magnetizing Force (H) or Magnetic Field Strength (H)
The magnetic intensity at a point in the magnetic field is the force acting on a unit N-pole (1
weber) placed at that point.
B B
Magnetic intensity, H = =
μ μ 0μ r
and by Amperes law, Hl = NI
1.1.5 Reluctance (S)
The obstruction offered by a magnetic circuit to the magnetic flux is known as reluctance. As in
electric circuit, there is resistance similarly in the magnetic circuit, there is a reluctance, but
resistance in an electrical circuit dissipates the electric energy and the reluctance in magnetic
circuit stores the magnetic energy.
Its SI unit is AT / Wb (ampere-turns / Weber). The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is
directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the cross-
section area of the conductor.
l l
Reluctance, S = =
aμ a(μ 0μ r )
where, l = length in metres, a = Area of cross section in m 2 .
The reciprocal of the magnetic reluctance is known as the magnetic permeance. It is given by
the expression
1 1
Permeance, P= =
Reluctance S
1.1.6 Magnetic Motive Force (MMF)
The current flowing in an electric circuit is due to the existence of electromotive force similarly,
Magneto Motive Force (MMF) is required to drive the magnetic flux in the magnetic circuit.
The magnetic pressure, which sets up the Magnetic pole
magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit is called
Magneto Motive Force. The SI unit of MMF is Magnetic N S
field
Ampere-turn (AT), and their CGS unit is G
(gilbert). The MMF for the inductive coil shown
Current Turns coils
in the figure below is expressed as, + –
The strength of the MMF is equivalent to the product of the current around the turns and the
number of turns of the coil.
∴ Force, F = NI where, N = Numbers of turns of the inductive coil and I = Current.
 ®
1.4 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
Or magneto motive force, MMF = φ S = N I = H l = ampere-turns (or AT)
where, φ is the magnetic flux and S is the reluctance of the magnetic circuit,
N = Number of turns of coil, I = Electric current through circuit,
H = Magnetic force or Magnetizing strength, l = Mean length of solenoid.
1.2  Series Magnetic Circuit

Definition : The Series Magnetic Circuit is defined as the magnetic circuit having a number of
parts of different dimensions and materials carrying the same magnetic field. Consider different
cases of a solenoid having different dimensions as shown in the figure below,
Case 1 : Series magnetic circuit without air gap.
Let-us consider a magnetic circuit without air Flux
gap shown in the figure below, fi
Mean core
1. Flux : φi = Bi × ai I length, li
where, Bi = Flux density in iron core, ai
N turns Cross section
= Cross sectional area of iron core area, ai
2. Flux density :
φ
Bi = i = μi H i
ai
where, H i = Magnetic field intensity of iron core, μi = Permittivity of iron core
3. Reluctance :
li li
Si = =
ai μi ai μ 0μ r
where, li = Mean core length.
4. Magnetic motive force (MMF) :
MMF = φi Si = N I = H i li
Case 2 : Series magnetic circuit with air gap.
Let-us consider a magnetic circuit with air gap shown in the figure below,
1. Flux : Total flux in core
Flux in iron core, φi = Bi × ai
φT Iron core
Flux in air gap, φ g = Bg × ag I [l i , ai , μ i = μ 0 μ r , H i ]
Total flux, φT = φi + φ g
N turns
2. Flux density : Air gap
Flux density in iron core, [l g , ag , μ g = μ 0 , μ g ]
φ
Bi = i = μi H i
ai
φg
Flux density in air gap, Bg = = μg H g
ag
Total flux density, BT = Bi + Bg
 ®
GATE ACADEMY Basics of Magnetic Circuits 1.5

3. Reluctance :
li li
Reluctance in iron core, Si = =
ai μi ai μ 0μ r
lg lg
Reluctance in air gap, S g = = [ μ r =1 for air gap]
ag μ g ag μ 0
Total reluctance, ST = Si + S g
4. Magnetic motive force (MMF) :
MMF = N I = H i li + H g lg

Solved Example 1
An iron ring of mean circumference equal to 80 cm is uniformly wound with 500 turns of a
wire. When a current of 1 A is passed through the coil, a flux density of 1.1 T is produced in
the iron. Calculate the relative permeability of the iron core under this condition.
Sol. Given : Mean length of iron ring li = 80 cm , Number of turns N = 500,
Current I = 1 A, Flux density B = 1.1 T.
Bi  Bi 
Total MMF, NI = H i li = li Hi = 
μ 0μ r  μ 0μ r 
Bi li 1.1× 80 ×10− 2
μr = = = 1400.56 Ans.
μ 0 NI 4π×10− 7 × 500 ×1

Solved Example 2
A ring of magnetic material has a rectangular cross-section. The inner diameter of the ring is
20 cm and the outer diameter is 25 cm, its thickness being 2 cm. An air-gap of 1 mm length is
cut across the ring. The ring is wound with 500 turns and when carrying a current of 3 A
produces a flux density of 1.2 T in the air-gap. Find :
(i) Magnetic field intensity in the magnetic material and in the air-gap.
(ii) Relative permeability of the magnetic material and
(iii)Total reluctance of the magnetic circuit and component values.

3A

Thickness = 2 cm

N = 500

m
10 c 1 mm
cm
5
2.
 ®
1.6 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
20
Sol. Given : Inner diameter of ring = 20 cm, ∴ R1 = = 10 cm,
2
25
Outer diameter of ring = 25cm, ∴ R2 = = 12.5cm,
2
Air gap length lg = 1mm = 1×10−3 m, Number of turns N = 500,
Current i = 3A, Flux density B = 1.2 T
R1 + R2 10 + 12.5
Mean radius of core, x = = = 11.25cm
2 2
Mean circumference, li = 2π x = 2 × π×11.25 = 70.68cm
R2 − R1 12.5 − 10
Equivalent radius of core, r = = = 1.25cm
2 2
Cross section area of core, a = πr 2 = π× (1.25) 2 = 4.9087 cm 2 = 4.9087 ×10−4 m 2
(i) Magnetic field intensity in air-gap,
B 1.2
Hg = = −7
= 9.549×105 AT / m Ans.
μ 0μ r 4π×10
Total mmf, Ni = H g lg + H i li
500 × 3 = 9.549 × 105 × 1× 10−3 + H i × 70.68 ×10−2
Magnetic field intensity of magnetic material,
1500 − 954.9
Hi = = 771.22 AT/m Ans.
70.68 × 10−2
(ii) Magnetic field intensity of magnetic material,
B
Hi =
μ 0μ r
1.2
771.22 =
4π× 10−7 × μ r
1.2
Relative permeability, μ r = −7
= 1238.20 Ans.
4π× 10 × 771.22
(iii)Total reluctance, ST = Si + S g
li
Reluctance of iron core, Si =
μ 0μ r ai
70.68 ×10−2
Si = = 925531.75 AT/Wb
4π× 10−7 ×1238.20 × 4.9087 ×10−4
l 1× 10−3
Reluctance of air gap, S g = g = = 1621151.66 AT/Wb
μ 0 ai 4π× 10−7 × 4.9087 ×10−4
Total reluctance, ST = Si + S g = 925531.75 + 1621151.66 = 2.5×106 AT / Wb Ans.
 ®
GATE ACADEMY Basics of Magnetic Circuits 1.7

Remember
Assuming inner radius of a conductor is R1 and outer radius R2 as shown in figure. Then
R1 + R2
 Mean Radius of core, x = d
r
2
R2
 Mean Circumference of core, l = 2πx
R − R2 R1
 Equivalent Radius of core, r = 1 a x
2
 Equivalent Diameter, d = 2r
 Cross sectional area, a = πr 2

TEST
1
Q.1 A ring having a cross-sectional area of Q.3 A solenoid of 300 turns is wound on a
500 cm 2 , a circumference of 400 cm continuous ring of magnetic material of
and ϕ = 80 mWb has a coil of 200 turns relative permeability 1000. Mean
wound around it. Calculate the flux diameter of the solenoid is 100 mm. If
density of the ring. the flux density in the magnetic material
(A) 1.6 T (B) 2.6 T of the core in the solenoid is 1.3 T, the
(C) 3.6 T (D) 4.6 T current in the solenoid is ______.
Q.2 A long straight conductor carries steady Q.4 An iron ring of mean length 60 cm has
current of 20 A. The intensity of an air gap of 2 mm. It is wound with 300
magnetic field produced at a point 300 turns of wire. If the relative permeability
mm from the axis of the conductor is of iron is 300 when a current of 0.7 A
______ and Flux density of field at that flows through the coil, the flux density
point is ______. is ______.

1.4  Leakage Flux

Definition : Leakage flux is defined as the magnetic flux which does not follow the particularly
intended path in a magnetic circuit.
Most of the flux is set up in the core of the solenoid and passes through the particular path that
is through the air gap and is utilised in the magnetic circuit. This flux is known as useful flux φu
As practically it is not possible that all the flux in Leakage flux (φi )
the circuit follows a particularly intended path and
sets up in the magnetic core and thus some of the I
flux also sets up around the coil or surrounds the Useful flux (φu )
core of the coil, and is not utilised for any work in
N
the magnetic circuit as shown in figure. This type
of flux which is not used for any work is
called Leakage flux and is denoted by φl Magnetic core
I
 ®
GATE ACADEMY Basics of Magnetic Circuits 1.23

. Therefore, the total flux φ produced by the solenoid in the magnetic circuit is the sum of
the leakage flux and the useful flux and is given by the equation shown below,
φ = φu + φl
The ratio of the total flux produced to the useful flux set up in the air gap of the magnetic circuit
is called a leakage coefficient or leakage factor. It is denoted by (λ).
φ
λ=
φu
Leakage flux does exist in all practical ferromagnetic device.
On analysis of electrical machine leakage flux is replaced by an equivalent leakage reactance.
Numerical
Answer
Type Questions
Q.1 A flux density of 1.2 Wb/m 2 is required
in the 2 mm air gap of an electromagnet i1 i2

2 1 cm
having an iron path of 1 m long. If the 600 cm 300
electromagnet has 1273 turns and turns 19 turns
relative permeability of iron to be 1500,
the total current required is _______.
Q.2 An iron ring with a mean length of
magnetic path of 20 cm and of small The core is made of silicon sheet steel
cross- section has an air gap of 1 mm. It and has a square cross section. The coil
is wound uniformly with a coil of 440 currents are, i1 = 0.28 A and i2 = 0.56
turns. A current of 1 A in the coil A. The magnetic field intensity H in
produces a flux density 16π×10−3 Wb/ AT/m is _______.
m 2 . Neglecting leakage and fringing, Q.4 An iron ring of mean length 50 cm has
the relative permeability of iron is an air gap of 1 mm and a winding of 200
_______. turns. If the permeability of the iron is
300 when a current of 1 A flows through
the coil, the flux density is _______.
Q.5 For the magnetic circuit shown in figure,
N = 440 φi
1 mm li
i

N lg

Q.3 Two coils are wound on a toroidal core

as shown in figure.
 ®
1.28 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
N = 400 turns, mean core length li = 50 permeability of core, μ r = 3000, current
cm, air gap length lg = 1 mm, cross i = 1 A. Find :
(i) Flux and flux density in the air gap
sectional area ai = ag = 15 cm 2 , relative
(ii) Inductance of the coil
A.
Multiple
B.
C. Choice
D. Questions
Q.1 A magnetic circuit has 150 turns-coil, The coil self-inductance is given by the
the cross-sectional area 5 ×10−4 m 2 and expression
the length of the magnetic circuit μ0 N 2 a μ N
(A) (B) 0
25 × 10−2 m. x 2ax
What are the values of magnetic field μ N a2
μ N2
intensity and relative permeability when (C) 0 (D) 0
2x 2ax
the current is 2 A and total flux is Q.4 An iron-cored choke with 1 mm air-gap
0.3 ×10−3 Wb? [ESE 2015] length, draws 1 A when fed from a
(A) 1200 AT/m and 397.9 constant voltage AC source of 220 V. If
(B) 300 AT/m and 500 × 10−6 the length of air-gap is increased to 2
(C) 300 AT/m and 397.9 mm, the current drawn by the choke
(D) 1200 AT/m and 500 × 10−6 would
Q.2 Magnetic field intensity at centre of (A) become nearly one half
circular coil, of diameter 1 m and (B) remain nearly the same
carrying a current of 2 A is (C) become nearly double
(A) 1 A/m (B) 2 A/m (D) become nearly zero
(C) 4 A/m (D) 8 A/m Q.5 An iron ring of 300 mm 2 mean length of
Q.3 In the electromagnetic relay of given circular path of 500 mm. It has a
figure below the reluctance of the iron constant relative permeability of 1200.
path is negligible. For a certain current through
x magnetising coil the flux produced is
250 mWb. Find the flux produced for the
i same current if a radial air-gap of 1 mm
is to cut into the ring.
(A) 73.61 Wb (B) 73.61 mWb
N (C) 7.361 mWb (D) 7.361 Wb

 Answers of Test - 1
1. A 2. * 3. 1.08 A 4. *

* 2. 10.61 A/m, 133.3 × 10−7 T (or Wb/m 2 )

4. 0.066 Wb/m 2
 ®
GATE ACADEMY Basics of Magnetic Circuits 1.31

 Explanation of Test - 1
Sol.1 μ 0μ r NI
B=
Given : l
Cross sectional area = 500 cm 2 = 500 × 10−4 m 2 , 4π×10−7 × 1000 × 300 × I
1.3 =
Mean length li = 400 cm = 400 ×10−2 m, 0.314
1.3 × 0.314
Flux φ = 80 mWb = 80 ×10−3 Wb, ∴ I= = 1.08 A Ans.
4π× 10−7 × 1000 × 300
Turns N = 200
Sol.4
φ 80 × 10−3 Given :
Flux density, B = = = 1.6 T Ans.
A 500 ×10−4
Iron ring of mean length = 60 cm = 60 ×10− 2 m,
Sol.2
Air gap length = 2 mm = 2 ×10− 3 m,
Given :
Current carried by the conductor I = 20 A, Number of turns wound = 300,
Relative permeability = 300,
Distance r = 300 mm = 0.3m
Current = 0.7 A.
(i) Magnetic field intensity,
I 20
H= = = 10.61 A/m Ans. 0.7 A
2πr 2π× 0.3
(ii) Flux density, 300 2 mm
−7
B = μ0μ r H = 4π×10 ×1×10.61 turns

B = 133.3 × 10−7 T (or Wb/m 2 ) Ans. liron ring = 60 cm

Sol.3 μ r = 60 cm
Given :
Total (MMF) AT = φ× Sring + φ× S gap
Number of turns of the solenoid N = 300,
liron lgap
Relative permeability μ r = 1000, N × I = φ× + φ×
μ 0μ r a μ 0 × 1× a
Flux density B = 1.3T
Mean diameter of the solenoid φ  liron 
300 × 0.7 =  + lgap 
d = 100 mm = 0.1m aμ 0  μr 
0.1 B  60 × 10− 2 
l = 2πr = 2π× = 0.314 m 210 = + 2 ×10− 3 
2 
μ 0  300 
Current in the solenoid,
Flux density, B = 0.066 Wb/m 2 Ans.
 Explanations to Multiple Choice Questions
Sol.1 Total flux φ = 0.3 ×10−3
Given : Number of turns N = 150, (i) Magnetic field intensity, Ni = Hl
−4 2
Area a = 5 ×10 m , Ni
H=
Length of core l = 25 ×10−2 m, Current i = 2, l
 ®
GATE ACADEMY Basics of Magnetic Circuits 1.39

150 × 2 Area of cross section

H= = 1200 AT Ans.
25 ×10−2 a = 300 mm 2 = 300 × 10− 6 m ,
(ii) φ = Ba = μ0μ r Ha Length of iron ring
φ li = 500 mm = 500 × 10− 3 m ,
μr =
μ 0 Ha Relative permeability μ r = 1200 ,
−3
0.3 ×10 Flux produced φ = 250 mWb = 250 ×10− 3 Wb ,
μr =
4 π×10 × 1200 × 5 ×10− 4
−7
Total MMF, NI = Hli
μ r = 397.88 Ans.
B
Hence, the correct option is (A). NI = li [ B = μ 0μ r H ]
μ 0μ r
Sol.2
φ
Magnetic field intensity at centre of circular coil NI = li
aμ 0μ r
I 2
= = = 2A/m Ans. 250 ×10− 3
2R 1 NI = −6 −7
× 500 ×10− 3
Hence, the correct option is (B). 300 ×10 × 4π×10 ×1200
NI = 276310.66 AT
Sol.3
Now, an air gap of 1 mm introduced and current
N 2μ 0μ r a
Self-inductance, L = remains constant so total ampere turns is not
l
changed.
N 2μ 0 a Length of iron ring, li = 500 − 1 = 499 mm
For air gap, L = Ans.
2x
li = 499 ×10− 3 m = 0.499 m
Hence, the correct option is (C).
Sol.4 Length of air gap = 1 mm = 1×10− 3 m
Given : Total MMF, NI = H i li + H g lg
lg = 1mm = 1×10−3 m, Current i = 1A B B φ  li 
NI = li + lg =  + lg 
If supply is constant the flux is also constant, μ 0μ r μ0 aμ 0  μ r 
Ni = Hl φ
For old case, i1 = 1, l1 = 1×10−3 m 276310.66 =
300 × 10 × 4π× 10− 7
−6

For new case, l2 = 2 ×10−2 m  499 × 10− 3 

 + 1×10− 3 
i1 l1  1200 
=
i2 l2 1.0416 ×10− 4 = φ[1.415 ×10− 3 ]
1 1×10−3 φ = 0.07361 = 73.61 mWb Ans.
=
i2 2 ×10−3 Hence, the correct option is (B).
∴ i2 = 2 A Ans.
Hence, the correct option is (C).

Sol.5
Given :
 CHAPTER 2
Single Phase Transformer
 Learning Objectives :
After reading this chapter you should be able to :
 Understand basic of transformer.
 Explain construction of transformer.
 Understand equivalent circuit and phasor diagrams.
 Understand voltage regulation and efficiency of transformer.
 Explain different test of transformer.
 Understand auto transformer.

Table of Contents

2.1 Transformer Basics 2.13 Practical Transformer on Load

2.2 Working of Transformer 2.14 Phasor Diagram of Transformer at
2.2.1 Why Transformer Cannot Work Different Load
on DC? 2.15 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
2.3 Transformer Construction 2.16 Per Unit Value
2.3.1 Magnetic Core 2.17 Voltage Regulation
2.4 Types of Transformer Core 2.18 Losses in a Transformer
2.4.1 Core Type Transformer 2.19 Efficiency
2.4.2 Shell Type Transformer 2.20 All Day Efficiency
2.4.3 Comparison of Core & Shell Type 2.21 Open Circuit Test & Short Circuit Test
Transformer 2.22 Sumpner's Test (Back to Back or Load
2.5 Transformer Winding or Coils Test)
2.5.1 Types of Winding 2.23 Polarity Test
2.6 Transformer Oil or Insulation Oil 2.24 Transformer Impedance Matching
2.7 Conservator and Breather 2.25 Power Transformer & Distribution
2.8 Ideal Transformer Transformer
2.9 Ideal Transformer With no Load 2.26 Air Core Transformer & Iron Core
2.10 EMF Equation of Transformer Transformer
2.11 Observations from EMF Equation 2.27 Parallel Operation
2.12 Practical Transformer With no Load 2.28 Auto Transformer
GATE ACADEMY® Single Phase Transformer 2.2

2.1  Transformer Basics

Definition : Transformer is a static device which transfers power from one circuit to another
circuit without change in frequency.
Main function of transformer :
1. Changing voltage and current levels
2. Maintaining constant frequency, power and flux
3. Matching source and load impedance for maximum power transfer.
4. Isolating d.c. while permitting the flow of a.c. between two circuits or isolating one circuit
from another.
Features of transformer :
1. Constant frequency device : Transformer does not change the frequency of the system, so
it can be treated as constant frequency device.
2. Constant power device : Transformer transfers almost same amount of power from one
circuit to another circuit, so it can be treated as constant power device.
3. Constant-flux device : As the amount of flux in the core is constant irrespective of power
transfer, it can be treated as “Constant-flux device”.
4. Static device : Transformer is a static device as it has no moving or rotating parts due to
which there are no friction and windage loss.
5. Singly excited device : Transformer is a singly excited device, since it requires only one
external voltage source to energise any number of windings placed on its core.
6. Electromagnetic energy conversion device : Transformer is an electromagnetic energy
conversion device (If internal conversion process is considered). However, the transformer
is not a complete energy conversion device, as the input and output are of electrical nature.
Electrical Primary Secondary Electrical
energy winding winding energy
Magnetic
energy
7. Phase-shifting device : Transformer can be treated as “Phase-Shifting Device”, since it
offers a displacement of approximate 1800 between two circuits.
8. Two port network : Transformer is a four terminal 2-port network used in transmission
line (ABCD parameters).
9. Negative feedback circuit : Transformer is a negative feedback circuit or control circuit.
2.2  Working of Transformer
Definition : It consists of two inductive coils which are electrically separated but linked
through a common magnetic circuit through a path of low reactance.
One of the transformer windings is connected to a source of a.c. electric power, and the
second transformer winding supplies electric power to loads. The transformer winding
connected to the power source is called the primary winding or input winding and the winding
connected to the loads is called the secondary winding. Transformer works on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
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The principle of electromagnetic induction states that when two coils are inductively coupled
and if current in one coil is changed uniformly then an emf gets induced in the other coil. This
emf can drive a current, when a closed path is
provided to it and so, electric energy is transferred i 0

(entirely magnetically) from the first coil to second

coil. In transformer the emf induced in primary and v e N N
1 e v
1
1 2 2
2

secondary by change of flux (time varying field) with

respect to coil and it is achieved without physical Primary
Winding
movement of coil or magnet. So this type of emf is
known as statically induced emf. Core of magnetic materials
Application of transformer :
1. To change the level of voltage and current in electrical power system network.
2. In electrical power engineering transformer makes it possible to convert a generated
voltage of about 11 kV (as determined by generator design limitations) to higher values of
132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV, 500 kV and 765 kV thus permitting transmission of huge
amounts of power along long distances to appropriate distribution points at tremendous
savings in the cost of transmission lines.
3. At distribution points, transformers are used to reduce these high voltages to a safe level of
400/230 volts for use in homes, offices and other consumer premises.
4. Current Transformer and Potential Transformer also used to measure the currents and
voltages and for protection purpose.
5. Impedance-matching transformer : A transformer used to match the impedance of the
source and the impedance of the load.
6. Audio-frequency transformer : A transformer used in audio-frequency circuits to transfer
audio-frequency signals from one circuit to another.
7. Radio-frequency transformer : A transformer used in a radio-frequency circuit to transfer
radio-frequency signals from one circuit to another.
2.2.1 Why Transformer Cannot Work on DC?
If a rated DC voltage is applied across the primary, a flux of constant magnitude will be set up
in the core. Hence, there will be no induced emf.
Nd φ
Induced emf, E =
dt
dφ
where, =0 [ φ = Constant for DC]
dt
E =0
The resistance of primary winding is very low so primary current will be very high which will
damage the insulation, because of high I 2 R losses.
2.3  Transformer Construction
Definition : The transformer mainly consists of the magnetic circuit, electric circuit, dielectric
circuit, tanks, and accessories. The main elements of the transformer are the windings or
coil and the magnetic core.
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2.4 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY®
2.3.1 Magnetic Core
The basic function of the core is to couple the winding magnetically and restrict all the flux to
core without any leakage which is called tight coupling. The core material should be superior
magnetic material as well as should have good mechanical properties. Steel is preferred but
alloyed with 3.5% to 4% of silicon. More silicon content destroys the mechanical properties.
The core of the transformer is made up of silicon steel in order to provide a continuous
magnetic path. Usually, the core of the transformer is laminated for minimizing the eddy
current loss.
Feature of silicon steel :
1. Silicon steel is a ferromagnetic material, with superior magnetic properties.
2. High permeability (μ) and low reluctance to flow of flux.
3. Small hysteresis coefficient :
Hysteresis loss, Ph = ηBmax
x
fV
(i) where x is hysteresis coefficient and range of hysteresis coefficient is 1.5 to 2.5.
(ii) In silicon steel the value of hysteresis coefficient is 1.65 and it is lower side of range.
(iii)Due to lower side of range the hysteresis loss will be less.
4. Low eddy current loss : Pure steel is good magnetic material and it has high conductivity.
Due to conductivity of the pure steel, the emf is introduced in the core. This emf produces
circulating current in the core which produces eddy current losses.
To reduce the eddy current loss, conductivity of steel has to be reduced without
disturbing permeability. 3.5% to 4% of silicon has added to steel, so conductivity of steel
decreases. If conductivity decreases, the eddy current losses also decreases. To further
reduce the conductivity of steel, transformer core are laminated, so that eddy current losses
are reduced.
5. Lamination of iron core : For minimizing the eddy current loss, the steel sheet is
laminated each other by a light coat of core-plate varnish or by an oxide layer on the
surface. The thickness of lamination varies from 0.35 mm for a frequency of 50 Hz to 0.5
mm for a frequency of 25 Hz.
The laminations used in a transformer construction are very Laminated core
thin strips of insulated metal joined together to produce a solid
but laminated core as shown below.
These laminations are insulated from each other by a
insulating material to increase the effective resistivity of the core
thereby increasing the overall resistance to limit the flow of the
eddy currents.
Oxide paint, China clay, Japan varnish and thin impregnated Single lamination
paper are used as insulating material in the lamination process.
Oxide paint is mostly used in all transformers to withstand high temperature.
2.5 Electrical Machine [EE] GATE ACADEMY®
6. Stacking factor : By adding transformer oil, the dielectric strength of the insulation will be
increased.
Net cross sectional area of core A
Stacking factor = K s = = i
Gross cross sectional area of core Agi
where, gross cross sectional area of core,
Agi = Length × Breath of core and net cross sectional area of core
Ai = Gross cross sectional area of core – Area occupied by insulating material.
Stacking factor depends on thickness of lamination. For thin lamination the value of
Stacking factor is 0.5 and for thick lamination the value of Stacking factor is 0.95.
7. Cross section of iron core : The cross-section of the limb depends on the type of coil to
be used either circular or rectangular. The different cross-sections of limbs, practically used
are shown in the figure.
For large
transformers

For small
transformers

Rectangular Square Cruciform 3 stepped Cruciform

For small rating of transformer, rectangular cross sectional area type core are used but
generally square cross sectional area type core are preferred as they have high mechanical
strength. As the rating increases, stepped core or cruciform core are preferred.
As the space utilization is better with stepped cores, the length of mean turn of copper
is reduced and therefore copper losses and cost of copper also reduced.
0.85d

d
0.9d

0.53d 0.42d
0.71 d
0.7d
Square core Two stepped core Three stepped core
Due to the above reasons size, weight, and cost of transformer is less with cruciform core.
Flux is uniformly distributed.
Effective cross sectional area
Utilization factor =
Total cross sectional area
So, the utilization factor of cruciform core is high (85% to 95%) as compared to square
core.
8. Staggering : To avoid the high reluctance at the joints because of laminations, the alternate
layers are stacked differently to eliminate the joints. This is called staggering. The butt
joints are staggered in alternate layers. It is shown in the below figure.
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 2.6 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY®
st rd th
1 , 3 , 5 ...
2nd, 4 th, 6 th... layers
layers Butt
joints
Butt
joints

The advantages of staggering in transformer are :

(i) It has continuous air gap.
(ii) Reluctance of magnetic circuit gets reduced.
(iii)The continuous air gap reduces the mechanical strength of the core and in staggering
helps to increase the mechanical strength of the core.
(iv) We can reduce the noise level only by good core staggering.

Remember
Stepped core reduces core volume and core loss and it also reduces the amount of copper
required.

Numerical
Answer
Type Questions
 Observation of EMF Equation
Q.1 A single phase transformer with 10 : 1 144 cm 2 then the flux density in the
turn-ratio and rated at 50 kVA, core is _______ T.
2400/240 V, 50 Hz is used to step Q.4 A 1-phase transformer has 400 primary
down the voltage of a distribution and 1000 secondary turns. Net cross-
system. The low tension voltage is to be sectional area of core is 60 cm 2 . If
kept constant at 240 V. find the value of primary windings be connected to 50
load impedance of the LV side so that Hz supply at 520 V, the peak value of
the transformer will be loaded fully. flux density in the core is _______ Wb/
Find also the value of maximum flux
m2 .
inside the core if the LV side has 23
Q.5 A single phase, ideal transformer of
turns.
voltage rating 200/400 V, 50 Hz
Q.2 A magnetic circuit with a cross
produces a flux density of 1.3 T when
sectional area of 15 cm 2 is to be its LV side is energized from a 200 V,
operated at 60 Hz from a 120 V rms 50 Hz source. If the LV side is
supply. The number of turns required to energized from a 180 V, 40 Hz source,
achieve a peak magnetic flux density of the flux density in the core will become
1.8 T in the core is _______. _______ T.
Q.3 The rating of primary winding of a
transformer, having 60 turns is 250 V,
50 Hz. If the core cross section area is
GATE ACADEMY® Single Phase Transformer 2.7

 Practical Transformer with no Load

Q.1 The core loss and exciting volt amperes open circuited wattage as 100W. The
for the core at Bmax = 1.5 T and 60 Hz mutual inductance between the primary
is found to be Pc = 16 W and (VI )rms = and secondary winding is 2 H. Neglect
winding resistance and leakage
20 VA and the induced voltage was 194
reactance. What value will be the
V, when the winding has 200 turns.
current taken by the transformer. If the
Find :
load test conducted on HV side.
(i) No load power factor
(A) 0.4 A (B) 0.318 A
(ii) Core loss current
(C) 0.25 A (D) 0.296 A
(iii)Magnetizing current
Q.4 A non-sinusoidal voltage
Q.2 Find active and reactive components of
V = 150 sin 314t − 75sin1570t
no-load current and the no-load current
is applied to the 250 turns winding of a
of a 400/220 V single phase
transformer. Find the core flux as a
transformer if power input of HV
function of time.
winding is 100W. The low voltage
winding is kept open. The power factor Q.5 A voltage V = 200 sin 314t is applied to
at no-load is 0.2 lag. the transformer winding in a no load
Q.3 5 kVA, 50 Hz single phase transformer test. The resulting current is found to be
has ratio 200/400 V. The data taken on i = 3sin (314t − 600 ). Determine core
the LV side at rated voltage shows the loss and r.m.s value of exciting current.
A.
Multiple
B.
C. Choice
D. Questions

 Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Q.1 The exact equivalent circuit of a two (A) Voltage drop in the primary
winding transformer is given in the impedance due to the secondary
figure given above. For affecting current
simplification, the parallel magnetizing (B) Voltage drop in the primary
impedance due to the exciting
branch, consisting of RC and X Q is current
shifted to the left of the primary leakage (C) Voltage drop in the secondary
impedance (r1 + jx1 ) . This impedance due to the exciting
simplification introduces the current
inaccuracy, in the neglect of (D) Reduction in values of RC and X Q
[ESE 2005] of the exciting circuit
r1 x1 I1 I2 r2 x2
+
Ie
+ Q.2 A 120/2400 V, 60 Hz, 50 kVA
IC IQ transformer has a magnetizing
V1 V1' E2 V2
reactance (as measured from the LV
RC XQ
side) of 34.6 Ω . The leakage reactance

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 2.8 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY®
on LV side is 27.4 m Ω and on HV side Q.3 The primary current I p in figure is
is 11.2 H.
XL = 5 Ω Ip I s X C = 20 kΩ
With the secondary open circuited and
120 V applied to the primary, the
primary current and the secondary 10 V 40 kΩ
voltage are
(A) 3 A, 2400 V 1 : 100
(B) 3.46 A, 2398 V (A) 2 A
(C) 3.8 A, 2390 V (B) 0.04 A
(D) None of these (C) 0.004 A
(D) none of the above
 Per Unit Value
Q.1 A 4 kVA, 400 V/200 V single phase
transformer has resistance of 0.02 pu
and reactance of 0.06 pu. The resistance
and reactance referred to high voltage
side are [ESE 2011, 2002]
(A) 0.2 ohm and 0.6 ohm
(B) 0.8 ohm and 2.4 ohm
(C) 0.08 ohm and 0.24 ohm
(D) 2 ohm and 6 ohm
GATE ACADEMY® Single Phase Transformer 2.2

 Explanation of Numerical Answer Type Question (Based on EMF Equation)

Sol.1 Induced emf, E = 4.44 × φm × f × N
N1 E = 4.44 × Bm × A × f × N
Given : Turn ratio = 10 :1,
N2
E
VA rating S FL = 50 kVA, V1 = 2400, Flux density, Bm =
4.44 × A × f × N
V2 = 240 V , Frequency f = 50 Hz, 250
Bm =
Secondary number of turns N 2 = 23 4.44 ×144 ×10−4 × 50 × 60
Full load secondary current, Bm = 1.3 T Ans.
S FL 50 ×103 Sol.4
I2 = = = 208.33A
V2 240 Given : Primary turns N1 = 400,
Load impedance in secondary side, Secondary turns N 2 = 1000,
V 240
ZL = 2 = = 1.15 Ω Ans. Net cross sectional area
I 2 208.33
A = 60 cm 2 = 60 ×10− 4 m 2 ,
Induced emf,
Frequency f = 50 Hz,
E2 = 4.44 × φm × f × N 2
Primary voltage E1 = 520 V
E2
∴ Flux, φm = Induced emf in primary winding,
4.44 × f × N 2
E1 = 4.44 × φm × f × N1
240
φm = = 0.047 Wb Ans. E1 = 4.44 × Bm × A × f × N1
4.44 × 50 × 23
Sol.2 Peak value of flux density,
Given : E1
Bm =
Cross sectional area A = 15cm 2 = 15 ×10−4 m 2 , 4.44 × A × f × N1
Frequency f = 60 Hz , Voltage E = 120 V 520
Bm =
and Peak flux density Bm = 1.8T 4.44 × 60 ×10−4 × 50 × 400
Bm = 0.976 T Ans.
Induced emf, E = 4.44 × φm × f × N
Sol.5
E = 4.44 × Bm × A × f × N
Given :
E
Number of turn, N = Case 1 : Voltage Vold = 200 V,
4.44 × Bm × A × f
Frequency f old = 50 Hz,
120
N= and Flux density Bold = 1.3T
4.44 ×1.8 ×15 ×10−4 × 60
N = 166.85 ≅ 167 turns Ans. Case 2 : Voltage Vnew = 180 V,
Sol.3 Frequency f new = 40 Hz,
Given : Number of turns N = 60, and Flux density Bnew = ?
Voltage E = 250 V, Frequency f = 50 Hz,
Voltage
Cross sectional area Flux density ∝
Frequency
A = 144 cm 2 = 144 ×10− 4 m 2
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 2.3 Electrical Machine [EE] GATE ACADEMY®
Bnew Vnew / f new Vnew f old
Then, = = × Scan for
Bold Vold / f old Vold f new Video Solution
Vnew f old
Bnew = Bold × ×
Vold f new
180 50
Bnew = 1.3 × × = 1.46 T Ans.
200 40
 Explanation of Numerical Answer Type Question (Based on Practical
Transformer with No Load)
Sol.1 ∴ φ0 = cos −1 0.2 = 78.460
Given : Maximum flux density Bmax = 1.5T,  No load power, P0 = V1 I 0 cos φ0
Frequency f = 60 Hz, Core loss Pc = 16 W, ∴ No load current,
VA rating = 20 VA, Voltage V1 = 194 V, P0 100
I0 = = = 1.25 A
No of turns N1 = 200 V1 cos φ0 400 × 0.2
No load current, Active component or core loss component,
VA rating 20 I c = I 0 cos φ0 = 1.25 × 0.2 = 0.25 A Ans.
I= = = 0.1030 A
Voltage 194 Reactive component or magnetizing
(i) No load power, P0 = V1 I 0 cos φ0 component,
∴ No load power factor, I m = I 0 sin φ0
P 16 I m = 1.25sin 78.460 = 1.224 A Ans.
cos φ0 = 0 =
V1 I 0 194 × 0.1030
Sol.3
cos φ0 = 0.8 Ans. Given : VA rating = 5 kVA,
No load power factor angle, Frequency f = 50 Hz, E1 = 200, E2 = 400 V,
∴ φ0 = cos −1 0.8 = 36.860
No load power P0 = 100 W,
(ii) Core loss current,
Mutual inductance M = 2 H
I c = I 0 cos φ0
P0 = V1 I 0 cos φ0 = V1 I c
I c = 0.1030 × 0.8 = 0.0824 A Ans.
∴ Core loss component,
(iii) Magnetizing current,
P 100
I m = I 0 sin φ0 = 0.1030 × sin 36.860 Ic = 0 = = 0.5 A
V1 200
I m = 0.0617 A Ans.
I m (max)
Sol.2
Given : V1 = 400 V, V2 = 220 V,
1
No load power P0 = 100 W,
4f
No load power factor cos φ0 = 0.2
1
No load power factor angle, T=
f

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 2.3 Electrical Machine [EE] GATE ACADEMY®
dim 1  150 75 
Secondary induced emf, E2 = M φ= × ( − cos 314 t ) + cos1570 t 
dt 250  314 1570 
I m (max) − 0  −1.911cos 314 t 
400 = 2 × φ= mWb Ans.
1
 +0.1911cos1570 t 
4f
Sol.5
400 = 2 I m (max) × 4 × 50
Given : Voltage V = 200 sin 314 t ,
400
I m (max) = = 1A i = 3sin (314 t − 600 )
400
1 Vmax 200
I m ( rms ) = = 0.707 A Rms value of voltage, Vrms = =
2 2 2
Rms value of exciting current,
I 0 = I m2 + I c2
I 3
I 0 = max =
I 0 = 0.7072 + 0.52 = 0.86 A 2 2

HV side current = I 0 ×
N1 I 0 = 2.122 A Ans.
N2
Power factor cycle, φ0 = 600
200
= 0.86 × = 0.43 A Ans. [Angle between voltage and current]
400
Core loss Pc = No load power P0 ,
Sol.4
Given : 200 3
Pc = P0 = V1 I 0 cos φ0 = × × cos 600
Voltage V = 150 sin (314 t ) − 75sin (1570 t ), 2 2
Number of turns N = 250 Core loss, Pc = P0 = 150 W Ans.
dφ RMS value of excitation current,
Voltage, V = N
dt I m = I 0 sin φ0 = 2.122sin 60
1
∴ φ =  Vdt I m = 1.837 A Ans.
N
1
(150sin 314 t − 75sin1570 t ) dt
250 
=

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 CHAPTER 3
Three Phase Transformer

 Learning Objectives :
After reading this chapter you should be able to :
 Understand three phase transformer connection.
 Explain open delta connection.
 Explain scott connection.
 Understand three winding transformer.
 Understand harmonics in single phase and three phase transformers.

Table of Contents

3.1 Introduction 3.6 Special Three Phase Transformer

3.2 Advantages of Three Phase Bank Connection
Transformer Over Single Unit 3.6.1 Zig-Zag Star
Transformer 3.6.2 Delta Zig-Zag Star
3.3 Difference Between Three Phase Core 3.6.3 Star Zig-Zag Star
Type & Shell Type Transformer 3.7 Open Delta or V-V Connection
3.4 Three Phase Transformer Connections 3.8 Scott Connection (Three Phase to Two
Phase Conversion)
3.4.1 Star Connection
3.9 Three Winding Transformer
3.4.2 Delta Connection
3.10 Parallel Operation of Three Phase
3.4.3 Expression of 3-phase Power in Transformer
AC Circuit 3.11 Inrush or Excitation Phenomena in
3.5 Vector Group of Transformer Transformer
3.5.1 Star-Star Connection 3.12 Harmonics in Single Phase Transformers
3.5.2 Star-Delta Connection 3.13 Harmonics in 3-phase Transformer
3.13.1 3-φ Banks of 1-φ Transformers
3.5.3 Delta-Star Connection
3.14 Harmonic Suppression
3.5.4 Delta- Delta Connection
 3.2 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY®

3.1  Introduction
Definition : The generation of an electrical power is usually three phase and at higher voltages
like 13.2 kV, 22 kV or somewhat higher. Transmission of an electrical power is also at very high
voltages like 110 kV, 132 kV or 400 kV. To step up the generated voltages for transmission
purposes it is necessary to have three phase transformers. At the time of distribution it is
necessary to reduce the voltage level up to 6600 V, 440 V, 230 V etc., for which step down three
phase transformers are essential.
A three-phase system is used to generate and transmit large amount of electric power. Three
phase transformers are required to step-up or step down voltage in various stages of a power
system. A three-phase transformer can be built in two ways viz.
1. By connecting a bank of three single-phase transformers.
2. By constructing a three phase transformer on a common magnetic structure.
3.2  Advantages of Three Phase Bank Transformer Over Single Unit
Transformer
1. A three phase transformer occupies less space for same rating, compared to a bank of three
single phase transformers.
2. Its weight is less.
3. Its cost is less.
4. Only one unit is required to be handled which makes it easy for the operator.
5. It can be transported easily.
6. The core will be of smaller size and the material required for the core is less.
7. Single three phase unit is more efficient.
8. In case of three single phase units, six terminals are required to be brought out while in case
of one three phase unit, only three terminals are required to be brought out.
9. The overall bus bar structure, switchgear and installation of single three phase unit is simpler.
10. In contrast to above, a bank of three single phase transformers is used in underground work
such as in mines as it is easier to transport these units. The bank of three single phase
transformers also offers the advantage of open delta operation with reduced rating when one
of the units in the bank is inoperative.
11. But it is common practice to use a single three phase transformer unit due to its reduced cost.
3.3  Difference Between Three Phase Core Type & Shell Type Transformer
S. No. Core Type Shell Type
1. Less Mechanical support More mechanical support
2. Copper requirement is less More copper requirement
3. Less insulation required More insulation required
High voltage, low KVA rating Low voltage, high KVA rating transformer
4.
transformer
5. 3rd harmonic flux is absent Closed path for 3rd harmonic flux
GATE ACADEMY® Three Phase Transformer 3.3

6. emf is always sinusoidal emf is non sinusoidal but sinusoidal for a connection

Winding C
Winding A

Winding B
VA VB VC
Secondary Primary
VA VB VC 3 φ0 3 φ0
2 ↑ φa ↑ φb ↑ φc 2
↑ φa ↑ φb ↑ φc ↓ Va Vb Vc ↓
7.

LEG 5

LEG 4
Va Vb Vc
3 φ0 LEG 1 LEG 2 LEG 3

LEG 1 LEG 2 LEG 3

Fig. Five-leg shell type transformer
Fig. Three-leg core type
transformer
3.4  Three Phase Transformer Connections
Definition : The primary and secondary windings of three phase transformers as three phase
windings can be connected in different ways such as in star or in delta.
3.4.1 Star Connection
In a star connection, the similar ends (either start or finish) of the three windings are connected
to a common point called as Star or Neutral point.
Usually the circuit is a three phase three wire star connected system. However, sometimes a
fourth wire is carried from a star point to the external circuit called as the neutral wire.
Relationship between line and phase voltages and currents in a balanced 3-phase star
connection :
Line voltage : The potential difference between any two lines is known as line voltage as shown
in the figure.
Phase voltage : The potential difference between one line and neutral is known as phase voltage.
Under balanced conditions all voltages have equal magnitudes and 1200 phase displacement.
The connection diagram of star connected system shown below,
IA
A
+
VAN
−
N
− −
VBN + IB
+ VCN B
IC
C
VAN = VBN = VCN = VP
or VAN = VP ∠ 00
VBN = VP ∠ − 1200
VCN = VP ∠ − 2400 = VP ∠1200
∴ VAN = VBN = VCN = VP (1∠ 00 + 1∠ − 1200 + 1∠1200 ) = 0
3.4 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY®
Phasor of phase voltage :
VA N
VBN

1200 1200
1200 VCN VAN
VCN VB N

Net resultant = 0
Line voltages : Assuming VAB = VBC = VCA = VL
VAB = VAN − VBN = VP ∠ 00 − VP ∠ − 1200 = VP (1 − 1∠ − 1200 )
VAB = 3 VP ∠ 300
VBC = VBN − VCN = VP ∠ − 1200 − VP ∠1200
VBC = 3 VP ∠ − 900
VCA = VCN − VAN = VP ∠1200 − VP ∠ 00
VCA = 3 VP ∠1500
∴ VAB = VBC = VCA = 3 VP

∴ VL = 3 VP
Phasor diagram of line voltage :
VAB
VBC

120 0 120 0
120 0 VCA VAB
VCA VBC

∴ VAB + VBC + VCA = 3 VP ∠ 300 + 3 VP ∠ − 900 + 3 VP ∠1500

VAB + VBC + VCA = 0
Net resultant = 0
Relation between line and phase voltage :
VAB = 3VP ∠ 30 0
VAN = VP

300

30
0 VBC = 3VP ∠ − 90 0
0
30 VBN = VP
VCN = VP

VCA = 3VP ∠1500

GATE ACADEMY® Three Phase Transformer 3.5

Line current and phase current :

I L = I P = I A = I B = IC

I A = I P ∠ 00 , I B = I P ∠ − 1200 , I C = I P ∠1200
∴ I A + I B + I C = 0 (Resultant = 0)
IA
IB

1200 120 0
1200 IC IA
IC IB

Conclusion :
1. Line voltage and phase voltage, VL = 3 VP
2. Line current and phase current, I L = I P

3. For ABC phase sequence VL leads VP by 300.

3.4.2 Delta Connection
In a delta or mesh connection, the end terminal of one winding is connected to the start terminal
of the other phase and so on. This gives a closed circuit.
Relation between line and phase value of voltage and currents in case of delta connected
system :
The three lines are run from the three junctions of the mesh called as the line conductors as
shown in figure below,
Line current : Current flowing through the line A, B and C. IA
Phase current : Current flowing between to line. IAB
VCA −
Under balanced condition phase current have equal magnitude + VA B
I CA +
− + −
and 1200 phase displacement i.e., IB
VB C I BC
I AB = I BC = I CA = I P IC

I AB = I P ∠ 00 , I BC = I P ∠ − 1200 , I CA = I P ∠1200

∴ I AB + I BC + I CA = I P ∠ 00 + I P ∠ − 1200 + I P ∠1200 = 0
Phasor diagram of phase currents,
I AB
I BC
(Resultant = 0)

ICA I AB
I CA IBC
3.6 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY®
Line voltage and phase voltage :
VL = VP = VAB = VBC = VCA
VAB = VP ∠ 00 , VBC = VP ∠ − 1200 , VCA = VP ∠1200
VAB + VBC + VCA = 0 (Resultant = 0)
VAB
VBC
(Resultant = 0)

VCA VAB
VCA VBC
Line currents : Assume I A = I B = I C = I L
I A = I AB − I CA = I P ∠ 00 − I P ∠1200
I A = 3I P ∠ − 300
I B = I BC − I AB = I P ∠ − 1200 − I P ∠ 00
I B = 3I P ∠ − 1500
I C = I CA − I BC = I P ∠1200 − I P ∠ − 1200
I C = 3I P ∠ 900
I A = I B = I C = 3I P
∴ I L = 3I P
Phasor diagram of line current :
IA
IB
(Resultant = 0)
1200
120 0
1200 IC IA
IC IB
Relation between line and phase current :
I AB

I A = 3I P Ð - 300

300

I C = 3I P Ð 900 300
300

I CA I BC

I B = 3I P Ð - 1500
GATE ACADEMY® Three Phase Transformer 3.7

Conclusion :
1. Line voltage and phase voltage, VL = Vp .
2. Line current and phase current, I L = 3I p .
3. For ABC phase sequence I L leg I p by 300.
3.4.3 Expression of 3-Phase Power in AC Circuit
1. The power in a single phase AC circuit is given by,
P1φ = VI cos φ [where, cos φ is the power factor of circuit]
∴ In a three phase system the power will be,
P3φ = 3 × V ph × I ph × cos φ
2. In star connection :
P3φ = 3 × V ph × I ph × cos φ
VL  VL = 3 V ph 
P3φ = 3 × × I L × cos φ = 3VL I L cos φ  
3
3. In delta connection :
P3φ = 3V ph × I ph × cos φ
IL  I L = 3 I ph 
P3φ = 3VL × × cos φ  
3
P3φ = 3VL I L cos φ
where, VL = line voltage, I L = line current, V ph = phase voltage, I ph = phase current.
Solved Example 1
A 3-phase transformer is used to step-down the voltage of a 3-phase, 11 kV feeder line. Per-
phase turns ratio is 12. For a primary line current of 20 A, calculate the secondary line voltage,
line current and output kVA for Star-Star connection.
Sol. Primary line voltage, VL1 = 11000 V , Turns ratio, a = 12 , Primary line current I L1 = 20 A ,
VL1 4000
Phase voltage of primary side (Y-connection), VP1 = = = 6350.85 V
3 3
6350.85
VP1
Secondary phase voltage VP2 = = = 529.23 V Ans.
a 12
Secondary line voltage ( Δ -connection) VL2 = 3VP2 = 3 × 529.23 = 916.67 V Ans.
Phase current at primary side (Y-connection) I P1 = I L1 = 20 A
Secondary phase current I P2 = I P1 × a = 20 ×12 = 240 A
Secondary line current (Y-connection) I L2 = I P2 = 240 A Ans.
Output kVA = 3VP2 I P2 = 3 × 529.23 × 240 = 381.06 kVA Ans.

Scan for
Video Solution
 3.8 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY®

TEST
2
Q.1 A 3-phase transformer bank consists of Q.5 Three 1100/110 V transformers
three identical 2300/230 V, 15 kVA connected in Δ -Δ supply a load of 100
single phase transformers connected in kW. One of these transformers is
delta/delta. The bank supplies a 20 kVA, removed. What ratio of current will flow
unity power factor 3-phase load. If one in each transformer when three
of the single phase transformer develops transformers were in service to the two
a fault and is removed, the load carried transformers in service?
by each of the two transformers now (A) 1.73 (B) l
operating in open delta will be : (C) 0.577 (D) None of these
(A) 10 kVA (B) 15 kVA

(C) 20/ 3 kVA (D) 20 kVA

Q.2 A Δ /Δ connected transformer is

connected as V/V connected
transformer. The ratio of VA rating of
V/V connected transformer and Δ /Δ
connected transformer is [ESE 2012]
(A) 57.7% (B) 100%
(C) 50% (D) 75%
Q.3 When one transformer is removed from
a Δ -Δ bank of 30 kVA transformer, the
capacity of the resulting 3-phase
transformer in V-V connection will be
[ESE 2011]
(A) 11.5 kVA (B) 17.3 kVA
(C) 20 kVA (D) 25.9 kVA
Q.4 The primary line current of an open delta
connected transformer is measured to be
100 A. If the turns ratio between the
primary and secondary coils is 2 : 1, the
secondary line current is
(A) 173.2 A (B) 200 A
(C) 150 A (D) 50 A
GATE ACADEMY® Three Phase Transformer 3.69

Numerical
Answer
Type Questions
 Three Phase Connections
Q.1 An 11000/440 V, 50 Hz, 3-phase 1-phase transformer. The maximum
transformer is delta connected on the HV voltage and power rating of the new
side and the LV windings are star configuration is η = 95.55%
connected. There should be 12 V per Q.4 A l000 kVA, 12/0.6 kV, 3 phase delta-
turn and the flux density is not to exceed star transformer has ohmic loss of 4 kW
1.2 Wb/ m 2 . Calculate the number of on H.V. side and 3 kW on L.V. under
turns per phase on each winding and the rated load. The total leakage reactance is
net iron cross-sectional area of the core. 0.09 p.u. Calculate the ohmic values of
Q.2 If the primary line voltage rating is 3.3 the resistance on both sides.
kV (Y-side) of a 25 kVA, Y- Δ Q.5 A 3-phase transformer is used to step-
transformer (per phase ratio is 10 : 1). down the voltage of a 3-phase, 11 kV
What is line current rating of secondary feeder line. Per phase turns ratio is 12.
side of transformer? For a primary line current of 20 A,
V calculate the secondary line voltage, line
Q.3 The winding of a Q kVAR 1 V, 3-
V2 current and output kVA for Delta-Delta
phase, Δ -connected, core type connection.
transformer are reconnected to work as
 Open Delta or V-V Connection
Q.1 Two 40 KVA single phase transformer of each transformer. If one transformer
are connected in open delta to supply is found faulty and the other two are
230 V balanced 3-phase load. connected in V-V determine the current
(i) What is the total load that can be in the winding of each transformer and
supplied without over loading either its power factor.
transformer? Q.3 Three single phase transformer are
(ii) When the delta is closed by the connected in mesh. If one transformer is
addition of third 40 kVA transformer found faulty and removed. What will be
what total load now can be supplied. the reduction in rating of each at the
(iii) % increase in load. other transformer? What must be rating
at each transformer in V-V connection to
Q.2 Three single phase transformer
supply a three phase balanced load at
connected in Δ -Δ supply a balanced 3-
phase load of 1500 kW at 4400 V at 0.8 200 kVA. If a third similar transformer
power factor lagging. The transformer is included what will be the rated
are supplied from 3 phase mains at capacitor at set.
11000 V. Find the current in the winding
GATE ACADEMY® Three Phase Transformer 3.71
Q.4 Two identical 1 phase transformers are Q.5 Two transformers, each rated 250 kVA,
connected in open delta across 3 phase 11/2 kV and 50 Hz, are connected in
mains and deliver a balanced load of open delta on both the primary and
3000 kW at 11 kV and 0.8 pf. lagging. secondary.
Calculate (i) Find the load kVA that can be
(i) the line and phase currents and the supplied from this transformer
power factors at which the two connection.
transformers are working. (ii) A delta-connected three-phase load
(ii) If one more identical unit is added of 250 kVA, 0.8 pf, 2 kV is
and the open delta is converted to connected to the LV terminals of this
closed delta, calculate the additional open-delta transformer. Determine
load of the same power factor that the transformer currents on the 11
can now be supplied for the same kV side of this connection.
temperature rise. Also calculate the
phase and line currents.

 Answer of Test - 2 (Based on Open Delta or V-V Connection)

1. C 2. A 3. B 4. B 5. C

 Explanation of Test - 2 (Based on Open Delta or V-V Connection)

Sol.1 kVA rating of V-V connection
kVA rating of each transformer = 15 kVA , 1
= × kVA rating at Δ -Δ connection
Total load = 20 kVA 3
Total kVA load = 3 × kVA load carried by 1
= × 30 = 17.32 kVA Ans.
each transformer 3
kVA load carried by each transformer Hence, the correct option is (B).
20 Sol.4
= kVA Ans.
3 Given : Primary line current in V-V connection
Hence, the correct option is (C). I L1 = 100A , Turns ratio = 2 :1 ,
Sol.2
For V-V connection I L1 = I p1 = 100 A
kVA rating of V-V connection 1
= = 0.5773 Secondary phase current,
kVA rating of Δ-Δ connection 3
N1
= 57.73% Ans. I p2 = I p1 × = 100 × 2 = 200 A
N2
Hence, the correct option is (A).
Sol.3 Secondary line current, I L2 = I p2 = 200 A Ans.
kVA rating at Δ -Δ connection = 30 kVA Hence, the correct option is (B).
kVA rating of V-V connection 1 Sol.5
=
kVA rating of Δ-Δ connection 3 Given : 3-φ load = 100 kW, VP1 = 1100V,
GATE ACADEMY® Three Phase Transformer 3.83
VP2 = 110 V I P ( Δ−Δ ) 1
Ratio of current, = = 0.577 Ans.
kVA rating at Δ − Δ = 3VPn I P ( Δ−Δ ) I P (V −V ) 3
Hence, the correct option is (C).
kVA rating at V − V = 3 VPn I P (V −V )

 Explanation of NAT Questions (Based on Three Phase Connection)

Sol.1 Sol.2
Given : VL1 = 11000 V, VL 2 = 440 V, Given : VA rating = 25 kVA, VL1 = 3.3 kV ,
Emf per turns = 12 V, V1
2
= 10 :1
Flux density B = 1.2 Wb/m V2
Phase voltage of primary side (Δ), 1
Transformation ratio, K =
VP1 = VL1 = 11000 V 10
Phase voltage of primary side (Y-connected),
Phase voltage of secondary side (Y), VL 3.3 ×103
VL 2 440 VP1 = 1 = = 1905.25 V
VP 2 = = 3 3
3 3 VP N
VP1 Using transformation ratio, 2 = 2
Emf per turn in primary side = = 12 VP1 N1
N1 1
∴ VP2 = 1905.25 × = 190.52 V
11000 10
= 12
N1 Phase current of secondary side,
∴ Primary number of turns, 25 × 103
I P2 =
11000 3 × VP2
N1 = = 917 turns Ans.
12 25 × 103 25 × 103
I P2 = = = 43.73 A
Emf per turn in secondary side =
VP 2
= 12 3 × VL2 3 × 190.52
N2 Line current of secondary side, ( Δ -connected)
440 I L2 = 3 × I P2 = 3 × 43.73 A = 75.75 A
= 12
3 × N2 Ans.
∴ Secondary number of turns, Sol.3
440 Delta connected transformer are reconnected as
N2 = = 21 turns Ans. 1-φ transformer the connection diagram.
3 ×12
For maximum voltage all winding must be
Induced emf per turn, connected in additive polarity
VP 2 I
= 4.44 Bm A × f
N2 Z
12 = 4.44 ×1.2 × 50 × A I
V1 Z Z
Cross sectional area, Z Vtotal

12
A= = 450 cm 2 Ans.
4.44 ×1.2 × 50 Z Z
GATE ACADEMY® Three Phase Transformer 3.85
In single phase transformer, 4 ×103 = 3 × (27.77)2 R01
Total voltage,
Resistance in H.V. side, R01 = 1.728 Ω Ans.
Vtotal = Sum of all phase voltage = 3VP
Full load copper loss in secondary side
If current rating is same, so power rating of delta
3 ×103 = 3 × (962.25) 2 R02
connection,
Q = 3VP I Resistance in L.V. side, R02 = 1.08 mΩ Ans.

Power rating of 1-φ connection, Scan for

Video Solution
Q = (3VP ) I = 3VP I
∴ Power rating of new configuration is Sol.5
same as delta connected system. Given : Primary line voltage VL1 = 11000 V ,
Sol.4
Turns ratio = 12, Primary current I L1 = 20 A ,
Given : VA rating = 1000 kVA, VL1 = 12 kV ,
Primary phase voltage (Δ - connection),
VL2 = 0.6 kV ,
VP1 = VL1 = 11000 V .
Full load copper loss in HV side = 4 kW,
Secondary phase current,
Full load copper loss in LV side = 3kW,
N 2 VP1
X PU = 0.09 pu VP2 = VP1 × =
N1 12
Phase voltage of primary side (Δ - connection),
11000
VP1 = VL1 = 12 kV VP2 = = 916.67 V
12
Phase voltage of secondary side (Y-connection), Secondary line voltage ( Δ - connection),
VL2 0.6 VL2 = VP2 = 916.67 V Ans.
VP2 = = kV
3 3 Primary phase current (Δ - connection),
Phase current on primary side,
I L1 20
1000 ×103 I P1 = = = 11.54 A
I P1 = 3 3
3 × VP1
Secondary phase current,
3
1000 × 10 N1
I P1 = = 27.77 A I P2 = I P1 × = 11.54 ×12 = 138.56 A
3 × 12 × 103 N2
Phase current on secondary side, Secondary lime current (Δ - connection),
3
1000 × 10
I P2 = I L2 = 3I P2 = 3 × 138.56 = 240 A Ans.
3 × VP2
Output kVA = 3VP2 I P2
1000 ×103
I P2 = = 962.52 A = 3 × 916. × 67 ×138.56 = 381 kVA Ans.
0.6
3× ×103
3
Full load copper loss in primary side = 3I P21 R01
GATE ACADEMY® Three Phase Transformer 3.69
 Explanation of NAT Questions (Based on Open Delta or V-V Connection)
Sol.1 Phase current in primary side,
(i) KVA load carried by each transformer, N
I P1 = I P 2 × 2
(kVA) Δ−Δ 40 × 3 N1
(kVA)V −V = = = 69.28
3 3 I P1 = 246 × 0.4 = 98.4 A Ans.
Ans. Power factor of transformer in V-V connection
(ii) When Δ is closed, = 0.866 times the power factor in Δ -Δ
(kVA)Δ−Δ = 3 × 40 = 120 kVA Ans. connection
(iii) % increase in load kVA = 0.866 × 0.8 = 0.6928 (lagging). Ans.
120 − 69.28
= ×100 = 73.2% Ans. Scan for
69.28 Video Solution
Sol.2
Sol.3
For Δ -Δ connection :
Given : Total load = 200 kVA
Phase voltage of secondary side,
Let the rating at each transformer = S1
VP 2 = VL 2 = 4400V
Total rating of three transformer = 3S1
Phase current of secondary side,
1500 ×103 Total rating of two transformer at V-V
I P2 = connection = 2S1
3 × VP2 × cos φ
Ratio of V-V bank to Δ -Δ bank transformer
1500 × 103
I P2 = = 142.04 A rating
3 × 4400 × 0.8
V-V rating 1
Transformation ratio, =
Δ-Δ rating 3
4400
K= = 0.4 (kVA) Δ−Δ = 3S1
11000
Phase current in primary side, (kVA)V −V = 0.577 × 3S1 = 1.731 S1
N Reduction in rating for V-V set
I P1 = I P 2 × 2
N1 = 2S1 − 1.751 S1 = 0.269 S1
I P1 = 142.04 × 0.4 = 56.81A Reduction in rating of each transformer
For V-V connection : 0.269S1
= = 13.4% of its rating
Phase current of secondary side, 2
1500 × 103  Total load kVA = 200 kVA
I P2 = Load shared by one transformer
3 × VP 2 × cos φ
200
 SV −V = 3 VP I P  = = 100 kVA
  2
1500 ×103 Let S2 be the rating at each transformer
I P2 = = 246 A Ans.
3 × 4400 × 0.8 S2 − 0.1345 S2 = 100 kVA
 3.92 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY®
0.8655 S2 = 100 5175 ×103
I L2 = = 340 A
S 2 = 115.54 3 ×11×103 × 0.8
Rating of each transformer in V-V connection = In Δ -Δ connection, I L2 = 3I ph2 i.e.,
115.54 kVA Ans. I L2 340
If third transformer of 115.54 kVA is included Phase current, I ph2 = = = 196 A
3 3
rating of new set
= 3 ×115.54 = 346.42 kVA Ans. Scan for
Video Solution
Sol.4
Given : Power P = 3000 kW, Sol.5
Line voltage VL2 = 11kV, Given :
Power factor cos φ = 0.8 kVA rating of each transformer = 250 kVA,
For Δ connected transformer : VP1 = 11kV, VP 2 = 2 kV
(i) Power supplied by transformer = 3000 Phase current in secondary side,
kW 250 ×103
IP2 = = 125 A
P = 3VL2 I L2 cos φ 2 ×103
P (i) kVA rating of V-V connection
Line current, I L2 =
3VL2 cos φ = 3 VP 2 I P 2
3000 ×103 = 3 × 2 ×103 ×125 = 433kVA Ans.
I L2 = = 197 A Ans.
3 ×11×103 × 0.8 (ii) If a delta connected 3-φ load connected
In open delta line current and phase to L.V. side,
current are same,
Two phase current in secondary side,
∴ Phase current = 197 A
250 × 103 250 ×103
Power factor of V-V connection IP2 = = = 72.2 A
transformer 3 × VP 2 3 × 2 × 103
= 86.6% of power factor of Δ -Δ Transformation ratio,
connection 2000
K= = 0.1818
= 0.866 × 0.8 = 0.6928 Ans. 11000
(ii) Additional load carried = 72.5% of Phase current in primary side,
original load = 0.725 × 3000 = 2175 kW N2
I P1 = I P 2 ×
Ans. N1
Total load = 3000 + 2175 = 5175 kW I P1 = 72.2 × 0.1818 = 13.12 A Ans.
P = 3VL I L cos φ
P
Line current, I L2 =
3VL2 cos φ
 CHAPTER 4
DC Machine

 Learning Objectives :
After reading this chapter you should be able to :
 Understand : Working of dc motor and generator.
 Explain EMF and torque equations.
 Explain losses and efficiency of dc machines.
 Describe characteristics of dc machines.
 Understand starting of dc motor.
 Understand speed control of dc machine.
 Explain various braking method.

Table of Contents

4.1 Introduction 4.16 Commutation

4.2 Basics of Construction 4.17 Characteristics of DC Generator
4.3 Working of DC Generator 4.18 Characteristics of DC Motor
4.4 EMF Equation of DC Generator
4.19 Starting of DC Motor
4.5 Working of DC Motor
4.20 Speed Control of DC Motor
4.6 Torque Equation of DC Motor
4.21 Electrical Braking of DC Motor
4.7 Classification of DC Machine
4.8 Permanent Magnet DC Motor 4.22 Applications of DC Machine

4.9 Electromagnet DC Machines

4.10 Separately Excited DC Machine
4.11 Self-Excited DC Machines
4.12 Losses in DC Machines
4.13 Power Stages in DC Machine
4.14 Efficiency & Condition for Maximum
Efficiency
4.15 Armature Reaction
 ®
GATE ACADEMY DC Machine 4.159

4.1  Introduction
The field of industrial direct current usage-being very wide, dc machines are produced both as
generators and motors for a very large range of output, voltage, speed, etc.
DC generator : A machine that converts mechanical power to electrical power of dc nature is
called a dc generator. The basic principle of working of a dc generator is Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction, which states that if there is a relative motion between a conductor
and a magnetic field, a dynamically induced emf is produced in the conductor. The direction of
the induced emf depends upon the direction of magnetic field and the direction of motion and is
given by Fleming's right hand rule. Normally, the armature of the dc generator, carrying a
number of conductors suitably arranged, is made as the rotating member, whereas the field is
kept stationary. The mechanical energy for the rotation of the armature may be derived from a
steam engine, an internal combustion engine, a steam or water turbine.
DC motor : A dc machine that converts electrical power into mechanical power is known as dc
motor, that is in action the dc motor, is converse of the dc generator. The dc motor basically
works on the principle that when a conductor carrying current is placed in a magnetic field,
mechanical force acts on the current carrying conductor, and as a result the conductor starts
rotating in a direction depending upon the direction of current and the field, and is given by
Fleming's left hand rule.
4.2  Basics of Construction
4.2.1 Common Features of All Rotating Electrical Machine
 The poles contains alternate north and south poles of even number.
 Excitation should be essentially in DC.
q-axis
Commutating Commutating
pole field winding

Pole shoe Commutator

Series field
Main pole winding
core

N S d-axis

Shunt field
Brush winding
N
Stator yoke Compensating
winding
Armature core Air gap
Armature winding Rotor shaft
 ®
4.160 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
 There will be stator (stationary part) and rotor (rotating part) with a least possible air gap
between them (0.5 to 2 mm).
 There is a magnetic circuit comprising flux path and an electric circuit comprising load
current.
Side view of DC machine :
Yore Commutator

Armature N
core

Load

Bearing Bearing
S

Armature Base
winding Brush
4.2.2 Parts of DC Machine
1. Stator : Stationary part of the machine. The stator carries a field winding that is used to
produce the required flux. Main parts of stator are :
(i) Yoke (ii) Field pole
(iii)Field winding (iv) Inter pole
(v) Compensating winding (vi) Brushes
(vii) End cover (viii) Bearing
(ix) Base
2. Rotor : Rotating part of the machine. The rotor carries a distributed winding, and is the
winding where the emf is induced. It is also known as the armature.
Main parts of rotor are :
(i) Armature core (ii) Armature winding
(iii)Shaft (iv) Commutator
(v) Spider (for large machines)
4.2.3 Stator Parts
1. Yoke or outer frame or magnetic frame :
 It protects the entire machine and also supports the poles.
 It offers flux path completion of φ / 2 ( φ is flux per pole).
 Yoke should be good magnetic material.
(i) Cast iron are used for small machines.
(ii) Cast steel are used for large machines.
 No need of laminations since flux is stationary i.e. no eddy current and hysteresis losses.
 If dc machines is under power electronic converter operation, laminated yokes are
preferred.
 ®
GATE ACADEMY DC Machine 4.161

Advantage of using cast steel for yoke material :

The yoke was made up of cast iron earlier but now it is replaced by cast steel due to following
advantages :
(i) This is due to fact that cast iron is saturated by a flux density of 0.8 Wb/m2 whereas the
saturation flux density of cast steel is about 1.5 Wb/m2.
(ii) The working flux density of cast steel is approximately twice than that of cast iron.
(iii)The cross section area and hence weight of cast steel is one half that of cast iron.
(iv) The mechanical and magnetic properties of cast iron are uncertain due to blow holes in
the material.
2. Field poles :
 The purpose of a pole is to produce working flux in the machine.
 There are two principle sources of flux as shown in figure,
(i) Permanent magnet (ii) Electromagnet
Flux

Permanent magnet Electromagnet

mmf = NI

N S

idc
+ Vdc

 The basic source of the flux is permanent magnet. Here, the flux can not be controlled as
shown in figure.
 In order to have control on the machine in term of say speed, flux need to be controlled.
Therefore, electromagnets are preferred as shown in figure, required winding and a dc
voltage source across it called as excitation.
 Excitation is essentially dc because it produce fixed Yoke
polarity.
 The pole shape is broad in order to distribute the flux Pole core
uniformly, so that wave form of voltage induced Excitation
Field winding
improve and air gap is also reduced and hence
permeability is increased.
 The pole is spread out as pole shoes because to reduce Pole shoe
the reluctance in the air gap and to spread flux
uniformly on the armature conductor as shown in Pole face Pole arc
above figure.
 The polarity of a pole depends on the polarity of excitation and orientation or sense of
winding as shown in below figure,
 ®
4.162 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
+
D.C.
Excitation voltage

S
f f

+ + N N
V V

N S
S

 Poles are also made up at steel lamination for reducing eddy current loss,

Pole core

Pole shoes
(i) Functions of pole shoe :
 Provides mechanical support to field winding.
 Spread out flux uniformly into air gap.
 Provide low reluctance path for main field flux.
 There are two type of pole shoe :
(a) Arc shaped pole shoe (b) Chamfered pole shoe
 In DC Machine, arc shaped pole shoe are used, therefore at no-load flux produced in
air gap of DC machine is flat topped or trapezoidal, then shape of induced emf is flat
topped which has higher average value and therefore output of DC generator
increases and ripples are eliminated.
 Flat topped emf consists of harmonics in addition to fundamental but in DC Machines
quantity is more important than quality.
 In AC Machine, chamfered pole shoes are used and therefore at no-load condition air
gap flux is sinusoidal so induced emf is sinusoidal which is free from harmonics. In
AC Generator, quality is most important factor.
(ii) Pole pitch :
The angular distance between two adjacent poles in a machine.
 It is always 1800 electrical.
 Pole pitch is distance of x to y.
Number of slot
 Pole pitch =
Number of pole
 ®
GATE ACADEMY DC Machine 4.163

Uniform air-gap

Pole arc
Flux
a b
Pole face
x y a b
Pole pitch x
a’ b’ x y
a' b'

(iii)Pole arc :
 Pole arc is also expressed in terms of slots ab like pole pitch.
 The length of pole arc is always less than pole pitch.
 Design value of pole arc to pole pitch ratio are 0.7. This will cause an induced emf
or main field flux 70 % flat-lapped in nature.
 The ratio of pole arc and pole pitch is given by,
Pole arc (ab)
= 0.7 to 0.9
Pole pitch (xy )
3. Field winding :
 The field winding of DC machine are made with field coils (copper wire) wound over
the slots of the pole shoes in such a manner that when field current flows through it, then
adjacent poles have opposite polarity are produced.
 The field winding basically form an electromagnet, that produces field flux within which
the rotor armature of the DC motor rotates, and results in the effective flux cutting.
 The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction. It carry current due
to which pole core, on which the field winding is placed behaves as an electromagnet,
producing necessary flux.
 Field winding is divided into various coils called field coils. These are connected in series
with each other and wound in such a direction around pole cores, such that alternate 'N'
and 'S' poles are formed.

Remember
At full load condition, field winding content maximum Ampere turn. Hence, it is most powerful
electromagnet in dc machine.
4. Inter pole :
 Inter poles are small poles compared to main poles and placed in Inter polar region
between the main poles.
 These are also electromagnets and are connected in series with armature windings
through the brushes.
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4.164 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
Function of inter poles :
(i) It produces a counter flux on the coil which is undergoing commutation to nullify the
reactance voltage.
(ii) It also nullifies the armature flux in the inter-polar region automatically.
(iii)Inter poles are tapered in shape in order to avoid the saturation of flux in the inter polar
windings.
5. Compensating winding :
 The compensating windings consist of a series of coils embedded in slots in the pole
faces.
 These coils are connected in series with the armature. The series-connected
compensating windings produce a magnetic field, which varies directly with armature
current.
 Because the compensating windings are wound to produce a field that opposes the
magnetic field of the armature, they tend to cancel the cross magnetizing effect of the
armature magnetic field.
 The neutral plane will remain stationary and in its original position for all values of
armature current. Because of this, once the brushes have been set correctly, they do not
have to be moved again.
6. Brushes :
 Brushes offer electrical connection between rotating commutator and stationary load as
shown in figure.
 They collect current from the winding placed on the commutator through brush holders
and spring.
 These are stationary sliding contacts.
 If the brushes collect current without any sparking then the commutation is successful.
 In order to insure successful commutation mechanical as well as electrical conduction
should be proper.
 For small dc machine carbon brushes are used, for large Brush I
DC machine electro graphite are used as brush material
and extra high voltage DC machine copper graphite are
used. Shaft Load
 In order to insure good mechanical conduction the
brushes are placed in a brush holder and placed on the Commutator
commulator through spring.
 In order to insure good electric conduction and
successful commutation, the brushes should be always placed on magnetic neutral axis
(MNA).
 Carbon brushes are used generally to improve commutation.
Remember
Brushes are in contact with rotating part and stationary part. Thus, if more amount of current is
to be carried, it requires more number of brushes. Hence brush number depends directly on the
amount of current that needs to be collected and fed up in or out.
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GATE ACADEMY DC Machine 4.165

7. End housings :
 End housings are attached to the ends of the mainframe and provide support to the
bearings.
 The front housings support the bearing and the brush assemblies whereas the rear
housings usually support the bearings only.
8. Bearing :
 The ball or roller bearings are fitted in the end housings.
 The function of the bearings is to reduce friction between the rotating and stationary parts
of the machine.
 Mostly high carbon steel is used for the construction of bearings as it is very hard
material.
9. Shaft :
 The shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking strength.
 The shaft is used to transfer mechanical power from or to the machine.
 The rotating parts like armature core, commutator, cooling fans, etc. are keyed to the
shaft.

Numerical
Answer
Type Questions
 Basic of Construction
Q.1 A 4-pole, lap wound, d.c. generator has Q.3 A 4-pole dc generator has 48 slots and
a useful flux of 0.07 Wb per pole. 8 conductors per slot. The useful flux
Calculate the generated e.m.f. when it per pole is 30 mWb and speed is 800
is rotated at a speed of 900 r.p.m. with rpm. The generator emf is E1 if the
the help of prime mover. Armature machine is lap wound and it is E1 if the
consists of 440 number of conductors.
machine is wave wound. Find the
Also calculate the generated e.m.f. if
lap wound armature is replaced by values of E1 and E2 .
wave wound armature. Q.4 An 8 pole lap wound armature rotated at
Q.2 A dc generator has an armature emf of 350 rpm is required to generate 260 V.
100 V when the useful flux per pole is The useful flux per pole is about 0.05
20 mWb and the speed is 800 rpm. Wb. If the armature has 120 slots,
Calculate the generated emf calculate a suitable number of
(i) with the same flux and a speed of conductors per slot and hence determine
1000 rpm. the actual value of flux required to
(ii) with a flux per pole of 24 mWb and generate the same voltage.
a speed of 900 rpm.
 ®
GATE ACADEMY DC Machine 4.159

 EMF & Torque Equation of DC Machines

Q.1 A 10 kW, 6 pole dc generator develops produce the same emf, if it is wave
an emf of 200 V at 1500 rpm. The wound is _______ rpm.
armature has a lap connected winding. Q.3 A dc motor runs steadily drawing an
The average flux density over a pole armature current of 15 A. To develop the
pitch is 0.9 Tesla. The length and same amount of torque at 20 A armature
diameter of the armature are 0.25 m and current, flux should be
0.2 m respectively. Calculate : (A) reduced by 25%
(i) The flux per pole (B) increased by 25%
(ii) The total number of active (C) reduced by 33%
conductors in the armature. (D) increased by 33%
(iii)The torque developed by the Q.4 The armature of 4 pole lap wound dc
machine when the armature supplies machine has core, length = 30 cm,
a current of 50 A. diameter = 40 cm. total conductor = 500,
Q.2 An 8 pole lap connected dc generator speed = 1200 rpm, current = 20 A. For
has 500 armature conductors, a useful average flux density of 0.5T. find
flux of 0.05 Wb and runs at 1203 rpm. electromagnetic power developed and
The speed at which it is to be driven to internal torque.
 Separately Excited DC Machines
Q.1 A 250 V, 10 kW separately excited 750 rpm and then what is the current
generator has an induced e.m.f. of 255 drawn by the armature? Assume the
V at full load. If the brush drop is 2 V armature circuit resistance to be 1 Ω .
per brush, calculate the armature Neglect brush drop and mechanical
resistance of the generator. losses.
Q.2 A separately excited dc generator, Q.4 A 220 V, 1.5 kW, 859 rpm separately
running at a speed of 1200 rpm excited dc motor has armature
delivers 150 A, at 400 V to a constant resistance of 2.5 Ω and it draws a
resistive load. The armature resistance current of 8 A at rated load condition.
of the generator is 0.12 Ω . If the If the field current and armature
current is reduced to 100 A and the voltage are fixed at the value of the
armature reaction is neglected then rated speed at rated load, what will be
find the speed of the generator. the no load speed of the motor?
Q.3 A separately excited dc motor is Assume losses remain constant
driving a fan load whose torque is between no load and full load
proportional to the square of the speed. operation.
When 100 V is applied to the motor, Q.5 A separately excited dc generator has
the current taken by the motor is 8 A, no load voltage of 120 V at a field
with the speed being 500 rpm. At what current of 2 A, when driven at 1500
applied voltage does the speed reach rpm. It is operating on the straight line
 ®
4.160 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
portion of its saturation curve. Q.6 A separately excited generator, when
Calculate the generated voltage when running at 1000 rpm supplies 200 A at
(i) the field current is increased to 2.5 125 V. The armature resistance is
A. 0.04 Ω and brush drop is 2 V. If field
(ii) the field current is increased to 2.84 current is unchanged and torque is
A and the speed is reduced to 1400 proportional to speed and the speed
rpm. drops to 800 rpm, the load current is
_______ Amp.

 Explanation of NAT Question (Based on Basic of Construction)

Sol.1 100 800 × 20 ×10−3
= = 0.8
Given : Number of pole P = 4, E2 1000 × 20 ×10−3
Armature conductor Z = 440, 100
Generated e.m.f., E2 = = 125 V
Flux per pole φ = 0.07 Wb , 0.8
Speed N = 900 r.p.m . Ans.
φZNP (ii) With a flux per pole of 24 mWb and a
Generatored emf, E =
60 A speed of 900 rpm i.e.,
(i) For lap wound, A = P = 4 φ2 = 24 ×10−3 Wb, N 2 = 900 rpm.
φZNP E1 N1 × φ1
Generated emf, E = =
60 A E2 N 2 × φ2
0.07 × 440 × 900 × 4 100 800 × 20 ×10−3
E= = 462 V Ans. = = 0.7407
60 × 4 E2 900 × 24 ×10−3
(ii) For wave wound A = 2
Generated e.m.f., E2 = 135 V Ans.
φZNP
Generated emf, E = Sol.3
60 A
0.07 × 440 × 900 × 4 Number of pole P = 4,
E= = 924 V Ans.
60 × 2 Number of slot = 48 ,
Sol.2 Conductor per slot = 8,
Given : Induced emf E1 = 100 V, Flux per pole = 30 mWb,
Speed N = 800 rpm ,
Flux per pole φ1 = 20 ×10−3 Wb,
Total number of conductor Z = 48 × 8 = 384 ,
Speed N1 = 800 .
For lap winding A = P = 4 .
(i) With the same flux and a speed of 1000 φZNP
rpm i.e., φ2 = 20 ×10−3 , N 2 = 1000 rpm Generated emf, E1 =
60 A
We know, E ∝ φN
30 × 10−3 × 384 × 800 × 4
E1 N1 × φ1 E1 = = 153.6 V
= 60 × 4
E2 N 2 × φ2 Ans.
 ®
4.196 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
For wave winding, A = 2 Eg × 60 × A
Z=
φZNP φ× N × P
Generated emf, E2 =
60 A 260 × 60 × 8
−3
Z= = 891.42 Ans.
30 × 10 × 384 × 800 × 4 0.05 × 350 × 8
E2 = = 307.2 V
60 × 2 Number of conductor per slot,
Ans. Z 891.42
= = 7.428 ≅ 8
Sol.4 Slots 120
Given : Number of Pole = 8, Actual value of flux required,
Lap winding A = P = 8 , Eg × 60 × A
Speed, N = 350 rpm, φ=
Z×N×P
Induced voltage Eg = 260 V, 260 × 60 × 8
φ= = 0.0464 Wb Ans.
Flux per pole = 0.05 Wb , 8 × 120 × 350 × 8
Number of slot = 120 .
Scan for
φZNP Video Solution
Generated emf, Eg =
60 A
∴ Total number of armature conductor
 Explanation of NAT Question (Based on EMF & Torque Equation of DC Machine)

Sol.1 ∴ Total number of active conductor

Given : Output PL = 10 kW, E × 60 × A
Z= g
Number of pole P = 6, φ× N × P
Generated emf Eg = 200 V 200 × 60 × 6
Z=
23.56 × 10−3 ×1500 × 6
Speed N = 1500 rpm,
Z = 339.53 ≅ 340 Ans.
Lap connection A = P = 6, (iii) Torque developed,
Flux density B = 0.9T E I 200 × 50 × 60
Length of diameter of armature l = 0.25 m, T= g a = = 63.66 Nm
ωn 2π×1500
Diameter of armature D = 0.2 m Ans.
Armature current I a = 50 A . Sol.2
(i) Flux per pole, Given : Number of pole P = 8 ,
π× D × l × B Lap connection A = P = 8 ,
φ=
P Number of armature conductor Z = 500 ,
π× 0.25 × 0.2 × 0.9 Flux per pole φ = 0.05 Wb ,
φ= = 0.02356 Wb
6 Speed N = 1203 rpm .
φ = 23.56 mWb Ans. φZNP
Generated emf, Eg =
φZNP 60 A
(ii) Generated emf, Eg =
60 A 0.05 × 500 ×1203 × 8
Eg = = 501.25 V
60 × 8
 ®
4.198 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
Wave connected winding A = 2 Sol.4
E × 60 × A Given : Number of pole, P = 4 ,
Speed, N = g Lap connection A = P = 4 ,
φ× Z × P
501.25 × 60 × 2 Core length l = 30 cm = 30 ×10−2 m ,
N= = 300.75 A Ans. Diameter D = 40 cm = 40 ×10−2 m ,
0.05 × 500 × 8
Sol.3 Total conductor Z = 500 ,
Given : Armature current at case 1 : I a1 = 15 A Speed N = 1200 rpm ,
Armature current I a = 20 A ,
Armature current at case 2 : I a2 = 20 A
Flux density B = 0.5T .
Torque, T ∝ φ I a
π× D × l × B
1 Flux per pole, φ =
If torque is constant, φ∝ P
Ia π× 40 ×10 × 30 × 10−2 × 0.5
−2

φ2 I a1 15 φ=
∴ = = 4
φ1 I a2 20 φ = 0.0471 Wb
φ2 = 0.75φ1 φZNP
Generated emf, Eg =
φ2 − φ1 φ  60 A
Change in flux = ×100 =  2 − 1 ×100 0.0471× 500 ×1200 × 4
φ1  φ1  Eg = = 471V
60 × 4
= (0.75 − 1) ×100 = − 25% Mechanical power developed
So in case of 20 A armature current flux reduced = Eg × I a = 471× 20 = 9420 W Ans.
by 25%. Ans.
Eg I a 9420
Torque developed, T = =
Scan for ωn 2πN / 60
Video Solution
9420 × 60
T= = 74.96 Nm Ans.
2π× 1200
 Explanation of NAT Question (Based on Separately Excited DC Machines)
Sol.1 Note that 250 V,10 kW generator means the full
Given : Generated emf Eg = 255 V, load capacity of generator is to supply 10 kW
Terminal voltage Vt = 250 V, load at a terminal voltage Vt = 250 V.

Output power PL = 10 kW, Power consumed

Load current, I L =
Terminal voltage
Brush drop = 2V/brush .
PL 10000
Connection diagram of separately excited IL = = = 40 A
generator as shown in figure, Vt 250
IL Armature current, I a = I L = 40 A
+ +
Ia Generated emf, Eg = Vt + I a Ra + Brush drop

D.C. Ra
255 = 250 + 40 × Ra +2 × 2
Rf Vt = 250 V
supply
Eg Armature resistance, Ra = 0.025 Ω Ans.

– –
 ®
GATE ACADEMY DC Machine 4.199

Sol.2 100 = Eb1 + 8 ×1

Given : Speed N1 = 1200 rpm ,
Back emf, Eb1 = 92 V
Armature current I a1 = 150 A ,
 Eb ∝ N φ ( φ = Constant)
Terminal voltage, Vt1 = 400 V,
Eb2 N2
Armature resistance Ra = 0.1252 . ∴ =
Eb1 N1
V 400
Load resistance, RL = t = = 2.67 Ω 750
I a1 150 Back emf, Eb2 = 92 × = 138 V
500
Case 1 :
Generated emf, Eg1 = Vt1 + I a1 Ra ∴ Eb1 = K φω1

Eg1 = 400 + 150 × 0.12 = 418 V 2πN1

92 = K φ×
Case 2 : When load current 100 A, 60
Terminal voltage, 92 × 60
∴ Constant, K φ = = 1.757
Vt2 = I a2 Ra = 100 × 2.67 = 267 V 2π× 500
Generated emf, Eg2 = Vt2 + I a2 Ra Torque, T1 = K φI a1
Eg2 = 267 + 100 × 0.12 = 279 V T1 = 1.757 × 8 = 14.056 Nm
 Eg ∝ N φ ( φ = Constant)  T ∝ N 2 (given)
2
Eg2 N T2  N 2  7502
∴ = 2 ∴ =  =
Eg1 N1 T1  N1  5002
Eg2 7502
∴ Speed, N 2 = N1 × Torque, T2 = 14.056 × = 31.62
Eg1 5002
279  T2 = K φI a2
N 2 = 1200 × = 667.5 rpm Ans.
418 31.62
Sol.3 ∴ Terminal current, I a2 = = 18 A
1.757
Case 1 : Terminal voltage Vt1 = 100 V, Ans.
Current I a1 = 8A, Speed N1 = 500 rpm . Terminal voltage,
Case 2 : Speed N 2 = 750 rpm, Vt2 = Eb2 + I a2 Ra = 138 + 18 ×1 = 156 V
Armature resistance Ra = 1 Ω . Ans.
Connection diagram of separately excited
generator as shown in figure, Scan for
If Ia Video Solution

+
Sol.4
Given :
D.C. supply Ra Vt
Vf Rf Eb Case 1 : Terminal voltage Vt1 = 220 V,
Output power PL = 1.5 kW,
–
From the figure, Speed N1 = 859 rpm
Terminal voltage, Vt1 = Eb1 + I a1 Ra Armature resistance Ra = 2.5Ω,
 ®
4.200 Electrical Machines [EE/EEE] GATE ACADEMY
Armature current I a1 = 8 A (ii) I f2 = 2.84, N 2 = 1400 rpm
At rated load condition, terminal voltage, I f2 φ2
=
Vt1 = Eb + I a1 Ra I f1 φ1
220 = Eb1 + 8 × 2.5 φ2 2.84
or =
φ1 2
Eb1 = 200 V
and E ∝ N φ
PL 1.5 ×103 Eg2 N 2 φ2
Rated torque, T = =
ωn 2πN /60 =
Eg1 N1φ1
1.5 × 103 × 60 Generated emf,
T= = 16.575 Nm Ans.
2π× 859 1400 2.84
Eg2 = 120 × × = 159.04 V
Case 2 : 1500 2
At no load condition, Vt2 = Eb2 = 220 V Ans.
Sol.6
 Eb ∝ N φ ( φ = Constant) Given :
Eb2 N 2 Case 1 : Speed N1 = 1000 rpm,
∴ =
Eb1 N1 Armature current I a1 = 200 A,
220 Terminal voltage Vt1 = 125 V
Speed at no load, N 2 = 859 × = 944.9 rpm
200 Armature resistance Ra = 0.04 Ω and
Ans.
Brush drop = 2 V .
Sol.5 Case 2 :
Given : No load voltage Eg1 = 120 V, Field current constant i.e., φ = Constant ,
Field current I f1 = 2 A, Speed N 2 = 800 rpm
For separatly excited generator :
Speed N1 = 1500 rpm .
Generated emf, Eg1 = Vt1 + I a1 Ra + Brush drop
Field current is directing proportional to flux
Eg1 = 125 + 200 × 0.04 + 2 = 135 V
i.e.,
If ∝φ Generated emf, Eg1 = K φω1
135 × 60
(i) I f2 = 2.5 A ∴ Kφ = = 1.289
2π× 1000
I f2 φ2 Torque, T1 = K φI a1 = 1.289 × 200 = 257.83 Nm
∴ =
I f1 φ1  T∝N
φ2 2.5 T2 N 2
=
or =
φ1 2 T1 N1
and E ∝ N φ (If N = Constant) 800
Torque, T2 = 257.83 × = 206.26 Nm
Eg2 φ2 1000
∴ = T2 = K φI a2
Eg1 φ1
∴ Armature current,
2.5
Generated emf, Eg2 = 120 × = 150 V 206.26
2 I a2 = = 160.01 A Ans.
1.289
Ans.