Wiley

Aquaculture Nutrition
Volume 2024, Article ID 8484451, 18 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/8484451

Review Article
The Fish Feed Sector in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and
Rwanda: Current Status, Challenges, and Strategies for
Improvement—A Comprehensive Review

Jonathan Munguti ,1 Mavindu Muthoka ,2 Mercy Chepkirui ,3 Domitila Kyule ,1

Kevin Obiero ,4 Erick Ogello ,2 Nazael A. Madalla,5 and Gerald Kwikiriza 6
1
National Aquaculture Research Development and Training Center (NARDTC),
Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), Sagana, Kenya
2
Department of Animal and Fisheries Sciences, Maseno University, Maseno, Kenya
3
Kegati Aquaculture Research Center, Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), Kisii, Kenya
4
Sangoro Aquaculture Research Center, Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KMFRI), Pap-Onditi, Kenya
5
Department of Animal, Aquaculture and Range Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
6
Kwchweano Zonal Agricultural Research and Development Institute, National Agriculture Research Organization (NARO),
Kabale, Uganda

Correspondence should be addressed to Jonathan Munguti; [email protected]

Received 7 June 2024; Accepted 24 August 2024

Academic Editor: Pronob Das

Copyright © 2024 Jonathan Munguti et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

This review paper provides an in-depth analysis of the current status, challenges, and strategies for improvement within the fish
feed industry in East Africa, focusing on Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Rwanda. Aquaculture production in these countries is
experiencing steady growth, driven by increasing demand for fish and fish products for both nutritional and economic purposes.
Despite the market facilitating the transition from extensive to semi-intensive and moderately intensive farming systems across the
four countries, the sector’s progress is hampered by a lack of sustainable, locally produced, high-quality, and cost-effective fish
feeds tailored to different developmental stages of fish. Despite the evident need, there is a notable scarcity of comprehensive
reviews addressing the regional perspective of fish feed due to heightened cross-border trade driven by the soaring demand and
increased installation of cages in Lake Victoria, as well as in inland dams and reservoirs. This paper addresses critical challenges,
such as regional scarcity and limited access to quality feed ingredients, regulatory obstacles, insufficient quality control measures,
infrastructure constraints, and a lack of awareness and understanding of feed management and formulation. To overcome these
challenges, the paper recommends fostering collaboration to establish a robust regional fish feed supply chain, investing in research
and development initiatives, advocating for policy reforms and regulatory support, and compliance with East African Community
quality standards for fish feed. Moreover, there is an urgent need to enhance human resource capacity through training and
extension services, promote public investment support, strengthen sector institutions and industry associations, conduct training
and awareness programs for feed providers, and improve storage facilities to maintain feed quality. The paper provides policy-
makers with valuable insights to inform targeted interventions that will catalyze positive transformation within the fish feed
industry in East Africa.

Keywords: aquaculture production; East Africa; fish feed; policy reform

1. Introduction could rise to 2.4 billion by 2050 [1]. Meeting the nutritional
needs of such a large population presents a significant chal-
Africa has approximately 1.5 billion people, about 18% of the lenge for Africa’s food systems [2]. The continent faces
world’s population. Projections indicate that this number numerous developmental challenges, including chronic food
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2 Aquaculture Nutrition

insecurity and widespread poverty, which are critical for more than 50% imported [13]. Despite the surge in demand
achieving sustainable development goals [3]. Fish and other for commercial fish feed, their prices have remained high,
aquatic foods are vital in Africa’s food systems. They are compelling many farmers to formulate their feeds or resort
indispensable for creating livelihoods, generating income, to noncomplete feeds, resulting in suboptimal fish produc-
and supplying essential micronutrients, especially for women tion output. Many scholars acknowledge that aquaculture
and children. Although fisheries and aquaculture are critical, growth is closely tied to high-quality feeds that meet the
there is still a significant gap between the fish supply and nutritional requirements of farmed fish [12, 14]. Therefore,
consumer demand in East Africa [4]. locally produced fish feed is crucial in reducing production
Among East African countries, per capita fish consump- costs, making fish farming more attractive to both private
tion is about 5–6 kg, which is low compared to the continental and commercial investors, and increasing fish production,
average of 10 kg per person per year and the global average of particularly in East Africa.
20.5 kg per person per year [5]. For instance, Rwanda’s per Despite the burgeoning potential of the aquaculture
capita fish consumption is merely 2.3 kg, significantly lower industry in East African countries, fish feed suppliers and
than that of its neighbors, with Kenya at 4.7 kg per person per investors have been reluctant to invest in the industry due
year, Tanzania at 8 kg per person per year, and Uganda at to the relatively nascent stage of development compared to
10 kg per person per year [4]. The lower fish consumption in more established markets globally. Fish feed suppliers may
these countries has been attributed to many factors, including see higher risks in emerging aquaculture sectors like Uganda
lower fish supplies due to declining capture fisheries. To or Kenya, where market demand, profitability, and regula-
address this challenge, fish traders, for instance, in Kenya, tory frameworks are less predictable. As a result, these inves-
are importing fish from China to bridge the demand gap. tors often allocate their capital to more mature and stable
Over the past few years, there has been minimal to no markets with established infrastructure, transparent regula-
growth in global capture fisheries [6]. However, aquaculture tory environments, and proven track records of success.
in Africa has seen substantial expansion. Aquaculture now Nonetheless, this presents a unique opportunity for entre-
represents 16%–18% of Africa’s total fish production and preneurs and investors to be pioneers in an emerging market
provides more than half of the fish consumed on the conti- with vast potential for growth and innovation.
nent [7]. In 2020, global aquaculture production reached a Fish feeds constitute approximately 70% of the expenses
record high of 122.6 million tonnes, with inland farmed for fish farmers in both semi-intensive and intensive culture
waters contributing around 54.4 million tonnes. Data show systems, with protein emerging as the costliest macronutrient
that the development of aquaculture in Africa surpasses the
[15]. In semi-intensive tilapia farming, where ponds receive
global average [8]. This rapid expansion has prompted the
heavy fertilization, natural food organisms contribute sub-
East African Community (EAC), a regional economic body,
stantially to the necessary nutrients for fish growth [16]. How-
to focus on boosting investments in aquaculture to meet the
ever, small-scale farmers often find commercial feed prices
increasing demand for fish.
prohibitive and resort to using either farm-compounded or
In Kenya, the government seeks to raise aquaculture pro-
low-quality commercial feeds to supplement natural food and
duction from 31,000 to 100,000 tonnes in the medium term
maximize yields in the production systems. With this practice,
and 400,000 tonnes by 2030, while Uganda aims to ramp up
the production and productivity of aquaculture remain low.
its aquaculture output to 1,000,000 tonnes by 2030 [9]. The
increasing reliance on aquaculture as a main source of nutri- For significant growth and realization of its potential, the
tious aquatic food has led to a higher demand for high-quality development of the East African fish feed industry necessi-
fish feeds. To support this shift, it is crucial to develop sus- tates redirection [17], which can only be done if there is a clear
tainable milling businesses and establish robust partnerships understanding of the industry’s challenges and clear strategies
with international organizations and development partners. for solving the challenges.
These collaborations play a vital role in maintaining a steady Despite the evident need, there is a notable scarcity of com-
supply of aquafeed and its necessary components [10]. prehensive reviews addressing the regional perspective of fish
However, the aquaculture sector’s performance has been feed due to heightened cross-border trade driven by the soaring
suboptimal, primarily due to the lack of locally produced, demand and increased installation of cages in Lake Victoria, as
high-quality, and affordable fish feeds designed for the vari- well as in inland dams and reservoirs. The objective of this review
ous developmental stages of fish, as well as the necessary raw is to unearth valuable insights into the obstacles hindering the
materials [11]. These raw materials include plant-based industry’s sustainable development and identify strategic ave-
ingredients like corn, rice, rice bran, wheat bran, sunflower nues for improvement. These insights can inform national gov-
cake, and soybean seeds, as well as animal-based ingredients ernments in formulating policies to strengthen the fish feed
such as fish meal, shrimp meal, blood meal, and poultry industry, foster its growth, and enhance its contribution to
byproduct meal. In Kenya, around 7000 tonnes of aquafeed food security and economic development. Therefore, investing
are imported annually, mainly from small-scale fish feed in research to elucidate these challenges and devise effective
manufacturers in East Africa and other countries [12]. The strategies for improvement is beneficial and crucial for enabling
use of commercial fish feeds in Tanzania has increased five- policymakers to enact informed and targeted interventions to
fold from 1182 tonnes in 2021 to 6211 tonnes in 2023, with catalyze positive change in the industry.
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Aquaculture Nutrition 3

398 records in

Identification
356 records in 412 records in Google 279 records in
Web of Science Scholar Scopus Semantic Scholar

Screening
96 records published 289 lacked search 57 not relevant to 399 in
before 2003 keywords query East Africa duplicates

604 documents were selected after the screening of titles, abstracts, and keywords
Eligibility

220 records unrelated to 250 records lacked 54 records not

fish feed/aquaculture relevant data available full text

80 records were identified for qualitative and quantitative analysis providing status
of fish feed industry in East Africa

FIGURE 1: PRISMA statement process undertaken for the selection of relevant articles.

2. Methodology follows a structured process that includes identification, screen-

ing, eligibility, and inclusion phases. In the identification phase,
A systematic literature review was used to explore the fish we searched four databases and found a total of 1445 articles:
feed industry’s status, challenges, and strategies in Kenya, 356 records from Web of Science, 412 from Google Scholar,
Uganda, Tanzania, and Rwanda. The literature search was 398 from Scopus, and 279 from Semantic Scholar. During the
performed in several academic databases to identify all rele- screening, we eliminated 96 articles published before 2003,
vant studies. These databases were chosen among others such as 289 records lacking key search queries, 57 articles irrelevant
Web of Science (http://www.isiknowledge.com), Scopus (https:// to East Africa, and 399 duplicate records. This left us with 604
www.scopus.com/), Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com/), records to move to the eligibility phase. In the eligibility phase,
and Semantic Scholar (https://www.semanticscholar.org/). we reviewed the 604 remaining records and excluded 524 based
Included databases had to represent broad academic disci- on the following criteria: 220 records were unrelated to fish
pline coverage, regional diversity, English language publica- feed and aquaculture, 250 records lacked relevant data, and
tion, and the capacity to use advanced searching capabilities. 54 records were not available in full text. After this rigorous
The search terms were determined based on discussions process, 80 articles were deemed suitable for full-text reading
with relevant stakeholders to ensure that all peer-reviewed and further analysis. This structured and transparent approach,
and gray literature on the fish feed industry in East Africa guided by the PRISMA statement, ensured a thorough and
was captured. The search framework used key terms in the unbiased selection of articles relevant to the fish feed industry
title search field, including “Aquaculture,” “Fish feed,” and aquaculture in East Africa.
“Industry,” “East Africa,” “Kenya,” “Uganda,” “Tanzania,”
“Rwanda,” “Challenges,” and “Strategies.” The search terms 3. Overview of the Current Status of the Fish
were adopted in the titles, abstracts, and keywords parts of Feed Industry in East Africa
the databases to complete the search as we expected. The
search eligibility was refined using very specific inclusion Over the past decade, the fish feed industry in East Africa
and exclusion criteria to ensure that only the most authentic witnessed substantial growth alongside the expansion of
and most accurate results were included in our list. The six aquaculture in the region [4]. This surge in aquaculture pro-
inclusion criteria included (i) published from January 2003 duction, notably observed in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and
to May 2024, (ii) fish feed industry and aquaculture, (iv) Rwanda, can be attributed to a transition from extensive to
related topics, (v) of East Africa, and (vi) written in English semi-intensive and intensive farming systems [7]. Among
articles. Exclusion criteria included articles not available in the intensive production systems are cages and raceways,
full text, studies unrelated to the fish feed industry or aqua- which require more significant quantities of feed, thus driv-
culture, or those not meeting the relevance criteria (e.g., ing up the demand. Based on a recent survey in 2022, Lake
findings on context not relevant to East Africa). Victoria, Kenya, has 5242 cages [19], increasing the demand
To create an article database, the Preferred Reporting Items for fish feeds. Before 2010, feed mills primarily focused on
for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) state- producing feed for land animals and only catered to fish feed
ment (Figure 1) was utilized [18]. The PRISMA statement upon specific requests from farmers, owing to the limited
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4 Aquaculture Nutrition

demand [20]. To address the growing demand, efforts were TABLE 1: The approximate cost of fish feed (to the farm) [24].
made to bolster local feed production capacity, including Country feed Rwanda ($/MT) (2021 prices)
establishing new feed mills and increasing feed imports to Kenya 850–950
cater to the higher demand. Despite these efforts, major Uganda 850–950
aquaculture investors in East Africa continue to rely heavily Rwanda 1100–1200
on imported feeds due to superior quality, cost-effectiveness,
Tanzania 1073–1287
insufficient local production coupled with high investment
Note: Feed prices have increased by up to 30% over 2024, owing to the
costs, and competition for ingredients from other animal ongoing Russia-Ukraine War and the continued effects of the COVID-19
farming sectors [21]. economic fallout.
In response to the demand, numerous distributors and
fish feed manufacturers have emerged in the region, import-
ing branded fish feeds while some make their own. Uganda’s
45
most prominent fish feed manufacturers and distributors

Production (1000 tonnes)

40
include Ugachick, Kafika Animal Feeds, Ranaan Fish Feeds, 35
Koudijs Uganda, and Victoria company. These fish feed man- 30
ufacturers produce an estimated 75,000 tonnes of feed annu- 25
ally. However, this amount is significantly lower than the 20
15
120 million tonnes needed to adequately support Uganda’s
10
aquaculture production, which stands at approximately 5
111,023 tonnes annually [22]. This gap in feed demand neces- 0
sitated larger aquaculture farms to import feed from other 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025
countries. Recent import data from Volza indicates that Years
Uganda primarily imports fish feed from Zambia, Egypt, and
FIGURE 2: Global use and demand for fishmeal (1000 tonnes),
Brazil, while Kenya sources from Zambia, Egypt, and the 1995–2020 (adapted from Tacon [32]).
Netherlands. Tanzania’s imports mainly come from Zambia,
Vietnam, Saudi Arabia, Uganda, Kenya, and the Netherlands,
while Rwanda relies on imports from India, Belgium, and the materials in East African countries, where resources are in
Netherlands [23]. high demand by both the human and livestock sectors, yet
Additionally, some large farms have forged direct partner- production levels remain low [26].
ships with reliable international manufacturers that produce For instance, Rwanda’s aquafeed industry relies on
quality feed. In Kenya, some partnerships have been initiated, diverse ingredients, with rice, wheat, and maize bran being
including Tunga Nutrition, a collaboration between Skretting the most commonly used [27]. Additionally, producers fre-
and the Unga Group, which established a fish feed processing quently incorporate other plant-based materials such as cas-
plant with an initial production capacity of 25,000 tonnes sava flour, cottonseed cake, soybean meal, and sunflower
annually. Another recent collaboration involves Victory Farms, cake [28]. While many of these ingredients are sourced
Maxim Agri Holdings, and Gatsby Africa, resulting in the from local markets, some manufacturers have cultivated
SamakGro Fish Feed Factory in Naivasha [24]. As the industry their own crops [29]. This is a common practice among
continues to expand, there has been a notable improvement in the East African countries. Many plant-based ingredients,
local feed manufacturing, marked by significant investments despite their extensive use, contain high levels of indigestible
in milling facilities and tax waivers for most investors interested organic matter, mainly in the form of insoluble plant fibers.
in the feed industry [24]. For instance, local fish feed produc- They also frequently lack essential amino acids such as
tion in Tanzania has increased almost fourfold from 710 tonnes lysine, methionine, and tryptophan [30]. As a result, when
in 2021 to 3,455.4 tonnes in 2024 [13]. In Uganda, the impor- animal protein is completely replaced with plant protein in
tation of plant and machinery is zero-rated, meaning no import formulated fish feeds, it becomes necessary to supplement
duties are applied. Additionally, value-added tax (VAT) on with synthetic lysine and methionine.
these imports is deferred, and the withholding tax is set at On the other hand, animal protein sources, including fish
6%, provided the cost of the plant and machinery exceeds US meal and freshwater shrimp, are sourced from the fish land-
$22,500. Since 2015, the governments of Kenya, Tanzania, ing sites, while bone meal is typically sourced from abattoirs
Uganda, and Rwanda have progressively eliminated taxes on [28]. Fish meal, blood meal, oilseed cakes, and lake shrimp
both animal feeds and the premixed raw materials used in their are primary protein sources in aquafeeds [31]. Fish meal, in
production [25]. This policy change aims to enhance access to particular, is in high demand (Figure 2) due to its suitability
animal products and stimulate the feed production industry as a protein source for most fish species. In 2017, the aqua-
across East Africa. culture sector accounted for approximately 70% of global
However, most locally produced fish feeds are too costly fishmeal consumption, with livestock and poultry sectors
for small-scale farmers (Table 1) [12]. Subsequently, many following at 22% and 5%, respectively, while human con-
small-scale farmers opt for homemade feeds, often lacking sumption comprised 3% [33] (Figure 3).
quality and essential minerals, to increase growth rates. This Over time, aquaculture has decreased its dependency on
preference stems from the intense competition for raw fishmeal, with global consumption dropping from 4.23
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Aquaculture Nutrition 5

5%
3% promise as a substantial alternative to fishmeal protein in
Nile tilapia diets [20].
In East Africa, fish oil is seldom utilized, primarily due to
its limited availability and high market price, alongside the
22% low lipid requirements of freshwater fish such as tilapia.
These requirements can be met with C18 polyunsaturated
fatty acids at about 1% of the diet’s dry weight [38]. Instead,
locally available plant oils such as sunflower oil, crude palm
oil, and soybean oil serve as viable substitutes, with sunflower
70%
oil being the most prevalent [23, 27]. Additionally, commer-
cially manufactured feeds are enhanced with essential vita-
mins and mineral premixes to ensure fish health and growth.
Many of the raw materials used in fish feed production,
Aquaculture Poultry both animal and plant-based, are also primary food sources
Livestock Others for the local population, resulting in limited availability for
the animal feed industry [26]. In Kenya, it is estimated that
FIGURE 3: Data supplied by the Marine Ingredients Organisation
[34]. feed manufacturers use about 450,000 tonnes of raw materi-
als each year, with a value of approximately 6 billion Kenyan
Shillings. To supplement these local resources, around 2200
tonnes of omena fishmeal are imported annually from Tanzania
million tonnes in 2005–3.49 million tonnes in 2020 [35]. In to support Kenya’s domestic industry [39]. Table 2 presents
East Africa, fishmeal is primarily derived from lower-grade the sources of the common fish feed ingredients used by the
fish species, particularly sun-dried sardines, known locally as millers in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Rwanda. The table
“omena” in Kenya, “mukene” in Uganda, and “dagaa” in shows that there is a shortage of most of the suitable feed
Tanzania (Rastrineobola argentea and Stolothrissa tangani- ingredients, which poses a significant challenge for the fish
cae) [27]. The availability of fishmeal is often limited, and its feed sector [39], leading to a heavy reliance on imports to
protein content can vary significantly due to factors like meet demand.
season, fishing location, and handling practices, typically
ranging from 40% to 60% [25, 27]. The high demand for 4. Challenges Facing the Fish Feed Industry in
small sardines for both fishmeal production and direct
human consumption increases their cost in feed formula-
Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Rwanda
tions, making this approach unsustainable as these fish are 4.1. Regional Lack of Quality, Reliable, and Affordable Fish
also a valuable food source for humans [27]. Therefore, Feed and Feed Ingredients. The fish feed industry in East
substituting fishmeal with alternative ingredients from sus- Africa grapples with a significant challenge regarding the
tainable sources that are not intended for human consump- availability and accessibility of quality fish feeds and feed
tion could lower feed costs and the price of food fish, ingredients. Despite the presence of local feed ingredients,
particularly in landlocked developing countries such as they are often unaffordable to fish farmers, particularly for
Rwanda and Uganda. animal- and plant-based components. This price surge stems
Locally available animal-derived ingredients like blood mainly from competition from other sectors like human and
meal, poultry byproducts, and fishery byproducts are cost- livestock consumption [26] and the seasonal nature of agri-
effective, accessible, and suitable for various aquaculture cultural production [40]. For instance, cereals are plentiful
diets as alternative protein sources [27]. For instance, blood and economical during harvest seasons but progressively
meal, which is high in protein, can be used effectively in the become more expensive until the next harvest cycle. Addi-
diets of carnivorous fish species such as catfish and tilapia. tionally, the availability of raw materials fluctuates seasonally,
Poultry byproducts, which provide essential amino acids, are with agricultural inputs being most abundant during harvest-
often included in the feed for omnivorous species like tilapia ing times. For example, Kenya experiences two rainy seasons
and carp. However, while poultry byproduct meal is palat- —long (April to July) and short (October to December)—
able and high in protein, it lacks sufficient dietary methio- each influencing crop planting and harvesting schedules [41].
nine and lysine [36]. Each ingredient provides specific Similarly, fish meal, derived from the locally available
nutritional benefits tailored to the dietary needs of different sardine, experiences peak availability during specific periods,
cultured species, making them versatile components in aqua- such as the intermonsoon winds in March to April and
culture feed formulations. Combining poultry byproduct November to December [41]. This species has a growing
meal with other lysine-rich ingredients, such as fishery regional market where it is increasingly used as human
byproducts, could be a viable solution [37]. Brewer’s yeast food, serving as a relatively inexpensive protein source for
biomass, a significant byproduct of the brewing industry in economically disadvantaged groups [41]. However, due to its
Rwanda, remains underutilized despite its high crude protein increased demand as human food, its availability and cost-
content (380 g/kg DM) [27]. Since the 1990s, brewer’s yeast effectiveness as an animal feed source have diminished. The
has been effectively used in aquaculture feeds and shows heightened demand for fishmeal, in general, has driven up
 6

TABLE 2: Common fish feed raw materials used by the millers in East Africa [23].
Source (locally available/imported)
Raw material
Kenya Uganda Tanzania Rwanda
Main plant sources
Locally available and also imported from
Locally available and also imports from Locally available and also imported from
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) flour Thailand, India, Germany, South Africa, Uganda
Kenya, Monaco, and Rwanda India, Nigeria, and Rwanda
and the United States
Imported from Tanzania, Uganda,
Cotton (Gossypium spp.) seed cake Tanzania Locally available Uganda
and Zambia
Cotton (Gossypium ssp.) meal Imported from Tanzania and Uganda Locally available Locally available Imported from Burundi
Locally available and imports from
100% imported from India, Uganda, Locally available and also imported
Maize (Zea mays) germ South Africa, Rwanda, and the Locally available
and Tanzania from India
United Arab Emirates
Locally available and additional
80% obtained locally, 20% imported Locally available and Imports from Locally available; additional imported
Maize (Z. mays) grain imported from Zambia, India, and the
from Uganda, India, and Brazil Tanzania, South Africa, and China from Uganda, Belgium, and France
United Arab Emirates
Locally available and additional
Locally available; additional imported Locally available and additional Locally available and additional
Rice (Oryza sativa) bran imported from Tanzania, Uganda,
from India, Tanzania, and Rwanda imported from India and Pakistan imported from India
and India
Locally available; additional imported
Imported from Tanzania, Uganda, India, Locally available; additional imported Imported from Uganda, Belgium,
Rice (O. sativa) polish from Tanzania, Pakistan, and the United
and Pakistan from India, Pakistan, and China and India
Arab Emirates
Locally available and additional
Imported from Zambia, Malawi, Locally available; additional imported
Soya meal imported from Zambia, Malawi, Imported from Uganda
Uganda, and Tanzania from Zambia, Malawi, and India
and Mali
Locally available; additional imported
Imported from Tanzania, Uganda, Locally available and additional
Sunflower (Helianthus annuus) cake from Tanzania, the United Arab Imported from Uganda
Burundi, and India imported from India
Emirates, and India
Locally available, imported from Locally available; additional imported
Wheat (Triticum aestivum) grain Imported from India Imported from Belgium
Uganda, India, and the United Kingdom from Russia, Argentina, and Ukraine
Imported from Uganda, Rwanda, Locally available; additional imported Imported from Turkey, India, and
Wheat (T. aestivum) Pollard Locally available
and Ethiopia from Rwanda, Burundi South Africa
Main animal sources
Locally available; additional imported
Locally available; additional imported Locally available; additional imported Imported from Tanzania, Kenya,
Fish meal (R. argentea) from Tanzania, Uganda, China,
from Kenya, Nigeria, and Zambia from Zambia, South Africa, and China Uganda, China, India, and Zambia
and India
Locally available; additional imported Locally available; additional imported Locally available; additional imported
Freshwater shrimp (Caridina nilotica) —
from Tanzania and India from the United Kingdom from Indonesia
Locally available; additional imported
Bone meal Locally available Locally available —
from Tanzania
Other raw materials
Imported from South Africa, the United Imported from Turkey, India,
Vitamin and mineral premixes Imported from India Mineral premix from Turkey
Kingdom, and India and Namibia
Imported from South Africa, China, Imported from India, Germany, Imported from Belgium, Uganda,
Amino acids Imported from India, China, and Ireland
India, Germany, and the Netherlands and China and India
Aquaculture Nutrition

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Aquaculture Nutrition 7

prices for fish feed containing fishmeal, affecting its afford- these duties inadvertently serve as formidable barriers to
ability and nutritional value [41]. The fish feed market in accessibility and affordability [49].
Rwanda is underdeveloped, with limited access to high- In Kenya, the situation is further complicated by specific
quality feed. Most farmers use homemade or substandard import duties targeting various feed ingredients. For instance,
feeds, resulting in poor fish health and lower yields [41]. oilseed cakes incur a 10% duty, while maize sourced outside
Further, climate change has exacerbated these challenges the EAC is subjected to a staggering 50% levy. Wheat imports,
by affecting the availability and quality of raw materials used on the other hand, are met with a 10% duty. Byproducts like
in fish feed production [42]. Changes in temperature, pre- wheat or maize bran are also taxed at 10%. Moreover, import-
cipitation patterns, and the frequency of extreme weather ing certain premixes attracts varying duties, ranging from
events have disrupted agricultural productivity, leading to 10% to exemption, but accompanied by a 16% VAT. Kenya’s
fluctuations in the supply of essential feed ingredients like reliance on approximately 70 types of imported premixes
maize, soybean, and fishmeal. Additionally, climate change further exacerbates the financial burden on the industry
has impacted the ecosystems that provide these raw materi- [50]. Beyond import duties, additional charges associated
als, reducing the overall yield and quality of crops and fish with the importation process, including import declaration
that are critical for feed production [43]. For instance, the fees (3.5%), railway development levy (2%), and an array of
variability in rainfall and increased temperatures have led to regulatory fees levied by organizations such as Kenya Bureau
poor harvests, reducing the availability of maize and soybean, of Standards (KEBS), Kenya Plant Health Inspectorate Service
which are key ingredients in fish feed. This scarcity has driven (KEPHIS), and the Department of Veterinary Services, along-
up costs, making it more challenging for local feed producers side port-related expenses like stevedoring, wharfage, clearing
to maintain a consistent supply of high-quality feed. Further- fees, and agency charges, significantly inflate the overall cost.
more, the increased frequency of extreme weather events, These ancillary charges can collectively amount to approxi-
such as floods and droughts, sometimes damages infrastruc- mately 15% of the customs value [50].
ture and disrupts transportation networks, hindering the dis-
tribution of feed ingredients and finished products [44]. 4.3. Uncoordinated Quality Control of Fish Feed and Raw
To meet the demand for fish feed, the EAC resorts to Materials. Ensuring the quality of fish feed is paramount for
importing ingredients from other countries. However, these food safety, given that fish is destined for human consump-
imported ingredients often come at a high cost, producing tion [51]. Established feed companies must implement Haz-
expensive formulated fish feeds [45]. This poses a significant ard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) and good
challenge, particularly for extensive/small-scale fish farmers, manufacturing practices (GMP) systems to be certified. How-
who constitute over 90% of the total farming population. ever, there is a notable deficiency in comprehensive HACCP or
Moreover, the prices of imported ingredients are susceptible GMP systems within the fish feed sector across the region [52].
to volatility, dependent on fluctuating exchange rates, which This gap in structured quality assurance extends across supply
further exacerbates the affordability issue. In response to the chains, processing operations, feed formulation, and marketing/
high cost of imported feeds, many fish farmers, particularly distribution channels. External auditing is almost absent, leading
in Tanzania, have adopted a do-it-yourself approach, becom- to minimal standards for raw materials and insufficient product
ing “on-farm local feed producers.” Many farmers (80%) rely labeling [53]. While some large-scale mills may follow quality
on locally available feed ingredients to supplement their fish protocols on paper, practical implementation often falls short.
diets [46]. However, this reliance on farm-made feeds often Standards and guidelines are inconsistently applied, enforced,
results in lower production rates due to a lack of expertise in or sustained. It appears that only larger mills making concerted
feed formulation, resulting in poor quality of the farm-made efforts to comply with regulations undergo auditing, leaving the
feeds. informal sector largely unregulated [45].
For example, agricultural byproducts frequently utilized
4.2. Regulatory Hurdles and Policy Issues. Import data from as standalone fish feeds or as constituents for compound
Tanzania reveal that a significant portion, approximately feeds encompass cereal bran such as maize, wheat, rice,
74%, of fish feeds are sourced from external markets, while and oilseed cakes like cotton, soybean, and sunflower. How-
only 26% are domestically produced [47]. Despite ongoing ever, the quality of these brans varies significantly, contin-
efforts to bolster local production, a considerable disparity gent upon factors such as locality and processing methods.
between supply and demand persists. By April 2022, Tanza- Take rice bran, for instance, sourced from the Mwea Rice
nia boasted six private fish feed factories, yielding 540.6 Factory in Kenya, which historically boasted a crude protein
metric tonnes. However, the government concurrently issued content of around 10% [31]. Following the factory’s closure,
permits to import a staggering 1615.5 metric tonnes, repre- other processors emerged, yielding rice bran with reduced
senting 75% of the feeds utilized within the country [48]. crude protein levels, ranging from 3% to 6% [54]. Notably,
Despite VAT and import duty exemptions, imported feed these processors often adulterate their bran with milled rice
prices remain high, rendering them unaffordable for most husks, diminishing protein content. In contrast, wheat bran
fish farmers. This price inflation is primarily driven by global procured from industrial processors maintains a more con-
shocks such as the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine sistent quality, typically containing 14%–17% crude protein.
War, and disruptions in global supply chains. However, with- Despite their potential, all these materials are commonly
out locally produced high-quality starter and grow-out feeds, circulated nationwide and at the regional level for livestock
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
8 Aquaculture Nutrition

feed application. However, their availability fluctuates based poses a significant risk to fish feed production and
on seasonal, regional, and demand-driven factors. aquaculture.
Additionally, fish feeds available in the region vary sig- This problem, often due to a lack of knowledge or
nificantly in quality. Label information often does not accu- resources, leads to considerable feed spoilage [59]. Many
rately reflect the composition, particularly regarding proteins farmers in East Africa are unaware of the importance of
and fats [49]. This lack of transparency poses problems for proper feed handling, resulting in improper transportation,
fish farmers who are uncertain about feed quality and creates handling, and storage practices. For example, transporting
barriers for most companies supplying high-quality feeds to feeds in open trucks, motorbikes, or bicycles exposes them to
East Africa. Furthermore, fish feeds from small-scale manu- high moisture content, increasing the risk of fungal infection
facturers often lack rigorous quality monitoring, resulting in [45]. Additionally, prolonged storage in unsuitable condi-
a majority of feeds being of poor quality. For example, in tions can lead to infestation by pests and rodents, further
Rwanda, feed quality is affected by both raw material quality compromising feed quality and reducing fish yields [60].
and processing methods [55]. Fish meal from Haplochromis Poor feed storage conditions result in nutrient losses, feed
contains excessive fiber, reducing pellet buoyancy, while afla- spoilage, reduced fish yields, and poor economic returns,
toxin contamination in stored maize poses a common threat negatively impacting the profitability of farm operations.
[22]. Only three food processing companies in Rwanda pos-
4.5. Lack of Awareness and Knowledge on Fish Feed
sess the equipment to analyze this toxin, with a single FOSS
Management. Many farmers in East Africa have a limited
2500 analyzer available at PEAL (Poultry lab), a private com-
understanding of feed quality, management, and the nutri-
pany in Bugesera, for routine quality control. However, at
tional requirements of fish [41]. When calculating feed
5000 RWF ($5.89) per sample, the analysis cost is prohibi-
rations, they often fail to feed their fish according to recom-
tively expensive for small-scale fish farmers. Another ana-
mended rates and overlook factors like ambient temperature,
lyzer at a public institution, the RSB, is more accurate but
body mass, and pond biomass [61]. Poor record-keeping
costly, US $200 per sample, with a 2-week wait for results.
further complicates matters, as farmers struggle to adjust
Feed formulation lacks efficiency without a centralized and
daily rations without accurate data. Additionally, many
affordable testing facility, leading to discrepancies between stated
lack the knowledge and skills to monitor and record feed
and actual feed compositions. Consequently, fish farm perfor-
utilization, hindering their ability to use feed conversion
mance suffers, and trust in feed manufacturers wanes [48, 56]. In
ratios (FCRs) to assess feed efficiencies. Furthermore, inade-
response to these issues, the EAC Member States, through the
quate records on stocking rates, mortalities, and water qual-
Lake Victoria Fisheries Organization (LVFO), have developed ity make it challenging for farmers to evaluate and optimize
the “Regional Guidelines for the Certification of Fish Seed and their production systems, undermining their ability to imple-
Fish Feed” to standardize and enhance quality control measures ment effective management strategies and improve produc-
across the region [57]. Despite these efforts, many East African tion efficiencies [45]. This lack of proper feed management
countries’ fragmented and ineffective regulatory landscape, com- skills affects profitability and erodes trust between farmers
pounded by limited financial resources, inhibits the establish- and feed millers. Farmers may wrongly attribute low profit-
ment of integrated legislative and enforcement mechanisms. ability to substandard feeds supplied by millers, further
Stakeholders struggle to coordinate effectively within this dis- stunting the growth potential of the fish feed industry.
jointed system, hindering industry progress.
4.6. Feed Formulation Challenges. Properly formulated feeds
4.4. Infrastructure Limitations. While local private producers are crucial for successful aquaculture production, yet many
drive the feed business, their uneven distribution and pro- feed manufacturers struggle to provide species-specific nutri-
duction activities fall short of meeting the region’s aquafeed tion that caters to the different life stages of fish [62]. In East
demand. Consequently, many aquaculture farmers in Uganda Africa, there is a lack of detailed information on the nutri-
have resorted to producing their feed to sustain their opera- tional content of local ingredients. Consequently, most locally
tions [50, 51]. However, the lack of adequate technologies, formulated feeds depend on international laboratory analyses
electricity, and machinery on most fish farms in rural areas of high-quality ingredients from literature, lacking sufficient
hinders the preparation of farm-made feeds. Hand-operated local scientific research to validate their effectiveness in fish
mincers further restrict the scale of fish farming operations production [63]. This problem is compounded by manufac-
[58]. This calls for addressing the challenge above by strength- turers often ignoring the specific nutritional requirements of
ening training on feed-making technologies. farmed species during feed formulation, resulting in the wide-
Inadequate storage facilities for feeds and ingredients spread use of inappropriate feed compositions in the region’s
worsen the challenges faced by smallholder farms. In Uganda, fish farming industry.
fish feed ingredients often come from agroecological zones Moreover, some farmers utilize commercial grow-out
with hot and humid conditions, which can promote the feeds with excessive protein levels or feeds intended for
growth of mycotoxigenic fungi if not stored properly. A study entirely different fish species, disregarding the established
by Namulawa et al. [22] found that 48% of factory and 63% of nutritional requirements of local species [45]. Although con-
farm samples of fish feed from the Lake Victoria Basin were siderable research has been conducted to ascertain these
contaminated with aflatoxin B1, with toxin levels ranging requirements, dissemination of this knowledge to farm-
from less than 40 to more than 400 µg/kg. This contamination made feed producers and small-scale manufacturers remains
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Aquaculture Nutrition 9

inadequate. Consequently, farmers often lack awareness of common theme of hindering the growth and sustainability of
the nutritional needs of their target species, leading to nutri- the aquaculture sector. In Kenya, the aquaculture sector
ent deficiencies that hinder fish growth and health [64]. struggles with insufficient investment in R&D to develop
Additionally, poorly mixed farm-made feeds contribute affordable and locally sourced fish feed alternatives. This
to subpar production outcomes, although properly formu- has led to a dependency on imported feed, which is costly
lated feeds can enhance aquaculture productivity by reducing and occasionally unavailable. The lack of locally produced
production costs [65]. Local ingredients used in feed formu- feed increases production costs and creates vulnerability to
lation contain sufficient nutrients, presenting an opportunity international market fluctuations. Research has indicated
for cost-effective production through farm-made feeds [46]. that the development of the Kenyan aquaculture industry
However, farmers face challenges in properly mixing feed is significantly hampered by several factors, including a
ingredients to ensure a balanced supply of essential amino shortage of certified quality seed and feed, the absence of a
acids and other nutrients [41]. A study in Tanzania by comprehensive aquaculture policy, and insufficient funding
Mramba and Kahindi [66] revealed that farmers using com- for research [45].
mercial feeds achieved higher fish yields than those using Uganda faces similar challenges, where the lack of R&D
farm-made feeds, attributed to improper mixing of local in the fish feed sector results in few innovations in feed
feed ingredients and inadequate storage practices leading formulations. This stagnates the growth of the aquaculture
to nutrient degradation. industry by preventing improvements that could reduce
costs and enhance feed efficiency. The absence of new
4.7. Financial and Subsistence Challenges. Rurangwa and research and innovative practices means that Ugandan fish
Kabagambe [55] highlight the pervasive challenge fish farm- farmers continue to rely on outdated methods that are less
ers face in Rwanda and East Africa regarding the consistency efficient and more expensive, limiting the sector’s potential
of their feeding practices. Financial constraints frequently to contribute to food security and economic development
hinder farmers’ ability to maintain regular feed purchases, [67]. In Tanzania, limited R&D efforts result in a lack of
leading to erratic feeding schedules for their fish stocks. This locally tailored feed solutions that could effectively utilize
irregular feeding pattern impedes fish growth and compro- available raw materials. This gap hinders the development
mises the quality of the fish. Furthermore, the dependence on of cost-effective and nutritious feeds essential for the aqua-
subsidies exacerbates this issue, as farmers may become reli- culture sector’s sustainable growth. A comprehensive analy-
ant on subsidized inputs rather than investing in sustainable sis of Tanzania’s fish, seed, and feed value chains identified
farming practices. This reliance on external support fosters a critical factors impeding aquaculture development, empha-
mentality of dependency on public funds rather than foster- sizing the need for collaborative research and enhanced
ing a mindset of entrepreneurship and self-sufficiency within delivery of extension services to address these issues [47].
the aquaculture industry. Rwanda also suffers from minimal investment in R&D
Moreover, the sporadic availability of funds for purchas- for fish feed production. Without scientific advancements
ing feed contributes to a cycle of inconsistency in fish farming and innovative practices, the sector relies on outdated and
operations. Farmers may struggle to predict their cash flow inefficient feeding methods. This reliance prevents the devel-
accurately, leading to ad hoc decisions on feed purchases opment of more sustainable and cost-effective feed options,
based on immediate financial constraints rather than long- which are crucial for the growth of the aquaculture industry
term planning. This unpredictability in feed procurement in Rwanda [68]. The overarching challenge across these
further disrupts feeding schedules and exacerbates the chal- countries is the need for increased investment in R&D to
lenges of achieving optimal growth rates and feed utilization foster innovation in fish feed production. This would involve
efficiency in aquaculture operations [55]. Consequently, fish financial investment and establishing supportive policies and
farmers may be caught in a cycle of financial instability, hin- frameworks encouraging collaboration between researchers,
dering their ability to invest in essential inputs for sustainable the private sector, and government bodies.
fish production.
Additionally, relying on subsidized inputs may perpetuate a 4.9. Influencing Fish Consumption Patterns. Fish consump-
culture of reliance rather than nurturing self-sufficiency and tion patterns in East Africa are heavily influenced by social
entrepreneurship in the industry. While initially intended to and cultural factors, impacting the fish feed industry [69].
support small-scale farmers, subsidies can inadvertently discour- Understanding these influences is crucial for developing
age investment in improving farming practices or exploring effective strategies to enhance fish consumption and support
alternative income streams. This overreliance on external sup- the region’s aquaculture sector growth. One prominent
port undermines the long-term sustainability of the fish farming example is the cultural beliefs of the Maasai community,
industry, as it discourages innovation and impedes the develop- who consider fish a taboo food. This deeply ingrained belief
ment of resilient, self-sustaining farming enterprises. significantly reduces the demand for fish within Maasai-
populated areas, impacting the local market for fish and,
4.8. Inadequate Research and Development (R&D). Inade- consequently, the demand for fish feed. Similarly, adherents
quate R&D is a significant challenge facing the fish feed of the Seventh Day Adventist Church abstain from consum-
industry in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Rwanda. This ing African catfish, further influencing fish consumption
issue manifests differently across these countries but has a patterns [70]. Given the large number of adherents to this
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
10 Aquaculture Nutrition

faith in East Africa, this religious dietary restriction further supply chain can be effective. By leveraging partnerships
limits the market for African catfish, affecting its production between local and international companies, these projects
and the associated demand for specific fish feeds. have managed to pool resources, expertise, and technology, fos-
These cultural and religious taboos create a significant tering a more integrated and robust supply chain. Such collabora-
challenge for the fish feed industry. Reduced local consump- tions ensure a consistent supply of high-quality feed across the
tion translates to lower demand for fish farming, which region, addressing the demand–supply gap more efficiently than
directly impacts the volume of fish feed required. Fish feed isolated efforts within individual countries. Moreover, these
manufacturers must navigate these cultural landscapes to partnerships have facilitated knowledge transfer and innova-
find viable markets for their products. This challenge is com- tion, improving feed quality and production methods.
pounded by the need to produce feeds for species that are Businesses involved in the aquaculture value chain cannot
culturally acceptable, which may not always align with the solely rely on the conditions within individual countries to
most commercially viable or environmentally sustainable make investment decisions. It requires a broader perspective
species. that encompasses the entire region. Additionally, government
intervention plays a crucial role in facilitating this regional
5. Strategies for Improvement approach. Governments must engage in agreements to liber-
alize trade across East African borders and establish indepen-
5.1. Collaboration to Build a Regional Fish Feed Supply dent feed quality control mechanisms at the regional level.
Chain. Considering aquaculture activities across the EAC This ensures standardized quality across borders and pro-
countries is essential for fostering structural changes within motes trust among stakeholders in the aquaculture indus-
the region’s interconnected fish value chain [49]. A regional try [49].
approach is paramount due to the interdependence among
countries. For instance, insufficient demand for aquaculture 5.2. R&D Initiatives. R&D initiatives can be crucial in
feeds hampers investment in fish feed manufacturing, while addressing ingredient sourcing and quality concerns in the
the lack of available fish feed discourages entrepreneurs from fish feed industry. One approach is to invest in exploring
investing in aquaculture farms. This situation persists until a alternative sources of raw materials that are more affordable
critical mass of farms and fish volumes is reached. Therefore, and sustainable. For example, there is growing interest in
addressing demand and supply regionally rather than at the utilizing insects as a source of protein and other nutrients
country level becomes imperative. in fish feed production [74]. Insects can be a cost-effective
A notable initiative in the aquaculture sector is the Tunga and environmentally friendly alternative to traditional feed
Nutrition Partnership, which includes Nutreco-managed ingredients like fish and soybean meal. Research focused on
joint ventures with Unga Group subsidiaries: Unga Farm understanding the nutritional composition and optimal
Care (EA) Limited in Kenya and Unga Millers (U) Limited inclusion levels of insect-based ingredients can help diversify
in Uganda [71]. Tunga Nutrition Kenya was established to the sources of raw materials for fish feed production [75].
enhance production capacity at its jointly owned fish feed Another area of interest is developing feeding strategies such
plant in Nairobi, marketing the products under the Skretting as mixed feeding schedules and skip days for cost reduction
and Fugo brands. Meanwhile, Tunga Nutrition Uganda without compromising performance [76]. Furthermore, invest-
aimed to transform Unga Millers’ inactive flour mill in Kam- ing in R&D can lead to innovations in feed formulation techni-
pala into a modern facility for producing animal feeds and ques to enhance fish feed’s nutritional quality and digestibility. In
concentrates, which are sold under both Trouw Nutrition’s countries like China, where aquaculture has experienced signifi-
Hendrix and Unga’s Fugo brands [71]. This partnership has cant growth, substantial investments have been made in research
brought substantial investment to Eastern Africa, aiding and innovation. Current efforts are focused on exploring nutri-
Kenya and Uganda in meeting the increasing demand for ent metabolism and related signaling pathways to achieve precise
high-quality protein by boosting local fish feed production, nutrient regulation and meet the demand for high-quality
reducing dependence on imports, and improving the avail- aquatic products [77]. However, such innovations and research
ability of premium feed for fish farmers. are still lacking in East African countries. Strengthening research
Another notable example is the SamakGro Fish Feed and innovations in feed formulations is crucial to effectively meet
Factory in Naivasha, Kenya, a collaboration involving the specific dietary requirements of different fish species and life
Victory Farms, Maxim Agri Holdings, and Gatsby Africa stages [78]. This can lead to improved growth rates, feed conver-
[72]. This facility has enhanced local production capabilities sion efficiencies, and the overall health and well-being of farmed
and contributed to meeting the growing demand for fish feed fish. Furthermore, advancements in feed processing technologies
in the region. Similarly, Ugachick in Uganda has invested in can enhance the palatability, stability, and shelf-life of fish feeds,
advanced feed production technologies, positioning itself as a ensuring they retain their nutritional value during storage and
leading fish feed manufacturer and producing high-quality transportation [45]. Moreover, R&D efforts can also focus on
feeds that support the local aquaculture industry [73]. Their improving feed quality control measures to ensure consistency
model demonstrates how investment in technology and and safety. By developing robust quality assurance protocols and
capacity building can drive sector growth. These initiatives testing methods, it becomes possible to verify the nutritional
exemplify how collaboration to build a regional fish feed content and safety of fish feeds accurately [79]. This instills
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Aquaculture Nutrition 11

confidence among fish farmers and feed manufacturers, pro- best practices in aquaculture production. Access to afford-
moting trust and reliability within the industry. able and quality feeds is crucial for achieving desirable
growth rates, improving feed conversion efficiency, and
5.3. Integration of Digital Technologies. The adoption of ensuring farmed fish’s overall health and productivity. More-
digital technologies presents a significant opportunity to over, such measures can stimulate investment in the aqua-
improve the efficiency and sustainability of fish feed produc- culture value chain, including feed manufacturing, thereby
tion and management in East Africa. Precision farming tools, enhancing the self-sufficiency and competitiveness of the
such as automated feeders and real-time water quality moni- regional aquaculture industry [49].
toring systems, can optimize feed usage, reduce waste, and Advocating for temporary reductions in import duties is
enhance fish growth rates [80]. These technologies enable consistent with broader efforts to enhance food security,
farmers to make data-driven decisions, leading to more effi- economic development, and sustainability within the EAC.
cient feed management practices and improved overall farm By making quality feeds more affordable, governments can
productivity. One example is the use of precision farming bolster the aquaculture sector as a sustainable source of pro-
tools that allow for the precise delivery of feed based on the tein and income for communities across East Africa. An
specific needs of the fish at different growth stages [81]. This analysis by Njagi [50] highlights significant price variations
method ensures that the fish receive the optimal amount of for maize and soya meal across different markets, including
nutrients, reducing both overfeeding and underfeeding, Kenya, the East African region, and the global market. For
which are common issues in traditional feeding practices.
example, maize prices in Tanzania were $65/tonne (19%)
The implementation of automated feeding systems equipped
lower than in Kenya, and in Uganda, they were $102/tonne
with sensors and control units can significantly reduce labor
(29%) lower. If policymakers approved a duty waiver for
costs and improve FCRs.
globally sourced maize, prices from the Black Sea and the
Additionally, blockchain technology can be employed to
United States would be substantially lower, by $165/tonne
enhance traceability in the fish feed supply chain. Blockchain
(48%) and $176/tonne (51%), respectively, compared to
systems provide a transparent and immutable record of feed
Kenya (Figure 4). Similarly, soya meal from Brazil was 28%
production, from raw material sourcing to final feed delivery
cheaper than the imported price in Kenya, while prices in
[82]. This traceability ensures the authenticity and quality of
Rotterdam were 32% lower. Transportation costs were esti-
feed, thereby increasing farmer confidence in feed products
mated at around $45/tonne, with insurance costs accounting
and allowing for better regulatory compliance. For instance,
for 1.5% of the free on-board price [50].
Bumble Bee Foods and SAP’s development of a blockchain-
Figure 5 illustrates the prices of maize sourced from various
based system in 2019 to track and trace fresh fish from the source
to the end consumer [83]. Another example is OpenSC, an markets. Notably, purchasing white maize from regional
online blockchain platform launched by WWF Australia and sources would reduce total expenditure by $15/tonne (5%) after
BCG Digital Ventures, which integrates IoT-enabled devices considering transportation and logistics costs. Meanwhile,
and machine learning classification techniques to track fish sourcing yellow GM maize from the Black Sea or the United
throughout the supply chain [84]. These initiatives demonstrate States would yield even greater savings, with reductions of $17/
how blockchain technology can improve transparency and tonne (6%) and $55/tonne (18%), respectively, assuming a duty
accountability if implemented in the fish feed sector. Further- waiver. However, it is worth noting that despite the potential
more, mobile applications and online platforms can facilitate cost advantages of importing yellow GM maize, the overall
knowledge sharing and training among fish farmers. These digi- costs, including transportation and port charges, remain higher
tal tools can provide farmers with access to best practices, trou- compared to local maize, even without the duty. This suggests
bleshooting tips, and real-time advisory services from experts. In that while global market sourcing may offer cheaper raw mate-
Kenya, the use of a mobile app called AquaRech has revolution- rials, the significant transportation and port charges diminish
ized how farmers access information and manage their aquacul- these advantages [50].
ture operations, resulting in increased productivity and reduced
losses [85]. 5.5. Strengthening Quality Control and Standards. Imple-
menting strict quality control measures and regular inspec-
5.4. Policy Influencing and Recommendations for Regulatory tions can ensure that only high-quality fish feed is available
Reform and Support. Import taxes on fish feeds and feed in the market, which is crucial for enhancing productivity
ingredients present a considerable obstacle to the develop- and profitability in the aquaculture sector. Training and cer-
ment of aquaculture within the EAC, especially given the tifying feed producers and suppliers on best practices are
lack of locally produced high-quality starter and grow-out essential to maintaining high standards and preventing the
feeds. To promote the growth of the aquaculture sector, it is distribution of substandard products. This can be supported
crucial to encourage EAC governments to consider tempo- by developing and enforcing national standards for fish feed
rarily reducing import duties on high-quality fish feeds [49]. quality, which protect farmers from inferior products and
This reduction in import tariffs would alleviate the financial promote overall sustainability and growth within the sector.
burden on fish farmers and promote the accessibility of For instance, in Kenya, establishing fish feed standards has
nutritious feeds necessary for optimal fish growth and devel- significantly improved the quality of available feeds, leading
opment. By reducing import duties on high-quality fish to better feed management practices and cost savings for
feeds, EAC governments can incentivize the adoption of farmers [21]. Ugachick in Uganda has invested in advanced
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
12 Aquaculture Nutrition

Soya meal
Difference = $178

Maize
Difference = $176
$565

$347
$407
$380
$282
$245

$171 $182

Kenya Tanzania Uganda US Gulf Black Sea Kenya Rotterdam Brazil

(Nairobi) (Arusha) (Kampala) (import UV)

FIGURE 4: Price of critical feed raw materials [50].

600
550
500 GM yellow
450
400 Non-GM white
350
$/kg

300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Kenya Tanzania Uganda US Gulf Black Sea
(Nairobi) (Arusha) (Kampala)
Maize purchase price Port charges
Transport Tariffs (50%)

FIGURE 5: Prices of maize sourced from various markets [50].

feed production technologies and strict quality control mea- 5.6. Human Capacity Development and Extension Services.
sures, ensuring the production of high-quality fish feeds that Several factors, including inadequate research capacity, lim-
meet both local and international standards [86]. In Tanza- ited expertise, and the lack of robust formulation programs
nia, the introduction of stringent quality control measures and feed models, make effectively utilizing available technol-
has been critical for development, emphasizing the impor- ogy to formulate optimal diets in aquaculture challenging.
tance of technical skills in feed production and the necessity These issues often result in the use of basic and underper-
of adequate standards to ensure market access to high- forming feeds. Additionally, the shortage of skilled fish farm-
quality feeds [47]. Additionally, the collaboration between ers proficient in feed management exacerbates the industry’s
the LVFO and the EAC to develop the “Regional Guidelines challenges. Insufficient knowledge of advanced feed formu-
for the Certification of Fish Seed and Fish Feed” has been a lation techniques and the specific nutritional requirements
significant step toward harmonizing quality standards across of different fish species significantly affects production
the region, ensuring consistency and reliability in fish feed output [87].
production [57]. These initiatives illustrate the feasibility and To tackle these challenges, EAC governments must pri-
effectiveness of implementing strict quality control and cer- oritize capacity-building initiatives for aquaculture extension
tification processes in the fish feed sector, leading to workers and fish farmer associations. This involves investing
enhanced feed quality, increased farmer confidence, and in training programs to enhance the technological profi-
overall sector growth. ciency of local fish feed manufacturers and promote the
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Aquaculture Nutrition 13

development of high-quality, affordable feeds [88]. Integrat- challenges faced by the fish feed industry [91]. Such an orga-
ing practical fish feed formulation training into university nization would be responsible for drafting legislation and regula-
and technical college curricula can produce professionals tions, setting membership criteria with enforceable conditions,
with hands-on experience, further strengthening the indus- implementing sector-wide self-regulation and HACCP systems,
try’s expertise base. Moreover, leveraging information and conducting audits, enforcing standards and regulations, and col-
communication technologies (ICTs) such as radio, video, lecting fees to finance its operations. By consolidating policy,
and smartphone applications offers a cost-effective means regulatory, and sector development functions, this association
of disseminating information and providing ongoing sup- would ensure representation from all major stakeholders, includ-
port to fish farmers. These platforms can deliver training ing raw material suppliers, premix suppliers, and feed
materials, share best practices, and collect data to monitor manufacturers.
and improve productivity levels in aquaculture [87]. Leading fish feed manufacturers must collaborate to create
the necessary structure and legislation to advance the feed sector
5.7. Policy and Public Investment Support. In many East Afri- in their countries. They should provide strong leadership and
can countries, aquaculture is seen as a crucial strategy for financial support and establish a well-equipped secretariat
improving food and nutrition security while creating jobs. staffed with skilled personnel. The EAC has established EAS
However, despite established policies and strategies for fish 973:2019, Compounded fish feeds—Specification, which out-
feed development, these initiatives often suffer from inade-
lines requirements, sampling methods, and tests for com-
quate government funding and poor implementation [89].
pounded fish feeds used in aquaculture, specifically for tilapia
To further encourage private sector investment and ensure
and catfish. However, feed industry organizations are often
industry sustainability, East African countries need to
underfunded and lack resources, limiting their effectiveness.
strengthen policy support, enforce regulations, invest in
There is a critical need for a robust institution to govern the
infrastructure, and support institutional innovations.
industry, covering aspects such as policy development, regula-
Governments must provide robust policy frameworks and
tory frameworks, GMP, quality assurance/control (QA/QC),
high-level backing for the aquaculture sector. Implementing
auditing, feed quality control, training, and investment. With
and enforcing regulations are essential to maintaining indus-
adequate funding and government support, an industry associ-
try standards. Significant investment in infrastructure is nec-
ation could effectively engage in self-regulation and significantly
essary to support the aquaculture industry, and encouraging
contribute to the development of the animal feed sector [92].
institutional innovations can help address existing challenges.
Notably, prior to 2023, Uganda lacked a specific policy regu- 5.9. Training and Awareness Creation for the Feed Providers.
lating animal feeds, underscoring the need for continued pol- Investing in innovation, knowledge, and skills for commer-
icy development and implementation. The 11th Parliament of cial feed production is a crucial strategic intervention for the
Uganda enacted the Animal Feeds Bill of 2023 to regulate the
East African feed sector. The region offers various aquacul-
production, storage, importation, exportation, and marketing
ture training programs at certificate, diploma, and degree
of animal feeds. According to the bill, anyone wishing to
levels, designed to equip individuals with the necessary
engage in the production, storage, and sale of animal feeds
knowledge and skills for the growing aquaculture industry.
must apply for a license, which will be reviewed within
Notable institutions providing these programs include the
3 months [90].
University of Nairobi, Maseno University, University of
Supportive policies might include streamlining business
Eldoret, and Ramogi Institute of Advanced Technology in
processes, reducing taxes to encourage business growth, and
Kenya, Makerere University in Uganda, Sokoine University
lowering import duties on inputs such as raw materials and
of Agriculture, University of Dar es Salaam, and University
equipment essential for local fish feed production [87]. In
of Dodoma in Tanzania. These institutions offer theoretical
East Africa, high transportation costs and unreliable electric-
and practical training in various aspects of aquaculture, such
ity supply present significant challenges to attracting and
maintaining private sector investment and developing aqua- as breeding, production, and management. However, a sig-
culture value chains. Therefore, investment is crucial for nificant bottleneck remains the lack of an effective institu-
infrastructure development, including road construction tional environment for training staff across the fish feed
and maintenance, transportation systems, and electricity industry [93]. A notable disparity exists between the demand
supply, to ensure the continuous operation of the feed indus- for skilled labor in the sector and the availability of suitable
try and meet local demand [87]. Despite the regional govern- training courses and modules. To address this gap, it is advis-
ment’s commitment to improving quality control, there able to benchmark the East African feed industry against
remains a noticeable lack of sufficient capacity. countries with well-developed feed sectors and tailor the
regulatory guidelines and systems accordingly. Countries
5.8. Sector Institutions and Industry Associations. Establish- like South Africa offer valuable insights that could be cus-
ing a well-funded and authorized aquaculture feed associa- tomized and implemented to meet the specific needs of East
tion is crucial to address the institutional gaps caused by the Africa [94].
liberalization of the fish feed sector in East Africa. This asso- Furthermore, developing innovative approaches and
ciation, managed by the private sector with government enhancing technical skills are paramount for advancing the
oversight, would play a key role in addressing the various competitiveness and sustainability of the East African feed
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
14 Aquaculture Nutrition

sector. This includes fostering collaboration between indus- tackle the shortage of affordable, high-quality fish feed,
try stakeholders, academia, and government agencies to FoodTechAfrica partnered with experts like Skretting,
establish training programs that address the sector’s specific Almex, Nutreco, Ottevanger, and Unga [100]. Together,
needs [93]. Additionally, leveraging international partner- these partners established a fully extruded floating fish feed
ships and best practices can provide valuable insights and factory in Nairobi, Kenya. This factory combines Unga’s
expertise to support regional capacity-building efforts [94]. local experience, Ottevanger’s advanced technology, and
Nutreco’s expertise in feed formulation to produce high-
5.10. Improved Storage Facilities. Enhanced storage facilities quality, affordable fish feed. With an annual production
are essential for maintaining the quality of feeds in aquacul- capacity of 5000 tonnes, it is the first facility in East Africa
ture operations. It is advised to store fish feeds in well- to supply high-quality floating fish feeds, which are essential
ventilated facilities with controlled temperatures to mitigate for the growth of the region’s aquaculture sector. This devel-
the effects of temperature and humidity fluctuations [95]. opment has enabled fish farmers to increase their output and
Protection from pest infestations is also critical to prevent reduce production costs per kilogram, thus improving the
contamination and spoilage of the feeds. Implementing a overall sustainability and productivity of the aquaculture
first-in, first-out approach is crucial for ensuring that older industry [100].
feeds are used before newer ones, thereby reducing the risk of In Uganda, the partnership between Ugachick and inter-
feed deterioration over time. To enhance feed management national investors has led to the establishment of a modern
practices, comprehensive guidelines focusing on storage and
feed mill that utilizes locally sourced ingredients. This initia-
handling protocols should be developed and widely shared
tive has not only enhanced local feed production but also
with farmers [96]. These guidelines will assist farmers in
created job opportunities and contributed to the overall
optimizing feed quality and minimizing losses, ultimately
growth of the aquaculture sector [101]. This approach has
contributing to the overall success and sustainability of aqua-
been suggested in Tanzania, where the availability and nutri-
culture operations.
tive value of local feed ingredients such as maize bran, which
Examples from other sectors highlight the advantages of
provides medium–high crude protein content, can be effec-
improved on-farm storage. For example, a study by Huss et al.
tively utilized to develop cost-efficient and nutritious fish
[97] demonstrated that better storage technology and training
feeds [46]. Such partnerships can bring in the required tech-
significantly reduced food insecurity during COVID-19
nology, capital, and expertise, thus boosting local feed pro-
restrictions in treatment households. This underscores the
duction capabilities.
potential of enhanced on-farm storage to mitigate vulnerabil-
ity to food supply shocks, aiding long-term climate change 5.12. Enhancing Gender Participation in the Fish Feed Sector.
adaptation and balancing public health protection with food Women play a pivotal role in fish farming and processing in
security. Additionally, a study by Brander, Bernauer, and
East Africa [102]. Despite their significant contributions,
Huss [98] in Tanzania found that providing farming house-
they often face numerous barriers that limit their full partici-
holds with hermetic storage bags reduced the proportion of
pation in the sector. These barriers include limited access to
severely food-insecure households by 38% during the lean
credit, training, and high-quality inputs such as fish feed
season and by 20% throughout the entire seasonal cycle.
[102]. One effective strategy to enhance women’s participa-
These case examples show that with modern storage technol-
tion is improving their access to critical resources and train-
ogies and comprehensive guidelines, farmers can optimize
ing. Equipping women with the necessary skills and
feed quality, reduce losses, and enhance the sustainability
knowledge will empower them to take on more significant
and productivity of aquaculture operations.
roles in the sector, leading to improved productivity and
5.11. Subsidies and Incentives for Local Feed Production. economic empowerment. Access to credit is another signifi-
Governments in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, and Rwanda cant barrier for women in the fish feed sector. Kenya cur-
should consider providing subsidies for raw materials and rently lacks a specific agricultural finance policy, which
tax incentives to local fish feed producers. These measures creates a potential gap in women’s access to financial
would lower production costs, making high-quality feed resources for agricultural activities. Establishing such a pol-
more affordable for farmers. For instance, Kenya’s govern- icy is crucial to ensure that rural households, including
ment’s feed subsidy program has positively influenced house- women, have access to appropriate and affordable financial
holds’ decisions to participate in the improved fish feed services [103]. An agricultural finance policy would help
market. It has increased private sector demand for enhanced provide demand-driven financial services, with particular
feed [99]. provisions aimed at supporting women and youth in the
Promoting public–private partnerships (PPPs) to invest agricultural sector. For instance, microfinance can offer
in local feed production facilities is crucial for reducing financial products tailored to women in aquaculture. These
dependency on imported feeds. PPPs can encourage the products can offer low-interest loans and flexible repayment
establishment of local feed manufacturing plants that utilize terms, enabling women to invest in high-quality fish feed and
locally available raw materials. One notable example is the other essential inputs [104]. This will lead to an increased
FoodTechAfrica initiative, a PPP comprising 21 companies number of women-led aquaculture enterprises, which will
and universities focused on enhancing food security in East lead to greater economic independence and enhanced liveli-
Africa through a fully integrated aquaculture value chain. To hoods for women in the sector.
 anu, 2024, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2024/8484451 by MAVINDU MUTHOKA - INASP - KENYA Maseno University , Wiley Online Library on [24/11/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
Aquaculture Nutrition 15

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The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Supplementation of Fish Protein Hydrolysate to the BSF-
Based Aquafeed on the Growth, Survival, Fatty Acids, and
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Funding Aquaculture Nutrition 2024, no. 1 (2024): 8579991, 11 pages.
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