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JOURNAL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS AND CLEAN ENERGY, VOL. XX, NO. XX, XX XXXX 1

Towards Renewable-dominated Energy Systems:

Role of Green Hydrogen
Sheng Chen, Member, IEEE, Jingchun Zhang, Zhinong Wei, Hao Cheng, Student Member, IEEE,
and Si Lv, Student Member, IEEE

Abstract—
—Green hydrogen represents an important energy ation, which requires high operating flexibility at different
carrier for global decarbonization towards renewable-dominant time scales [7]. This flexibility is mainly provided by flexi‐
energy systems. As a result, an escalating interdependency
emerges between multi-energy vectors. Specifically, the coupling
ble power generators (e. g., natural gas turbines) and energy
between power, natural gas, and hydrogen systems is strength‐ storages [8]. Although the power industry has designed a
ened as the injections of green hydrogen into natural gas pipe‐ few flexibility market products [9], e. g., flexible ramping
lines. At the same time, the interaction between hydrogen and products in California Independent System Operator (CAI‐
transportation systems would become indispensable with soar‐ SO) and performance-based regulation mechanism in Penn‐
ing penetrations of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles. This paper pro‐
vides a comprehensive review for the modeling and coordina‐
sylvania-New Jersey-Maryland (PJM), the cost to provide
tion of hydrogen-integrated energy systems. In particular, we such flexibility is generally high at present due to the rela‐
analyze the role of green hydrogen in decarbonizing power, nat‐ tively high gas price and expensive investment cost of ener‐
ural gas, and transportation systems. Finally, pressing research gy storages [10].
needs are summarized. The emergence of hydrogen energy in recent years pro‐
Index Terms——Renewable-dominant energy systems, green hy‐ vides an alternative solution to the decarbonization of multi-
drogen, gas-hydrogen blending, multi-energy coordination. energy sectors, particularly as the hydrogen is produced by
RESs (i. e., green hydrogen) via power to hydrogen (P2H)
technologies [11] - [13]. The P2H technologies can convert
I. INTRODUCTION the surplus RES generation into hydrogen, which can be

C URRENT energy systems are heavily reliant on fossil

fuels, and hence represent a major contributor to global
carbon emissions [1]-[3]. Transition to a low-carbon or car‐
stored in hydrogen tanks and further applied to generate elec‐
tricity via fuel cell generating units [14]. Alternatively, the
green hydrogen can be injected into existing natural gas pipe‐
bon-neutral energy system has become critical to cope with lines. As such, the P2H combined with fuel cell generating
climate change issues. Although the energy transition path‐ units or natural gas pipelines represents an effective large-
ways for different countries/regions might be diverse, high scale energy storage technology [15]. Another solution is to
penetrations of renewable energy sources (RESs) are general‐ establish hydrogen transmission infrastructures. Converting
ly required for constructing a green and sustainable energy existing natural gas pipelines into pure hydrogen pipelines
system [4]. Specifically, replacing fossil-fuel power genera‐ represents a low-cost option to achieve this goal, while in‐
tors with RESs would decarbonize the power sector [5]. On vestment in building new hydrogen pipelines might be re‐
the other hand, electrification of end-use energy consump‐ quired if large volumes of hydrogen need to be transported
tion, e.g., electric vehicles (EVs), heat pumps, power to gas, or stored [16].
would contribute to the decarbonization of transportation, The role of green hydrogen in decarbonizing future ener‐
heat, and natural gas sectors [6]. gy systems has been recognized by many countries/regions.
However, the high penetrations of RESs pose significant For example, Europe Union (EU) has launched an ambitious
operational challenges to power/energy systems. One major hydrogen strategy, in which the priority is given to develop
challenge is caused by intermittent and stochastic RES gener‐ green hydrogen that functions as an energy carrier to
achieve carbon-neutral economy [17]. China has planned to
Manuscript received: November 14, 2023; revised: December 27, 2023; ac‐ build a 400 km west-to-east green hydrogen transmission
cepted: January 5, 2024. Date of CrossCheck: January 5, 2024. Date of online pipeline whose annual capacity is up to 30000 t [18].
publication: XX XX, XXXX.
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China
As the green hydrogen acts an energy carrier towards the
(No. 52007051) and Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities transition to a green energy future, the interdependency be‐
(No. B220202006). tween multi-energy systems (including hydrogen, power, nat‐
This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribu‐
tion 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). ural gas, and transportation networks) would be greatly
S. Chen, J. Zhang, Z. Wei, H. Cheng, and S. Lv are with the College of Ener‐ strengthened [19]. Incorporating the hydrogen into an inte‐
gy and Electrical Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, China (e- grated energy system provides the following potential values.
mail: chenshenghhu@163. com; 211306080070@hhu. edu. cn; wzn_nj@263. net;
[email protected]; [email protected]). 1) Accommodation of high penetrations of RESs: the sur‐
DOI: 10.35833/MPCE.2023.000887 plus RES generation (that otherwise would be curtailed)
2 JOURNAL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS AND CLEAN ENERGY, VOL. XX, NO. XX, XX XXXX

could be converted into hydrogen that functions as a green

secondary energy source. Moreover, the coordination of
multi-energy systems could provide the operating flexibility
required to balance short-term fluctuation of RES genera‐
tion [20].
2) Lost-cost production and long-distance transmission of
hydrogen: a high market share of RESs generally leads to
relatively low power prices, which would decrease the pro‐
duction cost of green hydrogen. On the other hand, the exist‐
Fig. 1. Structure of an integrated power−natural gas−hydrogen system.
ing expansive natural gas infrastructure could be used to
transport hydrogen [21].
3) Decarbonization of energy consumption in industrial, A. Power−Natural Gas−Hydrogen Modeling
commercial, and residential sectors: in the industrial sector, This subsection provides a review of modeling of hydro‐
green hydrogen can replace carbon-intensive materials in gen electrolyzers (i.e., P2H) and the natural gas system with
steel manufacturing, chemical production, and refining pro‐ hydrogen injections.
cesses. For commercial and residential consumers, green hy‐ Reference [24] compares the techno-economic characteris‐
drogen presents an opportunity to revolutionize building heat‐ tics of three major hydrogen electrolyzers, i. e., solid oxide
ing and cooling. Additionally, green hydrogen can be used electrolyzer cell (SOEC), polymer electrolyte membrane
as fuel for vehicles or as a component of synthetic fuels in (PEM), and alkaline electrolyzer. The alkaline electrolyzer
the transportation section [22]. represents a mature commercialized technology with low in‐
4) Provision of long-term energy storage: hydrogen has vestment cost, but its exergy efficiency is relatively low. The
been considered as a promising long-term energy storage, PEM electrolyzer could provide very fast response that con‐
which is much more cost-effective than battery storage sys‐ tributes to accommodating intermittent renewable power gen‐
tems. The long-term energy storage would be necessary for eration, but its hydrogen production cost is the most expen‐
sive. The SOEC system provides a highest efficiency, but it
a renewable-dominant power system as the weather-depen‐
needs to work at high temperature that might hinder its com‐
dent renewable power generation would lead to net demand
mercial application. Reference [25] proposes a real-time con‐
fluctuation across different days, weeks, or even sea‐
trol model of electrolyzers that satisfy time-varying hydro‐
sons [23].
gen demands, in which internal thermal dynamics are consid‐
The present work, therefore, provides a comprehensive re‐
ered. Reference [26] proposes a three-state (i. e., consisting
view on the role of green hydrogen in decarbonizing energy of on, off, and standby operating states) operating model of
sectors. In particular, we focus on two application scenarios alkaline electrolyzers, in which nonlinear P2H conversion ef‐
of green hydrogen. The first one consists of integrated power ficiency is considered. This study shows that introducing the
− natural gas − hydrogen systems, which corresponds to the standby operating state saves cold-start cost of electrolyzers
production and transportation of green hydrogen. The second under intermittent RES generation. Reference [27] analyzes
one consists of integrated power − transportation − hydrogen the flexibility of grid-scale alkaline electrolyzers that provide
systems, which corresponds to the consumption of green hy‐ fast frequency support to a wind-dominated power system.
drogen. Reference [28] develops a dynamic model of hydrogen elec‐
The rest of this paper is organized as follows. Section II trolyzers that provide grid-forming services including volt‐
reviews the modeling and coordination of integrated power− age and frequency support. The impact of providing such ser‐
natural gas−hydrogen systems. Section III reviews the model‐ vice on the physical operation of electrolyzers is analyzed.
ing and coordination of integrated power−transportation−hy‐ Regarding the modeling of the natural gas system with hy‐
drogen systems. Both Sections II and III include a small ex‐ drogen injections, it is noted that the gas-hydrogen blending
ample. Section IV summarizes future research directions. results in gas composition variation at each node, which
complicates the natural gas system modeling. Specifically,
II. MODELING AND COORDINATION OF INTEGRATED POWER− for traditional natural gas systems, the natural gas supply-de‐
NATURAL GAS−HYDROGEN SYSTEMS mand balance is described by natural gas volumetric flows.
However, for the natural gas system with hydrogen injec‐
This section analyzes the role of green hydrogen on decar‐ tions, additional two types of variables (i. e., gas energy
bonizing power and natural gas systems with high penetra‐ flows and gross calorific values) are required [29]. Namely,
tions of RESs. Figure 1 depicts a typical structure of an inte‐ an energy-based model rather than traditional volume-based
grated power−natural gas−hydrogen system. The coupling of models is required. Reference [30] proposes an energy-based
power and natural gas systems consists of gas-fired power approach to simulate gas flow dynamics with green hydro‐
generators and P2H units. The following subsections review gen injections, in which variable gas-quality composition is
the modeling, planning, operation, and demonstration proj‐ included. Reference [31] compares the steady-state and tran‐
ects of integrated power−natural gas−hydrogen systems. Fi‐ sient energy flow models that are employed to simulate an
nally, an example is provided to detail the impact of green integrated natural gas and hydrogen network. Reference [32]
hydrogen injections on natural gas system operations. proposes a transient natural gas flow model to track gas com‐
CHEN et al.: TOWARDS RENEWABLE-DOMINATED ENERGY SYSTEMS: ROLE OF GREEN HYDROGEN 3

positions of a meshed natural gas network with multiple hy‐ natural gas − hydrogen systems that includes strategic deci‐
drogen injections, based on which the impact of hydrogen sions of different stakeholders. Reference [47] propose a tri-
blending on natural gas system operations is analyzed. It level expansion planning model of integrated power−natural
should be noted that a transient/dynamic gas-hydrogen flow gas − hydrogen networks that considers the carbon emission
model (with line-pack) is required for short-term operations, flow model. The role of hydrogen as an energy carrier in car‐
while a steady-state gas-hydrogen flow could be used for bon-emission reduction is analyzed.
long-term operation/planning problems. We note that these studies provide quantitative results on
We note that the hydrogen blending complicates the mod‐ the value of green hydrogen for energy transition at the plan‐
eling of natural gas networks by introducing higher nonlin‐ ning stage. An open challenge in this area is that the green
earity. Therefore, developing a sufficiently accurate linear‐ hydrogen blending limit has direct impact on planning re‐
ized or convexified natural gas flow model with hydrogen sults on hydrogen infrastructures. Specifically, a strict hydro‐
blending is highly desirable. Interested readers are referred gen blending limit could restrict the market share of green
to [33] and [34] for the application of piecewise lineariza‐ hydrogen. Conversely, a weak hydrogen blending limit could
tion and second-order cone relaxation to traditional natural pose operational challenges to natural gas systems. The de‐
gas flow models. sign of green hydrogen blending limit would be critical from
the perspective of both planning and operation stages. Anoth‐
B. Power−Natural Gas−Hydrogen Planning
er interesting area is to develop a multi-stage transition path‐
The extant literature includes the works on the investment way model for energy systems with retirement of coal-/gas-
of P2H units and coordinated expansion planning of integrat‐ fired power generators and newly built renewable power gen‐
ed power−natural gas−hydrogen networks. erator at each stage. At the same time, the traditional natural
Reference [35] reviews the potential value of power to gas infrastructures would be gradually replaced by green hy‐
gas technology for the decarbonisation in energy systems, in drogen infrastructures to achieve the carbon-emission target
which the impact of hydrogen blending on natural gas pipe‐ at each stage.
line operations and end users is analyzed. Reference [36]
proposes an optimal investment model of electrolyzers and C. Power−Natural Gas−Hydrogen Operation
hydrogen storage, in which the operation of both electric net‐ The coordination of coupled power, natural gas, and hy‐
works and hydrogen supply chains is taken into account. drogen networks is important as the growing interdepen‐
Reference [37] develops an optimal allocation model of P2H dence between multiple energy sectors. From the perspective
units to satisfy growing hydrogen demands. The economic of the power system operator, a sufficient coordination pro‐
benefits provided by newly built P2H units are investigated. vides incremental operating flexibility that is required for
Reference [38] analyzes the role of green hydrogen on decar‐ power system operations. From the perspective of the natu‐
bonizing power and gas systems based on a coordinated ral gas system operator, this coordination could alleviate the
planning model of P2H units, showing that neglecting hydro‐ impact of green hydrogen injections on natural gas system
gen-gas blending limits leads to misleading planning results. operations and hence contribute to the long-distance transpor‐
Reference [39] provides a comprehensive review on the tation of hydrogen energy.
expansion planning of integrated power − natural gas − hydro‐ Reference [26] proposes a day-ahead optimization model
gen systems, in which the value of detailed natural gas line- of hybrid power plants that consist of renewable power
pack modeling on transporting hydrogen is quantified. Refer‐ sources and electrolyzers, in which the standby operating
ence [40] proposes a bi-level planning model of integrated states and a detailed linearized operating model of electrolyz‐
power-hydrogen systems that considers seasonal hydrogen ers are included. Reference [48] proposes a joint scheduling
storage and levelized cost of hydrogen. Reference [41] co- model of integrated power and hydrogen networks. A con‐
optimizes the planning of electricity and hydrogen infrastruc‐ vex-concave approach is proposed to convexify the nonlin‐
ture under diverse low-carbon scenarios. Results on a realis‐ earity of hydrogen-flow hydraulic dynamics. Reference [49]
tic case study of Texas show the impact of CO 2 price on hy‐ designs an energy sharing mechanism of power and gas sys‐
drogen production is investigated. Reference [42] proposes a tems with high penetrations of hybrid electric and hydrogen
hydrogen supply chain planning model. The model includes vehicles. The economic benefits provided by coordinated
hydrogen trucks and pipelines that function as flexible trans‐ power and hydrogen sharing are investigated. Reference [50]
mission and storage resources. Reference [43] proposes a co‐ investigates the impact of the integration of hydrogen in inte‐
ordinated planning model of integrated electricity − hydrogen grated energy systems based on a sequential Monte Carlo
networks, in which net demand uncertainties and N−1 contin‐ simulation model. Numerical results show that increasing hy‐
gencies are considered. Reference [44] proposes a robust co‐ drogen integration reduces the total operating cost, but poses
ordinated planning model of power and hydrogen transmis‐ reliability issues to the natural gas system. Reference [51]
sion networks, electrolyzers, and hydrogen storage. Refer‐ analyzes the acceptability of natural gas infrastructures to hy‐
ence [45] presents an expansion planning model of power drogen integration. It shows that the distribution network al‐
and hydrogen systems that includes short-term unit commit‐ lows a higher penetration level of hydrogen if the gas quali‐
ment constraints, in which the short-term operating flexibili‐ ty requirement can be satisfied. Reference [52] investigates
ty is considered at the planning stage. Reference [46] devel‐ the impact of enforcing a renewable hydrogen quota on pow‐
ops an investment equilibrium model of integrated power − er and natural gas markets in Europe, indicating that increas‐
4 JOURNAL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS AND CLEAN ENERGY, VOL. XX, NO. XX, XX XXXX

ing the hydrogen share at the end consumers will lead to an 100 households and 30 teaching buildings showed that all
increase in power prices and slightly lower gas prices. Refer‐ kinds of household appliances were operated safely even
ence [53] investigates the feasibility of injecting hydrogen in‐ with a hydrogen blending concentration up to 28.4%.
to natural gas networks based on a natural gas hydraulic sim‐ 3) The New York Power Authority (NYPA) green hydro‐
ulation model, in which physical and chemical operating gen project [66]: this project experimented the usage of
characteristics are considered. Reference [54] quantifies the mixed green hydrogen with natural gas as fuel to generate
operating flexibility provided by P2H units in integrated electricity. Experiment result showed that 35% hydrogen
power−natural gas−hydrogen distribution networks. It shows blending contributed to 14% reduction of carbon emissions.
that the gas quality limit with hydrogen blending could re‐ 4) PetroChina hydrogen project [67]: PetroChina has com‐
strict the aggregated flexibility of multiple P2H units. Refer‐ pleted a 100-day test that injected 24% hydrogen into a 400-
ence [55] designs a coordinated control model for coupling km gas pipeline in the Ningxia Province of China.
power and natural gas systems with hydrogen blending, in E. Example
which a cell segmentation approach is proposed to capture
the spatial and temporal dynamics of gas-hydrogen blending We use a simple example shown in Fig. 2 to illustrate the
flows. Reference [56] coordinates the operation of integrated impact of hydrogen injections (produced from intermittent
power − gas − hydrogen systems that includes the tracking of RESs) on natural gas system operations. This natural gas sys‐
hydrogen concentration. A sequential linear programming ap‐ tem consists of two gas suppliers at nodes 1 and 2, three gas
proach is adopted to tackle the energy flows that are highly consumers at nodes 2-4, and one hydrogen supplier at node
nonlinear. Reference [57] proposes a day-ahead operation 3. The two gas suppliers S1 and S2 have a capacity of 50
MW and 60 MW, and their marginal production cost is 10 $/
framework of integrated power − natural gas − hydrogen net‐
MWh and 15 $/MWh, respectively. The three gas consumers
works that considers diverse security indices of gas mix‐
C1-C3 at nodes 2-4 have a fixed demand of 20 MW, 30
tures, in which a sequential conic programming model is ad‐
MW, and 40 MW, respectively. The P2H unit at node 3 has
opted. Reference [58] develops a moment-based distribution‐
a capacity of 4 MW, and its energy conversion efficiency is
ally robust optimization approach to coordinate power and
0.7p, and p is the amount of power injected into the P2H
natural gas systems with hydrogen injections. The flexibility
unit at node 3. For simplicity, we consider a single-period
of P2H facilities is exploited to participate in the voltage reg‐
operation without considering gas-pipeline line-pack. It
ulation.
should be clarified that a steady-state gas flow model might
An open challenge on this area lies in the fact that the
result in conservative results since the gas dynamics (line-
multi-energy sectors are actually operated by different enti‐
pack) are not taken into account. Nevertheless, this subsec‐
ties, which may hinder the information sharing of the coordi‐
tion focuses on analyzing the impact of green hydrogen in‐
nation framework. Moreover, under a market environment,
jections, not on providing a detailed power−natural gas−hy‐
the strategic behaviors of different market agents (e. g., the
drogen simulation model.
owner of P2H facilities that participate in different energy
markets) may complicate the clearing of coupled energy mar‐
RES
kets and the resulting market equilibria. We refer readers to
[59]-[61] for the coordination of traditional power and natu‐ C1 p
ral gas markets. Another challenge pertains to the flexibility P2H
operating quantification of hydrogen-integrated energy sys‐ g12 g 23 g34
tems. One feasible approach is to create time-varing operat‐ 0.7 p
ing envelopes that aggregate flexibility provided by multiple
1 2 3 4
flexible energy resources. Note that the concept of operating g1 g2
envelopes has been widely applied to quantify the flexibility
from distributed energy sources at power distribution net‐ S1 S2
works, e.g., the work in [62] and [63]. C2 C3
Fig. 2. Topology of a four-node natural gas system with green hydrogen
D. Demonstration Projects injection.
Typical hydrogen blending demonstration projects world‐
wide are summarized as follows. The single-period operating problem of the four-node natu‐
1) EU NaturalHy project [64]: the European Gas Research ral gas system is provided as:
Group (GERG) institution conducted this project, which ana‐
min (10g 1 + 15g 2 ) (1)
lyzed the impact of hydrogen blending concentration ranging g g p1 2

from 20% to 50% on pipeline fracture toughness and safety s.t.

risk. GERG has also conducted a project that aims to ana‐ g 1 = g 12 (2)
lyze the transmission capacity for 100% hydrogen in exist‐
ing natural gas pipelines. g 12 + g 2 = 20 + g 23 (3)
2) UK HyDeploy project [65]: this project investigated the g 23 + 0.7p = 30 + g 34 (4)
impact of 20% hydrogen blending on natural gas consumers
and distribution pipelines. The engineering demonstration in g 34 = 40 (5)
CHEN et al.: TOWARDS RENEWABLE-DOMINATED ENERGY SYSTEMS: ROLE OF GREEN HYDROGEN 5

ì 0 £ g 1 £ 50 4, respectively. Constraint (6) represents the capacity of S1

í 0 £ g £ 60 (6) and S2. Constraint (7) limits the amount of power injected
î 2
into the P2H unit at node 3. Constraint (8) calculates the en‐
0 £ p £ pˉ (7) ergy flow rate through each pipeline by multiplying the volu‐
ì g 12 = f 12 h 1 metric flow rate and the gross calorific value of this pipe‐
ï line. Constraint (9) specifies the gross calorific value at
í g 23 = f 23 h 2 (8) nodes 1 and 2 as there is no hydrogen blending at both
ïï g = f h
î 34 34 3 nodes. Constraint (10) corresponds to the gas flow balance
h 1 = h 2 = h gas (9) at node 3 with hydrogen injections. Constraints (11)-(13) re‐
late the volumetric flow rate with nodal pressures for pipe‐
f 23 + 0.7p/h H = f 34 + 30/h 3
2 (10) lines 1-2, 2-3, and 3-4, respectively. Constraint (14) limits
the operating pressure of each node. It should be clarified
f 12 = 0.000668 π 12 - π 22 (11) that the hydrogen blending limit and the lower bound of nod‐
al pressures are omitted here to analyze the impact of hydro‐
f 23 = 0.000128 π 22 - π 32 (12) gen injections on gas system operations.
We consider three comparative cases (Cases I-III), in
f 34 = 0.000320 π 32 - π 42 (13)
which the available power generation from RESs (i. e., the
π 1 π 2 π 3 π 4 £ 60 (14) value of pˉ) is set to be 2, 3, and 4 MW, respectively. Case II
represents a reference case, while Cases I and III correspond
where g 1 and g 2 denote the natural gas productions of S1
to the scenario of intermittent RES generation. Table I sum‐
and S2, respectively; g 12, g 23, and g 34 denote the energy flow
marizes the operating results of gas system obtained under
rates of pipelines 1-2, 2-3, and 3-4, respectively; f 12, f 23, and
the three cases. Contrasting the operating results obtained
f 34 denote the volumetric flow rates of pipelines 1-2, 2-3, from Cases I and III with those obtained from Case II indi‐
and 3-4, respectively; h 1, h 2, and h 3 denote the gross calorif‐ cates that:
ic values at nodes 1, 2, and 3, respectively; π 1, π 2, π 3, and π 4 1) A relatively high penetration level of green hydrogen
denote the pressures of nodes 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively; pˉ might result in insecure hydrogen-gas blending, e.g., the hy‐
is the available power generation from RESs; and h gas and drogen blending at node 3 of Case III is up to 11.1% that ex‐
h H denote the gross calorific value of natural gas and hydro‐
2 ceeds the allowed limit of 10%.
gen, respectively, and their values are 10636 MWh/Mm 3 (i.e., 2) A relatively low penetration level of green hydrogen
38.29 MJ/m 3) and 3542 MWh/Mm 3 (i.e., 12.75 MJ/m 3) [29], might result in insecure nodal pressures, e.g., the pressure at
respectively. node 4 of Case I (27.7 bar) is lower than its lower operating
The objective function (1) is the total cost of gas supply. bound (30 bar).
Constraints (2)-(5) pertain to energy flow balance at nodes 1-
TABLE I
OPERATING RESULTS OF GAS SYSTEM OBTAINED UNDER CASES I-III

Hydrogen blending percentage Gross calorific value of Pressure of node 3 Pressure of node 4 Gas flow rate through
Case
of node 3 (%) node 3 (MWh/Mm 3) (bar) (bar) pipeline 3-4 (Mm 3 /h)
Case I 5.8 10226 31.8 29.4 0.0039
Case II 8.5 10033 32.6 30.1 0.0040
Case III 11.1 9847 33.4 30.9 0.0041

These results quantitatively show how the stochastic hy‐ charging demands of EVs or refueling demands of hydrogen
drogen injection affect the secure operation of the gas sys‐ fuel cell vehicles (HFCVs).
tem. This calls for accurate simulation of gas-hydrogen sys‐ 2) The delivery of hydrogen between hydrogen refueling
tems and sufficient gas-power coordination in short-term op‐ stations using tube trailers is impacted by traffic flows.
erations. Note that both EVs and HFCVs contribute to the decar‐
bonization of transportation networks. At present, the market
III. MODELING AND COORDINATION OF INTEGRATED share of HFCVs is much lower than that of EVs due to the
POWER−TRANSPORTATION−HYDROGEN SYSTEMS high hydrogen supply cost. However, the growth of hydro‐
gen supply chain in the near future would increase the mar‐
This section analyzes the coordination of integrated power− ket competitiveness of HFCVs.
transportation − hydrogen systems. The coupling of the three The following two subsections summarize the planning
systems includes EV charging stations, hydrogen refueling and operation of integrated power − transportation − hydrogen
stations as shown in Fig. 3. Specifically, the multi-energy in‐ systems. Then, a simplified example is used to illustrate the
terdependency includes the following two aspects. flexibility provided by the transportation network to accom‐
1) The spatial-temporal traffic flows are impacted by the modate the fluctuation of RES generation.
6 JOURNAL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS AND CLEAN ENERGY, VOL. XX, NO. XX, XX XXXX

EV EV

Energy storage

Charging EV
station

HFCV HFCV

Distributed
generation Electrolyzer
Tube trailer
Hydrogen
refueling
Distribution system station Transportation network

Power flow Hydrogen flow Traffic flow

Fig. 3. Structure of an integrated power−natural gas−hydrogen system.

A. Planning of Integrated Power−Transportation−Hydrogen ties, and RESs. The economic benefit provided by power −
Systems transportation − hydrogen coordination is analyzed. Reference
The current literature examines a few approaches to build [76] develops a coordinated planning model for gas refuel‐
new hydrogen supply chains that coordinate with the expan‐ ing stations, in which the expansion planning strategies of
sion planning strategies of power distribution networks. power and gas distribution networks are co-optimized. Refer‐
Reference [68] provides a comprehensive review on the ence [77] presents a centralized planning model for hydro‐
major challenges faced by the planning of hydrogen refuel‐ gen supply chain that consists of hydrogen production sta‐
ing infrastructures. It concludes that the green hydrogen tions, refueling stations, storages, and delivery network.
could become a competitive transportation fuel as the prog‐ Both truck logistics and gas pipelines are considered for hy‐
ress in RES generation and P2H technology. Reference [69] drogen delivery. Reference [78] proposes an integrated plan‐
proposes a coordinated planning model of distribution power ning model of hydrogen production stations, refueling sta‐
tions, and pipelines, in which the simulation of refueling de‐
and transportation networks, in which the planning of both
mands of HFCVs is included.
EV charging and hydrogen refueling stations is considered.
An open challenge on this research topic is that the invest‐
It shows that hydrogen refueling stations function as energy
ment decisions of transportation infrastructures need to take
storages that contribute to accommodating RES generation.
spatial-temporal traffic flows into consideration to produce
Reference [70] analyzes the interaction of planning hydrogen
realistic planning results. This, however, might result in sig‐
refueling stations and the national power system. The interde‐
nificant computational challenge. Additionally, the entity that
pendency between marginal power prices and levelized cost
operates charging or refueling stations need to consider the
of hydrogen is quantified. Reference [71] develops a bi-level
approaches to satisfy demands from EVs or HFCVs (e. g.,
planning model of hybrid EV charging facilities and hydro‐
from energy storage or demand response) in case of energy
gen refueling stations that considers interdependent power,
supply shortage due to RES generation fluctuation.
hydrogen, and traffic flows. It shows that neglecting network
constraints at the planning stage might result in insecure op‐ B. Operation of Integrated Power−Transportation−Hydrogen
erating results in practical operations. Reference [72] pro‐ Systems
vides a comprehensive economic comparison between cen‐ The extant literature examines a few approaches to coordi‐
tralized and decentralized hydrogen supply facilities for nate the operation of power, transportation, and hydrogen
heavy road transportation. Comparison results demonstrate systems, including the coordination between green hydrogen
that decentralized electrolysis-based hydrogen supply general‐ production and transportation, the coordination between
ly provides lower hydrogen delivery cost. Reference [73] in‐ charging/refueling stations (powered by RESs) with charging/
vestigates the role of P2H on the decarbonization of power refueling demands from EVs and HFCVs, and the coordina‐
and transportation systems based on a long-term planning tion of multi-energy resources to provide flexibility operat‐
model. Results on Texas show that the deployment of P2H ing service for the power grid.
contributes to 93% reduction of renewable energy curtail‐ Reference [79] presents a 100% renewable power and
ment under zero-emission scenario. Reference [74] proposes transportation system, in which hydrogen acts as a core ener‐
a multi-objective planning model of hydrogen refueling sta‐ gy carrier. The technical feasibility of designing such a car‐
tions, in which both operating cost and operational risk are bon-neutral energy system is analyzed. Reference [80] pro‐
taken into account. Reference [75] considers the integrated poses a coordinated operating model of urban power and
investment of power and hydrogen supply infrastructures in‐ transportation systems. The model considers the delivery of
cluding hydrogen pipelines and refueling stations, P2H facili‐ hydrogen using tube trailers, in which an improved optimal
CHEN et al.: TOWARDS RENEWABLE-DOMINATED ENERGY SYSTEMS: ROLE OF GREEN HYDROGEN 7

vehicle routing model is adopted. Reference [81] designs a HFCVs is of practical relevance.
off-grid charging station powered by solar panels and P2H
C. Demonstration Projects
facilities. Diesel generators are included in the charging sta‐
tion to provide stable energy supply for EVs and HFCVs. The typical demonstration projects of hydrogen-integrated
Reference [82] develops a stochastic operation model of cou‐ transportation are summarized as follows.
pled power, hydrogen, and transportation networks. The alter‐ 1) EU H2Haul project [92]: this five-year project started
nating direction method of multipliers (ADMM) algorithm is in 2019, and aims to deploy 16 heavy-duty hydrogen trucks
adopted to provide a decentralized operating strategy that in four European countries combined with building a new
preserves the information privacy of different energy sectors. network of refueling stations.
Reference [83] coordinates the multi-period operation of so‐ 2) The Hydrogen Energy Supply Chain (HESC) liquefied
lar power, EV charging, and hydrogen refueling stations. hydrogen carrier project [93]: as the worldwide first lique‐
The model preventive control approach is employed to fied hydrogen carrier, the ship − Suiso Frontier transported
smooth the fluctuation of solar power generation. Reference 1250 m 3 liquefied hydrogen with the distance of over 9000
[84] designs a decentralized local energy market mechanism km. This project showed that the large-scale transportation
for integrated power and hydrogen microgrid with EVs and of liquefied hydrogen can be achieved like traditional natural
HFCVs. A fast ADMM algorithm combined with mobile gas.
edge computing is employed to produce decentralized mar‐ 3) The Alberta Motor Transport Association (AMTA) hy‐
ket clearing results. Reference [85] proposes a joint schedul‐ drogen commercial vehicle demonstration program [94]: this
ing model of integrated power and hydrogen transportation project was launched in Feb. 2023, and was the first demon‐
networks, which considers the emission cost from both pow‐ stration program of hydrogen-fueled trucks in Canada. The
er and hydrogen production. The transportation of hydrogen performance information of hydrogen trucks, including fuel
using tube trailers is represented as vehicle routing problem reliability, vehicle cost, and maintenance, will be gathered
with time-delay penalization. Reference [86] develops a coor‐ and analyzed.
dinated control model of multiple hydrogen refueling sta‐ 4) Hydrogen-powered buses in Beijing Winter Olympics
tions. The green hydrogen demands are estimated based on a [95]: in 2022 Beijing Winter Olympics, the public transport
capsule network that captures spatial-temporal traffic flows. in Zhangjiakou was provided by 710 hydrogen-powered bus‐
Reference [87] models the cooperation between hydrogen es, whose fuels were provided by ten hydrogen production
and transportation systems as a Stackelberg game, which in‐ plants and refueling stations.
corporates a dynamic hydrogen pricing model that depends D. Example
on the market share of green hydrogen. Reference [88] pro‐
We illustrate the flexibility of traffic network scheduling
poses a bi-level optimization model of profit-maximization
using a straightforward example, as shown in Fig. 4.
hydrogen service providers that decide the production and
transportation of hydrogen and the strategic bidding strategy
in power markets. It shows that the information interchange
among power, hydrogen, and transportation systems contrib‐
utes to lower operating cost of hydrogen service providers.
Reference [89] presents a resilient operating strategy for hy‐
drogen-integrated distribution power networks, in which the
flexibility of mobile HFCVs is exploited to provide restor‐
ative strategies. An energy sharing strategy is proposed to co‐
ordinate the flexible operation of hydrogen refueling sta‐
tions, HFCVs, and distributed generators. Reference [90]
presents a coordinated operation model of power and hydro‐
gen systems that integrates the price-based demand response Fig. 4. Hybrid model of 3-node traffic network.
from HFCVs. The impact of traffic flows on hydrogen deliv‐
ery and refueling demands is analyzed in detail. Reference The traffic network consists of three nodes T1-T3 and
[91] develops a low-carbon operation model of integrated four links L1-L4. The charging stations CS1 and CS2 are lo‐
power, transportation, and hydrogen systems that considers cated on links L1 and L2, respectively, while the hydrogen
nodal carbon intensity limits. A specific hydrogen refueling refueling stations HRS1 and HRS2 are situated on links L3
service fee (HRSF) is designed to allocate the refueling de‐ and L4, respectively. The capacity of CSs is 400 vehicles,
mands of HFCVs. while the capacity of HRSs is 100 vehicles. The traffic de‐
We note that these related studies generally assume that mand is 400 vehicles, with an average charging demand (i.e.,
all EVs/HFCVs have identical routing and charging/refueling parameter E) of 10 kW and an average hydrogen demand (i.e.,
preferences, which might not be realistic in practice. On the parameter H) of 1 kg.
other hand, one or more agents are generally required to ex‐

( )
The static traffic network model is illustrated as follows.
ploit the flexibility of decentralized EVs/HFCVs. Hence, ana‐
lyzing the market equilibria that model the interactions min 80p 2 + 80p 4 + ∑u ers π e q rs + ∑u hrs π h q rs (15)
among power/hydrogen suppliers, market agents, and EVs/ rs rs
8 JOURNAL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS AND CLEAN ENERGY, VOL. XX, NO. XX, XX XXXX

s.t. link; t ac0 and t ah0 are the respective free flow travel time of
π e q rs = ∑f e
krs (16)
EVs and HFCVs at the charging and hydrogen refueling
links, respectively; c hkrs and c ekrs are the total travel cost of
k Î K rse

∑f
each EV and HFCV, respectively; J is typically set to be
π h q rs = h
krs (17) 0.05; ω, λ h and λ e are the respective unit time cost of travel‐
kÎK h
rs
lers, the reference electricity price of CSs, and the reference
a = ∑∑ f krs δ akrs + ∑∑ f krs δ akrs
x rg h h e e
a Î T Arg hydrogen price of HRSs, respectively; θ arg , θ ache , and θ achh
(18)
rs k Î K h
rs
rs k Î K e
rs represent the congestion toll (CT) for links, the charging ser‐
a = ∑∑ f krs δ akrs
vice fee (CSF) for CSs, and the HRSF for HRSs, respective‐
x che e e
a Î T Ache (19)
rs k Î K e
rs
ly; x che che
CS1 and x CS2 are the charging demands at CS1 and CS2,
respectively; x che che
HRS1 and x HRS2 are the refueling demands at
a = ∑∑ f krs δ akrs
x chh a Î T Achh
h h
(20) HRS1 and HRS2, respectively; ξ is the efficiency of the elec‐
rs k Î K rsh

()
tricity-to-hydrogen conversion.
êé
4
úù The objective function (15) represents the overall expendi‐
x rg
t = t êê1 + 0.15 arg
rg 0 úú a Î T Arg (21) ture of the traffic network. Constraints (16) and (17) depict
a ê a
ca ú
ë û the correlations between travel demands and path flows.

( )
Constraints (18)-(20) elucidate the connections between link
x che flows and path flows. Constraint (21) conveys the relation‐
t ache = t ac0 1 + J a
a Î T Ache (22)
c - x che
che
ship between link travel time and link traffic flow. Con‐

( )
a a
straints (22) and (23) specify the corresponding waiting time
x chh of EVs and HFCVs at CSs and HRSs, respectively. Con‐
t achh = t ah0 1 + J a
a Î T Achh (23)
c - x chh
chh
a a straints (24) and (25) outline the travel costs for EVs and

∑ (ωt ∑ (ωt
HFCVs, respectively. Constraints (26) and (27) articulate ex‐
c hkrs = rg
a + θ arg )δ hakrs + chh
a + λ h H + θ achh )δ hakrs pressions of Wardrop's first principle, which affirms that a
aÎT rg
aÎT chh
A A
traffic network attains an equilibrium state when all travelers
(24)
on its roads possess complete knowledge of the traffic condi‐
c ekrs = ∑ (ωt rg
a + θ arg )δ eakrs + ∑ (ωt che
a + λ e E + θ ache )δ eakrs tions and strive to choose the shortest path. Constraints (28)-
a Î T Arg a Î T Ache (32) establish the interplay between power generation and
(25) traffic flow.
0£f h
krs ^c h
krs -u ³0 h
rs (26) TABLE II
COMPARISON OF OPERATING RESULTS OF TRAFFIC NETWORK OBTAINED
0£f e
krs ^c e
krs -u ³0 e
rs (27) IN CASES 1-3

p1 = x che
CS1 E (28)
Operating result (number of vehicles)
p2 = x che
E Case
CS2 (29) CS1 CS2 HRS1 HRS2
0.7p 3 = x che
Hξ Case 1 100 220 11 69
HRS1 (30)
Case 2 200 120 22 58
0.7p 4 = x che
HRS2 Hξ (31) Case 3 294 26 45 35
0 £ p 1 p 2 p 3 p 4 £ pˉ (32)
TABLE III
where p 1, p 2, p 3, and p 4 denote the charging/refueling de‐ COMPARISON OF SERVICE FEES OF DIFFERENT STATIONS IN CASES 1-3
mand at corresponding stations; q rs is the total travel de‐
mand; u ers and u hrs are the minimum travel costs of EVs and Service fee ($/h)
Case
HFCVs, respectively; π e and π h are the respective penetra‐ CSF1 CSF2 HRSF1 HRSF2
e h
tion rates of EVs and HFCVs, respectively; f krs and f krs are Case 1 2.88 0 1.56 0
the respective traffic flows of EVs and HFCVs that choose Case 2 0 1.74 0.78 0
on path k, respectively; K rse and K rsh denote the path set of Case 3 0 9.12 0 0.18
EVs and HFCVs, respectively; x rg a is the traffic flow on regu‐
lar links, x chea is the traffic flow of EVs on charging links;
x chh
a is the traffic flow of HFCVs on hydrogen refueling Similarly, we consider three comparative cases, namely
links; δ eakrs and δ hakrs are the coupling relationships between Cases 1-3, where the available power generation from RESs
links a and paths k of EVs and HFCVs, respectively; T Arg, (i.e., the value of pˉ) is set to be 1, 2, and 4 MW, respective‐
T Ache, and T Achh denote the set of regular link, charging link, ly. Case 2 represents the reference scenario, while Case 1
and refueling link, respectively; t a0 is the free travel time on and Case 3 correspond to scenarios involving intermittent
regular links; t arg, t ache, and t achh denote the travel duration at RES generation. Tables II and III show the comparison of
each regular link, queuing time spent at each charging link, operating results of traffic network and the comparison of
and queuing time at each refueling link; c rg che
a , c a , and c a
chh
are service fees of different stations in the three cases, respec‐
the capacity of regular link, charging link, and refueling tively. CSF1 and CSF2 are the service fees of the CS1 and
CHEN et al.: TOWARDS RENEWABLE-DOMINATED ENERGY SYSTEMS: ROLE OF GREEN HYDROGEN 9

CS2, respectively; and HRSF1 and HRSF2 are the service gen supply. Additionally, a thorough exploration of monetary
fees of the HRS1 and HRS2, respectively. The comparison incentives within the transportation sector is crucial. Beyond
of the distribution results of Cases 1-3 reveals that: the broader market design, understanding how financial
1) With the increased output of RESs, more EVs and HF‐ mechanisms and subsidies can be tailored to specifically en‐
CVs are dispatched to stations powered by renewable distrib‐ courage the investment of green hydrogen in transportation
uted generation (i.e., CS1 and HRS1) to accommodate the in‐ sectors would be important.
tegration of clean energy. This demonstrates the flexible re‐ 2) Risk Assessment and Preventive Control of Hydrogen-
sponse characteristics exhibited by EVs and HFCVs. integrated Energy Systems
2) In Case 1, when RES is scarce, service fees are im‐ The increasing multi-energy interdependency might result
posed at CS1 and HRS1 to guide vehicles towards stations in significant operational risks, e.g., the natural gas leak that
powered by conventional distributed generation. Conversely, caused rolling blackout in in Southern California in 2016
in Case 3, when RES becomes more abundant, the situation [103]. The operational risk would be further exacerbated in
is reversed. This demonstrates the capacity of service fees to the presence of a significant market share dominated by
regulate the flow of vehicles. RESs, whose energy supply exhibits high stochasticity.
These findings demonstrate the flexible response potential Therefore, a risk assessment tool is highly desirable for hy‐
of EVs and HFCVs, which necessitates accurate simulation of drogen-integrated energy systems [104], [105], e. g., analyz‐
integrated power − transportation − hydrogen systems to guide ing the risk of gas-pipeline operations with stochastic green
travelers in accommodating RESs and achieving cost reduc‐ hydrogen injections. The concept of security region [106],
tion in system operations. [107] could also be extended to hydrogen-integrated energy
systems, which provides visualized feasible operating re‐
IV. FUTURE RESEARCH gions for system operators.
The present work provides an overview of the integration Given the operational risks faced by multi-energy opera‐
of green hydrogen into natural gas and transportation sys‐ tors, corresponding preventive control strategies need to be
tems. Pressing research topics are summarized as follows. implemented to eliminate potential risks [108], [109]. For ex‐
1) Energy Market Design Promoting Integration of Green ample, adequate energy storage (hydrogen storage, power
Hydrogen storage or gas line-pack) can be allocated to prepare for ener‐
The environmental value of green hydrogen in comparison gy supply uncertainty or network outages [110]. In addition,
with gray/blue hydrogen has not been taken into account in preventive reactions by the operators could be combined
current hydrogen trading markets. Hence, the green certifi‐ with the situational awareness tool [111] that provides per‐
cate mechanism [96] or emission-based taxation mechanism ception/projection results of current-/near-future operating
[97] that has been widely adopted in the power industry status based on a vast volume of data collected.
could be introduced to the hydrogen industry, which may 3) Application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) Algorithms in
stimulate the investment in green hydrogen production tech‐ Hydrogen-integrated Energy Systems
nologies. Many countries, including US, EU, and China, The planning/operation problem of multi-energy systems
have made ambitious goals in transitioning to hydrogen-inte‐ generally needs to consider a massive number of scenarios
grated energy systems, which would spur growth of green due to the uncertainty in RES generation, which is computa‐
hydrogen markets [98]. On the other hand, the information tionally challenging for model-based approaches. This techni‐
interchange and interactions among power, natural gas, and cal issue may be addressed by deep learning techniques
hydrogen markets at different time scales are required since [112], [113], which use efficient data-driven approaches to
their market clearing results are interrelated [99]. In practice, solve traditional physics-related problems. For example,
the power, natural gas, and hydrogen markets are operated deep neural networks have been proposed to solve nonlinear
by different entities, and their coordination generally re‐ optimal power flow (OPF) problem [114], whose computa‐
quires market-based mechanisms. tional efficiency greatly outperforms traditional model-based
Another major issue lies in the mitigation of market pow‐ approaches. Graph neural networks have been developed to
er exercised by market agents [100]. For example, the green predict dynamic traffic flows [115], which represent a power‐
hydrogen producers (that own RESs and P2H facilities) may ful tool for modeling spatial-temporal dependencies in traffic
provide strategic offers that manipulate market prices in cas‐ data. Additionally, AI algorithms play an important role in
es of power/hydrogen supply shortage. Finally, the flexibility enabling autonomous driving and wireless charging of EVs
market might need to be refined for renewable-dominant en‐ [116], [117].
ergy systems. We refer the reader to [101] and [102] for in‐ Another potential application of AI algorithms lies in facil‐
sights on this topic. itating the decentralized operation of multi-energy systems
Moreover, the spatial-temporal flexibility of transportation that preserves information privacy. For example, [118] pro‐
networks emerges as a critical factor in the promotion of poses a machine-learning aided approach to solve the decen‐
green hydrogen. Optimizing the distribution of hydrogen for tralized OPF problem of multi-region power systems, in
the transportation sector relies heavily on strategically plac‐ which the learning approach is employed to predict the infor‐
ing hydrogen refueling stations. This aspect demands a me‐ mation interchange between different regions. Reference
ticulous examination to understand how geographical place‐ [119] proposes a reinforcement learning approach to operate
ment impacts the overall spatial-temporal dynamics of hydro‐ an EV charing station that interacts with the power grid and
10 JOURNAL OF MODERN POWER SYSTEMS AND CLEAN ENERGY, VOL. XX, NO. XX, XX XXXX

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[102] V. Kleinschmidt, T. Hamacher, V. Peric et al., “Unlocking flexibility 2021. She is currently pursuing the M.S. degree from the College of Energy
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17th International Conference on the European Energy Market (EEM), interests include low-carbon dispatch of integrated energy systems and opti‐
Stockholm, Sweden, Sept. 2020, pp. 1-6. mal operation of electricity-gas-hydrogen integrated energy system.
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CHEN et al.: TOWARDS RENEWABLE-DOMINATED ENERGY SYSTEMS: ROLE OF GREEN HYDROGEN 13

gy, Hefei, China, in 1984, the M.S. degree from Southeast University, Nan‐ currently pursuing the M.S. degree from the College of Energy and Electri‐
jing, China, in 1987, and the Ph.D. degree from Hohai University, Nanjing, cal Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China. His research interests in‐
China, in 2004. He is currently a Professor of electrical engineering with clude coordinated operation of intelligent power and transportation systems.
the College of Energy and Electrical Engineering, Hohai University. His re‐
search interests include integrated energy systems, power system state esti‐ Si Lv received the B. S. degree from the College of Energy and Electrical
mation, smart distribution systems, and integration of distributed generation Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China, in 2018, where he is current‐
into electric power systems. ly pursuing the Ph.D. degree. From June 2022 to June 2023, he was a visit‐
ing scholar at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University,
Hao Cheng received the B.S. degree from the School of Electrical and In‐ Aalborg, Denmark. His research interests include coordinated planning &
formation Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China, in 2022. He is operation of interdependent power and transportation systems.