RGYLL A RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING L2 UT - TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of Contents HISTORY OF ULTRASONIC TESTING BASIC PRINCIPLES .nsenernsene INTRODUCTION TO THE BASIC CONCEPT... THE NATURE OF SOUND... THE ACOUSTIC SPECTRUM THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND. ‘THE ULTRASONIC BEAM...... The dead Zone sssssssssseesssssse 5 6 6 7 8 mm) 9 9 The near or fresnel zone. 9 0 The far or fraunhoffer zone Inverse and Inverse Square laws. SIDE LOBES. HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE ....... THE ULTRASONIC PULSE... Pulse length.. RESOLUTION PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (P.R.F). MODES OF PROPAGATION BULK WAVES Compression or Longitudinal Waves .... Shear or Transverse Waves Boundary Waves (Guided Waves) Surface or Rayleigh Waves ....... Plate or Lamb Waves (Twin Boundary Waves) . FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND .... ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE COUPLANT..... ATTENUATION...... THE DECIBEL (48)... SOUND GENERATION .... ‘THE PIEZO EFFECT .. The polarisation of ceramics © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 uT-1ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING L2 UT - TABLE OF CONTENTS REFLECTION, REFRACTION AND SNELL’S LAW (Laws of Optics) ...... mead MODE CONVERSION rrssssccsssecrsscodudssycesesstteneceected 25 DIFFRACTION ..ssscrestetsrtstecscssasevssy 26 CRITICAL ANGLES nn nner 28 EQUIPMENT... 32 PROBES 32 PROBE FREQUENCY, BANDWIDTH AND DAMPING... . 36 PROBE SELECTION ....... eer 37 CALIBRATION BLOCKS AND THEIR USES. 38 (0° COMPRESSION PROBES... SHEAR PROBE USES CALIBRATION BLOCK NO.2, A4, V2, DINS4/122 KIDNEY BLOCK... COMPRESSION PROBE USES... SHEAR PROBE USES..... 40 INSTITUTE OF WELDING (I.0.W) / AS BLOCK 40 ULTRASONIC FLAW DETECTORS 41 EQUIPMENT CHECKS. keen) Amplifier linearity. eee 46 0° PROBE SCANNING. .ssscesseesssscsssssvssesnentessertnstesselbrsestsnnesnsensouesesieeesetn 49 CALIBRATION ... canofen tenons 1n49) TO CALIBRATE A 0° PROBE TO A RANGE OF: 0 TO 100 MM ... 50 ACCURATE MEASUREMENT USING AN ANALOGUE FLAW DETECTOR MULTIPLE BACK WALL METHOD DEFECT DETECTION . SENSITIVITY... SCANNING PATTERNS 0° PROBE SIZING METHODS 0° PROBE. ANGLE PROBE SCANNING ...... 58 DIGITAL FLAW DETECTORS .......::000 CALIBRATION FOR ANALOGUE FLAW DETECTORS, ANGLE PROBE TEST SENSITIVITY SCANNING PATTERNS. SKIP FACTORS ... © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 uT NULTRASONIC TESTING L2 UT ~ TABLE OF CONTENTS THE RATIO OF THE SIDES OF THE TRIANGLES IN THE FOUR MOST COMMON PROBE ANGLES 63 THE IRRADIATION FACTOR. 63 PLOTTING SYSTEMS ... 66 SIZING METHODS AND ANGLE PROBES . Soe me fee TESTING TECHNIQUES .. = 21 69 A, B& C SCANNING SYSTEMS. ieee PULSE ECHO SYSTEMS. Resonance Testing... THROUGH TRANSMISSION TESTING 74 nz a7 THE TANDEM TECHNIQUE. .73 IMMERSION TESTING ... rea) ULTRASONIC THICKNESS SURVEYING ..... aaa 9S PEAK AND FLANK... oi hee RIE RUTETS TS ACCEPT/REJECT CRITERIA ...0.e0ss00 78 79 80 REPORTING ...... ULTRASONIC WROUGHT PLATE MATERIAL... TECHNIQUE 80 DEFECTS IN PLATE MATERIAL........ 81 ACCEPT/REJECT CRITERIA....... 2 84 REPORTING 84. ULTRASONIC WELD TESTING..... 85 TECHNIQUE «0-0 . 85 87 89 96 96 97 97 97 ECHO DYNAMIC PATTERNS: DEFECT SIGNAL INTERPRETATION ACCEPT/REJECT CRITERIA... REPORTING .....+ ULTRASONIC TESTING OF FORGINGS... GENERAL. TECHNIQUE TYPICAL SCANNING TECHNIQUES FOR FORGINGS .. 99 DEFECTS IN FORGINGS........ x tot ACCEPT/REJECT CRITERIA... 104 REPORTING . 104 © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 ut woARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING L2 UT - TABLE OF CONTENTS ULTRASONIC TESTING OF CASTINGS ...ssssessssssessestsenseeeeen + 105 GENERAL, 105 TECHNIQUE . 105 DEFECTS IN CASTINGS .. 107 ACCEPT/REJECT CRITERIA... 110 REPORTING ... ‘ 110 BRITISH STANDARDS RELATING TO ULTRASONIC TESTING ... 112 COMMON FORMULAE USED IN ULTRASONIC TESTING «...+.+0 113 UNIT CONVERSIONS... orci ars feta + 115 VELOCITIES AND ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCES FOR DIFFERENT MATERIALS =ilth) EXAMPLE METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE ATTENUATION FACTOR OF A MATERIAL.....esese0: 118 EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS USED IN ULTRASONICS... 119 ‘A6 CALIBRATION BLOCK Deen P23) AT CALIBRATION BLOCK... + 124 Pipe Wall Thickness .. 125 © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023, Issue 22 uT-4ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING =a History of UT HISTORY OF ULTRASONIC TESTING Piezo electric effect discovered in 1880 by Pierre & Jacques Curie in Paris. This was when they noticed that a piece of quartz, when subjected to load, generated a spark (therefore produced electricity). In 1881 Lippman deduced that the opposite effect was also possible, and it was proven by experiment that the application of voltage to quartz made it change shape. Following the Titanic disaster in 1912 experimenters such as Alexander Belm used low frequency ultrasound to detect icebergs (which are 90% below water and therefore ideal targets) By 1914 a working sonar system was developed by Reginald Fessenden in Canada. In 1915 Paul Langelin (France) and Constantin Chilowski (Russia) were using higher frequency sonar for detection of submarines. Ultrasonic Testing of metals as we know it today had to wait for the development of instruments capable of measuring extremely small time intervals. In the 1920's a Russian named Sokolov made possibly the first NDT related experiment using through transmission in a bath of mercury and proved that objects in the sound path affected the transmission of sound. ‘These were developed in the early 1940's by Firestone (USA), Sproule (UK) and Trost (Germany) amongst others. © IMeché Argyl Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT-5ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT1 - Basic Principles BASIC PRINCIPLES INTRODUCTION TO THE BASIC CONCEPT makes use of the phenomenon that sound waves travel in straight Tines and are reflected by an obstacle placed in their path. The mechanism is just the same as audible sound waves bouncing off a brick wall and an echo being received. The strength of the echo Is controlled by the size of the wall. Also, if the time lapse between sending and receiving the sound is measured, It Is possible to determine the distance to the wall. Examples of the time intervals encountered are below: +n air, 2 reflection from a wall 165m away will take 1 second + In water, a reflection from an iceberg 740m away will take 1 second +n steel, a reflection from a defect 100mm away will take 0.000036 seconds (for a compression wave) Given the required instrumentation we can pass sound waves through solid materials and receive echoes from the back wall of the material. If a defect is present in the material, then the sound energy would be reflected back from it and give an echo earlier than that from the back wall because the sound has not travelled as far. The strength or amplitude of this echo may be an indication of the size of the defect and the distance travelled by the sound will tell us its depth. This then is the basis of ultrasonic testing. eeesezae ‘Sound energy is transmitted froth the probe into the test specimen at surface "A" producing ‘an echo at Ai. Some of the sound is reflected by the defect at "B" and the-resulting echo appears at B1. The remainder of the sound continues through the specimen to be reflected by the back wall "C", the echo from the back wall appearing at C1. © Meche Argyil Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 uT-6DRE See ° ARGYLL Sod S “ RUANE Be. Gh we ipa sk ee UT1 - Basic Principles THE NATURE OF SOUND SPm-. Rodul ‘Sound is caused by mechanical vibrations. g Remi De De. 5 The particles (molecules) within the medium vibrate passing on energy from one to another giving the effect of sound movement through the material. The ability to support sound depends on the elasticity and density of the medium. Since these properties will vary, from one material to another, some materials will pass sound ©V_ more easily than others. The apparent thickness reading obtained from steel‘having elevated temperatures is approximately overestimated by a factor of about 1% per 55° C temperature difference between the test block and the item under test. Sound follows a waveform: > ‘Sf Amplitude my) One velo More information on waveforms is covered in Unit 2. the distance moved in unit time. . é€ 5 Key words and units when talking about sound: + © IMechE Argy!l Ruane. ‘Daté Oct 2023, Issue 22 ut-7ARGYLL BUeNE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT1 ~ Basic Principles Wavelength is a function of frequency and velocity. Y memes 3 Therefore: fx 4 and f= Vo GS x @ Note: Velocity can sometimes be denoted by the letter 'c’, ‘THE ACOUSTIC SPECTRUM — ~s ‘Manual contact testing range + > S wd Intrasonie | Sone (udibte)| uuresonic (MBs suits) OJ OP ca aveny | ) { 16Hz 20KHz S00KHz 25MHz | |< Normat test range | 100 KHz | ‘The point sound may be focussed into beams used in conventional ultrasonic scanning techniques. Note: The maximum frequency the human ear can detect reduces with age. It is generally accepted that most people will have heard all the high frequency sounds that they are liable | to encounter by the time they reach ten years of age. © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING ef UT2 - Propagation of Sound THE PROPAGATION OF SOUND oN / ‘THE ULTRASONIC BEAM > Beam contre (abou intensity) as aes ae (0% intensity) THE DEAD ZONE reflectors, lying in the dead zone region of the beam will not be detected. The dead zone can be seen at the start of the trace on an A-scan flaw detector, but only with single crystal probes. z y igna + displayed on the screen are unpredictable, so it is desirable to keep the near zone rer to FAN, a minimum. This can be seen on the flaw detector when testing a thin material where the first P| back wall echo is a lower amplitude then the repeat echoes. ‘The near zone length can be calculated using the following formul: CE) nanan 1 TS = crystal diameter (mm) wavelength (mm) probe frequency (Hz) Reference appendix F for example calculation. © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 ut ©ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT2 - Propagation of Sound 100°C. Grease/oil based couplants can be used at higher temperatures as well as Glycerine based couplants. However, Glycerine should not be used on aluminium due to corrosion problems. If in doubt advice should be taken from the couplant manufacturer. © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023, Issue 22 uT-18ARGYLL RUANE ay The selection of couplant is sometimes based on the post-test use of the material being tested, e.g. water based couplants may cause rusting or corrosion but are easier to clean off in preparation for painting or coating when compared to-ilor grease, which may actually protect, the material from corrosion. ULTRASONIC TESTING UT2 - Propagation of Sound Viscosity of the couplant may also be a consi Whatever couplant is used for calibration/setting the search sensitivity, must be used throughout the subsequent inspection. G® Some recently developed ultrasonic systems use no couplant, these are known as alr coupled ‘systems and they use very powerful amplification and sensitive received circuitry. ATTENUATION (CX ) "An alternative unit is the ‘Neper’ (148/mm = 0.868 nepers per cm). Refer to appendix F for example calculation. Scatter “Thisis the e of attenu and becomes ky inspection when rains become 1/10" Absorption mechanical hysteresis. — As the frequency of the sound is increased the attenuation increases due to more particle vibration (absorption) and increased sensitivity to small reflectors (scatter from grain boundaries, porosity and inclusions) which are related to the wavelength of the sound. Materials such as castings and austenitic stainless steel are highly attenuative due to their coarse grain structures, etc. The attenuation factor/coefficient of a material can be measured and is expressed in dB/mm (see the appendices for an example) The sound intensity that is being compared is an average of the smallest audible sound. This is typically heard when approx. 7 - 12 years old. © IMechE Argyl Ruane, *% Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 uT-19 af atARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT2 ~ Propagation of Sound Because we do not know the actual energy being transmitted by a probe, we can only compare sound intensities being received and express them as a ratio, e.g. twice as much, ten times as much etc. A change in sound intensity, expressed in dB, can be measured by comparing signal heights ‘on a calibrated screen, The change in dB Is given by the formula: (=e Where H1 is the old signal height and H2 is the new signal height. By transposing the formula, it is possible to determine the ratio of the signal heights when the dB difference is known. The gain/attenuator controls on a conventional ultrasonic flaw detector are calibrated in decibels, i.e. if we reduce the intensity of ultrasound by 6dB, any signal on the screen will drop to half its original height. If we reduce or increase the intensity by 20dB, the signal will reduce to a tenth or increase by ten times its original height, respectively. It is important to note that on certain flaw detectors, if reject or suppression is used to remove small unwanted signals from the display then the linearity of the amplifier, and hence the other signals, will be adversely affected, i.e. a 6dB drop will not reduce the signal by 50%. Often the inertia noise level in cars are compared so a 648 difference between cars means the loudest level is double the quietest. Table of approximate dB drops: Wy = 00% , We can use a variation of the decibel difference formula to work out what the difference in Bs is when comparing different sizes of reflectors e.g. flat bottom hole sizes using the formula below: incon Where Ai? is the area of the first reflector and A22 Is the area of the second reflector. Area Calculation © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023, Issue 22ARGYLL aoe ene ULTRASONIC TESTING UT3 - Sound Generation SOUND GENERATION CE ;_ THe PIEZO EFFECT ese crystals may be naturally occurri iufactured or sound \ waves Blectrical energy in =} Blectrical energy out The selection of a material suitable for producing ultrasound and receiving the resultant pulse back is based on three parameters: sensitivity @ resolution 2 lil, efficiency ern Electrical pulse from a flaw detector is very short negative going (usually) square wave. z & 200 ~ w o pe 3 1008 Tpit Piezo electric crystals e crystal is sliced with its major plane (the crystal face) perpendicular to the X axis of the crystal material. “Hlecrical connections Pulse wid avoid slate discharge , 5 2 a Original crystal =~ Sa ee as Pes reinforced with chrome for wear ressiance Seb also UT 4 band width. © Mache Argyl! Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 oe -ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT3 - Sound Generation Some transducer materials may exhibit ‘high displacement’ meaning they are good transmitters of the ultrasound into a test specimen. A ‘high electrical’ transducer would be good at receiving or converting the mechanical vibration in an electrical pulse. j 2) z Where Ff = Fundamental frequency 7 ay be rearanged 0 V = Crystal material velocity th the Wavelength. t = Crystal thickness The body will also vibrate at harmonics of this frequency but at a lower efficiency, hence the formula may also be seen as: | aA Where n= the harmonic in question i.e. 0, 1, 2 etc. t= ™ Hence for 1OMHz, 15MHz, 20MHz will simply be a SMHz | 2 crystal driven at the 2", 3°, 4** harmonic. Otherwise, | the crystal thickness would be so thin it would possibly crack when stimulated. | Piezo electric crystal materials Natural Artificially grown _ Manufactured ceramics Quartz Tourmaline © IMeche Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 (UT = 22°,ARGYLI RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT3 - Sound Generation Properties of piezo electric materials \. .\_Crystal material Advantages Limitations “Stable, Insoluble High mechanical strength istance jue to high electrical output Easily damped, best resolution capability Lead Zirconate Good piezo electric properties = Good transmitter and all round = properties Poor silvering Titanate i Does not depolarise with age Depblarsase jo! | FESR Pople? In their natural state the polycrystalline ceramic material's crystals are randomly orientated, and the piezo electric properties cancel each other out. To polarise these ceramics, they are heated up to their Curie temperature and subjected to an electrostatic field. The crystals align themselves with the direction of the field, which is maintained during cooling. This polarised ceramic material then behaves as a piezo electric transducer until heated again to |— Its Curie temperature. ‘The primary reason standard probes are not usually used on materiafs above 50°C is because of the possibility of degradation of the crystal. The secondary reason is due to the probe shoe characteristics beginning to change, altering velocity and therefore the beam angle on shear wave probes. REFLECTION, REFRACTION AND SNELL’S LAW (LAWS OF OPTICS) Ultrasonic waves are reflected by objects or interfaces placed in their path. When striking a specular (mirror like) reflector the angle at which this reflection takes place is governed by lection, which states: )— sce _ © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Det 2025. Issue 22 UT -23ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT3 - Sound Generation Refraction yan y Medi 1 ‘Medium eign angle / @ Refracted sound Refiacted angle © — Where: @ = incident angle B= refracted angle Vi = velocty in medium 1 ‘V2 = velocity in medium 2 Snell's Law is taken from the laws of optics/light. A change of velocity from one medium to another is required to allow refraction to occur. Note: If V1 remains constant as V2 increases, the larger the resultant refracted angle will be. Based upon a nominal frequency Snell's law can also be written as: Sina _ SinB _ Siny vl o2tC«B Assume couples . Senso eee | é Xeut ‘effect other than removal | fw 2 cage efor | eg Fertil tion paral drei propagation. compresinal wate Pre maton 250 des eto of propagation shear waves deperdent pon vel V2 and V3 andthe st and nd aca aes these materi used nthe dadtng and base tera (© Meche Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023, Issue 22 uT-24Ral. sem RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING oy UT3 - Sound Generation ARGYLL MODE CONVERSION Mode conversion can be thought of as an acoustic mirage, an example can be detailed during the critical root scan detailed below. ‘At the critical root stand-off position Probe A has the leading edge of the beam spread deflected by the lack of side wall fusion on to the bottom face of the plate. If the orientation of the lack of side wall fusion compliments the leading edge of the ultrasonic beam it will strike the bottom face normal (at 904 and reflect back towards the lack of side wall fusion and hence back to the probe. As the echo is reflected from a smooth reflector, i.e. the bottom surface of the plate, then the echo dynamic pattern may appear to be lack of root fusion on the ultrasonic screen, However, the echo will plot on to the far side of the weld which will indicate that itis from some form of geometrical anomaly. ceavsaton sere * oo {oi ergs EERSTE SS Ee Echo from Probe A The beam path length of the leading edge reflected signal to the bottom plate (Path Y) Is plotted as if itis travelling 1% to the root (Path X) ie., X = The X to Y ratio 1:1.84 is a function of the difference in the respective shear wave velocity to compression velocity. (See section ‘IIW Block, Calibration for 0° Compression Probe’ for more Information). Mode conversion requires the confluence of many factors, the initial sound wave may be mode converted into a compression, shear or surface wave. As with pulse echo ultrasonic it is hard to predict where any echo is coming from after the wave front has hit its first major reflector due to mode conversion altering sound velocities from the prescribed calibration velocity. The difficulty occurs when the 1st major reflector is orientated at an obtuse angle to the major axis of the sound beam and littie or no sound energy is directly reflected back to the probe hence always use a plotting system and look along the beam to see if it was passing through the sidewall at an obtuse angle to get to the plotted point wherever possible. This mode (© Meche Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT- 25ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT3 - Sound Generation conversion will normally plot on the opposite sidewall at a lower depth to the real reflector. With digital flaw detectors using agate’ itis normally incorrectly positioned, hence with single vee weldments, it is normal to full skip initially to detect those planar reflectors prior to half skip examination of the weldment, DIFFRACTION off the tip causing waves in d at reinforce or cancel out the original waves. This results in a series of high and low intensity waves radiating out from the tips, giving the }pression of sound bending around the edges of the defect. Wave front preaching a tieetion Wavefront Spherical wt st ‘tte ‘Smooth shaped vertical linear indications can be very difficult to detect by ultrasonic as most of the sound will be deflected away from the transmitting probe. The Delta techniques uses a shear wave probe to transmit the sound and an alternative probe, usually a compression probe, to receive. In effect it is used as a twin crystal probe with the crystals being separated and independently positional. Whilst accurate depth and positioning is not possible the indication can be approximately located by manipulating probe B until the signal is maximised. Manipulation of probes A & B can give an estimation of the flaw extent. If the Delta Technique is used for detecting an indication at a known depth, such as lack of root penetration in @ double ‘V’ weld, then using an existing stand off from a trigonometry set up would give better results. The screen capture from the clear section shows no received signal on the ultrasonic trace whilst the second screen capture shows sound diffracted from lack of root penetration located at the centre of a double ‘V’ preparation. © IMechE Argyl! Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 uUT-26ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING Lay UT3 - Sound Generation Delta Technique from clear section in a double 'V’ weld. resnonst with multiple repeat Delta Technique from lack of penetration in @ double 'V’ weld. An alternative and complimentary technique that can be used in conjunction with the delta technique is the pitch and catch system. © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT -27ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT3 - Sound Generation racted compressional wave is just isappear, leaving only shear waves second medium. The second critical angle is where the refracted shear wave has changed to a surface wave. The critical angles can be calculated using Snell's law. o° - ve Z q c Dia. 1 8 Dia. 2 ‘At 0° the energy is partially reflected Increasing angle @ produces a ‘and partially transmitted across the compression wave in V2 (C) and also boundary. produces a weak shear wave. ee = E Dia. 3 . ae ( Between the ist and 2nd cia )) nals ne have shear waves in v2 ane this leaves shear waves in V2. Note the 7 2 "eflected compression wave in Vi. compression wave does not form @ surface wave. = 27° Perspex to Steel. (© IMechE Argyl Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT - 28ARGYLL RUANE To ULTRASONIC TESTING Low UT3 - Sound Genération Ast 2nd = Dia. 5 Dia. 6 . When the 2nd critical angle is 2 jurface exceeded all conventional modes of waves travel in an elliptical motion at 2 velocity propagation are reflected internally. marginally less than the shear (approx. 90%). AS the surface wave has the smaliest velocity (all other factors being equal) it has the shortest wavelength and therefore it is the most sensitive wave form. = 56° Perspex to Ste. Ac tc ar egret LEGS | s Only Shear Waves present Combination of both Long and Shear Waves Only Surface Waves present % =i 4 LONGITUDINAL Stee ae SURFACE 25 3035 SSDS CO INCIDENT ANGLE® AST CRITICAL ANGLE 2ND CRITICAL ANGLE © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023, Issue 22 fa UT-29ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT3 - Sound Generation "Calculation of the critical angles for a Perspex to Steel interface. @= incident angle B = refracted angle v1 = compressional velocity in Perspex = 2740 m/s v2 = velocity in steel compressional = 5960 m/s shear = 3240 m/s Peek Ld 5960 m/s Sina = 0.4597315@ x 1 a vi 2740 m/s Si =— it Si = ——— x Sin 90° ina = S- x SinB ina = ee Sin Sin a = 0.845679012 x 1 a 517° At the first critical angle, compression and shear waves co-exist, so the lowest angle for shear waves (only in practical use) is just beyond the first critical angle, at an incident angle of 29°, which. gives a refracted shear angle of 35°, 3240 m/s in B- = AOS x sin 29° Sin p= SO x Sin Sin # = 1.18248172 x 0.484096 B=3e (© IMechE Argyll Ruane. ‘ Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT-30Ri RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING Lay UT3 - Sound Generation At the second critical angle surface waves exist so the highest incident angle we use for shear waves is 56° that gives an 80° shear wave. (© IMeché Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT-31a. A ARGYLL a RUANE . ULTRASONIC TESTING UT4 - Equipment EQUIPMENT PROBES Probes are the most important part of ultrasonic testing set-up as it has the most dramatic effect on the test results. The angle of @ probe used in ultrasonic testing is measured from a tine drawn perpendicular to A 60° angle probe would transmit sound at 60° to the normal, i.e. 30° from the surface. The most common angle probes transmit shear waves (although angled compression probes do exist for special applications) and the manufacturers quote the angle of the probe for use on mild steel, 0° combined double* probe coment thinner sections. Electrical connections Backing Casing Crystals Perspex shoes Double probes have two crystals, one transmits and the other receives ultrasound. The cork separator in between the shoes prevents “cross-talk” or “chatter” between the crystals. Using oll as a couplant may eventually break down the acoustic barrier and produce spurious standing are therefore useful for testing thin sections, e.g. thickness gauging and-examining for near surface flaws. The crystals may be focused to give a focal point at the ideal beam path range to be examined. Single crystal angle probe l Single crystal probes have one ‘crystal that transmits and receives ultrasound. The flaw detector controls the process by transmitting a pulse of energy then switching the circuit to receive, listening for any returning sound, in between pulses. The circuitry can be switched quicker than the crystal can be damped. | So, the receiver picks up the last few vibrations of © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT-32ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT4 - Equipment the I, as it switches on, and Electrical connection Casing crystal Perspex shoe wy oo" machined to Index point Angle probes have shoe, on whi stal sit « \ angle Ft |. This in turn, according to Snell's law, controls the angle that the sound will propagate through the test material (refracted angle). OS nosed Orne Az) bie < < Electrical connection a ey Damping ty Ee te 7 ah g ‘Clamping ring, : F 4l 7 Couplant Soft diaphragm —~ & \hragm mounted on the front of the crystal, clamped in place by a threaded 7 ring, the space in between the diaphragm and the crystal being filled with couplant to expel Gi eset dag ering sree tc ano oe <= © MechE Argyll Ruane. UT-33 soon, 7 Conk Sin Are 5 ¥ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT4 ~ Equipment Water gap or gap scanning probe Column of water ‘Sound path This consists of a water jacket with a nozzle at the end and a probe inside. Water is fed into the jacket and flows out through the nozzle, forming a column of water, to the test surface, through which the sound can travel. ‘These are often sub-divided into two divisions: 1. Bubbler with a small water gap flowing under low pressure. 2. Squirters with larger water gaps under high pressure. ‘heen srteces — probes are usually used nese automat inning gard and can be set up, using a'guide wheel to follow the contour of a component. They-can also be used in arrays to scan a wider area. Often used for ‘through transmission’ testing of composites. The use of backscattering has been effective for discontinuities in composites amongst other materials. This technique is based upon the fact that fibres and other composite constituents scatter waves backward when the incident wave is normal to their surface: Wheel type probe Electrical ‘connection Soft tyre, solid or water filled crystal (within axle) Vv Test surface (© IMeche Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 uT-34ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING wv UT4 - Equipment In this probe the cryst the axle of the wheel tyre into the test mi i It is used in a similar way to the water gap probe. The main advantage of this type of probe is that it removes the requirement of externally applied couplant, Delay line probe ind the sound travels through the soft casing Damping slug Clamping ring Crystal ona perspex <7 shoe hin plate The delay line probe is very similar in construction to the soft nosed probe. The difference is that it has a long perspex shoe clamped in instead of a diaphragm. The length of the shoe extends the time taken for the echo from the front surface, of the material under test, to return tothe crystal. This places the Front Surface Echo (FSE) further along the timebase, Ie. beyond the dead zone. It en eC These probes are usually high frequency probes (which means they have a small dead zone), but high frequency = long near zone. Therefore, to use them for near surface flaw detection/sizing the long shoe is used to contain the near zone in the probe not in the test material, Length of the delay line is important to avoid internal reflections interfering with the back wall signal. Magnetostrictive transducers his field causes the bar stock to vibrate at an ultrasonic frequency and the vibrations travel along the length of the bar. When the vibrations reach the other end of the bar, they reflect back and are picked up by the transducer (in recelve mode) and registered on the detector. The equipment is calibrated off a defect free plece of bar stock to register a specific value on the detector and defective bar stock is recognised by a change in © Meche Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. issue 22 UT-35ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT4 - Equipment Ferric bar ith pe stock x Teanstucer coll © oO Up 03" da Frequency 00 {oo ee oo Other styles of transducers include paint brush/ phased array/ mosaic/ EMA but are not covered here due to specialist usage PROBE FREQUENCY, BANDWIDTH AND DAMPING ‘An ultrasonic probe transmits sound ata rai known as the bandwidth. u ‘The bandwidth is also an indication of the damping factor. 1 of fr not just at the stated frequency, = = Have a short pulse length A longer pulse length | (typically 1 to 2 cycles) (typically 3 or 4 cycles) _ A short ri time on zone) A long singing time {aed zone) |___ Poor penetration _aomat penetration: 4 Quality factor Fundamental frequency ft t tpeak FH Usually A 70% of 20S ie 3 4 5 “Beoad:bandwidthy, _ Narrow bandwidth © IMeche Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT -36ULTRASONIC TESTING UT4 ~ Equipment d by various aspects of the test Probe angle is another consideration when searching for defects at different orientations throughout the material. Below is a table of properties of probes using the two criteria that we can select i.e. frequency and diameter. Effect of frequency <~F_tow Frequency oat arson = Long wavelength Short wavelength More beam spread Less beam spread Shorter near zone Longer near zone’ Less penetration Less attenuation “More attenuation Longer dead zone Shorter dead zone : Less sensitivity Higher sensitivity Less Sensitive to orientation oF More sensitive to orientation oF reflector reflector Effects of diameter [Longer near zone __ Shorter near zone_ ~ Better penetration Less penetration | [ess attenuation (due to beam spread) More attenuation ¢& |_bifficutt coupting on curved surfaces Easier coupling on curved surfaces 7 More coverage on flat surfaces Less coverage on flat surfaces A: { | ’ Another consideration is whether to use a single crystal or a combined double crystal probe. L for the same size probe as a double, because the effective transmitter crystal diameter is larger, no focal point, i.e. it works effectively over a longer range and cost (cheaper). It can be seen from the tables that higher frequency probes have a higher sensitivity. In this context, sensitivity refers to the ability to detect smalll defects. The higher the probe frequency 7 the smaller the wavelength and the smaller the size of reflector the probe can detect. It is generally accepted that the smallest reflector a probe can detect is half the probe's wavelength. So, a probe with a long wavelength (low frequency) will not detect small reflectors, such as small defects or grain boundaries, therefore the sound will penetrate further {hrough the material because it is not reflected at these small interfaces. © IMechE Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT-37ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT4 - Equipment CALIBRATION BLOCKS AND THEIR USES, Note: some blocks are available in metric or inch sizes and it should be verified before use which version is at hand. Materials: Steel blocks are made from low or medium carbon ferritic steel (killed), normalised to produce a fine grained homogenous structure throughout. The International Institute of Welding (I. I.W.) block Also referred to as Block No.1, A2, V1, DIN54/120 or Dutch block. 412223) which refers tot as Calibration Block No.1. And the removal of the Perspex inserts although the 50mm hole remains. 0° COMPRESSION PROBES Calibration 0° probe calibration can be set using Back Wall Echoes (BWE) off the various thicknesses available, i.e. 5, 10, 25, 100 and 200mm. It can also be checked (rough) on the 23mm thick perspex insert which gives a reading of 50mm when calibrated on steel (the ratio of sound velocity in steel to the velocity in perspex is 5960m/s to 2740m/s = 50:23). A minimum of two echoes are required for calibration with 0° probes. The 91mm step in the block serves to calibrate the screen for use with shear wave probes by using a compression probe. If @ 0° probe is placed over the 91mm and the echoes placed at 5 and 10 on the graticule, then the screen is calibrated for a range of 0 to 182mm compressional. This is equivalent to 0 to 100mm shear, the ratio of the velocities of compression to shear waves is 1.82:1 (5960m/s:3240m/s). 6 block: Determination of the dead zone using an A6 block will give a more accurate result. See App G for drawing (ref BS 2704 obsolete). A Block should be at same temperature as test item as sound velocity changes with ‘temperature. Perspex having much bigger changes than steel Dead zone measurement (single crystal probe) Place the probe over the 5mm section. If the signal is visible outside the dead zone, then the dead zone is less than 5mm. If the signal is not visible, then place the probe on the 10mm section. If the signal is now visible, then the dead zone is greater than Smm but less than 10mm. If the signal is stil not visible, then go on to the 15mm deep hole. This procedure can be carried out with an uncalibrated screen. An alternative method would be to calibrate the screen and read the length of the dead zone off the flaw detector graticule. © IMechE Argyl! Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT -38RGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING Ey UT4 - Equipment Resolution The resolution of a 0° probe can be checked by using the three different thickness sections around the slot below the centre of the 100mm radius. Place the probe above the slot and with a calibrated screen note the separation between the 85, 91 and 100mm signals. ‘A7 block: An A7 block will give a more quantifiable value for resolution regardless being 2 0° or angle probe. See App G for drawing (ref BS 2704 obsolete). SHEAR PROBE USES Index or sound exit point Place the probe on the top of the block over the centre of the 100mm radius, with the beam travelling toward the radius, Maximise the signal by moving the probe back and forth, stopping at the point where the signal is highest. Mark the position of the small siot in the block, onto th where the centre of the sound beam is leaving the Shear probe calibration This can be carried out using the 100mm radius, repeat signals being secured by the small slot used for indexing, Shear probe angle check Maximise the reflected signal from the 50mm diameter (side) of the Perspex, insert and note the position of the probe Index in relation to the engraved graduations on the block, to read off the approximate angle. A more accurate check can be made using the reflection from the 1.5mm diameter hole in the same way. An AS block (IOW) with 1.5mm side drilled holes over various depths will give a far more accurate probe angle or beam spread profile. Shear probe output Maximise the signal from the 100mm radius and adjust to full screen height using the gain and note the dB figure indicated on the controls. This figure can be used to compare different probes or to check the probe in use (daily) for deterioration. CALIBRATION BLOCK NO.2, A4, V2, DINS4/122 KIDNEY BLOCK \ 25mm: \\ radius SOmm radius, \ 1.3 or Sam . dia. hole © IMeche Argyll Ruane. Date Oct 2023. Issue 22 UT -39ARGYLL RUANE ULTRASONIC TESTING UT4 - Equipment COMPRESSION PROBE USES Calibration This block can be obtained in various thicknesses, although the current standards in use for ultrasonic calibration blocks may only mention 12.5, 20 or 25 mm. The repeat signals secured from this through thickness can be used to calibrate the 0° probe. SHEAR PROBE USES Probe calibration With the probe aiming towards the 25mm radius, signals occur at; 25mm, 100mm, 175mm, 250mm, 325mm, 400mm, etc. With the probe facing the other way, toward the 50mm radius, the signals occur at; 50mm, 125mm, 200mm, 275mm, 350mm, 425mm, etc. To calibrate; the radius which gives the easiest signals, within the range selected, to align on the graticule should be selected. Dead zone measurements, resolution and shear probe angle checks can only be approximated on the A2/A4 blocks Terminology: + A2 = Calibration Block Not = A4 = Calibration Block No2 Specific blocks such as the A5, AG and A7 should be used for more accurate reproducible results as quoted in associated standards, Index or sound exit point Using the 25mm or the 50mm radius, maximise the reflected signal and mark the position of the central graduation (the centre of the radii) onto the probe. (It is recommended however that block no.1 is more accurate for this check). Probe angle check Maximise the echo from the drilled hole and check the angle from the position of the index point. INSTITUTE OF WELDING (I.0.W) / AS BLOCK im , 305mm = a © IMechE Argyll Ruane, Date Oct 2023, Issue 22 UT -40