Geometric Design of Highways

Geometric design of highways is that phase of highway design which deals with
visible dimension of a roadway. Thus, it is the design of those road elements with
which the roadway user is directly connected. It is the desire of every road user to
reach his destination in the shortest possible time and with the least inconvenience. It,
therefore; becomes inevitable for a designer to provide a highway which caters for
the maximum possible speed and the most effective safety measures. Thus speed,
safety and comfort are the three important factors controlling the design features.

Geometric design elements like road width, horizontal curvature, vertical curvature,
camber, and …. etc are influenced by driver psychology, vehicle characteristics, and
traffic characteristics.

Horizontal Alignment of Highway:

The horizontal alignment of a road which is shown on the plan view and represented
the center line of a highway is a series of straight lines called tangents connected by
circular curves.

When vehicle passing from a straight to a curved path, a vehicle is under the
influence of two forces, namely (i) the weight of the vehicle, and (ii) the centrifugal
force; both of them acting through its centre of gravity. The centrifugal force always
acts in the horizontal direction and its effect is to push the vehicle off the track. To
balance this:
(1) It is customary to make the road surface perpendicular to the resultant of the
above two forces, i.e. the outer edge of the road is raised above the inner edge.
This is called superelevation or cant or banking.
(2) By side friction factor or coefficient of sliding friction.
𝑊 𝑣2
C = Centrifugal Force = Mass * Acceleration = ∗
9.81 𝑅
Summation of acting forces:
C*cosθ = F + W*sinθ
𝑊 𝑣2
∗ ∗ cos 𝜃 = 𝐹 + 𝑊 sin 𝜃 … … … … … … … . . (1)
9.81 𝑅

Horizontal Alignment of Highways ……..……………………………………………… 1/17

The side frictional force, F, can be expressed as:
𝐹 = 𝑓[𝑊 cos 𝜃 + 𝐶 sin 𝜃 ] … … … … … … … (2)
(f is defined as the side friction factor)
Substituting Equation (1) into Equation (2), the following expression is derived:
𝑊 𝑣2
∗ ∗ cos 𝜃 = 𝑓 [𝑊 cos 𝜃 + 𝐶 sin 𝜃 ] + 𝑊 sin 𝜃
9.81 𝑅

By dividing the above equation by (Wcosθ):

𝑣2 𝐶
→ = 𝑓 + (𝑓 ∗ tan 𝜃) + tan 𝜃
9.81 ∗ 𝑅 𝑊

𝐶
If we ignore the term (𝑓 ∗ 𝑊 tan 𝜃) on the basis that it is extremely small, the following
final expression is derived:
𝑣2
= 𝑓 + tan 𝜃
9.81 ∗ 𝑅

The term 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 is in fact the superelevation (e). If in addition we express velocity in
kilometers per hour (kph) rather than meters per second (m/sec.), the following generally
used equation is obtained:
𝑽𝟐
=𝒇+𝒆
𝟏𝟐𝟕𝑹
Where:
𝑚
𝑣 = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 , 𝑉 = 𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑝ℎ,
𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠,
𝑒 = 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

Horizontal Alignment of Highways ……..……………………………………………… 2/17

Horizontal Alignment:
There are two types of curves:
1- Circular Curves: These curves have constant radius and can be classified into:
A) Simple Circular Curve: This curve contains one radius and one central angle.
∆ = Central angle
R = Radius of curve
∆
T = Tangent length = 𝑅 ∗ tan
2
2∗𝜋∗𝑅∗∆(𝑑𝑒𝑔.) 𝑅∗∆(𝑑𝑒𝑔.)
L = Curve length = =
360 57.3
∆
C = Chord length = 2 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ �sin �
2
∆
M = Middle ordinate = 𝑅 ∗ (1 − cos )
2
∆
E = External distance = 𝑅 ∗ �sec − 1�
2
PC = Point of Curvature
PI = Point of Intersection
PT = Point of Tangency
5730
D = Degree of curvature =
𝑅

Notes:
- To find the main stations of the points (PC & PT) when PI station is given are
as follows:
• Sta. PC = Sta. PI – T,
• Sta. PT = Sta. PC + L.
- The station of PT cannot be calculated from (Sta. PI + T) or from
(Sta. PC + 2T).
Example:
Calculate the elements and the main stations for a simple circular curve, if its radius
(R) = 250m, D = 52o36', and Sta. PI = 14+80.
Solution:
∆ 52°36′
- T = Tangent length = 𝑅 ∗ tan = 250 ∗ tan = 123.56𝑚
2 2
∆ 52°36′
- C = Chord length = 2 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ �sin � = 2 ∗ 250 ∗ �sin � = 221.54𝑚
2 2
𝑅∗∆(𝑑𝑒𝑔.) 250∗(52.6°)
- L = Curve length = = = 229.49𝑚
57.3 57.3

Horizontal Alignment of Highways ……..……………………………………………… 3/17

 ∆ 1
- E = External distance = 𝑅 ∗ �sec − 1� = 250 ∗ � 52°36′
− 1� = 28.87𝑚
2 cos
2
∆ 52°36′
- M = Middle ordinate = 𝑅 ∗ �1 − cos � = 250 ∗ �1 − cos � = 25.88𝑚
2 2
- Sta. PC = Sta. PI – T = (14+80) – (1+23.56) = 13 + 56.44
- Sta. PT = Sta. PC + L = (13+56.44) + (2+29.49) = 15 + 85.93

Example:
Calculate the elements and the main station of a single circular curve has R = 388m,
C = 287m and Sta. PT = 52+50.
Solution:
∆ ∆ ∆ 287
C = 2 ∗ 𝑅 ∗ �sin � → 287 = 2 ∗ 388 ∗ �sin � → �sin � = →
2 2 2 776
∆ ∆
�sin � = 0.369845 → = 21°42′ → ∆= 43°24′
2 2
∆ 43°24′
T = 𝑅 ∗ tan = 388 ∗ tan = 154.40𝑚
2 2
𝑅∗∆(𝑑𝑒𝑔.) 388∗(43.4°)
L= = = 293.877𝑚
57.3 57.3

∆ 1
E = 𝑅 ∗ �sec − 1� = 388 ∗ � 43°24′
− 1� = 29.59𝑚
2 cos
2
∆ 43°24′
M = 𝑅 ∗ �1 − cos � = 388 ∗ �1 − cos � = 27.50𝑚
2 2
Sta. PC = Sta. PT – L = (52+50) – (2+93.90) = 49 + 56.10
Sta. PI = Sta. PC + T = (49+56.10) + (1+54.40) = 51+10.50

B) Compound Circular Curve:

This type of circular curves has two radiuses or more, two central angles or more, and
the circular curves of the same directions.
Example:
Given: R1 = 400m, ∆1 = 15 deg., R2 = 280m, ∆2 = 25 deg., Sta. PI = 60+40.20.
Calculate the deflection angles every 20 meters along the compound curve.
Solution:
∆1 15°
T1 = 𝑅1 ∗ tan = 400 ∗ tan = 52.66𝑚
2 2
∆2 25°
T2 = 𝑅2 ∗ tan = 280 ∗ tan = 62.07𝑚
2 2
𝑅1∗∆1(𝑑𝑒𝑔.) 400∗(15°)
L1= = = 104.71𝑚
57.3 57.3

Horizontal Alignment of Highways ……..……………………………………………… 4/17

 𝑅2∗∆2(𝑑𝑒𝑔.) 280∗(25°)
L2= = = 122.17𝑚
57.3 57.3
𝑍1 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 𝑍1 52.66 + 62.07
= → = → 𝑍1 = 75.43𝑚
sin ∆2 sin(180 − ∆1 − ∆2) sin 25 sin(180 − 15 − 25)
∴ 𝑇𝑎 = 𝑇1 + 𝑍1 = 52.66 + 75.43 = 128.09𝑚
Sta. PC = Sta. PI – Ta = (60+40.20) – (1+28.09) = 59+12.11
Sta. PCC = Sta. PC + L1 = (59+12.11) + (1+04.71) = 60+16.82
Sta. PT = Sta. PCC + L2 = (60+16.82) + (1+22.17) = 61+38.99
Point Station Change Chord Deflection Angle Total Deflection
PC 59+12.11 59+12.11 0 00°00′00′′ 00°00′00′′
59+20 7.89 𝟎𝟎°𝟑𝟑′𝟓𝟒′′ 00°33′54′′
59+40 20 01°25′56′′ 01°59′50′′
59+60 20 01°25′56′′ 03°25′47′′
59+80 20 01°25′56′′ 04°51′44′′
60+00 20 01°25′56′′ 06°17′40′′
PCC 60+16.82 60+16.82 16.82 01°12′16′′ 𝟎𝟕°𝟐𝟗′𝟓𝟕′′
60+20 3.18 𝟎𝟎°𝟏𝟗′𝟑𝟏′′ 07°49′31′′
60+40 20 02°02′46′′ 09°52′17′′
60+60 20 02°02′46′′ 11°55′04′′
60+80 20 02°02′46′′ 13°57′51′′
61+00 20 02°02′46′′ 16°00′37′′
61+20 20 02°02′46′′ 18°03′23′′
PT 61+39 61+39 19 01°56′38′′ 𝟏𝟗°𝟓𝟗′𝟓𝟖′′

Horizontal Alignment of Highways ……..……………………………………………… 5/17

Notes:
- Chord (7.89) from column (3): (59+20) - (59+12.11)
𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 180 7.89 180
- Deflection Angle (00°33′54′′): ∗ = ∗
2∗𝑅1 𝜋 2∗400 𝜋
𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑 180 3.18 180
- Deflection Angle (00°19′31′′): ∗ = ∗
2∗𝑅2 𝜋 2∗280 𝜋
- Total Deflection is the summation of deflection angles
∆1
- 07°29′ 57′′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦
2
∆1+∆2
- 19°59′ 58′′ 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦
2
Example:
Given: R1 = 450m, ∆1 = 12 deg., R2 = 300m, ∆2 = 25 deg., R3 = 600m, ∆3 = 15
deg., Sta. PI = 80+00.00.
Calculate the deflection angles every 20 meters up to the middle of the second
compound curve.
Solution:

∆1 12°
T1 = 𝑅1 ∗ tan = 450 ∗ tan = 47.29𝑚
2 2
∆2 25°
T2 = 𝑅2 ∗ tan = 300 ∗ tan = 66.50𝑚
2 2
∆3 15°
T3 = 𝑅3 ∗ tan = 600 ∗ tan = 78.99𝑚
2 2

Horizontal Alignment of Highways ……..……………………………………………… 6/17

 𝑅1∗∆1(𝑑𝑒𝑔.) 450∗(12°)
L1= = = 94.24𝑚
57.3 57.3
𝑅1∗∆2(𝑑𝑒𝑔.) 300∗(25°)
L2= = = 130.89𝑚
57.3 57.3
𝑅1∗∆1(𝑑𝑒𝑔.) 600∗(15°)
L3= = = 157.07𝑚
57.3 57.3
𝑍1 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 𝑍1 47.29 + 66.50
= → = → 𝑍1 = 79.90𝑚
sin ∆2 sin(180 − ∆1 − ∆2) sin 25 sin(180 − 12 − 25)

𝑍2 𝑍1 𝑍2 79.90
= → = → 𝑍2 = 39.30𝑚
sin ∆1 sin ∆2 sin 12 sin 25

𝑍3 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + 𝑍2 𝑍3 66.50 + 78.99 + 39.30

= → =
sin ∆3 sin(180 − ∆1 − ∆2 − ∆3) sin 15 sin(180 − 12 − 25 − 15)
→ 𝑍3 = 60.69𝑚
Ta = T1+Z1+Z3 = 47.29+79.90+60.69 = 187.88
Sta. PC = Sta. PI – Ta = (80+00) – (1+87.88) = 78+12.12
Sta. PCC1 = Sta. PC + L1 = (78+12.12) + (00+94.24) = 79+06.36
Sta. PCC2 = Sta. PCC1 + L2 = (79+06.36) + (1+30.89) = 80+37.25
Sta. PT = Sta. PCC2 + L3 = (80+37.25) + (1+57.07) = 81+94.32
Sta. to the middle of the second curve = Sta. PCC1 + (L2/2)
= (79+06.36) + [(1+30.89)/2] = 79+71.80
Point Station Change Chord Deflection Angle Total Deflection
PC 78+12.12 78+12.12 0 00°00′00′′ 00°00′00′′
78+20 7.88 00°30′06′′ 00°30′06′′
78+40 20 01°16′24′′ 01°46′30′′
78+60 20 01°16′24′′ 03°02′54′′
78+80 20 01°16′24′′ 04°19′18′′
79+00 20 01°16′24′′ 05°35′42′′
PCC1 79+06.36 79+06.36 06.36 00°24′18′′ 𝟎𝟔°𝟎𝟎′𝟎𝟎′′
60+20 13.64 01°18′09′′ 07°18′09′′
60+40 20 01°54′36′′ 09°12′45′′
60+60 20 01°54′36′′ 11°07′21′′
Middle of the
2nd curve 79+71.80 60+80 20 01°07′37′′ 𝟏𝟐°𝟏𝟒′𝟓𝟖′′

Horizontal Alignment of Highways ……..……………………………………………… 7/17

C) Reverse Circular Curve:
- It has two radiuses, two central angles, and two circular curves at opposite sides.
- The purposes of reverse curve are:
* To use in railroad and mountainous areas.
* To use when it needs to avoid some areas.
P = m1 + m2
= (O1A – O1D) + (O2B – O2E)
= (R1-R1cos∆) + (R2-R2cos∆)
= R1(1-cos∆) + R2(1-cos∆)
P= (R1+R2) (1-cos∆)
When R1=R2:
P=2R(1-cos∆)
d = DC+CE
= R1sin∆+R2sin∆
d = (R1+R2) sin∆
when R1=R2:
d = 2Rsin∆

Example:
A reverse curve has a radius of 400m, and its tangents is separated by 60m. Find its
tangent length, central angle, and distance between the begin and end points.
Solution:
P = 2*R*(1-cos∆): 60 = 2*400*(1- cos∆)
800 − 60
cos ∆= → ∆= 22.33°
800
∆ 22.33°
T1=T2=T3=T4= 𝑅 ∗ tan = 400 ∗ tan = 78.94𝑚
2 2
d = 2Rsin∆ = 2∗400∗sin(22.33) = 303.95m

2- Transition or Spiral Curves:

These curve types are used to connect curved and straight sections of highway. (They
can also be used to ease the change between two circular curves where the difference
in radius is large.) The purpose of transition curves is to permit the gradual
introduction of centrifugal forces. Such forces are required in order to cause a vehicle
to move round a circular arc rather than continue in a straight line. A finite quantity

Horizontal Alignment of Highways ……..……………………………………………… 8/17