THE CORNELL BOOK OF CATS

I
THE CORNELL

BOOK OF CATS

A Comprehensive and

Authoritative Medical Reference

for Every Cat and Kitten

Second Edition
Completely Updated and Revised

BY THE FACULTY, STAFF, AND ASSOCIATES

CORNELL FELINE HEALTH CENTER
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
CORNELL UNIVERSITY

Edited by Mordecai Siegal

Consulting Editor, James R. Richards, D.V.M.
The Cornell Book of Cats is a book of medical reference and cannot replace professional
veterinary- care. Its purpose is to impan to the cat owner in-depth information on feline
disorders and their veterinary therapies — helping the owner feel confident while
working in pannership with the veterinarian.
Copyright © 1989, 1997 by Mordecai Siegal and Cornell University
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.
Published in the United States by Villard Books, a division of Random House, Inc.,
New York, and simultaneously in Canada by Random House of Canada Limited, Toronto.
This is a revised and updated edition of The Cornell Book of Cats,
which was published in 1989 by Villard Books, a division of Random House, Inc.
Grateful acknowledgment is made to E. P. Dutton for permission to reprint
two chans and four lists from First Aid for Pets by Roben W. Kirk,
D.V.M. Copyright © 1978 by Robert W. Kirk, D.V.M. Reprinted by permission
of the publisher, E.P. Dutton, a division of Penguin Books, U.S.A., Inc.
Pen-and-ink drawings of the cat breeds by Cynthia Holmes-Harwood.
Anatomical illustrations by Ernest W. Beck, reprinted from
The Feline: A Veterinary Aid in Anatomical Transparencies with Supplemental
Color Illustrations with permission from Solvay Animal Health, Inc.
Villard Books is a registered trademark of Random House, Inc.
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
The Cornell book of cats: a comprehensive and authoritative medical reference for
every cat and kitten / by the faculty, staff, and associates, Cornell Feline
, Health Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University,
edited by Mordecai Siegal. — 2nd ed., updated and rev.
Includes
p. cm.index.
ISBN 0-679-44953-1
1. Cats — Diseases. 2. Cats — Health. I, Siegal, Mordecai.
II. Cornell Feline Health Center.
SF985.C67 1997
636.8'089— dc20 96-41131
Random House website address: http://www.randomhouse.com/
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
Designed by BTD
Second Edition
24689753
 To all veterinarians with a special interest in
feline medicine and surgery, in appreciation of your
knowledge, expertise, and dedication, which have
vastly improved the health and welfare of cats
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2015

https://archive.org/details/cornellbookofcatOOmord
 Contents

Contributors xi PART II
Pediatrics
Preface xvii
3 • Kittens and Disorders 45
Foreword xix Mordecai Siegal and June Kiman-Tuttle

Comment xxv PART III

Feline Behavior
Introduction xxvii
4 • Feline Behavior 55
KatberineA. Houpt
Acknowledgments xxix
5 • Misbehavior 66
Katberine A. Houpt and Dale D. Olm
PART I
Acquiring a Cat P AR T IV
1 • Origins, Sources, and Nutrition
Selection 3
Mordecai Siegal 6 • Feline Nutritional
Requirements 77
2 • The Breeds 17 James R. Ricbards and
Mordecai Siegal June Kirvan-Tuttle
vii
viii ^^'^^'^^
7 • Feeding Cats 84 PART VII
James R. Richards and The External Cat
June Kirvan-Tuttle
8 • Diseases of Dietar>' Origin 91 17 • Skin and Disorders 157
James R. Richards and Danny W. Scott
June Kirvan-Tuttle
18 • Sensory Organs and
Disorders 177
PART V Ronald C. Riis, John E. Saidla, and
James R. Richards
Sex and Reproduction 19 • External Parasites 194
Danny W. Scott
9 • Donald
Reproductive
Lein Physiolog>' 99

10 • Donald
Mating Lein 103
PART VIII
11 • Donald
PregnancyLein and Parturition 109
The hitemal Cat
12 • Donald
Reproductive
Lein Disorders 114 20 • Circulatory System and
Disorders 205
13 • Genetics 122 A^. Sydney Moise and
Elizabeth A. Oltenacu James R. Richards
14 • Normal Development and 21 • Musculoskeletal System and
Congenital Birth Defects 132 Disorders 218
Drew M. Noden Jeffrey E. Barlough and Julia T. Blue
15 • Birth Control 138 22 • Urinary System and Disorders . . . 226
Donald Lein James R. Richards and
June Kin'an-Tuttle
23 • Nervous System and
PART VI Disorders 232
Brian A Summers
Anatomy of the Cat
24 • Respiratory System and
16 • Anatomy 143 Disorders 238
John W. Hermanson Fred W. Scott and James R. Richards
25 • Digestive System and Disorders . . 246
Roy V. H. Pollock
26 • Liver, Pancreas, and
Disorders 258
James R. Richards and Susan A Morrison
 CONTENTS

27 • Endocrine System and 36 • Surgery and Postoperative

Disorders 264 Care 352
John F. Randolph and Leo A. Wuori
Mark. E. Peterson
37 • Convalescence/Home Care 361
28 • Immune System and Leo A. Wuori
Disorders 272
John S. Parker
29 • Viral Diseases 278 PART XI
Jeffrey E. Barlough, Margaret Barr, Medical Emergencies
Fred W. Scott, and James R. Richards
30 • Bacterial Diseases 294 38 • First Aid 369
Patrick L. McDonough and Robert W Kirk and Mordecai Siegal
CorisseN. Vaughan
39 • Procedures for Life -Threatening
31 • Internal Parasites 305 Emergencies 378
Dwight D. Bouman Robert W Kirk and Mordecai Siegal
32 • Fungal Diseases 321
Jeffrey E. Barlough
APPENDIXES
33 • Cancer 325
Jeffrey E. Barlough A • Zoonotic Diseases:
From Cats to Humans 391
Dorothy F. Holmes
PART IX B • Vaccinations 399
Geriatrics Fred W. Scott
C • Diagnostic Tests 404
34 • Aging Cats and Disorders 335 June Kirvan-Tuttle, Jeffrey E. Barlough,
June Kirvan-Tuttle, Jeffrey E. Barlough, and Julia T. Blue
Mordecai Siegal, and Leo A. Wuori
D • Diagnostic Imaging 409
Amy E. Yeager
PART X
The Sick Cat Glossary 413
John E. Saidla and Jeffrey E. Barlough
35 • Clinical Signs of Disease 343
Leo A. Wuori and John E. Saidla Index 437
 Contributors

This book represents the work of thirty-four authors: and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine,
Cornell University. He earned his B.A. in biology from
JEFFREY E. BARLOUGH, D.V.M., Ph.D., is an NIH Hiram College and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in parasi-
Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of Medicine tology from Tulane University.
and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine,
and Department of Medical Pathology, School of Med- JOHN W. HERMANSON, Ph.D., is Associate Profes-
icine, University' of California, Davis. He earned his sor of Anatomy at the College of Veterinary Medicine,
D.V.M. at the University of California, Davis, and a Cornell University. He received his Ph.D. from the
Ph.D. in veterinary virology at Cornell University. He University of Florida. His primary interests are in com-
is a Diplomate, American College of Veterinary Micro- anatomy. parative muscle biology and in comparative vertebrate
biologists.
MARGARET BARR, D.V.M., Ph.D., is a Senior Re DOROTHY F. HOLMES, D.V.M., Ph.D., is Senior
search Associate in the Department of Microbiology Research Associate in the Depanment of Microbiology
and Immunology', College of Veterinary Medicine, and Immunology, College of Veterinary Medicine,
Cornell University. She is a contributor to Feline Cornell University. She earned her D.V.M. and Ph.D.,
Health Topics and Perspectives on Cats, both Cornell in veterinary microbiology, from Cornell University.
University publications. She earned her B.S. at the Uni-
versity ofthe South and a D.V.M. at Auburn University.
JOHNNY D. HOSKINS, D.V.M., Ph.D., is Professor
JULIA T. BLUE, Ph.D., is Associate Professor of Clini- in the Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences,
cal Pathology in the Department of Pathology, College Louisiana State University. He was Acting Assistant Di-
of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University. She earned rector of the Cornell Feline Health Center in 1985-
her D.V.M. from Oklahoma State University and Ph.D. 1986. He earned his B.S. and D.V.M. from Oklahoma
from the University of Pennsylvania. She is a Diplomate State University and a Ph.D. in veterinary pathology
of the .\merican College of Veterinary Pathologists. and clinical sciences from Iowa State University.
DWIGHT D. BOWMAN, Ph.D., is Associate Profes KATHERINE A. HOUPT, V.M.D., Ph.D., is Professor
sor of Parasitology in the Department of Microbiology of Veterinary Physiology and the Director of the Be-
xi
Xll CONTRIBUTORS
havior Clinic, Department of Physiology, College of N. SYDNEY MOISE, D.V.M., M.S., is Associate Profes-
Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University. She earned sor of Medicine in the Department of Clinical Sciences
her B.S, in veterinary science from Pennsylvania State at the College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell Univer-
University and V.M.D. and Ph.D. degrees from the Uni- sity. She earned her B.S. and D.V.M. degrees from
versity ofPennsylvania. Texas A & M University and an M.S. in veterinary mi-
crobiology from Cornell University'. She is a Diplo-
LINDA SUSAN JORGENSEN, D.V.M., has a small mate of the American College of Veterinary Internal
animal internal medicine practice in Redwood City, diology.
Medicine and the American College of Veterinary Car-
California. She is a contributor io Feline Health Topics
and Perspectives on Cats. She earned her D.V.M. from
the University of California, Davis. She performed her MARK L. MORRIS, JR., D.V.M., M.S., Ph.D., is a
internship and residenq' in small-animal internal partner of Mark Morris Associates, president of Thera-
medicine at the College of Veterinary Medicine, Cor- con. Inc., and Adjunct Associate Professor of Medicine
nell University. She is a Diplomate, American College at the College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell Univer-
of Veterinary Internal Medicine. sity. He received his D.V.M. from Cornell University
and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of
ROBERT W. KIRK, D.V.M., is Professor Emeritus of Wisconsin. He is a Diplomate, American College of
Small Animal Medicine and former Department Chair- Veterinary Nutrition.
man, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell Univer-
sity'. He earned his B.S. from the University of SUSAN A. MORRISON, D.V.M., is a small-animal
Connecticut and D.V.M. from Cornell University. He is practitioner in Weymouth, Massachusetts. She is a con-
a Diplomate, American College of Veterinary Internal tributor to the Feline Information Bulletin. She
Medicine and American College of Veterinary Derma- earned her D.V.M. from Cornell University.
tology.
DREW M. NODEN, Ph.D., is Professor of Anatomy
JUNE KIRVAN-TUTTLE, AjV.S., B.S., MA.T., is Edi in the Department of Anatomy, College of Veterinary
tor/Communication Specialist for the Cornell Feline Medicine, Cornell University. He earned a BA. in biol-
Health Center, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cor- ogy from Washington and Jefferson College and his
nell University. She is the editor of Perspectives on Ph.D. in zoology from Washington University.
Cats and Feline Health Topics. She earned an A.A.S. in
animal science from S.U.N.Y. at Delhi and a B.S. in DALE D. OLM, D.V.M., is small-animal practitioner
agricultural journalism from Ohio State University, for the Behavior Council Clinic at the Manhattan Vet-
and a Master of Arts and Teaching from Cornell Uni- erinary Group, and Bergh Memorial Animal Hospital
versity. She is a member of the Cornell Editors' Guild of the A.S.P.C.A. in New York, New York. He earned
and Agricultural Communicators in Education. his B.A. and M.S. in chemistry from the University of
Connecticut and his D.V.M. from Cornell University. -
DONALD LEIN, D.V.M., Ph.D., is Associate Profes
sor of Theriogenology and Pathology and the Director ELIZABETH A. OLTENACU, Ph.D., is Associate Pro-
of the Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary fes or inthe Department of Animal Science, College
Medicine, Cornell University. He received his D.V.M. of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University.
from Cornell University and his Ph.D. in pathology She earned her B.Sc. in agricultural science from the
from the University of Connecticut. University of Edinburgh, Scotland, and her M.S. and
Ph.D. in animal science from the University of Minne-
PATRICK L. Mcdonough, M.S., Ph.D., is Assistant sota.
Professor of Microbiology and Assistant Director of
the Microbiology/Mycology Section, Diagnostic Labo- JOHN S. PARKER, B.V.M.S., is a graduate student in
ratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell Uni- virology' at the College of Veterinary Medicine, Cor-
versity. He earned his B.S. in biology from Albright nell University. Prior to his coming to Cornell, he was
College and his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from Cornell engaged in small-animal practice, with five years de-
University. voted exclusively to felines. He earned his Bachelor
 CONTRIBUTORS

of Veterinary Medicine and Surgery at Glasgow Uni- DANNY W. SCOTT, D.V.M., is Professor of Medicine
versity-. in the Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Vet-
erinary Medicine, Cornell University. He earned his
MARK E. PETERSON, D.V.M., is Head, Division of B.S. and D.V.M. from the University of California,
Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, The Animal Davis. He is a Diplomate, American College of Veteri-
Medical Center, New York, New York. He is a former nary Dermatology.
Adjunct Professor of Medicine, College of Veterinary
Medicine, Cornell University. He earned his D.V.M. FRED W. SCOTT, D.V.M., Ph.D., is Professor Emeri-
from the University of Minnesota and is a Diplomate, tus of Veterinary Virology in the Department of Micro-
American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine. biology, Immunology and Parasitology, and the
former Director of the Cornell Feline Health Center,
ROY V. H. POLLOCK, D.V.M., Ph.D., is vice presi College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University. He
dent of the Companion Animal Division of Pfizer Ani- earned a B.S. in chemistry from the University of Mas-
mal Health. He earned his B.A. from Williams College sachuset s and a D.V.M. and Ph.D. in virology from
and his D.V.M. and Ph.D. in veterinary virology from Cornell University. He is a past president of the Ameri-
Cornell University. can Association of Feline Practitioners. He is a Diplo-
mate, American College of Veterinary Microbiologists.
JOHN F. RANDOLPH, D.V.M., is Associate Professor
of Medicine, Department of Clinical Sciences, College SANG J. SHIN, D.V.M., is Associate Professor of Mi-
of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University. He earned crobiology and Director of the Microbiology Labora-
his D.V.M. degree from Cornell University, and is a tory, Diagnostic Laboratory, College of Veterinary
Diplomate, American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine, Cornell University. He earned his B.S. in
Medicine. microbiology from the University of Southwestern
Louisiana and a D.V.M. from the Seoul National Uni-
JAMES R. RICHARDS, D.V.M., is the Director of the versity, Korea. He is a Diplomate, American College
Cornell Feline Health Center, and the Director of the of Veterinary Microbiologists.
Dr. Louis J, Camuti Memorial Feline Consultation and
Diagnostic Service. He earned his AB. from Berea MORDECAI SIEGAL is a renowned author and jour-
College, Berea, Kentucky, and his D.V.M. from the Col- nalist, and a member of the Feline Advisory Council,
lege of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University. Cornell Feline Health Center, College of Veterinary
Medicine, Cornell University. He is the president of
RONALD C. RIIS, D.V.M., is Associate Professor of the Dog Writers Association of America and a member
Medicine and Chief of Comparative Ophthalmology of the Board of Directors of the Empire Cat Club. He
Service in the Department of Clinical Sciences, Col- is the author of twenty-one published books concern-
lege of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University. He ing the medical care, behavior, nutritional needs,
earned his B.A./B.S. from South Dakota State Univer- training, breed descriptions, and human/animal bond-
sity, his M.T./AS.C.P. and D.V.M. from the University of ing of cats, dogs, and horses. His anicles and monthly
Minnesota, and an M.S. in veterinary medicine from columns on pets have been published regularly in
Cornell University. He is a Diplomate, American Col- many national magazines, and he frequently appears
lege of Veterinary Ophthalmologists. on the broadcast media.
JOHN E. SAIDLA, D.V.M., is the Director of Continu- BRIAN A. SUMMERS, B.V.Sc, M.Sc, Ph.D., is Asso
ing Education and Chief of Dental Services for the ciate Profe.ssor of Pathology (Neuropathology),
Teaching Hospital of the College of Veterinary Medi- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medi-
cine, Cornell University. He is associate editor of the cine, Cornell University. He has a B.V.Sc. from the
Cornell Animal Health Newsletter and Course Leader University of Melbourne, an M.Sc. in veterinary pathol-
of the Foundation Course, "Animals, Veterinarians, ogy from tiie University of London, and a Ph.D. in
and Society." He earned his D.V.M. from Auburn Uni- pathology from Cornell University. He is a Diplomate,
versity. American College of Veterinary Pathologists.
CONTRIBUTORS

CORISSE N. VAUGHAN, D.V.M., is a small-animal AMY E. YEAGER, D.V.M., is a staff veterinarian in

practitioner at the Colonial Animal Hospital in Spring- the Department of Radiology, College of Veterinary
field, Virginia. She is a contributor to Feline Health Medicine, Cornell University. She received her D.V.M.
Topics. She earned her B.S. and D.V.M. from Cornell from Cornell University and is a Diplomate, American
University. College of Veterinary Radiolog>'.
LEO A. WUORI, D.V.M., was formerly a Senior Ex-
tension Associate and Special Consultant for fund-
raising for the Cornell Feline Health Center. He
earned his D.V.M. from Cornell University'.
THE CORNELL BOOK OF CATS
EDITOR
Mordecai Siegal
CONSULTING EDITOR
James R. Richards, D.V.M.
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
Victoria Blankenship-Siegal
Jeffrey E. Barlough, D.V.M. , Ph.D.
June Kirvan-Tuttle
John E. Saidla, D.V.M.
Fred W. Scott, D.V.M., Ph.D.
ILLUSTRATOR
Cynthia Holmes
PHOTOGRAPHERS
Vickie Jackson
Mordecai Siegal
David W. Tuttle
 Preface

by Franklin M. Loew, Dean,

College of Veterinary Medicine,
Cornell University

Mark TwainThis used to rent cats for the sum- The Cornell
volume referenceBookon ofFelis
Catscatus
is as ascomplete
can be afound.
one-
leave mer.them becaud sewhen
wasbehin he didn't wantnedto
he retur
home from vacation. In the summer of Every
Whencat'sPresident
companionClinton
(i.e., j'om!)
movedshouldintohave
the one.
White
1906, in New Hampshire, he rented three kittens: one House with Socks, their female domestic shorthair,
was named Sackcloth, and the other two, which many observers thought this was the first First Cat.
looked identical, both went by the name Ashes! Not so. Historians believe that Lincoln was the first
Cats have gradually replaced dogs as America's president to have a cat; since then. Presidents Ruther-
most numerous small-animal companions. As I write, ford B. Hayes (a Siamese), William McKinley (an An-
there are 55 to 60 million cats (and 50 to 55 million gora), Woodrow Wilson (it was named "Puffins"),
dogs) in the inUnited
are people States. That'scountries.
most European as many cats as there John F. Kennedy ("Tom Kitten "), Gerald Ford (a Sia-
Cat companionship crosses virtually all human de- all had cats.named "Chan"), and Jimmy Carter (a Siamese)
mese
mographic boundaries: age, gender, wealth, educa- So the twenty-first century may be the century of
tion, type of work, and others. But as Americans have the cat, as the twentieth was that of the dog, and the
become more urban and suburban, lifestyle features nineteenth, that of the horse. And whatever you might
such as apartment and condominium living, spur-of- want to know about cats in general, or your cat(s) in
the-moment travel, and both-working couples have particular, you will probably find it in Tfje Cornell
favored cats compared to dogs. Book of Cats.
xvii
 Foreword

by Fred W. Scott, Former Director,

Cornell Feline Health Center

WHY THE CORNELL BOOK OF CATS^

Thean Cornell Bookhasof Cats the realiza
is red tion of (D.V.M.) degree in the United States was awarded in
idea that smolde for several 1876 to Dr. Daniel E. Salmon, who became the first
years: an information book on the health director of the Bureau of Animal Industry, currently
and care of cats for the owners of pet cats known as the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
and for cat-health workers. In the course of their work The concept of a feline medical specialty center
at the Cornell Feline Health Center, the faculty and began in 1973 as part of a long-range planning effort
staff had been developing numerous information at the College of Veterinary Medicine at Cornell. In
pieces for both veterinarians and cat owners, and the reviewing the present and anticipated future of veteri-
idea of putting this information into a book for the nary medicine, and more specifically veterinary medi-
general reader appeared to have merit. The Cornell cine as it is related to cats, it became obvious that if
Book of Cats, then, is the culmination of efforts by many of the serious disease problems of the cat were
many persons to bring that idea to fruition. to be solved, a concened effort would have to be
applied. Because many experts in various fields of
small-animal medicine were already on the faculty of
WHAT IS THE CORNELL FELINE the College of Veterinary Medicine, it seemed appro-
HEALTH CENTER? priate to draw these individuals together for the par-
A proposal ticular benefit
was ofmade cats toand,Dr. less directly,
George cats' owners.
Poppensiek, then
The Cornell Feline Health Center is a veterinary medi-
cal specialty center devoted to improving the health dean of the College of Veterinary Medicine, who en-
and welfare of cats throughout the world. The Feline thusiastically approved the concept and subsequently
Health Center is located within the College of Veteri- guided the proposal through the appropriate chan-
nary Medicine at Cornell University in Ithaca, New nels. The Board of Trustees of Cornell University, in
York. February 1974, approved the formation of the Cornell
The College of Veterinary' Medicine at Cornell Uni- Feline Research Laboratory. The name was subse-
versity isone of twenty-seven veterinary colleges in quently changed to Cornell Feline Health Center to
the United States, and it is the only veterinary college more accurately depict the efforts and goals of the
in the state of New York. Dr. James Law, a Scottish Feline Center.
veterinarian, was one of the original faculty of Cornell The initial staff of the Feline Health Center con-
University. The first Doctor of Veterinary Medicine sisted ofa pan-time director and a part-time secretary',
xix
FOREWORD

with several veterinarians on the college faculty agree- involved with numerous areas of research. Some of
ing to serve as participants in their areas of expertise. these areas include:
These panicipants held full-time appointments in 1. Infections diseases. Investigations of infectious dis-
other areas of the college and received no special
remuneration for their efforts on behalf of the Feline eases have been aimed at developing accurate diag-
Health Center. As time went on, full-time staff mem- nostic tests, improved treatments, and effective
bers were added, including secretarial staff, an editor, vaccines. Over the years, almost every infectious dis-
a feline extension veterinarian, and various research ease of cats has been studied. Many of the current
scientists, graduate students, and technicians. vaccination and treatment procedures conducted
At the outset, there were no funds available to sup- daily in veterinary clinics across the United States
have been influenced by these studies at Cornell.
pon
there anydidofnotthe appear
Feline toHealth Center's
be any hope activities, and
of obtaining 2. Nutrition. Scientists have studied the basic nutri-
support for them from the state, Cornell University, or tional requirements of cats in order to advise own-
the College of Veterinary' Medicine. It quickly became ers on the proper nutrition and feeding of cats.
clear that if such a center was to be successful, an Once the normal nutritional state is understood,
active fund-raising effon would have to be mounted. the relationship between nutrition and disease can
be established.
So, with a concened effort over several years, the Cor- 3. Behavior. Scientists with expertise in behavior have
nell Feline Health Center has successfully developed studied both the normal and abnormal behavior
an active fund-raising program to support its various patterns of cats and ways of dealing with cats when
activities. abnormal behavior does occur.
4. Reproduction! genetics. Normal and abnormal re-
PURPOSES OF THE CORNELL production ofthe cat has been studied, including
FELINE HEALTH CENTER the normal hormonal status before, during, and
after pregnancy. The etiologies of many reproduc-
The purposes of the Cornell Feline Health Center are tive, neonatal, and congenital diseases have been
(1 ) to find ways of preventing and curing diseases of clarified.
cats, (2) to educate veterinarians and cat owners about 5. Dermatology. Numerous skin diseases of the cat
feline health, and (3) to aid veterinarians when new have been identified and characterized by the par-
or unknown feline diseases occur. In short, the faculty ticipating faculty of the Feline Health Center.
and staff of the Feline Health Center are dedicated to 6. Internal medicine. Several naturally occurring sys-
improving the health and welfare of cats. temic diseases of cats have been identified and
Research is the cornerstone to providing better characterized by panicipating members of the Fe-
health care for cats. Veterinarians must have specific line Center. Feline patients referred to the Cornell
information with which they can make intelligent de- Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital provide a
cisions on the best treatment and prevention regimes wealth of information that enables clinicians to bet-
for cats. New vaccines and specific treatment proto- ter understand the disease involved, and hence to
bener treat the condition.
cols do not just appear — they require dedicated ef-
fon, often over several years. The Cornell Feline Research accomplishments over the years by the
Health Center is dedicated to obtaining that informa- Feline Center have been numerous. Some of these
tion about diseases of cats and cat health management include:
that will enable the private practitioner to maintain
healthy and happy pet cats. Research is designed for 1. Clarification of the role of maternal immunitv- in
the overall benefit of cats, not for the benefit of hu- kittens as it affects vaccination against feline pan-
mans. Often, however, information gained about the leukopenia.
feline disease under investigation will provide infor- 2. Aid in the development of respiratory vaccines
mation that can also be applied to similar human dis- against feline herpesvirus and feline calicivirus.
eases. 3. First isolation and characterization of feline reovi-
Faculty and staff of the Feline Health Center are rus as a cause of respiratory disease.
 FOREWORD

4. First isolation and characterization of feline rotavi- handles and coordinates the interactions between the
rus as a cause of enteritis in young kinens. veterinarians and cat owners and the staff of the Feline
5. First identification of feline astrovirus as a cause Health Center.
of enteritis. There is close interaction between the Feline Con-
6. First isolation of feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) sultation and Diagnostic Service and the Diagnostic
virus in the laboratory. Laboratory at the College of Veterinary Medicine, with
7. Characterization of the role of antibodies and the feline extension veterinarian coordinating this in-
macrophages in the pathogenesis of FIP. teraction. As new diagnostic tests are developed by
8. Attenuation of FIP virus to establish an experimen- the staff of the Feline Health Center, this information
tal FIP vaccine. is passed on to the Diagnostic Laboratory, where these
9. First isolation and characterization of feline her- tests are put into routine operation.
pesvirus-2 The Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital within
lithiasis. as a cause of urinary disease and uro- the Department of Clinical Sciences serves as a refer-
10. First identification of feline immunodeficiency ral clinic for special problems in feline medicine and
virus in nondomestic felids. surgery. Clinicians refer cases to this hospital for spe-
11. Identification of feline coronaviruses as a cause of cial care, and the cooperative efforts of the clinical
inflammatory abdominal disease, by use of a new staff, the research staff of the Feline Health Center
immunoperoxidase assay. (armed with the latest information about the panicu-
The Feline Health Center is dedicated to providing lar condition), and the staff of the Diagnostic Labora-
information about feline diseases and feline care to tory provide an impressive combined effort to give
the sick cat the best chance possible.
veterinarians and owners. This is accomplished
through many means, including publications, semi-
nars and short courses, and electronic media. STAFF OF THE CORNELL FELINE
Scientific information obtained from research is
first published in peer-reviewed scientific journals, so HEALTH CENTER
that the information is available to all veterinarians The core staff of the Feline Health Center is composed
and the entire scientific community. Several publica- of a director, an assistant director, an editor, secre-
tions are produced by the center to provide informa- tarial staff, research staff, graduate students, and tech-
tion to veterinarians and cat owners. These are nical suppon staff The dedication and diligent work
discussed below.
The Feline Health Center also benefits from the of this core staff have played a major role in the suc-
guidance of the Feline Advisory Council, which serves cess of the Feline Health Center. Special mention
as a vital link with the public at large. The council is should be made of the exceptional work of June
made up of approximately twelve individuals from all Kirvan-Tuttle, editor, without whose exemplary efforts
over the United States; it includes clinicians, breeders, The Cornell Book of Cats would never have come to
fruition.
scientists, writers, and owners. Approximately thirty faculty members and staff of
the College of Veterinary Medicine and College of
Agriculture and Life Sciences compose the participat-
CONSULTATION AND DIAGNOSTIC ing staff of the Feline Health Center. This group of
SERVICE dedicated individuals makes up an impressive list of
experts in feline medicine and surgery. Many of these
The Louis J. Camuti Diagnostic and Consultation Ser- participating staff members are leading experts in
vice was established in the early 1980s as a living their particular area of specialty. Many of them have
memorial to the late Dr. Camuti, who conducted a contributed to The Cornell Book of Cats; publication
house-call feline practice in New York City for over is in large part a result of their efforts.
fifty years. This service has been gradually developed Facilities of the Cornell Feline Health Center are
as funds have become available. The key position for incorporated into the College of Veterinary Medicine.
this service is the feline extension veterinarian, who There is a group of offices and laboratories for the
central or core staff of the Cornell Feline Health Cen- viewing the brochure, the client can then further dis-
ter, and participating members have their own offices cuss the topic with the veterinarian if necessary.
and laboraioius wuhni si.\ci.il departments in the Symposium proceedings are published from time to
college. Thu \curiiian Nk\lical Teaching Hospital time. An in-depth, four-to-five-day-long "Feline Prac-
and the Diagnostic LabinjuuA arc k<.'\ ta(.ilitics tor titioners Seminar," co-sponsored
carrying out the mission ol tlu' IciinL- llcalili i. i. nier. sociation ofFeline Practitioners, byis the
heldAmerican
annually As-at
Extensive additions to the College of \ cterinan Medi- Cornell for veterinarians interested in improving their
cine ha\'e been constructed, and will greatly benefit skills in feline medicine.
the college and the center. International publications. Publications from the
Cornell Feline Health Center are sent to individuals
in several foreign countries. In diddinon. Feline Health
Topics is translated into Japanese by a commercial
EXOTIC FELINES Japanese company and made available to small-animal
Although the primar\- mission of the Cornell Feline veterinarians in Japan. Periodically, excerpts from Fe-
Health Center is to improve the health and welfare of line Health Topics are translated into several Euro-
pean languages and disseminated throughout Europe.
domestic cats, information is obtained b\- the center Electronic media (computer programs) are being
that will help exotic and endangered species of felines developed for veterinarians as a form of continuing
as well. Exotic cats are susceptible to most of the same education and as diagnostic tools. These media put
diseases as the domestic cat. The facult}' and staff of the clinician in instant contaa with the latest informa-
the Feline Health Center have worked with veterinari- tion about a particular disease and with a recognized
ans from several zoologic facilities to assist in the diag- expert in the particular area in question. The center
nosis and treatment of special conditions. For also has a Home Page on the World Wide Web, http://
example, a special project for several years has been web . vet .Cornell .edu/public/fhc/ FelineHealth . html ,
to provide part of the laborator)- and diagnostic sup- where timely information about feline health care is
portther.sen-ices for a long-term
Information obtained study
from ofthese
the Florida
studies pan-
has available to veterinarians and cat owners.
helped wildlife veterinarians in their efforts to save
this endangered species of exotic cat.
FUND-RAISING
Because the center does not receive financial support
PUBLICATIONS directly from the state, college, or university, it is the
cat owners themselves and their veterinarians who
Feline Health Topics is a scientific publication sent to play a key role in keeping the Feline Health Center in
small-animal veterinarians in the United States four operation.
times a year. This newsletter provides practical infor- Contributions
mation that veterinarians can utilize in their practices. narians are a vitalfrom part owners, cat clubs,
of the overall and veteri--
support of the
Perspectives on Cats is published four times a year Feline Health Center.
as a newsletter to provide basic feline health care Bequests are especially appropriate ways of saying
information for cat owners. This newsletter is sent to "Thank you" to one or more special feline compan-
all members of the Cornell Feline Health Center. ions. Bequests are usualh- invested through the Devel-
Feline Information Bulletin is published periodi- opment Office of Cornell University, and only the
cally, usually once a year, to review the latest informa- income received from those investments is used to
tion about a particular disease. support the Cornell Feline Health Center. Thus, a be-
Client information brochures are published by the quest or a living trust ensures long-term and even
Feline Health Center on a variety of topics. These are indefinite support for feline studies.
sold to veterinarians to provide information about Research grants and contracts are obtained by the
particular diseases or basic cat care for their clients. research scientists at the Feline Health Center when-
They are designed to facilitate education of clients ever possible. These may be from governmental
while saving time for the busy practitioner. After re- funds, private foundations, or commercial companies.
 FOREWORD

Memberships in the center are available for both cat the dog as the more popular pet in the United States
owners and veterinarians. These memberships enable and in several other countries; in metropolitan areas,
individuals to become partners of the Cornell Feline cats are especially popular as apartment pets. Cats are
Health Center, and together, with such support, we receiving better and better veterinary care: more in-
can continue the effort to eliminate or prevent all formation ibeing
s collected, new vaccines are becom-
diseases of cats. ing available for serious diseases, and more effective
In memoriam programs provide an especially treatments are gradually being developed, all of which
meaningful way for a veterinarian to recognize the contribute to their health and longevity.
loss suffered when an owner must part with a special The fuaire of the Cornell Feline Health Center is
feline companion. The thoughtful contribution by the also bright. The center has an excellent staff, and there
veterinarian is acknowledged to the owner by the Cor- are many outstanding participants who lend their ex-
nell Feline Health Center and helps the owner to penise to improving the health of cats everywhere.
work his or her way through that difficult period of Support from the veterinary profession and the cat-
grief following the loss. owning public continues to grow and to provide the
base support to keep the program on course. There-
fore, the faculty and staff of the Cornell Feline Health
WHAT DOES THE FUTURE HOLD? Center takes this opportunity to extend a hearty
"Thank you" to all those who have supported the cen-
The future of cats as pets and the future of feline ter's efforts over
medicine could not be brighter. The cat has surpassed and financial means.the years, through encouragement
 Comment

by James R. Richards, Director,

Cornell Feline Health Center

In view of the very large number of cats which well: much of what was considered to be truth several
are kept in a state of domestication in this coun- years ago is no longer quite accurate. When we first
try, itis really extraordinary that the special study considered updating The Cornell Book of Cats, my
of their diseases should have been so profoundly erroneous initial conclusion was that it would be a
neglected as has hitherto been the case. It is only fairly simple task, of course requiring the addition of
within very recent years that adequate attention new material, but needing only a few minor adjust-
has been paid even to the dog, except by a few ments to the old. First impressions can cenainly be
pioneers among veterinary surgeons; still less wrong! In fact, even though the feel, the graphics, and
anxiety and interest have been exhibited in the (as much as possible) the length have been maintained,
diseases of that other companion of the house- hardly a page in this second edition has escaped modi-
hold— the cat. fication. Although a few tweaks sufficed in some places,
complete rewriting was necessary in others.
narian Dr.
veteriation So it is with pride that this edition of The Cornell
TheHamilt made when
Kirk 1925
yearon was this observ in his Book of Cats is submitted, for it contains the latest
textbook, The Diseases of the Cat. One of information and the most current understanding. As
my favorite quotes, in many ways it still ap- we progress through this exciting age, we look for-
plies to our day. Fonunately, cats are beginning to ward to even greater insights into the intricate work-
receive the attention they deserve, and those of us ings of the feline. The mission of the Cornell Feline
ty and interes t have edmuch for ively Health Center is to remain at the forefront — ex-
thankf"anxie
with ul. Now, textbooks "devot be
exclus which toto the panding knowledge, gaining insight, and sharing
cat abound, and the veterinary literature brims with what's been learned with veterinarians and fellow cat-
the fruit of feline studies. lovers. To all ailurophiles, then, we present this edi-
This continuing flood of feline information has tion of The Cornell Book of Cats: a work of love
many obvious benefits, but there is a drawback as dedicated to that most special creature, the cat.
XXV
 Introduction

by Mordecai Siegal, Editor

All things are in motion and nothing at rest . . . may continue to offer the cutting edge in feline medi-
you cannot go into the same water twice. cine. Here, in the second edition of this valuable refer-
— Heracleitus (quoted in Plato's Cratylns) ence book, cat-lovers and veterinary health providers
alike have at their disposal the most up-to-date medi-
a medica
especiaedllymarble l reference m book, cal information available from Cornell's
A isbook, like chisel , with its wisdo and College of Veterinary Medicine. It is, to beprestigious
sure, for
knowledge set permanently on printed the benefit of the cat, that most elusive of all domestic
s
pages, taking its reader as far as they are creatures, which continues to intrigue us with its se-
willing to go. It becomes an icon boldly proclaiming crets, that this book was written.
its knowledge and the truth of its contents, and not The image of the public cat is that of a mysterious
without some justification. Many aspects of medical animal, aloof, independent,
science are as true today as they were for Aristotle knowable secret. Add to that and possessed
its current of an un-as
distinction
and Hippocrates. Nevenheless, things change. All the a luxurious pet, sleeping on velour pillows and dining
sciences pulsate with the benefits of human curiosity on gourmet food, while adding a dash of status and a
and intelligence, for they continue to move in many statement of individuality to its owners. But the private
directions, like life itself In medicine, after rigorous cat is an endearing animal capable of accepting af-
scrutiny, today's myth occasionally becomes tomor- fection and returning it in kind, like any other pet.
fact, andthat today's e ven Cats have once again come into the social conscious-
idea orrow'sone others atodispro
may bybecom
has beenfacttaken a higher ness, not as Egyptian deities, not as consorts of the
plateau The scienc of veteri medici continues
. e nary ne devil or as the familiars of witches, but as cherished
to evolve in new and imponant ways through a con- companion animals and creatures of rare grace and
stant surge of study and development. Therapies beauty. They are also creatures with a physical reality
change. New and more effective medicines are formu- comparable to other mammals.
lated. Unique surgical and lous testing techniques are in- If the cat has a secret it is tliis: Throughout its long
troduced, often with miracu results. And on rare history with humans as god, devil, and friend, the cat
occasions new theoretical ground is broken, making is what it has always been, simply a cat. It has 245
life better for all cats and those who love them. We bones and thirty teeth, and it is the keenest hunter of
Cornell Book of Cats has been updated and revised, rodents in the animal kingdom. Human perceptions
with many completely rewritten chapters, so that it notwithstanding, the reality of cats exceeds the leg-
xxvii
INTRODUCTION

ends oi r.us However, cats are as vulnerable to the with a need to understand the medical disorders of
pn )i rssrs , it nature as any other living organism. The cats.
natural cat is an attractive, alluring animal tliat re- The Cornell Book of Cats cannot help the reader
quires our help and good intentions if it is to survive diagnose or treat a sick cat. This book cannot, nor
in the human cn\ ironment. should it, attempt to replace professional veterinary
Cats h.w c null iiional requirements, based on their care. Its purpose is to impan to the conscientious cat
own uniquf iKcd^, lo grow, reproduce, function nor- owner medical information about the diseases and
mally, and cope with stress. When a cat falls from disorders that harm the feline body and its various
a great height, it is likely to be injured: its body is systems. Here, we have given to those who care about
defenseless against physical trauma. If it is exposed to cats a wealth of feline medical knowledge, derived
viruses, bacteria, or fungi, it is likely to become ill. from one of the world's leading institutions of veteri-
The invasion of internal or external parasites will dis- nary medicine, which has a time-honored tradition of
rupt normal body functions and most certainly will providing instruction, research, and service to cats
cause discomfort, pain, or sickness without veterinary and those who care for them. In this edition, to further
treatment. Cats, like most living fauna, are susceptible aid the reader, boldface type has been used to iden-
to hundreds of diseases, disorders, and potential med- tify words that, at their first use in the chapter, are
ical threats. Many disorders are defeated by the ani- defined.
mal's own immune We have assembled this book in the belief that a
for caring cat ownerssystem. Manya grasp
to have are not.of Ittheis essential
medical well-informed cat owner helps the veterinarian pro-
realities of their special friends. With knowledge vide the best possible medical care. It is our goal to
comes the ability to take the correct action. help cats live longer, happier lives. A happy cat en-
It is upsetting when a cat gets sick. The intelligent joying the glow of good health is a pleasing aesthetic
solution, of course, is to get professional veterinary presence providing a window through the wall that
care. Quite often, however, cat owners leave the veter- separates us from the wild side.
inarian's of ice unable to understand or retain the de- As a member of the Feline Advisory Council of the
tails of theirof animal's medicalto condition. Cornell Feline Health Center, I was overwhelmed by
the ability the cat owner give a sick This cat theimpairs
care the positive response to my suggestion for this book.
itmedical
needs. The There was no way to know that such a project had
condition can be stressful to humans cat's
inability to grasp the substance of a and, long been the desire of those who have the responsi-
indirectly, harmful to cats. bility of stewardship for the Cornell Feline Health
The Cornell Book of Cats is a reference book of Center. The encouragement and enthusiasm from my
uncommon depth. It offers the caring cat owner and fellow council members provided much of the incen-
the animal professional alike a sophisticated source tive to proceed down the long, unknown path to com-
of medical, nutritional, and behavioral information. pletion. This book exists because of the work of a
Written by the faculty, staff, and associates of the dedicated team of scientists, educators, doctors, writ-
College of 'Veterinary ers, and editors. For this author. The Cornell Book of
it is a project of the Medicine at Cornell
Cornell Feline HealthUniversity,
Center. Cats will always be the benchmark of excellence for a
It represents a major body of knowledge for those life spent creating books about animals.
 Acknowledgments

become a real- Bicks, D.V.M.; Joan Blackburn; Roger Caras; Marjorie

The Cornell ity becauseBook hard haswork, generosity,
of theof Cats Cornell; Hazel Lindstrand; Mark L. Morris, Jr., D.V.M.,
and dedication of many who joined in its Ph D.; Theodore A. Rude, V.M.D.; Ellen Sawyer; Bar-
creation with their skills, talents, and spe- bara S. Stein, D.V.M.; and Joan Miller.
cial considerations. It is with gratitude and admiration We are grateful for the tireless efforts and invaluable
that the editor and the Cornell Feline Health Center help from the following staff members in their various
acknowledge the assistance so generously given by capacities at the College of Veterinary Medicine, Cor-
the scientists, educators, veterinary practitioners, nell University; Gwen Frost (whose assistance with the
health care specialists, professionals in the cat world, second edition of The Cornell Book of Cats was invalu-
and cat-lovers who involved themselves in this proj- able), Marsha Leonard, and Sheryl Thomas, administra-
ect. The Cornell Book of Cats represents the efforts of tive assistants for the Cornell Feline Health Center; Sue
a great many who support the meaningful work of the Branch, administrative assi.stant, Department of Clinical
Cornell Feline Health Center. Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell Uni-
The editor owes a special dept of gratitude to James versity; Barbara Van Arkel, former secretary, and Helen
R. Richards, D.V.M., who served so gallantly as con- Bell, administrative assistant, Diagnostic Laboratory,
sulting editor for this, the second edition. His hard College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University.
work is evident throughout this book. Much is also A special note of gratitude is extended to: Thomas
owed to Victoria Blankenship-Siegal, associate editor, Dent, executive director, those
Cat Fanciers'
for her untiring efforts. For their advice and valuable Inc. (CFA), for reviewing chapters Association,
concerning
assistance, we wish to thank Alexander deLahunta, the sources, selection, and breeds of cats. His exper-
D.V.M., Ph.D., Professor of Veterinary Anatomy, Col- tise inthese matters and his thoughtful comments and
lege of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, and suggestions were invaluable; Miles Freitag, president,
Herbert F. Schryver, D.V.M., Ph.D., former Associate Solvay Animal Health, Inc., for his generosity in
Professor of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medi- allowing the u,se of his company's anatomic drawings
cine, Cornell University. titled "The Feline," "The Eye, ' "Internal Ear," and "Ex-
We would also like to thank the members of the ternal Parasites" in this book; and to Dr. Frederick
Feline Advisory Council of the Cornell Feline Health Born for the development of those drawings and his
Center for their meaningful enthusiasm and approval, kind cooperation; to Joan Miller, president, Winn Fe-
allowing the first edition to become a reality: George line Foundation, CFA judge, and member of the Feline
W, Abbott, D.V.M.Joan M. Arnoldi, D.V.M., M.S.; Jane Advisory Council, Cornell Feline Health Center, for
xxix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

her valuable council CDiKeriiinii the accuracy' of the tayasat MS. j.c. peepers of petlar (female Korat), Own-
breed illustrations appe.niii.L; on iliesc images; Gwen ers: Peter Greuel & Larry Jones; grc lupracan mus
Nortlirup. secretan-, Ragiioll Fanciers Club for her FLOWER DRUM SONG (McTorbie/Whitc female Manx),
achkc. Mel Ik'igt'i . Iiieran agent and \ice president Owner: Pam DelaBar; grc purricoon's arthur coonan
of the W illi, ini Morns Agencx, as \Nell as Phil Liebo- DO\iE (Brown Mackerel Tabby male Maine Coon Cat)
wit/. l st| . ,i| ihe William Morns U'gal Department, Breeders/Owners: Herb & Forest),
Brooke agented
Berger; torvmyra's
whose' L'xpei iisL', pL-rsisteiuw aiui coiniction made SAGRES (male Norwegian by Louise
this book possible. And to I'eter dethers, former edi- Clair; GRC lemeauxs apollo (Red male Abyssinian),
torial director, \ illard Hooks, for his vision, wisdom, Owners: Bill & Pat Garner; grc thornwood's lee a.
and ,sensiti\ it\ ; to the original editor, Alison Acker, l\kinka (Red Tabby male American Wirehair), Breed-
for her infectious enthusiasm and dedicated efforts in ers/Owners: Wayne & Shirley Field; carocats enchant-
behalf of this project; and to Andrew T. Krauss, former ress (Silver Tabby female American Shorthair),
editor at Villard Books, for his patience and kindness Owners: Carol & Michael Rothfeld); CRC henrijean
in preparing this, the second edition. KEMO sabe (Seal Point male Birman), Breeders/Own-
We also thank John Turner for the generous use of ers: Eugene & Paula Boroff; grc road to fame return
his communications and computer skills and equip- TO SHAWNEE (female Bombay), Owner: Nikki Horner;
ment; Lisa Bressler of Rinkurl Catter>', for her kind GRP, GRC mi jEDi BLUSUN OF VEGAMAR (Blue British
a,ssistance; Les Lone, alumnus, Cornell University, for Shorthair, neuter). Owners: Gail & Mark Alsager; grc
his support and devotion to the concept of this book; frencheon's
Richard Katris (Chanan Photography), photographer, treux). Owner:CLAUDEJill OFRasmussen; jACQUELNjiLgrc(Blue
alsacemaley. lestat
Char-
for his generous assistance; Lowe's, (Lynx Point Blue male Colorpoint Shorthair), Owners:
several of their photographs; Karen Inc., for the foruseherof
Redmond Pam DelaBar, Barbara Baylor; grc fenway finesse (Blue
help with photographs from Cornell University; and female Cornish Rex), Breeder/Owner: Nancy T.
Marlene Luyster for rwo photographs of her beloved Dodds; bailey (Selkirk Rex), Owner: Wendy McGuire;
"Sunny," CFA "Cat of the Year"— 1977-78 (Gr. Ch. DAjENS FRIDAY THE 13TH (Ebony male Oriental
Jama Kats Midnight Sun, a copper-eyed Black Persian Shorthair), Owner: Ermajenei; grcsatterlee payday of
male). We are also grateful to Carol Rotfifeld, presi- PAKU (Blue male Exotic), Owners: Kurt & Pat Ander-
dent, Michael Rothfeld, treasurer, along with the en- son; GRC BUNDASH's CLASSIC DUSTY ROSE (female Havana
tire membership of the Empire Cat Club for their Brown), Owners: Wallace & Lynne Guinn; grp, nw mer-
advice, information, and support. RACAT S MOTO siTEBOl OF KARLETON (Red & White Japa-
And to the following cats and their owners for nese Bobtail, neuter). Owners: Jerry & Eve Russell;
allowing themselves to appear in this book, by way of jasmeen's BLUE ANGEL (Blue Lynx Point female Ja-
the portrait photography of Vickie Jackson: grc angkor vanese), Owner:
ROSE SHANTUNG OF OFFSHORE (Chocolate Point Siamese), late surprise of Shirleykayzie O.(Chocolate
Cox; grc ociville's
spotted choco-
female
Owner: Diane Persian),
Dagleyi GRC ziegfeid's Ocicat), Owner: Kaye Chambers; grc roxana-stasia
(Tortoiseshell Owner: Williamindian
Pine; princess
grc kit- LEGACY 11 (male Russian Blue), Owners: G. W. Hester,
jim's beauty patch Fold),
(Silver Owner:
Patched Tabby H. Schneider-Hester, & Pam Anderson; grc jubilation
male Scottish Kitty &Angell;
White fe-
ch PIKKKU POYK-^i (Sepia Agouti male Singapura), Owner:
CHEVRA RAINBOW BRiTE (Brown Mackerel Tabby & White Mary Tichenor; grc zarpa's lakota (Ruddy male So-
Turkish Angora), Owner: FrancesmaleChabala; mali), Breeders/Owners: Dick & Nell Foster; grc spia-
sultanhisar (Auburn &. White Turkishkarrera's
Van), ZEiT TRAUMEREi (Natural Mink Tonkinese), Owners:
Owners: Maria & Dan Dunrud; grc ebonfyre's alexis Bruce & Fran Nickerson; patriot jull\ of sycodelicfur
OF KiMERON (Lilac Point female Balinese), Owner: (Brown sandraMcTabby
Sandy West; austriana ariane of mar-chu (Grand Cham- Harris; grcievndXe bilbar American
too good Curl),
to beOwner: Cas-
true (Blue
pion Sable female Burmese), Owners: Mary Reich & Point female Himalayan), Owners: Bill & Irene
Erika Graf-Webster; angel {European Burmese), Carlisle; shamus o'aYNN (Snowshoe), Owner: Mary
Owner: Patricia Slater; grc scattergold waving beauty McGarry; sgc hoosier dolls Marshall (Ragdoll), Owner:
(Brown Tabby female Devon Rex), Owners: Leroy & Monte Stuart; andlonghair), ch rain river's little Robin
nemo (Chocolate
Betty Held; grc zaynzalbar chio^t of orcadia (Bronze male Oriental Breeders: Radlein &
female Egyptian Man), Owner: Virginia Luke; grc wi- Bob Smith, Owners: Robert, Ruth, & Robin Radlein.
 PART I

Acquiring a Cat

CLEOPATRA: . . . Do you think that the black cat can have been my great-great-great-grandmother?
CAESAR: (staring at her) Your great-great-great-grandmother! Well, why not? Nothing would
surprise me on this night of nights.
CLEOPATRA: I think it must have been. My great -grandmother's great-grandmother was a black
kitten of the sacred white cat; and the river Nile made her his seventh wife. That is why
my hair is so wavy.
— George Bernard Shaw, Caesar and Cleopatra
 CHAPTER

Origins, Sources, and

Selection

by Mordecai Siegal

ORIGINS OF THE CAT

easier to acquire than a cat. But even in "civilization," the issues of sex and
There Anyoneis nothing
can do it. But finding the right cat property bring out the furious side of the feline per-
and learning to live with it is another mat- sonality. Iwill
t fight to mate or fight for its proprietary
ter. Since the beginning of recorded his- rights to a territory, ^n6 when hungry, almost any cat
tory, the feline has wandered through society, mewing is capable of catching its own dinner. Darting and
to be let in and then out again. This typifies the behav- fluttering animals automatically trigger its hunting in-
ior of a finicky species that stincts, and then the cat at
through the ages has en- prey
joyed the comforts of man- drama that raiseda prehistoric
performs its curtain
kind when it chose to but on 53 million years before the
other occasions has satisfied Great Ice Age. Despite its
its ancient birthright in the gentle behavior toward peo-
netherworld of the wild. To pleenceandforitsthetouching
be fair, the domestic cat has human prefer-
home,
not always left the human this species is still one of na-
heart and hearth voluntarily.
In the Middle Ages it was The ture'sancestor
most perfectofhunters.
the cat
driven out, because it was was the Miacis, a vanished
believed to be associated genus of early carnivores
with devil worship, witch- that appeared in the Eocene
craft, and evil spirits. The epoch, approximately 54
popularity of cats runs in cy- millionacis wasyears ago. mammal
The -Mi-
cles, possibly because it is an early
the last of the domestic animals to surrender its wild with a low skull, a long, slender body, a lengthy tail,
and lusty inclinations. The demure house cat of today, and short legs. It is believed to have lived in trees,
with its delicate, reserved manner, its loving behavior, preying upon small animals for food. Like cats of
and its playful nature, can, if necessary, reven to its today, it possessed retracted claws that extended from
wild state instantly and reveal a side of its untamed the paws when fighting, hunting, running, and tree-
nature few pet owners ever witness. climbing. The Miacis is generally accepted as the com-
3
ACQUIRING A CAT

geography, the domestic cat, many researchers feel, is

the descendant of Felis libyca, the African wild cat, and
to a lesser degree, Felis silvestris, the European wild
cat. However, there is disagreement among scientists
concerning the origins of the cat.
The first real evidence of the domestication of the
cat appeared in the recorded history, murals, and arti-
facts of ancient Egypt between 1600 and 1500 B.C.
Egyptian cats were proclaimed to be sacred animals,
however, long before they were domesticated (2500
to 2200 B.C.). There is speculation that the cat's unique
ability to hunt and its appetite for rodents, which de-
stroyed Egyptian grain, were greatly rewarded, lead-
ing ultimately to the status of a god. It was then that
the cult of the cat began, with temples dedicated to
cats and laws protecting them, as well as the artistic
expressions of appreciation and devotion that we can
still see today. In ancient Egypt, cats v/ere worshipped,
mon ancestor of such carnivores as raccoons, civets, cherished, and adored.
bears, hyenas, dogs, and cats. The early cats that de- The first known cat deity was Bast, the goddess of
scended directly from this primitive carnivore are Bubastis, the ancient city of the Nile delta, which be-
shrouded in the veil of extinction. They consisted of came important to the pharaohs of the nineteenth
various species in rwo separate lines. One line, which dynasty (1320 to 1200 B.C.). Bast (also Bastet, Bash,
included Hoplophoneus, produced the massive Smilo- Pasht), the Egyptian goddess of fertility and of the
don, a formidable, prehistoric sabertooth cat. All home, was also a symbol of fruitfulness and beauty,
traces of this line are now extinct. The second line, and she was depicted in small statues and amulets
which included Dinictis, produced several smaller cat with the head of a cat and the body of a woman.
species with greater agilir^' and intelligence than the Statuettes showing her with a small basket and sistrum
Smilodon. Many researchers consider this line to be (a musical instrument), were carried in processions
the ancestor of all cat species of today, including the in honor of the goddess. She was revered with great
domestic cat. affeaion until Egyptian priests incorporated her into
Today'scheetahs)
"great cats" (lions, tigers,wildjaguars, the official religion of the New Kingdom (1567 to 1085
pumas, and the smaller cats areleopards,
among B.C.). She was then viewed as a goddess of war be-
the most ferocious of all the animals living in nature. cause of her similarity in appearance to the lioness.
Their adroit hunting skills (stalk, ambush, pounce) However, her cat identity remained with most Egyp-
are precise, pitiless, and near perfect. So how, then, tians, who revered cats with great affection. They con-
can those fierce hunters, totally dedicated to satisfying sidered cats to be supernatural and endowed with
their hunger, be related to the pussycats we stroke mysterious qualities relating to the moon and the
and pamper? The domestic cat is the most prolific stars. But eventually the cat became a panicipant in
house pet in the United States, totaling more than 58 Egyptian family life, jumping off its symbolic pedestal
million. Where did it come from, and at what moment and walking freely among the ordinary. Egyptian
in time did it walk out of the deserts and forests to paintings clearly portray the cat in Egyptian homes.
sleep at the foot of man? This was the age of glory in the checkered history of
It is impossible to determine the origin of the fam- the domestic cat.
ily of cat species (Felidae) including the domestic cat. The remains of cats have been uncovered in Etruria
With only the most meager fossil evidence dating back (present-day Tuscany) from the Etruscan culture,
to the Pliocene epoch, 2 to 5 million years ago, re- which predates the Roman Empire. Etruscan art, prin-
searchers believe that the species of the Dinictis line cipally painted vases, depicts cats in domestic settings
are the ancestors of today's cat family. Based on andthe playing with humans. It is the first suggestion of cats
evidence of coat pattern and color, size, behavior, kept as pets on the European continent.
 ORIGINS, SOURCES, AND SELECTION

Ancient Greek and Roman an also displays cats on

vases, marble reliefs, coins, and sculptures. Their po-
etry and manuscripts refer to cats frequently as objects
of amusement and affeaion, although historians feel
that cats were mostly appreciated as predators of ro-
dents. There is evidence that cats also lived in domes-
ticity in India and throughout Asia about the same
time; they are referred to in ancient Sanskrit writings
that predate the birth of Christ. And in China, Confu-
cius issaid to have enjoyed cats.
Long before the earth was circumnavigated, wild
cats were distributed throughout the world. They
were found everywhere except in Australia and the
Antarctic, where migration may have been prevented
by environmental barriers of water, climate, or alti-
tude. Various species of felids probably migrated onto
the American continents before continental drift (the
displacement of land masses) separated them from
the Eastern Hemisphere during the Jurassic Period,
between 190 and 140 million years ago. Geologists
speculate that North America was originally part of
Europe, and South America was part of Africa. Ac- car, India, and southeast Africa were originally close
cording to one theory, Antaraica, Australia, Madagas-
together, separated only by narrow water boundaries.
It is only logical to assume that cats entered society
in Asia the same way they did in Egypt. Domestic cats
were eventually seen throughout North Africa, Asia,
and most of Europe. The distribution of these much-
admired animals went unnoticed, without so much as
a footnote in recorded history. Historians and scien-
tists can only speculate that the sweep of invading
armies (Persians, Greeks, Romans), along with mer-
chant seamen, adventurers, and colonials, distributed
cats throughout the known world. It must have been
these travelers who set in motion the incredible saga
of humans and their cats.

The New Egyptians

Human involvement with cats appears hardly at all on
the pages of history. When it does, it is treated as a
trivial preoccupation falling somewhere on the scale
of importance between stamp collecting and obscure
spectator spons. But the huge number of cats lovingly
accepted as house pets has been growing steadily
throughout the twentieth century, with a dramatic in-
crease within the past decade. Negative attitudes of
the past toward cats are less prevalent. Typical of such
past sentiment is the entry for the domestic cat in
Vk Fieldbook of Natural History (New York: 1949):
ACQUIRING A CAT

"Domestic Cat . . . Known to be a disease carrier —

Cannot be trusted. Probably loved, hated, or tolerated
by most persons but not economically valuable; [ad-
dendum 1975 edition;] however, cats do eat many de-
structive rodenLs such as rats and mice." This is
contrasted with the opening statement from The Good
Cat Book (NewoneYork:
an important and 1981):
must not"Thebe feline presence
dismissed with isa
nonchalant shrug. Your cat does much more than
chase mice and eat your food. He is the mortal enemy
of empty rooms. Soft, warm, needful, ever>' cat, but
especially yours, gives far more than he takes. That is
what
have makes
flourished him ingood." Timeshalf have
the last of thechanged and cen
twentieth cais
tury.
The increase in the cat population and the cat's
elevation to member-of-the-family status have run par-
allel with significant social conditions — population in-
creases, development of rural areas, the decline of
family farms, and the trend toward apartment living
— conditions that may or may not be related to the
newfound prosperity' of the domestic cat. However,
that relationship must tiptoe into the equation some-
where between theory and fact.
The cat is no longer thought of as a farm animal,
relegated to the barn, catching its share of mice. It has
become a highly pampered companion, satisfying the
personal needs of modern living. Its perceived inde- schedules of busy men, women, and children who
pendence, contrasted with its playful nature, is once
again greatly admired. A cat is beautiful to look at. It still require a touch of nature's grandeur in a high-
is almost always allowed in condominium apartments, tech society. Wethearecat.theInadvertently,
'New Egyptians,"
even where dogs are restricted. It is easier to care rediscovered a newand situation
we have
for than a dog. Like microwave cooking and frozen has been created that is novel even for the cat: the
gourmet dinners, it embodies the word convenience. hunters are now the hunted. There is now a constant
Its needs are flexible and adaptable to the demanding search among the uninitiated for beautiful, well-
behaved, healthy cats. The question of where to look
is an imponant one for those who are hunting for
the best cat
granaries withpossible;
which towelure"NewthemEgyptians"
out of thehave
desert.no
Those who have their hearts set on owning a cat are
best served by learning something about sources and
selection.

A GUIDE TO CAT SOURCES

ofIt's them
easy toareget free.
a cat. Acquiring
Kittens are aeverywhere,
kitten over and
the many
back
fence may be the most common way to get a cat, but
it is not the only way, nor is it necessarily the best. A
 ORIGINS, SOURCES, AND SELECTION

of all, the reason for wanting a cat. The best reasons

for getting a cat are to enjoy it as a companion, to
compete in cat shows, or to breed it as part of a care-
fully planned line of purebred cats. It is safe to assume
that the vast majority of cats are acquired by those
who simply want a pet. No matter what kind of cat you
want, or for what reason, there are many sources for
them. Following are the most important sources avail-
able; but bear in mind that catteries, pet shops, shel-
ters, and pounds are only as good as the people or
the administrative bodies regulating them. They may
be excellent, adequate, inadequate, or worse. Only
an informed, knowledgeable purchaser can tell the
difference and make the correct choice.
Catteries
Some kittens purchased from a cattery are more ex-
pensive than anticipated by pet owners, because of
the time and expense involved in creating a line of
cats that meet the breed standards set down by the
various national cat associations. Producing beautiful,
healthy, happy kittens is a costly hobby, and most
breeders become involved for the sheer love of it.
Catteries are an important source when looking for a
kitten most likely to possess the physical and behav-
ioral qualities expected of its breed. However, some
catteries are better than others, and some are not at
new cat in your life is going to become a family mem- all satisfactory.
ber and may be with you for perhaps fifteen years. A cattery, in most instances, is an establishment
The possibility of getting a cat that has the best oppor- whose name is enrolled in a national cat organization
tunity for long life and good health is greatly influ- such as theCat CatAssociation Fanciers' (ACA).
Association (CFA) orto the
the
enced by the source of the animal, and acquiring a American It is devoted
healthy cat of sound temperament and emotional sta- housing and breeding of purebred cats. Most catteries
bility does not have to depend on luck alone. The are set up in the homes of cat breeders. The cattery
beauty of a cat is also a consideration. There are more may occupy a section of a house or an apartment, or
than forty separate cat breeds to choose from, in addi- it may be a separate building devoted exclusively to
tion to the many variations of mixed breeds. cats. A cattery depends more on the quality of its ani-
Impulsively accepting the first kitten that is offered mals and the reputation of its owners than on its phys-
to you is not necessary. There are many opportunities ical arrangement. Pet-quality, breeding-quality, or
to choose one that will be suitable and appealing. show-quality kittens and cats are for sale at catteries.
When looking at the kitten in front of you, tr)' to envi- Litters of kittens are produced on a limited basis.
sion it as the cat it will grow into. The ability to A good cattery is devoted to hygiene, knowledge-
able care, and concern for feline health and behavior,
ence. and choose intelligently, makes all the differ-
choose,
in addition to the genetic quality of its animals. Effec-
The first step is to become familiar with the im- tive immunization regimens must be maintained. Vet-
portant sources for cats and to understand the options erinary attention is a vital aspect of cattery operations.
available. Where to look for a new cat should be deter- The experienced cattery operator understands that
mined by what kind of cat is desired, how much distance between cats dilutes infectious agents and
money one is willing to spend, and, most important reduces chances of exposure to harmful organisms;
ACQUIRING A CAT

standards are likely to be involved in cat shows, because

the hobby aspect of this activity is not breeding cats, it is
showing cats. A cattery need not win First Place ribbons
to produce outstanding cats. However, cats entered in
shows are exposed to the scrutiny of many breeders,
exhibitors, show judges, and other knowledgeable cat
people. Breeders lose credibility if they consistently
show cats of poor quality. Competing at cat shows is a
form of "show-and-tell" for breeders. The quality of
their cats reflects the quality of their breeding programs
and the management of their catteries.
Cat shows require their entrants to be pedigreed
cats that are registered with the cat association spon-
soring the show. Such cats must be in good health
and come from respected breeding lines. They must
also be of sound temperament and measure up to
the established standard for their breed if they are to
compete in shows and bring prestige to their catteries.
A cat of show quality may cost hundreds or even
thousands of dollars. Show cats are the result of years
of effort to meet the standards of perfection set down
for their particular breed. To produce such cats re-
quires aknowledge of genetics, mating, "queening,"
nutrition, and behavior. Breeders who develop im-
portant show cats rarely sell them or their kittens to
those with no intention of showing them. It is a matter
of pride and purpose that breeders/exhibitors want
physical barriers such as cages, fences, and walls pre- their cats to be "campaigned," which means compet-
vent "nose-to-nose" contact of cats. Lack of air flow is ing in cat shows along a national circuit. "Campaign-
an important factor in the spread of disease. A room ers" hope to win Champion and Grand Champion
containing numerous cats, where humidity is high and titles for their cats and they compete for national rank-
there is no exchange of filtered or new air for old, ing. There is no guarantee, however, that a show-qual-
presents the probability of contagion. Fresh air is ideal ity kitten will ever become a champion, no matter
with ten to fifteen exchanges per hour, and air-condi- what the cost.
tioning or some other form of circulating air is neces-
sary.
Good sanitation is important for the health of the
animals as well as for the aesthetics of the cattery.
Swept floors should be mopped with a one-part-
bleach-to-thirty-two-parts-water (1:32) solution and
then rinsed with clear water. Litter pans should be
washed daily with soap and water, adding fresh litter
afterward, and should be scooped clean frequently.
All walls, doors, windowsills, ceilings, light fixtures,
and fans should be washed with the 1 :32 bleach/water
solution once a week. Although hygiene practices
vary, you should not be confronted with an unpleasant
odor when entering a cattery. Good sanitation, how-
ever, isnot the only criterion for evaluating a cattery.
Those who produce purebred cats that meet breed
 ORIGINS, SOURCES, AND SELECTION

However, not every kinen in a litter meets the strict

standard for its breed and those that don't will not be
shown. These animals are usually referred to as pet-
quality kittens and may be sold (at a reduced price) as
companions. Pet-quality kittens are healthy, beautiful
animals that do not meet their breed standard. How-
ever, breeders are usually quite fussy about the homes
in which they place them. They try to evaluate a pro-
spective purchaser and determine if that person will
be good to the cat and provide a proper home. Most
require that the owners agree to neuter the animal.
When selecting a cattery from which to purchase a
kitten, it is sensible to ask if the cattery owner is also
an exhibitor. This is a fair question. Anyone buying a
kitten should insist on a health guarantee on a money-
back basis. large enough for comfortable movement. Anything
One of the advantages of purchasing a kitten from less is inhumane and unacceptable. Light, ventilation,
a canery is the opportunity to see it interact with some resting shelves, climbing poles, and room to move
or all of its littermates. How a kinen behaves is an about are necessities for all cats, including males at
important aspect of selection. Much can be learned stud. A canery that does not offer these basic necessi-
about a kitten by observing its parents, and it is quite ties may be creating cats with potential behavior prob-
likely that one or both will be available. (See "A Guide lems.
forA Selecting a Cat,house" this itschapter.) Finding a good canery is not as difficult as it may
cattery must animals in adequate cages seem. The best merJiod is to anend cat shows. There,
one can find many exhibitors with catteries who are
willing to answer questions after they have met their
obligations in the show ring. Caneries can also be
found in the classified ads of cat magazines, which are
available on newsstands and by subscription. Catteries
from all parts of the United States and Canada adver-
tise inthese magazines. Current cat publications offer-
ing breeder ads, in addition to cat show information,
are Cats Magazine, Cat Fancy Magazine, Cat Fanci-
ers' Almanac {CFA), I Love Cats, Cat World, and in
Canada, Pets magazine.
Pet Shops
In the past, browsers and customers would enter a
pet shop to watch a window full of puppies vying for
attention. This reflected a time when dogs were the
primary companion animal throughout the United
States and Canada and were considered more com-
mercially valuable than most otlier animals. Recent
surveys have revealed that cats are now the most pre-
ferred pets and that the cat population has doubled
since 1972, surpassing the dog population in 1985.
Consequently, many pet shops have changed their
marketing strategy and sell kittens and the things they
need in greater quantities than ever before. Kittens
ACQUIRING A CAT

pleasant environment. If the source of the kitten is of

little or no importance to the prospective pet owner,
then a pet shop is a practical option.
When obtaining a kitten from a pet shop, one
should be concerned about the shop itself It should
be well lit, clean, cheerful, odor-free, and obviously
hygienic. One cat pan should be available for every
two cats. The pans should be cleaned once a day and
refilled with fresh litter, and they should have little
fecal matter in them at any time. No more than one
cat should be in a single enclosure unless it is of
generous proportions. It is potentially unhealthy, un-
sanitary', and behaviorally damaging to place large
numbers of kittens together in window displays. One
sick cat can quickly spread its illness to the otliers.
Separation is especially important to prevent the
spread of internal or external parasites. The housing
together of many kittens can also encourage the devel-
are now frequently seen in window displays, and pet opment ofaggressive or shy behavior. Sales personnel
shops are becoming a significant source of kittens for and others handling the cats should be gentle, affec-
prospective pet owners. tionate, knowledgeable, and careful. Handling a cat
Some pet shops are owned and managed by those incorrectly can be dangerous for both the animals and
who breed their own cats and maintain them until the humans.
they are sold. Many other shops obtain their kittens Pet shops are magnetic attractions for those who
from local breeders or from various commercial
sources. Kittens in pet shops may be purebred (with
or without registry papers) or mixed-breeds, which
are often referred to as domestic shorthairs or long-
hairs (and are unregistrable). A purebred kitten is
eligible to be registered if both its parents were regis-
tered by a national cat association. However, both
sound and unsound house cats have been purchased
from pet shops. The same can be said of catteries and
shelters.
Some pet shops do riot sell cats but rather serve as
an unofficial shelter and clearing house to give away
unwanted kittens and stray cats. This service has im-
portant humane connotations, despite the fact that
(good) business considerations are involved. The as-
tute shopkeeper creates cat-owning customers, who
then purchase all their supplies at that establishment.
For the vast majority of pet owners, it is of no sig-
nificance whether a kitten is purebred or not. Many
who seek the pleasures of a companion animal are
not concerned
lines, or registered with pedigree,
the cat's even
geneticthough
history,
theseblood-
may
have a bearing on inherited health factors. Obtaining
a kitten from a pet shop is a satisfactory option if the
animal is in obvious good health, has no apparent
behavior problems, and is maintained in a clean,
 ORIGINS, SOURCES, AND SELECTION

are entertained by the look or the antics of animals

on display. They offer prospective pet owners the con-
venience oflocation and availability. Many pet shop
purchases are made on impulse, and that can be a
disastrous mistake whether a pet is acquired from a
breeder, a shelter, or a shop. Acquiring a kitten should
be a choice based on careful consideration and plan-
ning andsponotnses or needon reacting to one's
for instant own emotional
gratification. Many pet re-
shops are beautiful to walk through and try to create
a visual impaa on their potential customers. Many
displays are designed to attract the attention of chil-
dren, so that they will influence their parents to make
an impulse purchase. It is far less disastrous to impul-
sively buy a goldfish than a puppy or a kitten.
When acquiring a kitten from a pet shop, it is advis-
able to understand your desires and limitations. It is
critical that you understand the needs of a cat and
your willingness to satisfy them. Long-haired cats re- homeless animal. The possibility of obtaining a de-
quire grooming and combing on a regular basis. Ori- lightful cat or kitten from one of the thousands of
animal adoption agencies is excellent. Adopting a pet
and needbreedsmore
ental such personal
as the Siamese
relatingarethanquite
many"talkative"
others. from an animal agency saves its life. There are simply
Abyssinians are high-energy, active cats that are de- not enough homes for the surplus of cats and dogs
manding and affectionate. Educate yourself about cat that are lost, abandoned, or born unwanted.
breeds and cat care. Homeless animals fortunate enough to make it to a
Cats require medical care, personal relating, sound shelter spend the remainder of their lives waiting to
nutrition, hygienic surroundings, an occasional bath, be adopted or euthanized. Animal shelters bring peo-
grooming, and a clean toilet area. Be certain you are ple and cats together, fulfilling the needs of each. They
willing and able to provide for the needs of a cat for are often the safest, most efficient, and most economi-
the next fifteen years. Salespeople at pet shops know cal source for acquiring healthy, endearing kittens and
how irresistible a kitten or puppy is once it's in a cats. Their good works reward humans with the plea-
customer's arms. Just say "No" if the kitten is not the sures and delights of cat ownership while affording
kind you wanted or if you have any doubts. (See "A the opportunity to do something kind for an animal
in need.
Guide for Seleaing a Cat," this chapter.) Education,
investigation, and determination are the necessary el- Many full-service animal shelters are fully staffed
ements for choosing the right cat. with skilled professionals and expert workers, in-
Once you understand what you want and are will- cluding veterinarians, veterinary technicians, ad-
ing to make the commitment, it is possible to find the ministrators, animal handlers, peace officers, and
right cat at a pet shop. Also on sale at pet shops are humane-education specialists. There are also many
repellents, plant protector sprays, litter-box additives, volunteer rescue organizations with caring workers
cat-litter scoops, travel carriers, feeding dishes, treats, that are unfunded, unchartered, and, in some cases,
catnip, cat toys of every description, and many other unlicensed. Although it is impossible to assess the
essential grooming tools and products that novice cat quality of their efforts in general terms, it can be said
owners are sure to need. that their work is often effective.
Some shelters are time-honored philanthropic as-
Animal Shelters sociations, underwritten by well-managed investment
portfolios, bequests, and wealthy donors. They may
A shelter is the most important animal source one can also receive funding from local or state governments
use. It affords cat-lovers a wide range of choice plus in exchange for animal-control services. Others rely
the opportunity to provide safety and comfort for a solely on the contributions made by adopters. Many
ACQUIRING A CAT

shelters and humane societies are affiliated with or

recognized by national organizations, such as the Hu
mane Society of the United States or the American Hu-
mane Society; they can be found in the Yellow Pages
under the listing "Animal Shelters" or "Humane Socie-
ties." The larger ofestablishments,
the Prevention such as (SPCA)
Cruelty to Animals the Society for
of San
Francisco, the Massachusetts Societ\' for the Prevention
of Cruelty to Animals (Boston), the ASPCA (New York
City), or the Hamilton County SPCA (Cincinnati), are
full-service organizations offering adoptions, veteri-
nary service, information and education, animal abuse
investigations, and animal control. They provide their
respective areas with essential animal services and have
become indispensable to their communities.
The privately funded and independently operated
Tree House Animal Foundation in Chicago functions
in a unique fashion. It has pioneered new programs accepting lost or abandoned animals, that responsibil-
that have had a direct impact on the stray-animal and ity being reserved for a government agency, such as a
pet ownership problems that exist today. Their hu- city dog pound or a private animal agency commis-
mane programs include emergency medical aid; op- sioned bya city, town, or county.
eration of their innovative, cageless Tree House For example, the American Society for the Preven-
Adoption Center; a pet-owner counseling program; tion of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) performed numer-
humane education and information services; assis- ous functions for many years before giving up its
tance to low-income pet owners facing temporary fi- licensing and animal control responsibilities to the
nancial emergencies; and a spay/neuter program to city of New York. In addition to its adoption programs,
help curb pet overpopulation. veterinary hospital, animal shelter, humane-education
To understand efforts, and cruelty investigations, the ASPCA had been
come familiar witlia localshelter's
animalpolicies,
laws andoneconditions.
must be- commissioned by the city government of New York
A nongovernment animal shelter, operating under the to carry out animal-control policies, which included
restrictions placed upon it by legislation, is often pro- dealingmals from withtheinjured,
hibited from collecting stray animals off the streets. In streets. lost, stray, times
In recent and abandoned
the ASPCA ani-
has
some communities, shelters are even prohibited from also become a national animal welfare advocacy orga-
nization with offices in New York, Washington, D.C.,
Los Angeles, and elsewhere.
Other private shelters and agencies in New York
City may only accept unwanted animals from their
owners. Even with this restriction, the Humane Soci-
ety of New York and the Bide-a-Wee Home Associa-
tion, like hundreds of other adoption agencies
throughout the country, receive unwanted cats and
dogs from their owners by the thousands each year.
The animals are given medical attention, neutered
when possible, fed, housed, and cared for until
proper homes can be found.
Many who have adopted cats from shelters have
described the experience as pleasant, exciting, inter-
esting, and always filled with emotions. The purrs and
meows of a cat being taken home in its crisp new
 ORIGINS, SOURCES, AND SELECTION

travel canon can only be interpreted as the sound of Some cats need to be groomed often, particularly the
pleasure and gratitude. longhair breeds such as Persians, Birmans, and Rag-
dolls.
Whether to live with a male or female is of no
Veterinary Hospitals significant importance if the cat is to be neutered or
A frequent source of cats and kittens is the veterinar- spayed. Unneutered (whole) male cats must be mated
ian. In thousands of clinics, private practices, and ani- on a frequent basis if they are to remain emotionally
mal hospitals throughout the country, it is a daily sound. Whole male cats scented
past puberty
occurrence for cats to be placed in new homes. Veteri- fiilly odorous, sexually urine"spray"
againstpower-
walls,
narians have traditionally served their communities windows, and vertical objects when they are sexually
and their clientele as go-betweens for those who must aroused or in need of expressing their territorial
find new homes for their pets and those who are rights. A whole male cat will roam if given the oppor-
looking for pets. Many animal hospital and veterinary tunity and will fight with other males. (See Chapter 4:
office bulletin boards have notices about kittens and Feline Behavior, and Chapter 5; Misbehavior.)
cats in need of a family. It is an important source to
consider when acquiring a new pet. leastUnspayed
twice a females year andexperience estrusfrequently.
perhaps more ("heat") atA
female in estrus is little understood by the novice cat
owner. The behavior of a female in estrus is meant to
A GUIDE FOR SELECTING A CAT attract a male cat and involves intense vocalization and
sexually oriented body language. It can be puzzling
Seleaing a cat is not difficult. It has little or nothing or even frightening to witness for the first time. Inex-
to do with purebred cats as opposed to mixed-breed perienced owners are mistakenly convinced their cat
cats. No one breed or mixed-breed is smarter, health- is ill. During estrus, the female cat secretes an odor-
ier, cleaner, or more lovable than the other. In this ous fluid intended to attract whole male cats for the
respea, all cats are equal. Whether to purchase a purpose of mating. (See Chapter 9: Reproduchve Phys-
purebred or a mixed-breed cat is only a matter of iology, and Chapter 10: Mating.)
aesthetic preference and economic consideration. If the purpose of living with a cat is companionship,
The correct approach for selecting a cat is not to con- then have your veterinarian spay a female (perform
sider which is best, but which is best for you, your an ovariohysterectomy) between six and eight months
home, and your lifestyle. Do you want a cat that re- of age or sometime before the first estrous cycle, and
quires agreat deal of personal interaaion, or one that neuter (castrate) a male between six and eight months
prefers a greater degree of solitude? There are breeds of age. (See Chapter 36: Surgery and Postoperative
that are very active, and there are some that sleep Care.) This will prevent undesirable sexual behavior
much of the time. Which is a plus and which a minus? and unwanted pregnancies.
Choosing a cat should be based on only aesthetic
preference, cost, and the behavior and health of a
specific cat. (See Chapter 2: The Breeds, for profiles of
the existing cat breeds.)

Ihe Healthy Cat

After settling the questions of breed, cost, source, and
gender, it is essential to select a cat in good health.
This consideration requires simple discernment when
examining a litter of kinens or an individual. Because
all kittens are appealing, it is difficult to remain objec-
tive and uncover medical problems when they exist.
Although the pedigree of a purebred cat is useflil, it
cannot tell you the current state of health of the kitten
ACQUIRING A CAT

sitting before you. A vaccination record is far more and runny nose are signs associated with various ill-
helpful. Most kittens should receive their first vaccina- nesses, especially upper respiratory infections.
tion at eight weeks of age and the second at twelve Ears should be clean with no unpleasant odor. Ex-
weeks. If there is any question about exposure to fe- ces ive din or a dark, waxlike substance indicates ear
line panleukopenia (FPV), a kitten can be vaccinated mites, which usually cause head-shaking and rubbing
as early as four weeks of age. Ask for a written record of the ears with the paws. (However, mites can easily
of vaccines given, their dates, and their t\pe. Save this be eliminated.)
record for your veterinarian. (See Appendix B: Vaccina- Kitten teeth should be white and clean with the
tions.) upper incisors meeting the bottom incisors evenly.
When examining a kitten for health, the most obvi- Incisors are the twelve small teeth in the front of the
ous aspect is the coat. It should be downy, lustrous, mouth, which are present by the fourth week. At six
and without clumps or mats. Under the coat, the skin weeks of age, all twenty-six baby teeth are present.
should be smooth, showing no scaly areas or sores. A (Adult cats have thirty teeth.) Look for pink gums and
kitten's skin should also be free of minu.scule debris, mouth tissue; a pale color is a sign of anemia, which
appearing as a salt-and-pepper mixture, which indi- could be caused by internal parasites.
cates flea eggs and blood specks. Active fleas may or A bulging stomach may indicate the presence of
may not be apparent. Bald or bare patches of skin are internal parasites (worms) or a nutrition problem. A
signs of ringworm or mange. bump on or near the navel of a kitten can be an
Healthy eyes should be clear with no excessive wa- umbilical hernia and may require medical attention.
tering, no ulcers (which appear as small indentations Imponant signs of parasitic infestation or sickness can
on the surface), and no whitish scars from previous be found in the anus or vulva areas. Signs of worms
medical conditions. Look for any abnormalities, in- and diarrhea are apparent as tapeworm segments and
cluding soreness or swelling. A blue-eyed kinen with stains of feces. Look for secretions, irritated tissue,
a white coat may be deaf. (See Chapter 13: Genetics.) and hair loss, which may indicate chronic diarrhea or
Examine the nose. It should be cool and slightly possible virus infection such as feline enteric coro-
damp. If the nostrils exude a discharge, it could indi- navirus. Chronic diarrhea is the most common medi-
cate the presence of infection. Sneezing, coughing. cal problem in young kittens. Occasional diarrhea,
coughing, sneezing, and running nose or eyes are also
common problems.
A sound kitten stands straight and tall. The legs
bouncy, have
should a linear quality.
uninhibited, A kitten'sStilted
and effonless. walk movement
should be
warrants closer examination for lameness.
When you are examining eight- to twelve-week-old
kittens, prefer ones that appear to be in good propor-
tion. This means that the individual components of
their bodies create a total look that is pleasing and
harmonious. Kittens at this age should weigh between
two and three pounds, no more or less. Those that are
too portly or too slender may have health or behavior
problems. This criterion becomes apparent after one
has examined many litters of kittens.
Of all the aspects to consider when selecting a kit-
ten, none is more important than temperament, emo-
tional stability, and acceptable behavior. A playful yet
calm and stable disposition is the ideal to look for in
a kitten. A resented kitten is different from a shy one.
Some breeds hold themselves aloof from strangers
and take a wait-and-see attitude before making direa
 ORIGINS, SOURCES, AND SELECTION

contaa; but that is not the same as shyness, which may serve the kittens' mother. If she is at ease with strangers,
be a behavior deficiency. The shy cat is abnormally congenial, outgoing, and friendly, it is likely that her
afraid of anything unfamiliar and tries to avoid hu- kittens will be the same, providing external influences
mans, other animals, or change of any kind. Shyness do not change them. (See Chapter 13: Genetics.)
is expressed by escape behavior, cringing, cower- When observing a litter of kittens, kneel to floor
ing, and, when all else fails, by defensive aggression. level and notice which ones are curious about you,
Kittens that are not curious, energetic, playful, and are friendly toward you, and want to rub up against
anxious to greet you may either be ill or have a be- you. Lift them in your arms, one at a time, to see if
havior problem. Of course, kittens can also be tired they are at ease with you. A normal kitten will either
when being viewed and may simply be in need of thrash about playfully or settle in and purr. A normal
a nap. kitten should follow you about when it is set down on
Kittens that have been handled by humans on a the floor once again. Try playing with it. A friendly,
regular basis early in life have been socialized. This outgoing kitten will respond to something dangled in
means they should be more adaptive to interacting front of it, such as a string or peacock feather, sOr to
with humans. If they have been allowed to remain something rolled, such as a ball or empty spool.
with their mother and littermates for a minimum of There is more to feline health than clear eyes and a
ten weeks, they are likely to adjust easily to other cats. glossy coat. A happy, self-assured kitten that delights
The transference of genetic characteristics plays an in the company of humans is likely to enjoy good
important role in cat behavior, too. If possible, ob- health and long life.
ACQUIRING A CAT

No matter how healthy or normal a kitten appears, be the most important one of its life. If buying an
it is always possible for it to have a medical problem expensive purebred, have a wrinen understanding
that is not apparent. It is essential that a new kitten be that if a veterinarian finds the cat to be unhealthy,
given a complete veterinary examination soon after it defective, or incubating an infectious disease, it can
arrives in its new home. The first examination could be returned and the purchase price refunded.
 CHAPTER 2

The Breeds

by Mordecai Siegal

WHAT IS A PUREBRED CAT?

and varieties of do- a subdivision of a species, usually determined by
The regist cats thatbreeds
mesticered regally adorn human up- geographical distribution. Felis catus, or the domestic
holstery are beyond the boundaries of cat, has no subspecies classification. The many varied
taxonomy, the science of classifying plant breeds of the domestic cat are interesting variations
sms.
and animal organi A taxon is a unit of biological of the same species.
classification, arranged in descending order. Although The term breed began as a verb form from Middle
there are many conflicting English (breden) and Old
approaches to the subject, English (bredan) meaning
the most accepted classifica- to nourish, to keep warm,
tions ofanimal taxa are king- possibly with warm breath
dom, phylum, class, order, or by breathing upon. Its
family, genus, species, and use as a noun grew out of
subspecies. The term breed is
not used as a separate classi- Abreeding
litter ofdomestic animals.
kittens, puppies,
fication inthe science of tax- col-
onomy. ,
\ lectively cetera, awerebrood,
piglets, et called
Cats in general are identi-
fied as various species, di- ^^^^ ■1^ and the individual offspring
vided among three groups jiJP^|f'M were casually referred to
or genera: Panthera, Acino- "^'g^^M
" asherdsmen
breeds. As farmers
began and
utilizing
nyx, and Felis. For example, genetics — the science of he-
the lion is classified as Pan- redity— the term breed was
thera leo, the cheetah as Aci- then used to distinguish a
nonyx jubatus, and the domestic cat as Felis catus specific type within a species and came into common
(formerly Fefc domestica). Within each group are the usage, even among educators and researchers.
various species A species is a scientific grouping of Charles
living organisms with similar traits, distinguished by The OriginDarwin appliedin the
of Species, 1859.word's
Eventually, modernbreedusagecamein
the ability to breed successfully with one another. The to mean a division of a species with separate and
minimum taxonomic category is subspecies, which is distinctive characteristics that were genetically pre-
17
2g ACQUIRING A CAT
to, or emphasize specific physical or mental character-
istics ofbreecis. Cattle with more muscle and less fat
have been developed. Horses are bred for type, size,
speed, stamina, et cetera. Male and female cats are
often selected for breeding because they possess a
body structure, coat, or overall appearance that repre-
sents aconcept of excellence for their particular strain
(or breed). Some animals are bred for characteristics
that help them perform a demanding task. For exam-
ple, the American Quarter Horse was developed to
gallop fast for short distances while being able to stop
abruptly and anticipate the erratic movement of cattle.
It became
The greatthedifferences rancher's "right-hand
of size and man."
type among dog
dictable and consistently reproducible. Human inter- breeds are the most striking results of selective breed-
vention isnecessary to re-create purebred cats. Those ing. It is difficult to imagine that the Chihuahua and
involved in breeding purebred animals circumvent the St. Bernard are members of the same species.
the process of natural selection and decide which ani- Here, those practicing selective breeding have con-
mals will mate, based on their genetic patterns. It is spired with the demands of nature as dictated by geo-
an activity pursued by those with an interest in main- graphic differences and the consistent uses and
taining and preserving the unique qualities of the vari- activities of the dogs. The result has been the broad
ous breeds that have been developed within each range of physical and mental differences among the
species of domestic animal. Still, taxonomists and dog breeds. Although differences among the various
other scientists prefer the designation strain or race cat breeds are not as radical, they are pronounced.
when speaking of a type or variety of a species. One need only observe the Persian next to the Sia-
To the cat breeder, a purebred cat comes from a mese to see the contrast in appearance and tempera-
traceable line of mutual ancestry. Such cats possess ment. Among serious breeders and exhibitors in the
genetically governed variants, consistently producing Cat and Dog Fancies, the primary goal is to develop.
similar traits and characteristics in their offspring as a
result of a controlled breeding program. The off-
spring ofpurebred cats must be registered with a cat
association to authenticate their purebred status.
Cat breeders and others involved in animal hus-
bandry use the science pf heredity to eliminate, add
 THE BREEDS

PUREBRED-CAT ASSOCIATIONS
Purebred cats must be registered with a national cat
association and have a traceable lineage through a
verified pedigree to authenticate their status. The reg-
istration papers and pedigree support a breeder's as-
senions regarding breed, parentage, and cat-show
attainments of a particular cat. These qualify it for
showing and breeding according to the rules of the
various cat associations, so long as it is a breed recog-
nized by the association of choice. No breeder will
use a nonpedigreed, unregistered cat in a breeding
program. Exhibitors may not enter such cats in cham-
pionship competition. Mixed-breed cats or nonpedi-
greed cats are primarily companion animals with no
need for registration papers.
Those who prefer purebred cats are either attracted
to the look and the personality of a breed as a pet or
improve, and preserve the various established breeds have an interest in showing cats. Whatever the reason,
and their standards. the interest in purebred cats grows larger each year,
with a constantly expanding Cat Fancy. In the United
States and Canada, there are seven organizations that
WHAT IS A MIXED-BREED CAT? register purebred cats, maintain pedigrees, create and
support breed standards, and sanction cat shows and
The majority of pet cats are mixed-breeds. They are the judges who preside over them. These national
the result of random matings of various cat breeds or organizations include. American Cat Association
of other mixed-breed cats. They almost never resem- (ACA), American Cat Fanciers' Association (ACFA), Ca-
ble the standard of any cat breed. They are usually not nadian Cat Association (CCA), Cat Fanciers' Associa-
registered, have no pedigree (record of ancestors), tion (CFA), Cat Fanciers' Federation
and are not considered purebreds. Owners of such International Cat Association (TICA), and (CFF), The
the United
cats have no interest in these matters. In the United Cat Federation (UCF).
States, they may be referred to as house cats or alley The Cat Fanciers' Association, Inc., is the largest cat
cats. In Great Britain, they are sometimes called registry in the world, with close to six hundred affili-
moggs. However, the Cat Fancy has gone to great ate clubs in the United States, Canada, and Japan. It
lengths to acknowledge the desirability of all cats by
allowing household pets to be registered (by some
cat associations) and by encouraging a Household Pet
Competition for ribbons and prizes in most cat shows.
To qualify for entry, household pets must be neutered
(except for kittens), have all of their physical proper-
ties (except for a tail in the case of an unregistered
Manx), and may not be declawed. Unlike purebreds,
they are judged not according to a written standard
but on the basis of physical condition, cleanliness,
presentation, temperament, and attractive or unusual
appearance. Throughout the world, cats of unknown
lineage comprise the vast majority of house pets and
most of them are mixed-breeds. They are, without a
doubt, the most popular cats of all.
ACQUIRING A CAT

precise, written description of a breed. The standard,

according to CFA literature, is "an abstract aesthetic

ideal." PUREBRED TYPES

According to CFA literature, cat breeds are divided
into three types; natural, man-made, and spontane-
ous mutation. Natural breeds such as the Persian, Rus-
sian Blue, Turkish Angora, and others were created by
nature but refined and stabilized by cat fanciers
through selective breeding. Man-made breeds, or hy-
brids, such as the Exotic Shorthair and Bombay, were
1 ^SB^i..B created by cat breeders who skillfully combined ex-
isting breeds. Spontaneous mutations, such as the
generates over three hundred cat shows a year, which Manx and Scottish Fold, are the consequence of unex-
attract a total of almost seventy thousand entries. The plainable deviations in genetic code. These resulted
oldest organization in the United States is the Ameri- in the lack of tail in the Manx and the tightly folded
can Cat Association, which continues to register pure- ears, bent forward and downward, of the Scottish
bred cats with over forty member clubs. It was formed Fold.
as the Beresford Cat Club of Chicago in 1897, and it Before a new breed or color is accepted for cham-
became the ACA in 1904. In 1906, several members of pionship competition by the CFA, it must meet a strict
the ACA left that organization over a rules dispute and set of requirements. A minimum of ten breeders must
formed their Theown CFAnational be working with the breed. They must demonstrate to
Association. began registry,
with fivethemember
Cat Fanciers'
clubs the board of directors that the new breed is suffi-
in 1906, but it grew into the largest cat association ciently distinct from existing ones and free from ge-
anywhere. The International Cat Association (TICA) is netic or health complications. Once the breed is
a relatively new organization, with most of its influ- accepted for registration, it is classified in the Miscella-
ence in the United States. Still, the CFA is considered neous Class and may be shown in noncompetitive
to be the feline counterpart of the American Kennel Miscellaneous Classes at cat shows.
Club in terms of size and prestige. When a standard for a new breed has been ap-
For purebred-cat enthusiasts, the choice is large proved bythe board, and one hundred cats of the
and varied. However, ^t is important to understand new breed have been registered, it is classified in
that no two cat associations accept or register all of the
existing breeds. For example, the CFA, at this writing,
registers thirty-four breeds, but there are several
breeds accepted for registration by the other cat asso-
ciations that are not registered by the CFA. Each breed
is allowed specific coat colors and patterns in its offi-
cial standard, which means that there may be dozens
of different-looking cats that are of the same breed.
For example, the Persian is allowed no less than
fifty-eight different coat colors and various coat pat-
terns, al divided into seven official divisions or cate-
gories that are approved by the CFA. In contrast, the
CFA allows the Bombay to be shown only in solid
black. These rules are outlined by every cat associa-
tion in a set of breed standards. A breed standard is a
 THE BREEDS

the Provisional Class and is eligible to compete in ing organizations accepted cats with these variations
Provisional Classes. Finally, after a total of twenty-five as a separate breed, and in others, as a division within
different cats have been shown in all seven regions of their breed. The Cymric illustrates both cases. It had
the CFA throughout the United States, the breed is been registered as a separate longhair breed by the
eligible, upon board approval, to take its place in the CFA since 1979, but it was, in faa, a longhaired Manx,
show ring as a fully approved breed with CFA champi- and in 1995, the CFA stopped registering the Cymric
onship status. as a separate breed and placed it in a newly created
Longhair division within the Manx breed. All Manx
cats are now either in the Longhair division (formerly
Body Types known as Cymrics) or in the Shorthair division.
Purebred cats have two extreme body types: the for-
eign and the cobby. The foreign (or Oriental) type is HAIRLESS CATS. Although no cat is totally hair-
often described in breed standards as svelte, slim, less, the Sphynx, an extremely rare breed, comes clos-
lithe, tubular, elegant, or serpentine. In most breeds est. The cat is not bald: thin, short hairs grow tightly
of foreign type, the body has a slim, tube shape with packed on the ears, muzzle, and tail. It has no whisk-
a firm musculature. It is typified by tfie Siamese, which ers or eyebrows.
is ideally a sleek, lightly built cat.
Cobby refers to a heavy, low-lying, short-legged, SHORTHAIR CATS. Shorthair cats may have a sin-
compact, broad-chested body. It is typified by the gle or double coat. Single coats should look polished
body of the Persian. Some breeds, such as the Russian and satiny. Double coats should appear thick, full, and
Blue, are less cobby than others, and a few are some- plush. A single coat is usually a fine or silky fur (some-
where between foreign and cobby types, as typified times glossy), which clings close to the body and is
by thefied oAbyssinian. found on such breeds as Siamese, Bombay, Burmese,
r moderate. These types are referred to as modi- and Oriental Shorthair. A double coat consists of long
guard hairs that display the primary coat color, and a
Coat Types thick, downy undercoat, most of which grows on the
underside of the torso. Some of the shorthair breeds
The feline coat is its primary aesthetic attraction. with double coats are Chartreux, Maax, Russian Blue,
Color, pattern, length, and texture of the coat have and American Shortliair.
more influence on the selection of a purebred cat
than any other visual aspea of the cat. The haircoat of
a cat is considered by many to be the most glamorous
part of its body. Show cats are divided into longhair
breeds and shonhair breeds, but there are many varia-
tions in coat lengths (long, short, medium) that chal-
lenge these classifications.
Specifying the length of the coat often leads to con-
fusion. Among the varied references to coat length in
the breed entries of the CFA Show Standards are
"short," "short to medium," "medium," "semi-long,"
"medium-long
breeds, the coattoislong,"
definedand as"long
havinganddifferent
thick." Inlengths
some
on various sections of the body. In addition, a cat may
be referred to as a longhair breed, such as the Turkish
Angora or the Balinese, when in fact its coat is actually
of medium length.
A number of breeds were originally classified and
registered as shorthair cats but were eventually bred
for longhair coats as well. In some instances, register-
ACQUIRING A CAT

There are three unusual variations of shorthair

coats. They are the wirehair coat, the wavy coat, and
the more recently recognized curly coat. All of these
coat types were originally the result of spontaneous
mutations in kitten litters. These special kittens were
then carefully selected for breeding until their t>pe
was stabilized and eventually made eligible for sepa-
rate breed .status. The wirehair coat can be seen in the
American Wirehair, a breed that differs from all other
cats because of its unique springy, tight, and crimped
fur, which is usually hooked or bent. The wavy or Rex
coat is allowed by the CFA in two separate breeds: the
Cornish Rex and the Devon Rex. Although similar in
t\pe, the Cornish Rex coat has no guard hairs but has
greater density than the coat of the Devon Rex. It
waves, or ripples. The coat of the Devon Rex is also
wavy, but it is longer, with less density than the Cor-
nish. The curly coat is soft, plush, and very curly, like
lambswool. It is seen only in the Selkirk Rex, a new plumelike or bushy).
CFA breed. be silky with a wavy The Turkish andAngora's
tendency, fur .should
very fine with a
satiny sheen.
LONGHAIR CATS. The length of the coat of long-
hair cats varies from two to six inches, depending on is ofThemedium
Somali'slength longhair
exceptcoatonisthesomewhat
shoulders,different.
where Itit
the breed and the pan of the body. For example, is slightly shorter. The breed is double coated, which
Persians have long, thick coats of fine texture, which means it has a thick, short undercoat with a top coat
fall away from the body. The ruff (similar to the mane of long hair, which is, in the case of the Somali, ex-
on a lion) is substantial and flows from behind the tremely fine and soft to the touch.
head into a frill along the chest and between the fore- Yet another type of longhair coat can be found on
legs. Some longhair breeds, such as Persians, have a the Maine Coon Cat. Its coat is heavy and shaggy,
double coat. shorter on the shoulders and longer on the underside
and britches (haunches). It has a frontal ruff, that is
Another type of longhair coat belongs to the Turk- not as pronounced as the ruff on the Persian. Its
ish Angora. Its coat is medium-long on the body and lengthy tail sustains long and flowing fur, and its hair
longer at the ruff. The tail has a full brush (that is, it is texture is silky and smooth.
Coat Patterns
TABBY PATTERNS. There are four basic tabby
coat patterns: Classic, Mackerel, Spotted, and Ticked.
Classic Tabby refers to dense, clearly defined mark-
ings on the body that are darker than the ground
color. They are unbroken on top and swirled on the
sides, with rings on the tail and bars on the legs. The
face is barred with upward-pointing lines, forming
the letter M on the forehead.
Mackerel Tabby refers to dense, clearly defined ver-
tical stripes going around the body. The stripes are
narrower than those of the Classic Tabby. The legs are
striped with bracelets and the tail is barred. The head
 THE BREEDS

is also barred, the bars forming the letter M on the

forehead. In some examples of this pattern, the stripes TABLE 2 1 BREED DESCRIPTIONS
resemble those of a tiger.
Spotted Tabby refers to broken stripes appearing as
spots. Abyssinitin
American Curl Maine Coon Cat
Ticked Tabby refers to darker bands of color on AmeriCcin Shorthair
each hair-tip. American Wirehair
Tabby patterns come in prescribed colors, de- Norwegian Forest Cat
pending on specific breed standards, which include Balinese Ocicat
Blue-patched Tabby, Blue Tabby, Brown-patched Birman
Bombay Oriental
Tabby, Brown Tabby, Cameo Tabby, Cream Tabby, Persian
Patched Tabby and White, Red Tabby, Silver-patched British Shorthair RagdoU
Tabby, Silver Tabby, and Tabby and White. {Patched Burmese Russian Blue
refers to tabby with red and/or cream patches. This is Chartreux Scottish Fold
called a torbie and is seen only in the Classic or Mack- Colorpoint Shorthair Selkirk Rex
erel tabby pattern in silver, brown, or blue.) Cornish Rex Siamese
Devon Rex Singapura
Snowshoe
POINTED
(the facial mask COATS. The whiskers],
[including points of ears,
the cat's
legs, body
feet, Egyptian Mau
European Burmese Somali
and tail) are of a darker, contrasting color than found Exotic
on the rest of the body. The ground coat or main por- Havana Brown Tonkinese
Sphynx
tion of the coat must always be lighter than the point Himalayan Turkish Angora
color. The most outstanding example of the pointed Japanese Bobtail Turkish Van
coat is the Siamese, which is seen in the four classic Javanese
point colors; Seal Point. Chocolate Point, Blue Point,
and Lilac Point. Other breeds are allowed a much
wider range of colors.
Self. The self coat pattern is a coat of solid color. ABYSSINIAN
Each hair is consistently the same color from its tip to
its root, and all hairs are the same on all parts of the Although the Abyssinian resembles cats depicted in
body. ancient Egyptian artwork, its exact origins are uncer-
Tipped or tipping. The tipped coat is one that has tain. The breed was developed in England in the late
contrasting colors at the hair ends. Lightly tipped cats 1800s, allegedly from ticked cats brought from North
are referred to as Chinchillas, medium-tipped cats are Africa by the wife of an English army captain at the
referred to as Shaded, and heavily tipped cats are conclusion
Smokes. is fancied forof the war inancient
its wild, Abyssinia
look,in its1868.
desenThe colors,
"Aby "
Van {piebald). This is an almost white coat with its lithe body, its quickness, and its very spirited per-
patches of color on the head, tail, or legs. sonality. The breed was brought to the United States
Bi-color. Bi-color is a solid-color coat with patches early in the twentieth century. The Abyssinian body is
of white. the lengthy type, medium-long, lithe, and muscular. It
Parti-color. Parti-color is a coat pattern with two strikes a balance between the cobby and the svelte. Its
separate colors. coat is soft, silky, and fine in texture, but dense and
Tortoiseshell. This represents a black coat color with with a lustrous sheen. It is medium in length but long
patches of red (orange). It is often referred to as a enough to accommodate two or three dark bands of
tonie. ticking. Its coat is ticked (dark colored bands con-
Calico The Calico pattern is a tonoiseshell coat trasting with lighter colored bands on each hair shaft )
with white. and comes in only four warm and glowing colors,
Cameo. The Cameo pattern has a white undercoat which are Ruddy, Red, Blue, and Fawn. Aby owners
with red hair-tips. and breeders alike declare the breed to be one of the
ACQUIRING A CAT

descend. In 1983, selective breeding began and thus

a new breed began. As in the Scottish Fold, the distinc-
tive feature of the breed is the unusual formation of
the ears. They are firm to the touch, erect, and open,
curving up in a gentle curl. The body is "semi-
foreign,"weigh
should not cobby,
five toandeightmedium
pounds.in Males
size. Females
should
weigh seven to ten pounds.
The CFA allows the breed to be seen in both Long-
hair and Shorthair divisions. The Longhair division
calls for a coat that is semi-long and flowing with a
minimal undercoat appearing with a fully plumed tail.
The texture should be fine and silky. The Shonhair
division calls for a short haircoat that is soft, silky,
and flat, with no plush or dense feel and a minimal
undercoat. The length of hair on the tail should be
the same length as that of the body coat. American
Curls are even-tempered cats who are not excessively
talkative but are affectionate and somewhat kitten-like
flnroughout their lives. The CFA accepts the breed in
all listed coat colors and combinations including
solid, shaded, smoke, tabby, bi-color, parti-color, and
pointed patterns.
most intelligent animals ever. They are people loving
despite their high energy and lively activity level. They
love to be witli people (but not in their laps) and they AMERICAN SHORTHAIR
are assertive.

AMERICAN CURL
The American Curl was first reported as a spontane-
ous mutation in 1981 by Joe and Grace Ruga of Lake-
wood, California, owners of the foundation cat,
Shulamith, from which all pedigreed American Curls

The American Shorthair is America's own breed. Its

ancestors were commonplace farm cats and house
cats that were large-boned, short-coated, working cats.
Some naturalists consider them to be the original do-
mestic cat, before they were cultivated by serious
breeders into a highly refined pure breed. They are
believed to be descended from basic European work-
ing cats. The plain shorthair cat came to North Amer-
ica by ship with the first European settlers in the
seventeenth century. Today's purebred American
 THE BREEDS

Shorthair still resembles the traditional-looking house colors that are the result of hybridization, such as
cat to some degree because of its short coat and its chocolate, lavender, the Himalayan pattern, or any of
body shape. On closer examination, however, the dif- these combined with white.
ferences are quite distinct. When the breed first be-
came registrable, it was commonly referred to as a
Shorthair. For many years, and in several cat associa- BALINESE
tions, itwas registered as the Domestic Shorthair. In
1966, the CFA changed its name to American
Shorthair. The breed differs from all other nonpedi-
greed shorthair cats because it has been developed to
meet high standards and to consistently produce kit-
tens of the same conformation, coat quality, and tem-
perament. This breed is the result of decades of
selective breeding and diligent record-keeping to en-
sure consistent breed qualities. The breed is strong,
intelligent, and lively, with a distinctive physical
image. Its body is solidly built, muscular with well-
developed shoulders, chest, and hindquarters. It has
a shon, thick, even coat, which is hard in texture and
seen in over eighty colors, color combinations, and
patterns. The American Shorthair has a genial temper-
ament, asweet disposition, and is easygoing and affec- The Balinese was developed in the United States as a
tionate. Itis the quintessential cat. separate breed after it appeared as a spontaneous,
longhair mutation of the Siamese cat. It has a long,
AMERICAN WIREHAIR svelte, foreign-t)pe body, with a wedge-shaped head.
It is like the Siamese in most ways except that its hair
is longer, it is less talkative, and its voice is softer. Its
coat colors are Seal Point, Chocolate Point, Blue Point,
and Lilac Point. Its eye color should be deep, vivid
blue. (See "Javanese.")

BIRMAN

A spontaneous mutation of farm cats, the American

Wirehair is best known for its unusual fur, which is
crimped, hooked, or bent. Its guard hairs are espe-
cially springy; even its whiskers are bent or curly. The
first known American Wirehair was Council Rock
Farm Adam of Hi-Fi, born in 1966 in Verona, New
York. The standard calls for a medium to large body,
which should be compact and muscular. The Wirehair
is .seen in many colors, but the CFA disqualifies those
ACQUIRING A CAT

Considered an ancient breed (and called the Sacred

Cat of Burma), the Birman was smuggled out of BRITISH SHORTHAIR
Burma circa 1919 and developed into a recognized
breed in France. Its body is long and stocky, neither
svelte nor cobby, with a rounded head and Roman-
shaped nose. Its coat is medium-long to long, and
silk}' with a heavy ruff around the neck. A Birman
should be a long, stock\' cat. This sweet-natured cat is
the
four only
paws.breed It has that slums
ioc s onwhitethe "gloves"
front paws(fur)andonfourits
on the hind paws With tl\c exception of its white
gloves, the Biriiian colors are the same as the tradi-
tional Siamese [xjint colorings: Seal Point, Blue Point,
Chocolate Point, and Lilac Point.

BOMBAY The British Shorthair resembles the American

Shorthair to some degree, but it differs greatly be-
cau.se of the introduction of Persians into its lines by
English breeders after World War I. Although this
practice is no longer permitted, its influence on the
look and nounced. temperament
British Shorthairsof the
have breed
broad remains
heads withpro-a
round shape that is set on a short, thick neck with a
hint of Persian about it. The body is medium to large,
well knit, and powerful, with a level back and a deep
broad chest. Its coat is short but full and very dense.
The CPA accepts a wide array of colors in solid,
shaded, smoke, tabby, parti-color, and bi-color pat-
terns. Itspersonality is somewhat subdued yet playful,
calm but devoted.
The Bombay is a hybrid, resembling a miniature pan-
ther. Itwas created by Nikki Horner of the Shawnee
Cattery, in Louisville, Kentucky, in 1958. It is the result
of many generations of crossing the sable Burmese
with black American Shorthairs. The Bombay is a me-
dium-sized cat,muscular, and with more weight to its BURMESE
body than it appears to have. Its coat is fine, and short,
with a very smooth texture that lies close to the body.
The mature Bombay coat color is jet black down to
the hair roots. Eye color ranges from golden to deep
copper. Bombays are very bright, playful as kittens
and sweet and easy to please as adults.
 THE BREEDS

The Burmese is a hybrid breed developed by Dr. Jo- Although this breed was accepted for championship
seph Thompson of San Francisco in 1930 from one competition by the CPA in 1987, it is considered to be
cat imported from Burma, named "Wong Mau. " It is one of the oldest natural cat breeds in existence. The
considered the foundation cat for all pedigreed Bur- Chartreux is considered to be a French cat breed,
mese cats in North America (as well as for the devel- although it may not have originated in France. Legend
opment ofthe European Burmese in England). "Wong has it that possibly as early as the sixteenth century
Mau" was bred with a Siamese, "Tai Mau." The Bur- these cats were brought to France by the Carthusian
mese as we know it today is the result of this mating monks, and they took up residence in their monas-
and years of breeder development. Only solid-color tery, "Le Grand Chanreux." The Chartreux body is
kittens were selected for breeding from those that powerful and massive and may weigh as much as four-
wereBurmese
born with teen pounds, with wide shoulders and a stocky neck.
start the
out "pointed"
as playful coat
kittensof and
the Siamese.
mature into Its short coat is dense, velvet)', and glossy. The Char-
take-charge adult cats. To some extent, their personal- treux standard permits any shade of blue-gray from
ities are similar to that of the Siamese in that they are ash to slate, with the hair-tips lightly brushed with
talkative (with softer voices) and cling to the humans silver. The preferred tone is a bright, unblemished
in their family. They are affectionate and intelligent, blue with an overall iridescent sheen.
with large, irresistible eyes and an endearing expres-
sion on their faces at all times.
A Burmese is a medium-sized cat; it is muscular, COLORPOINT SHORTHAIR
with a compact, weighty body and a rounded chest
and head. Although related to the Siamese, it must not
bear any physical resemblance to that breed. Its coat
is short, glossy, and very fine textured, lying close
to the body. The CFA-accepted Burmese colors are
Champagne, Blue (gray). Platinum, and Sable. (See
"European Burmese.")

CHARTREUX

The Colorpoint Shorthair appears to be a Siamese

with colors other than the four traditional Siamese
point colors (i.e.. Seal Point, Chocolate Point, Blue
Point, and Lilac Point). Other cat associations in the
United States and in other countries accept Colorpoint
Shorthairs as Siamese. The CFA, however, accepts
them as a separate breed, partly because most Sia-
mese breeders do not wish to permit any colors other
than the four traditional ones, and partly because cats
were crossed with domestic shorthairs and Abyssini-
ans to introduce the new colors. Complicating the
issue further is the Oriental, which is another nontra-
ditional version of the Siamese. Instead of color points
on the extremities of its body, it is seen in solid colors
and other color combinations.
Therefore, the Siamese is a cat of foreign type,
which is pointed (has dark coloring on the extremit-
2^ ACQUIRING A CAT
ies) in four traditional colors and accepted by all asso- other, and, when mated to each other, they do not
ciations; the Colorjioint Shorthair is a CFA breed with produce curly- or wavy-coated kittens. The Cornish
colors other than the Siamese colors on the points, Rex has a denser but slightly less curly coat than the
but it is registered as a Siamese by the other cat associ- Devon Rex. A mutation from a white Domestic
ations; i ul tlu' Oriental is not a pointed cat but has a Shorthair cat, the Cornish Rex has been developed
soliil oiloi or tabby pattern, and it is accepted by all with a small- to medium-sized body that is long and
associations. slender but not tubular. It has a small, egg-shaped
The body of the Colorpoint Shorthaii is sw itc, me- head, punctuated by large, oval-shaped eyes that slant
dium-sized, and tubular. Tlie coat is short, tine tex- upward, and a long, straight, Roman nose. The Cor-
tured, and glossN , K ing close to the body. Colorpoint nish Rex is an active cat with kitten-like behavior; it is
Shorthair colors .u c seen in a \ arict\- of solid and lynx affectionate and loves to be with people. This atten-
point colors. tion-get ing bre d is accepted in a wide variety of
The Colorpoint personality is very similar to that of colors in the solid, shaded, smoke, tabby, bi-color,
the Siamese. It is a clever, intelligent cat that knows and pointed patterns.
how to get what it wants, which is mostly attention.
They are affectionate cats that demand that you focus
on them all the time. Like the Siamese, Colorpoint
Shorthairs are exceptional feline companion animals. DEVON REX

CORNISH REX
The most striking aspect of this breed is its unusual
coat
head, with
legs, deep evenThe "waves"
and tail. over ofits very
coat consists entirefine,body,
soft
fur that is short but dense. Tlie Cornish Rex began as
a spontaneous mutation in a litter of barnyard cats on
a farm in Cornwall, England, circa 1950. The name
Rex is borrowed from the Rex rabbit, which is known
for its velvety fur and curly whiskers. This breed and
its cousin, the Devon Rex, have much in common.
However, they are genetically incompatible. These
similar but separate breeds are different from each The Devon Rex first appeared in a litter of kittens in
1960 in Devon, England. Its body is of medium length,
slender, hard, and muscular. As for the Cornish Rex,
its unusual coat is its most striking feature. The fur is
wavy with a rippled effect, which is most evident
where it is longest, on the body and tail. A proper
Devon Rex should be well covered with fur, with the
greatest density occurring on the back, sides, tail, legs,
face, and ears. The fur is shon, soft, fine, full-bodied,
and rexed (i.e., appearing to be without guard hairs).
The Devon head is a modified wedge with large, wide-
set, oval-shaped eyes sloping toward the outer edges
of its low-set, oversized ears.
Devons are active cats who crave close personal
contact. They are essentially happy, energetic cats that
crave human companionship and do everything nec-
es ary to get it. They are accepted in a wide variety of
 THE BREEDS

colors in the solid, shaded, smoke, tabby, bi-color,

and pointed patterns. EUROPEAN BURMESE

EGYPTIAN MAU
The Egyptian Mau always attracts attention at cat shows
because of the wild-animal look of its dazzling coat. A
natural breed, it is the only naturally spotted domestic
cat. Although accepted by the CPA for championship
competition in 1977, it remains an uncommon breed
not seen in large numbers at cat shows. It is said to
have originated in Egypt. These cats were first brought
to North America in 1957 by a Russian breeder. The
breed's identification with Egypt begins with its very
name. Mau is the Egyptian word for cat. Similar-look-
ing cats can be found on many ancient Egyptian arti-
facts and paintings. ■
The Egyptian Mau has a medium-long, graceful
body. It is a muscular cat, with the hind legs longer
than the front, giving it the appearance of standing on
tiptoes when upright. Its coat is medium in length
with a silky sheen and fine texture. The coat pattern is
distinctive: It has a striking contrast between its pale
ground color and its spotted and stripped markings;
the forehead is barred with a dark M-shaped mark; Both European Burmese and Burmese originate from
the
that cheeks
begins arealong barred
the with
outertwocorner
"mascara"
of thelines,
eye one
and the
in thesame Unitedfoundation States by cat, "Wong Thompson
Dr. Joseph Mau," introduced
in 1930.
continues across the cheek, the second staaing at the
center of the cheek curving upwards; the chest is The most obvious difference between the two sepa-
ringedThewithMau"necklaces"; and random spots Bronze,
dot the rate breeds is the greater variety of coat colors seen
coat. pattern is accepted in Silver, in the European Burmese. The Burmese (developed
and Smoke with eyes that are "gooseberry" (light) in North America) is seen only in Sable, Champagne,
green. Maus are quiet, amiable cats that are moder- Blue, and Platinum. But the European Burmese is pre-
ately active. sented in ten colors: Brown, Blue, Chocolate, Lilac,
Red, Cream, Brown Tortie, Blue Tortie, Chocolate
Tortie, and Lilac Tortie. The reason for this difference
lies with the Siamese, which was used as an outcross
to bolster both breeds. In the United States, the Sia-
mese is seen only in four color points (Seal, Choco-
late, Blue, and Lilac). In the United Kingdom, where
the European Burmese was developed, the Siamese
comes in many colors including Red points which,
when used in breeding programs, introduced the
greater variety of colors. In both Burmese and Euro-
pean Burmese, only solid-color kittens are selected
for continued breeding.
There are more similarities than differences be-
tween the Burmese and the European Burmese in
terms of body, coat, and personality. (See "Burmese.")
ACQUIRING A CAT

breed, as well as a black domestic Shorthair with a

EXOTIC brown recessive gene and various Siamese. The result
was the Havana Brown, supposedly named for the
color of Cuban cigars. These are solid brown cats,
from their pure brown whiskers to their tails. Al-
though the original English Havana was similar in
body type to the Siamese, the American version is
not. Their bodies are medium in length, firm, and
muscular. They have a distinctive profile with a long
face and a rounded muzzle, the end of which appears
to be square-tipped. The mahogany-colored coat is
short to medium in length, smooth, and lustrous, and
it should be one solid color from the hair-tip to the
skin. The nose should be brown with a rosy flush and
the paw pads rosy toned.
Not found at all cat shows, the Havana Brown is an
intelligent companion animal that is affectionate and
sociable. Although they are less talkative than Siamese,
they will not be denied.
Exotics are hybrids, the result of crossing Persians
with American Shorthairs. The CFA allows the Persian
to continue to be used in breeding programs as an
outcross. These cats are of definite Persian type but
with shorter coats. They have been accepted for regis-
tration and championship competition by the CFA
since 1966. Their standard is similar to the Persian
standard for type, with the exception of the coat,
which is medium in length, dense, plush, soft, with a
thick undercoat. Like Persians, Exotics have round,
massive heads, short noses, cobby (heavy, compact)
bodies, broad, deep chests, and short tails. The breed
is accepted in many (but not all) of the Persian colors
and coat patterns.
The temperament and personality of the Exotic is
much like the Persian, subdued and affectionate. They HIMALAYAN
are calm and easygoing, until they want attention. An
Exotic thinks nothing of jumping into your lap or onto The CFA does not register this hybrid as a separate
your shoulder and will follow you around if it is feel- breed. It is in the Himalayan division of the Persian
ing hungry or playful. breed. However, the Himalayan is still registered as a
separate breed by other cat associations. No matter
how it is registered, it would be incorrect to think
HAVANA BROWN of the Himalayan as a longhaired Siamese, as is the
Balinese. These sumptuous-looking cats were pro-
Solid-color brown cats are uncommon. The Havana duced bycrossing Siamese (for color) with Persians
Brown is such a cat and is the spectacular result of (for t>pe). It has a cobby, Persian body with a long,
many crossbreeding experiments in England during thick coat standing off from the body. Its texture is
the early 1950s. A black Shorthair and a Chocolate fine and glossy, in the CFA Himalayan division, colors
Point Siamese were first used. Later, in the United include Chocolate Point, Seal Point, Lilac Point, Blue
States, several Russian Blues were introduced into the Point, Red Point, Cream Point, Tonie Point, Blue-
 THE BREEDS

This is a natural cat breed of a type that has been

seen in many ancient Japanese paintings and carvings.
Bobtails are considered to be the indigenous cats of
Japan and are believed to bring good luck to house-
holds in which they reside, if they wear the most
popular and traditional coat colors of jet-black and
red-orange irregular spots on a snowy-white back-
ground. Their most recognizable feature is their
bunny-like bobbed tails. Their bodies are medium-
sized, with long, lean, and elegant torsos, but they are
not tubular (that is, not foreign in type). There is no
inclination toward flabbiness or cobbiness. Since
1993, longhaired Japanese Bobtails were accepted by
the CFA in championship competition. Currently, the
breed is seen in a Longhair and a Shonhair division.
The Shorthair coat should be medium in length, soft,
Cream Point, Chocolate-Tortie Point, Lilac-Cream and silky, but without a noticeable undercoat. The
Point, Himalayan-Lynx (Point) Pattern, Seal-Lynx Point, Longhair coat is medium to long, soft, and silky, with
Blue-Lynx Point, Red-Lynx Point, Cream-Lynx Point, no undercoat. Japanese Bobtail colors are White,
Tortie-Lynx Point, Blue-Cream-Lynx Point, Chocolate- Black, Red, Black and White, Red and White, Mi-Ke
Lynx Point, Lilac-Lynx Point, Chocolate-Tortie-Lynx (tricolor — black, red, and white) and Tortoiseshell
Point, and Lilac-Cream Point. The Himalayan personal- (black,ative red,
ity issimilar to that of the Persian. cats whoandlovecream).to be These
with thearehuman
active, members
bright, talk-of
their family.
JAPANESE BOBTAIL

JAVANESE
The Javanese (like the Balinese) is a Siamese with
long hair. The difference between a Javanese and a
Balinese is the wide variety of coat colors allowed
the Javanese by the CFA (but not the four traditional
Siamese point colors). Its body type is foreign (Sia-
mese) with fine bones and firm muscles. The coat
type is of medium length, fine, and silky, without a
downy undercoat. CPA-accepted colors are Red Point,
Cream Point, Seal-Lynx Point, Chocolate-Lynx Point,
Blue-Lynx Point, Lilac-Lynx Point, Red-Lynx
Point, Chocolate-Tortie-Lynx Point, Blue-Cream-Lynx
Point, Lilac-Cream-Lynx Point, Cream Lynx Point, Seal
Tortie-Lynx Point, Seal-Tonie Point, Chocolate-Tortie
Point, Blue-Cream Point, and Lilac-Cream Point.
Named for the island of Java, they are intelligent cats
that are as talkative as the Siamese but with a softer
voice. Their delicate movements and fragile-looking
appearance are misleading. Javanese are strong, mus-
cular, and clever with their paws, capable of opening
drawers and cupboard doors.
ACQUIRING A CAT

1959. The breed was recognized by the CFA for cham-

pionship competition in 1967. It is a medium-sized cat
with a semi-cobby body (neither compact nor svelte),
medium bone structure, and a heart-shaped head.
These cats possess a single coat consisting of short,
fine, glossy hair lying close to the body. The coat color
is seen only in silver-blue all over, tipped with silver,
and the silver should be sufficient to produce a silver
halo effect. The hair is usually lighter at the roots with
a gradient of blue which is deepest just before the
silver tips. Its oversized eyes are luminous green at
maturity and extremely expressive. Because of their
keen senses, they have little tolerance for sudden or
harsh noises. They are intelligent, assertive cats that
crave affection from their families.

MAINE COON CAT

KORAT
The Korat is a rare, ancient, natural breed from Thai- The Maine Coon Cat is considered a native American
land. Itis greatly loved by the Thai people, who regard breed
it as a good luck cat. The foundation stock stems from region that occurred
of the United "naturally" in therugged
States. These New working
England
a male and female imported to the United States in cats were first recognized as a breed in the state of
Maine, where they have endured harsh winters and
hot summers since their ancestors arrived with the
earliest settlers. The Maine Coon is an intelligent cat
with a loving personality. Its transition from working
farm and backyard cat to show cat was a long, difficult
journey. Maine Coon Cats have heavy, shaggy coats,
which are shorter on the shoulders, longer on the
stomach and "britches" (haunches), and long and
flowing on the tail. They have medium to large bodies
that are muscular and broad-chested. Maine Coon Cat
coat colors and patterns include the Solid Color Class,
Tabby Color Class, Tabby with White Class, Parti-color
Class, and Other Maine Coon Colors Classes include
 THE BREEDS
33
shaded and smoke colors. The popular image of the
traditional Maine Coon look is a long, shagg>' coat and NORWEGIAN FOREST CAT
tail, in a brown tabby coat pattern, making the breed
resemble (somewhat) a raccoon. They are friendly,
affectionate cats, and hardworking mousers.

MANX
The Isle of Man, in the Irish Sea, is the home of the
unique cat breed known for its tailless body. This
breed is considered to be a spontaneous mutation.
Although generally identified by its complete lack of
a tail, the Manx is actually seen in three varieties:
"rumpy," no tail at all; "stumpy," a tail stump of one
totailless
five inches;
Manx, and "longie,"is accepted
however, a completefortail.show.
Only The
the
Manx body has a round look, is stout in appearance, The Norwegian Forest Cat is considered a natural cat
medium in size, with a sturdy bone structure. The CFA breed and, as its name implies, it originated in the
accepts the breed in two coat types: Shorthair and rugged woodlands of Scandinavia. Its body is of mod-
Longhair (formerly the Cymric breed). Both coat types erate length, with a substantial bone structure. It has a
have a dense double coat. The Shorthair coat is dense, broad chest, giving the cat a wide, brawny appearance
with a well-padded quality, although it may be thinner without the appearance of being fat. It is a muscular
in the summer months. Its texture is somewhat hard cat, with males larger and more imposing than fe-
with glossy guard hairs. The Longhair coat is of me- males. The hind legs are longer than the front, which
dium length, dense and well padded over the main makes the rump higher than the shoulders. Its double
portion of the body. Its texture is soft and silky, and coat consists of long, smooth guard hairs hanging
it lies smoothly on the body. Its double coat, how- down the sides, giving it an attractive sheen on the
ever, gives it a full, plush appearance. The coat is seen surface, and a dense haircoat on its underside. All
in a variety of solid colors, shaded, smoke, tabby, colors and coat patterns are permitted, except those
and bi-color patterns. The Manx is moderately vocal, showing hybridization resulting in the colors choco-
very playful, and tends to hop like a rabbit as it runs late or lavender/lilac, the Himalayan pattern, or these
because its hind legs are much longer than its fore- combinations with white.
legs. References to the Norsk Skogkatt have appeared in
Scandinavian poetry, legends, and writings for hun-
dreds of years. The Norwegian Forest Cat was recog-
nized and shown in Oslo long before World War II,
but it has been accepted for registration by the CFA
only since 1987 and qualified for full championship
status only since 1993. Topical of the breed personality
are its energ\', intelligence, hunting ability, and en-
dearing response to loving humans.
ACQUIRING A CAT

companion, unafraid of new people and as affection-

OCICAT ate as any other domestic cat. It is a bright adaptive
feline with a highly sociable nature: it does not like
being left alone.

ORIENTAL
Although the Oriental is now seen in both Shonhair
and Longhair coats, the breed was first conceived as a
shorthaired cat in the 1950s by English breeders who
wanted a Siamese-type cat with a solid-color coat
rather than the traditional Siamese color points. This
hybrid was created by crossing the Siamese with vari-
ous shorthair cats, including the Russian Blue. The
breed was accepted by the CFA for championship
competition in 1977. The CFA now divides the breed
into a Shorthair division and a Longhair division.

The Ocicat is a hybrid breed created by crossing Sia-

mese, Abyssinians, and American Shorthairs. It was
the unexpected result of a breeding experiment in
1964 by CFA breeder Virginia Daly. The outcome was
kittens with spotted tabby coats bearing a striking re-
semblance tothe wild'ocelot. Although the breed was
accepted for CFA registration in 1966, it was not ad-
vanced to championship status until 1987. The Oci-
cat's coat bands
hair has is a well-spotted of color on agouti
it ). It is(which meansto large
a medium each
cat of moderate body type with substantial bone, mus-
cle, and weight. It is always seen as a spotted tabby,
with all hairs banded except on the tip of the tail,
which is dark. The coat pattern includes an intricate
tabby M on the forehead. Spots are scattered across
the shoulders and hindquarters, extending as far as
possible down the legs. Ocicat colors are: Tawny
(brown-spotted tabby). Chocolate, Cinnamon, Blue,
Lavender, Fawn, Silver, Chocolate Silver, Cinnamon
Silver, Blue Silver, Lavender Silver, and Fawn Silver,
Despite its wild appearance, the Ocicat is a friendly
 THE BREEDS
35
the late nineteenth century. The history of the Persian
is unrecorded before 1520 and its origin can never be
traced. It may stem from Angora cats from Turkey,
which were crossed with other longhairs from Persia
(now Iran), Afghanistan, Burma, China, Russia, France,
Italy, and England, until the modern type was devel-
oped. Persians are among the most popular cats in the
world and win many of the prizes at important cat
shows. The Persian body is of the cobby type, low on
the legs, deep in the chest, equally massive across
shoulders and rump, with a shon, well-rounded mid-
dle piece. Persians are large or medium in size. The
coat must be long and thick, standing off from the
body, with fine texture. The ruff (or mane) should
be immense and continue in a deep frill between the
The Oriental body is long and svelte. It is fine front legs. The breed is seen in fifty-eight separate
boned yet muscular with a sleek, tubular type of body. colors and color combinations, and in a variety of coat
In the Shorthair division, the coat is short, fine tex-
tured, and glossy, and it lies close to the body. In the The CFA divides Persian colors into seven divisions
patterns.
Longhair division, the coat is of medium length, fine, for showing: Solid Color, Silver and Golden, Shaded
silky, lying close to the body, with no undercoat. A and Smoke, Tabby, Parti-color, Bi-color, and Himala-
wide variety of coat colors are permitted in CFA com-
petition, but they are restricted to only five color Persians are less active than other cats, possibly be-
classes: Solid, Shaded, Smoke, Tabby, and Bi-color. cause of their heavier bodies and shorter legs. Al-
Oriental cats develop intense relationships with though they are quiet and, like all other cats, sleep a
their families. They are friendly and intimate. They yan.
great deal, they are extremely affectionate (with their
crave human attention and contact and are quite asser- families) and enjoy all the attention given. They are
tive at getting it. These highly intelligent cats make playful but not fijssy. Their long, profuse coats require
excellent companions for those with a desire for a daily combing and brushing.
vocal, active, playful, extremely affectionate friend.
RAGDOLL
PERSIAN
This longhair breed was produced in California in the
Considered an ancient, natural breed by many, the 1960s as a hybrid. It was created by crossing a white
Persian can also be classified as a modern breed be- Persian with a Seal Point Birman, and later with
cause itis the result of selective breeding begun in a Sable Burmese. This controversial breed is re-
cognized bymost cat associations including the CFA.
 ACQUIRING A CAT
36
Ragdolls are big cats with broad chests and large hind- short, fine, and plush, with a soft, silky quality. When
quarters. The eyes of tlie Ragdoll should be a deep applied to the coat colors of cats, the term blue refers
sapphire blue, large, oval, and wide set. The coat to various shades of gray, from pale (bright) to dark
should be medium-long to long, plush, and silky. It is (almost steel-blue
seen in three coat patterns; Color Point, Bi-color, and pigmentation fromgray),
blackthatto are
gray.essentially a "dilute"
The Russian Blue
Mitted (having white paw tips). Although all three color must be an even, bright blue shade throughout
patterns are accepted for CFA registration, at this the coat. Lighter shades of blue are preferred in the
writing the Bi-color is the only pattern that can be show ring. The coat's guard hairs should be silver
shown in CFA shows. Colors permitted for show are tipped, creating a silvery, lustrous appearance.
Seal Point Bi-color, Chocolate Point Bi-color, Blue Russian Blues are affectionate cats with their fami-
Point Bi-color, Lilac Point Bi-color. A Bi-color cat must lies but reserved and cautious with strangers. They
have a white facial mask shaped like an inverted V. are quiet and soft-spoken, yet playful, especially with
The stomach, all four legs and feet, and the ruff must children and other pets.
also be white.
The Ragdoll matures gradually and may take as long
as two years to realize its full coat color, and as long SCOTTISH FOLD
as four years to reach its full size and weight. It was
named tlie Ragdoll because it usually falls limp when The Scottish Fold first appeared as a spontaneous mu-
lifted into one's arms. It is an extremely gentle and tation and was developed with other Scottish cats after
easy-to-handle breed and is as docile as a Persian. its unusual
are folded forward ear formation first appeared.
and downward on theThe head.
cats' ears
The
first cat was a white female named Susie, discovered
RUSSIAN BLUE in a litter of normal-eared kittens by William and Mary

The Russian Blue is considered by many to be a natu-

ral breed originating from the Archangel Isles in
northerngland,Russia.
where it wasThe first
breed's
shownpopularity
in 1875 atbegan in En-
the Crystal
Palace Cat Show in London. Although seen in the
United States as early as the turn of the century, it did
not come into its own in Nonh America until the
1960s after it was recognized by the various register-
ing organizations for showing. Since then, it has
gained great popularity as a show cat and as a compan-
ion animal. Russian Blues have fine-boned, long, firm
bodies which are not tubular in appearance.
Their bodies are covered with a double coat, which
stands out because of its density. The coat must be
 THE BREEDS

Ross in 1961 at a farm near Dundee, Scotland. The

Rosses were given one of two folded-eared kittens
from Susie's
eared male andfirstcreated
litter. They bred her tostock
the foundation a normal-
for all
authentic Scottish Fold cats. In addition to its unusual
ears, the breed is characterized by a well-rounded
head, a medium, rounded body that is well padded.
They are all born with straight ears which may or may
not fold over by the third or fourth week of age. Only
those whose ears have folded forward may be shown.
The Scottish Fold coat is now accepted by the CFA
in both Shorthair and Longhair divisions. The
Shorthair coat must be dense, plush, soft textured,
and medium-short in length. The most desirable
Longhair coat is medium to long in length, full on the
face and body, and with a full ruff and plumed tail. neck, tail, and belly. Because of their genetic composi-
The breed is accepted with an extensive diversity of tion, the CFA allows them to be bred for and shown
colors in the Solid, Shaded, Tabby, Parti-color, and Bi- in a wide array of colors in the Solid, Shaded, Smoke,
color patterns. Tabby, Bi-color, Parti-color and Pointed patterns.
Scottish Folds are good-natured, easygoing cats that The breed is different in almost every way from the
can adjust to almost any situation or type of person. Cornish and Devon Rex. Its most unusual feature is its
They are gentle and placid and are as sweet as the curly coat, which is not the wavy coat of the other Rex
expression on their faces. breeds. Selkirks are extremely patient cats with their
handlers and families and are very loving animals.
SELKIRK REX
The Selkirk Rex is the most recent CFA breed at this SIAMESE
writing, and it is working its way to qualifying for The Siamese is a natural breed whose true origin is
full recognition and show status. It is a natural breed Asian, possibly from Siam or Burma. Legends indicate
originating from a house cat. Miss DePesto of Noface, the Siamese originated in Siam as prized possessions
found in a shelter in Wyoming. It was bred with a of ancient kings and priests and were trained to guard
Black Persian, Photo Finish of Deekay, owned by Jeri the royal palaces and temples. The first cats exported
Newman of Montana. Three curly kittens out of six from Asia sailed from Bangkok to London in the latter
were produced, indicating in genetic terms that the part of the nineteenth century. Shordy afterward, they
mutation was dominant. reached American shores, where, by the early twenti-
Selkirk Rexes are expected to be large, heavy- eth century, they began to appear in cat shows.
boned cats, physically influenced by allowed out- Second only to unpedigreed house cats, Siamese
crosses with the Persian, Exotic, British Shorthair, and are the most popular cats in America. Their brilliant
American Shorthair. Its tentative CFA standard calls blue
for a round head and a medium to large and well- tail, andeyeslegsand(in"pointed"
addition to(darker) facial mask,nature)
their affectionate ears,
balanced body that is muscular with a slight rise to have earned them the great favor they enjoy. Once
the hind quarters. The coat is being developed in two stocky and round headed, they have been meticu-
lengths: short and long. The Shorthair is between one lously bred to create the sleek, elegant cats with
and two inches
and flowing with ina length.
full ruff The
and Longhair
tail. The 'sfurcoatshould
is long
be wedge-shaped
crossbreeding faces seen at today's
has resulted in manycat ofshows. Siamese
the currently
soft, plush, full, and conspicuously curly. Although the popular breeds, such as the Balinese, Havana Brown,
coat must be dense, it should be like soft lambswool Himalayan, and Tonkinese.
to the touch. The curls are seen in loose, individual The ideal Siamese is a medium-sized, svelte, refined
curls throughout the entire coat but more around the cat, with long, tapering lines and a body that is muscu-
ACQUIRING A CAT

their complaints. There is no keeping them off your

lap, your bed, even your tabletops.

SINGAPURA

Considered a natural breed, the Smgapura was im-

ported into the United States in the early 1970s from
Singapore. This rare breed was accepted for CFA reg-
istration in1982 and for championship competition
in 1988. It is a small to medium cat witfi a moderately
stocky and muscular body. Its coat is fine and short,
lying very close to the body.
The CFA standard allows the Singapura one coat
lar but lithe. The head must be a long, tapering wedge color and pattern, a sepia agouti (ticked) with dark
with a long and straight nose that is a continuation of brown ticking on a warm, old-ivory ground color.
the forehead with no break. Its eyes are deep blue, Each hair must have at least two bands of dark ticking
almond shaped, and slanted toward the nose. The Sia- separated by light bands. A light band must be next to
mese possesses a short, fine-textured, glossy coat that the skin, and the tip must be dark. The standard also
lies close to the body. Siamese cats are accepted by requires that barring be present on the inner front
the CFA in only four classic colors: the Seal Point, with legs and back knees. Muzzle, chin, chest, and under-
seal-brown, almost black points and a fawn-colored side should be the color of unbleached muslin. "
body; the Blue Point, with deep silver or slate-blue Singapuras are intelligent, curious cats with a high
points and a grayish body; the Lilac Point, with pink- activity level. They become very attached to their
ish-gray points and a glacial white body; and the Choc- human family and playfully interact with them. They
are affectionate.
olate Point, with milk-chocolate points and a pale
ivory body. The crossed eyes, kinked tails, and round
heads of the past
ring, though a fewarebreeders
regardedstillas prefer
flaws inround
today'sheads.
show
SNOWSHOE
This breed is noted for its intelligence and preco-
ciousness. Although the cats are extremely affeaion- The Snowshoe is a hybrid cross between the Siamese
ate, desiring constant close contact, they can be and the American Shorthair Bi-color. The origin of
moody and impatient. They are very talkative and will this breed can be traced to Dorothy Hinds Daugherty
follow their people around, almost like a dog, vocaliz- of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in the late 1960s. Her
ing their hopes, dreams, and desires, not to mention two Siamese cats produced three females with
 THE BREEDS

The Somali is a beautiful, foxlike cat that is a long-

haired variant of the Abyssinian. The breed began ap-
pearing in the United States in the 1960s and was
recognized by the CFA for championship status in
1978. The original Somalis came from matings be-
tween shorthair Abyssinians with a recessive gene for
long hair, which is carried in some Abyssinian blood-
lines.
The body is medium-long, like that of the Abyssin-
ian, lithe and graceful, lying between the extremes of
the cobby
longhair coat and istheofsvelte lengthylength
medium types.except
The Somali's
on the
shoulders, where it is slightly shorter. The breed is
double coated, which means it has a thick undercoat
unique, striking, bi-colored points. The breed name, with a topcoat of long hair that is fine and soft to the
Snowshoe, is derived from their white feet. As a result touch. The ideal Somali has a full rufif of fur around
of promotional efforts in the late 1970s, the Snowshoe the neck, full leg hair on the breeches, and a bushy
has grown in popularity throughout the United States tail, giving a full-coated appearance to the cat. It
and was advanced to CFF championship status in May should look very foxlike. The coat displays an agouti
1983. pattern of coloring (each hair is individually banded
Breed standards call for a cat with a medium-sized with stripes of contrasting color) in a distinct arrange-
body and with bi-color points. The feet and muzzle ment of even ticking (dark colored bands contrasting
are white. Other points may be either blue or seal, with lighter colored bands on the hair shafts). The
with a light-shaded body color. The white markings CFA standard requires that the coat color be warm
should go up to the ankle on the forelimbs and up to and vivid with a bright, clear undercoat. Somalis are
the hock on the hindlimbs. The Snowshoe body expected to have one of the four Abyssinian coat col-
should be closer in appearance to the American ors, which are Ruddy, Red, Blue, and Fawn.
Shorthair than to the Siamese. The coat should be The Somali personality is similar to that of the
medium-coarse, short, glossy, and lying close to the Abyssinian: it is extremely energetic with a high activ-
body. The Snowshoe is typically docile, with a soft, ity level. It is incredibly intelligent and shrewd and
quiet voice. It prefers human or feline companionship knows how to get what it wants from humans. It is a
to solitude. very playful cat who loves to be with its family but not
in a docile way.

SPHYNX
SOMALI
The Sphynx is the result of spontaneous mutations
appearing in several types of cats. After many years
and various attempts to stabilize it in breeding pro-
grams, itwas accepted for championship competition
by The International Cat Association (TICA). It is basi-
cal y ahairless cat with very large ears set evenly on
the head. It has a semi-foreign body type, which looks
like a combination of the Devon Rex and the Cornish
Rex. The body should be dense, bulky, and heavy,
with surprising weight for its appearance. Although
not fat, the cat should give the impression that it has
just eaten a full meal. The shoulders must be well
developed and strong, with the elbows turning out
ACQUIRING A CAT

CFA accepted the Tonkinese for registration in 1978

and gave it full championship status in 1984. The
breed never fails to attract attention at cat shows.
The Tonkinese body is medium in length, striking
a balance between the foreign type and the cobby,
compact body type. Its coat is medium-short in length,
close-lying, fine, soft, and silk>', with a lustrous sheen.
Its most outstanding feature is its coat color. Unlike
that of the Siamese, the Tonkinese point color does
not contrast as sharply with its ground coat color. Still,
there must be a distinct contrast between body color
and points. The Tonkinese ground coat is always a
dilution (lighter shade) of the same, darker point
color. Tonkinese colors are Natural Mink (medium
brown body and dark brown points). Champagne
Mink (buff-cream to beige body and medium brown
points). Blue Mink (soft, blue-gray body and slate blue
points), and Platinum Mink (pale, silvery gray body
with frosty-gray points).
A number of Tonkinese are entered in the CFA
AOV class (AOV means any other variety). The AOV
class is for any registered cat or kitten entitled to
slightly, as on the bulldog. There are few or no whisk- championship competition but which does not con-
ers showing on the muzzle. There is no coat, only form to any accepted show standard. Tonkinese AOV
warm skin with a smooth, soft feel. Small amounts of colors are Natural Solid, Champagne Solid, Blue Solid,
hair are allowable on the bridge of the nose, behind Platinum Solid, Natural Point, Champagne Point, Blue
the ears, on the feet, and on the upper part of the tail. Point, and Platinum Point.
The Sphynx is allowed in all colors and coat patterns Tonkinese are mischievous cats with a devilishly
that appear as skin pigmentation rather than hair. clever sense of humor. They combine all the traits
of the Siamese and the Burmese, which results in
a highly intelligent, completely lovable, talkative,
TONKINESE clownlike cat. They are stubborn, playful, and very
affectionate.

TURKISH ANGORA

The Tonkinese is a hybrid, the result of crossing a

Siamese to a Burmese. It was first accepted by the
Canadian Cat Association (CCA) in 1978 and by vari-
ous American cat associations in the mid-1970s. The
 THE BREEDS

The true Angora was near extinaion in the early twen- on the European continent. In the United States, the
tieth century because they were being replaced by Turkish Van is recognized by most cat-registering or-
Angoras crossed with Persians. The original breed was ganizations, including TICA, ACFA, and CFA.
reclaimed by a stria breeding program initiated by The Turkish Van's body is moderately long, broad,
the Ankara Zoo, in the city for which it is named. muscular, and deep-chested. It is one of the largest
One of the oldest longhair breeds and long fancied in breeds of domestic cat, but takes three to five years to
Turkey, it was first seen in Europe during the Renais- reach full maturity and development. The coat length
sance. The Turkish Angora is radically different from varies from warm weather to cold. Its summer coat is
its relative, the Persian. It has a medium long, wedge- short, giving the impression of a shorthair cat. How-
shaped head and a medium-sized body that is graceful ever, its winter coat is semi-long with a cashmere-like
and fine boned. Its torso is long and lithe, with a texture that is soft and silky with no undercoat. Its
lightly framed chest. Although its coat is usually me- long, bushy tail is foxlike and strongly ringed. The Van
dium-long, itslength may vary. The tail and ruff coat color and pattern are a pure chalk-white body
should be long, full, and finely textured and have a with colored markings confined to the head and tail.
silklike sheen. Leg hair on the breeches should be There may be slight, random markings over the en-
noticeable. Although the solid white Turkish Angoras tire body. Turkish Vans come in solid and white col-
are best known, the breed comes in an extensive ors, tabby and white colors, and pani-color and white
number of colors in the solid, shaded, smoke, tabby, colors.
calico, bi-color, and parti-color patterns. Turkish Vans are strong, agile cats that seem to
The Turkish Angora is a dainty, fastidious animal enjoy being in water and have been known to swim
that loves to run and play zestfully and to be with its in their native regions. They make good companions
family. It is an intelligent cat that responds well to for those who enjoy aaive, intelligent cats.
affeaion and human handling.

TURKISH VAN
This is a natural breed, native to the regions of the
world that include Iran, Iraq, southwest fxjrtions of
the former Soviet Union, and eastern Turkey. It is a
working cat from the remote, mountainous region of
Lake Van, near the border of Iran. It was brought to
England in 1955 and was officially recognized there
in 1969 by the Governing Council of the Cat Fancy
(GCCF), and by the F^d^ration Internationale Feline
de I'Europe (FIFE), which represents many countries
PART II

Pediatrics

The smallest feline is a masterpiece.

— Leonardo da Vinci
 CHAPTER 3

Kittens and Disorders

by Mordecai Siegal and

June Kirvan Tuttle

PLANNING FOR KITTENS

l healthy kittens begins place. On the first day the queen is receptive, she
Produc manying monthsnorma before the expected breeding should be bred at least three times, with the breedings
time. Cats are seasonally polyestrous, and, spaced about four hours apart. The queen and the
although some breeds and some individuals male should then be separated until the next day,
may cycle all year, the majority do not. In the nonh- and then the procedure is repeated each day she is
eastern United States, breeding activity usually be- receptive. Pregnancy often can be diagnosed by ultra-
gins in January or February sound or careful abdominal
and continues in cycles last- palpation by the twenty-first
ing anywhere from twelve to twenty-fifth day of gesta-
to twenty-two days. By Sep- tion; radiographs (x-rays)
tember, virtually all fe- are diagnostic at forty to
males will stop cycling until forty-five days.
the following February. A pregnant queen should
Most females will have their not be overfed. If she is usu-
first litter between twelve ally housed with many other
and twenty-four months of cats, she should be isolated
age. (See Chapter 9: Repro- for the final three to six
ductive Physiology.) Before weeks of pregnancy. A
the breeding season com- queen can experience a
mences, al breeding queens false pregnancy, or can re-
should be well exercised, sorb fetuses, especially if she
free of intestinal parasites, is old, if she feels over-
and up-to-date on their ap- crowded ordisturbed, if she
propriate immunizati ons. They should be fully nour- is unable to make a nest, or if a strange male is pres-
ished and in a relative state of "gain." ent. In extreme situations, she may abort and ingest
The social hierarchy of the cat world must be ca- her fetuses. A nest box should be provided for the
tered to in planning and carrying out the actual breed-
ings. Queens usually ovulate only after copulation, queen. swift andIf easyshe feels
process.secure, "queening"
The first kitten usually is generally
appearsa
often requiring multiple matings for ovulation to take 45 within an hour of the onset of labor. However, the
PEDIATRICS

milk replacer) can be provided by three weeks of age,

it will lessen the need for milk production and may
shorten the time to weaning.

CARING FOR ORPHAN KITTENS

Occasionally, neonatal or young kittens are left with
no queen to nurse them or care for them. If a breed-
ing queen dies after giving birth, rejects her offspring,
is unable to feed all of her young, or has a mammary
disorder such as mastitis, human intervention be-
comes necessary if the kittens are to survive. The task
of "substitute queen" requires meticulous attention to
details and accurate record-keeping. A simple log-
book will track the progress of each kinen and pro-
vide helpful data if one begins to fail.
Kittens should be weighed at birth on a gram scale
(newborns usually weigh between 90 and 110 grams
[3.15 and 3-85 ounces]), and then on a daily basis for
entire litter may be delivered within the first hour, or, the first two weeks. When properly fed, they will usu-
in some cases, the birth may take up to thirty or forty ally double their weight within the first week. In addi-
hours. A dark vaginal discharge indicates placental tion to food, warmth is essential to the well-being of
separation; this persists for only two or three days newborn kittens. A consistent environmental tempera-
after delivery, unless there is a problem. Once labor ture of 90° to 94°F (approximately 32° to 34.5°C) is
has commenced, the queen should not be disturbed recommended for the first two weeks, then 75° to
except to check occasionally tliat all is well. (See Chap- 80°F (approximately 24° to 26.5°C) for the third week.
ter 11: Pregnano' and PAmiRiTiON.) A temporary incubator, using a standard household
sixty-wan bulb placed approximately two and a half
feet above the kittens, should maintain the desired
NEWBORN KITTENS temperature.
When the queen licks her kittens, she is not only
The new family should be left alone in warmth, quiet, cleaning them but also stimulating them to urinate
and solitude. Constant crying, kittens squirming and defecate. Massaging
around the nest box, and restlessness of the queen are area with a warm, damp orcotton
stroking the kitten's
ball will provide anal
the
signs of trouble. Young kittens have a normal rectal same stimulus. Massage the kittens after they have
temperature of about 96°F, which may rise to about eaten and continue the massages for three weeks or
100°F (35.5°C to about 38°C) during the first week, until the kittens are capable of urinating and defecat-
after which the kittens develop the ability to shiver. ing on their own.
Umbilical cords drop off at two to three days, and
ears and eyes open at around six to twelve days. (See MiUz Substitutes
Chapter 4: Feline Behavior.)
Kittens weigh about 100 grams (3.5 ounces) at birth Cow's milk. Cow's milk is sometimes erroneously
and gain approximately 7 to 15 grams per day (a quar- thought to be a substitute for queen's milk. However,
ter to over half an ounce). Thus, they will double their analysis phorus
of ratio
cow's
birth weight by seven days and triple it by twenty-one and milk
lactoseshowslevelsthatarethe toocalcium-to-phos-
high, and the
days (males gaining even faster). Large quantities of energy, protein, and fat levels are too low to sustain a
breast milk are needed, and this is stressful for the growing kitten. Adding egg yolk (creating enriched
lactating mother. If a supplemental food source (e.g., cow's milk) increases the protein and fat to more rea-
 KITTENS AND DISORDERS

sonable levels, but the calcium level remains four newborn kitten are approximately 420 kilocalories
times greater and the phosphorous level two times per kilogram at birth, and by five to six weeks of age
greater than it needs only 240 to 275 kilocalories per kilogram. (A
suitableinsubstitute
queen's milk.longEnriched
for the milk is anit can
term, though un- kilogram is 1000 grams, or 2.2 pounds. A kilocalorie,
be used temporarily until a more appropriate milk a term often shortened to calorie by the nonscientific
replacer is obtained. community, is the amount of heat required to raise
Human baby formula. Commercial human baby the temperature of one kilogram of water one degree
formula, made up at twice the recommended concen- Celsius.) To calculate the daily amount of milk re-
tration, can be used on a shon-term basis for kittens. placer required for the newborn follow these steps:
The percentage of nutrients in baby formula is similar
tolower.
that However,
of cow's milk, 1. Divide thetermine tkitten's
he weight weight in grams by 1000 to de-
baby except
formulathatprovides
the lactose level 50is
less than in kilograms.
2. Multiply the answer from step 1 by 420 (kilocalo-
percent of the protein and fat that growing kittens ries). The result provides you with the number of
require. kilocalories needed daily to sustain the newborn
Commercial feline formulas. The best substitutes kitten.
are commercial products such as KMR (PetAg, Inc.), 3. Find the caloric concentration of the formula on
Havolac (Haver Co.), or Veta-Lac CVet-A-Mix, Inc.), the label. Divide the amount needed by the kitten
which have been specifically formulated to closely by the caloric concentration of the milk replacer.
match the nutrients found in queen's milk. Multiply the answer by the quantity of formula (in
milliliters) that supplies the specified caloric con-
Feeding centration.
4. Take ber theof feedingstotal forpertheday.day and divide it by the num-
Intake is limited by the size of the stomach, and exces-
sive fluid intake must be avoided because a newborn
Some milk replacers provide a feeding chart, which
kitten's
very limited kidneyscapacity. are functionally
Numerous immature and have a
feedings throughout eliminates the need to do any calculations. If KMR is
the day, usually every four hours, will prevent over- used, do not exceed five milliliters (one teaspoon) of
loading the digestive system and kidneys. The number formula per feeding of newborn kittens for the first
of feedings can be decreased, and the intake per feed- week.
feeding.Thereafter, slowly increase the amount per
tures.ing can be increased accordingly, as the kitten ma- Formula should not be fed to a weak and hypother-
mic kitten. Instead, a dilute (5 percent) dextrose solu-
The daily intake of Caloric
food is requirements
based on the for
kitten's
energy requirement. the sterile,tion (sugar
saltwater water)solution
and lactated Ringer's solution
for injection) should be(a
given orally as directed by a veterinarian. Also, the
kitten's body temperature should be gradually in-
creased ina warm environment (85° to 90°F). Formula
can be fed after the kitten's rectal temperature is over
94°F.When preparing formula, make up only enough for
a forty-eight-hour period and divide it into individual
feeding portions. These portions can be stored in the
refrigerator. Before feeding, warm the formula to
about 100°F. 'While warming the formula, sterilize the
feeding utensils in boiling water for fifteen minutes to
destroy harmful bacteria or viruses. All handlers
should wash their hands before feeding or handling
the kittens.
Kinens that did not receive colostrum (first milk
PEDIATRICS

from the mother) should be vaccinated against rhino- choking if fluid is directly dispensed into the lungs.
tracheitis, calicivirus, and panleukopenia at four Despite the drawbacks, tube feeding is considered the
weeks of age. most reliable method for feeding kittens unable to
Special animal-feeding bottles are available at pet suckle or needing immediate nourishment. Tube-fed
stores. These bottles have been designed to meet the kittens should be housed in separate companments
needs of nursing kinens, but sometimes the nipple toears,prevent
openings are the too small. and feet.themA small from catheter
sucking (premature
on each other's infant tails,
size
slowly from nipple,So,enlarge
if the liquid
the holedoesn'tslightly.
drip or 5 French) and syringe work well for tube feeding.
Never force formula by squeezing the bottle while the The catheter can be purchased in most drugstores
nipple is (inhaled
in the kitten and the syringe can be obtained from a veterinarian.
aspirated into "sthemouth.
lungs),Thecausing
liquidaspiration
may be
Before passing the tube
tube for
downthe theproper kitten'slength.
esophagus,
pneumonia, which could be fatal. A medicine dropper carefully mark the This is
can also be used, although the volume will be greatly done by measuring the tube from the last rib, behind
reduced, making feedings more tedious and time con- which the stomach is located, to the opening of the
suming. mouth. Tape can be used to mark the section of cathe-
The kitten should be fed in an upright position to ter that reaches to the mouth. This mark indicates the
avoid its aspirating any fluid into its lungs. Bonle-fed point at which the tube reaches the correct position
kittens must be burped after feeding because of the in the kitten's stomach. Lubricate the tube with warm
air they inhale during feeding. Stomach-tube feeding water
eliminates this step; however, otlier problems are as- throat. orWhile formula beforeis insening
the kitten in an upright it intoposition,
the kitten's
with
sociated with tube feeding, especially the danger of its head tilted slightly up, insert the tube along the
roof of the mouth. If the kitten begins to gag or you
feel resistance, remove the tube and try again. Con-
tinue to pass the tube until you reach the mark on
the tube. After administering a small amount of warm
water to make sure the tube is in the right location,
slowly administer the formula over a rwo-minute pe-
riod. Each week, remeasure the distance from the last
rib to the tip of the mouth and re-mark the tube; the
length will increase as the kitten grows.
A kitten has received an adequate supply of food
when
three its weeks, abdomen kittensfeelscanfull,learnbut tonotdrink
distended. 'Withina
fluid from
dish. The weaning process can be staned when they
are three to four weeks old by adding small amounts
of commercial cat food to the formula.
Feeding problems usually encountered by inexpe-
rienced handlers are overfeeding or underfeeding. A
sure sign of overfeeding is diarrhea. The intensity of
the problem is indicated by the color and consistency
of the stool. The color can range from yellowish to
grayish. A grayish diarrheic stool indicates a more se-
vere problem and may signal impending dehydration.
Failure to gain weight, excessive cndng, listlessness,
and shivering occur when a kitten is underfed. The
best criteria by which to determine if the kitten is
being properly fed are a steady weight gain of ten
grams, or one-third of an ounce, per day and a normal
stool (firm and yellowish). The number of stools is
usually the same as the number of feedings per day.
 KITTENS AND DISORDERS

WEANING KITTENS FROM

BREAST MILK
See "Kittens," Chapter 7: Feeding Cats.

KITTEN DISEASES AND

NEONATAL MORTALITY
Without question, the first two weeks of life are the
most perilous for kittens. Almost all kittens that die
before weaning succumb during this critical time. Ex-
peaed preweaning losses range from 10 to 30 per-
cent, with approximately 65 percent of these deaths
occurring during the first week of life (about half of
which are stillbirths). Deaths after weaning are less
common and normally don't exceed 1 to 2 percent.
When oflessregulating
capable tJian two their
weeks body
of age,temperature.
kittens aren'tTheir
yet
immune systems are still underdeveloped, and they
are not yet able to maintain normal levels of blood
sugar. As a result, hypothermia, low blood sugar, de-
hydration, and inadequate quantities of ox\'gen in the of viral infections, some of which (feline panleuko-
blood are common preludes to death for kittens in penia virus, feline leukemia virus ) may be contracted
this age group, regardless of the initial cause. Because in utero. Panleukopenia virus infection acquired be-
of the limited number of ways neonatal kittens can fore birth or just after birth can produce changes in
respond to(1)illness,
following: mostweight,
low birth "fadinglosskittens" exhibitand/or
of weight, the the cerebellum (the ponion of the brain concerned
failure to gain weight; (2) diminished appetite and with motor function, balance, and coordination), in-
testinal tract, and bone marrow. Infected kittens may
activity; (3) decreased muscle tone; (4) constant vocal- have lowered resistance to other infections, diarrhea,
ization or restlessness early, but increasing quiet and and a wobbly walk. Feline leukemia virus infections
inactivity later; and (5) a tendency to remain separate can cause stillbirths and fading kittens, in addition
from the queen and the rest of the litter. to other signs. Young kittens are also susceptible to
A number of noninfectious causes of kitten death infection with viruses that cause respiratory disease
are most important during the early nursing period. (feline herpesvirus and feline calicivims).
Difficult or prolonged labor, cannibalism, maternal Bacterial infections are usually acquired across the
inattention or overanention, and lactation disorders placenta; during passage through the birth canal; via
are significant queen-related causes of neonatal mor- the umbilical cord, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract,
tality. Extremes of temperature and humidity, inade- or respiratory tract; or through skin wounds. How-
quate sanitation, overcrowding, and stress ultimately ever, kittens nursing from queens with mastitis
discourage nursing or allow hypothermia. (mammary gland inflammation) may become infected
themselves, manifesting signs such as fever, lethargy,
depression, bloating, and diarrhea. Mastitis in queens
Infectious Diseases can be the result of infection with any of a number of
Infectious causes of kitten mortality are more com- bacteria, but Streptococcus spp. (5pp. stands for spe-
mon during the late nursing or early weaning period cies, plural). Staphylococcus spp., and Escherichia coli
than during the neonatal period, although there are are the most prominent. Affected animals become fe-
exceptions. Young kittens are susceptible to a number verish and may refuse food; infected glands appear
 PEDIATRICS
50
red, swollen, and painful. (See Chapter 12: Reproduc- increased thirst and urination, stupor, incoordination,
tive Disorders.) It may be necessary to remove kittens and stunted growth. (See Chapter 26: Liver, Pancreas,
of queens with mastitis and let them nurse from an- and Disorders.)
other queen or give them milk replacer. Veterinary Except for cleft palate, congenital defects of the gas-
attention should be sought immediately. Antibiotics trointestinal tract are fairly uncommon and include
may need to be given to the kittens as well as to their failure of normal development of segments of the in-
mother. In addition, surgical drainage procedures testine, abnormal development of the anus (atresia
may be necessary' to reduce swelling in the affected ani), megaesophagus, and pyloric stenosis. Craniofa-
glands, especially if an abscess has developed. cial malformations occur primarily in Burmese cats
The bacterial agent Chlamydia can produce signs but occasionally are seen in other breeds as well.
ranging from mild conjunctivitis (inflammation of Respiratory system defects include chest wall abnor-
the eyelids) to life-threatening pneumonia. Infection malities and pectus excavatum. Hereditary deafness,
with Bordetella bronchiseptica, another bacterial affecting either one or both ears, is common in white
agent, is being reported with greater frequency than cats. Congenital hernias (especially diaphragmatic,
in the past. Respirator)' tract signs predominate in in- peritoneopericardial, and umbilical) are fairly com-
fected kittens, with pneumonia being the most seri- mon defects in cats. (See Chapter 14: Normal Develop-
ous. (See Chapter 29: Viral Diseases, and Chapter 24: ment AND Congenital Birth Defects.)
Respiratory System and Disorders.)
Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn
Congenital Defects (Neonatal Isoerythrolysis)
Defects present at birth may affect any organ system, The two most common blood types in the cat are type
with grossly apparent anatomic birth defects oc- A and type B, with the allele (one of a pair of genes
cur ing in up to 10 percent of nonsurviving neonatal for a given characteristic) for type A blood being com-
kittens. Birth defecLs that are not grossly obvious (mi- pletely dominant over the allele for type B blood. As
croanatomic birth defects) also occur. Although a result, cats with type A blood may be either homo-
many defects are apparent during the early stages of zygous (genotype AA, having the same two alleles at
the kitten's life, some may not manifest themselves a given location on a chromosome) or heterorygous
until later in life. Congenital defects are often inher- (genotype Ab, having two different alleles at a given
ited, so breeding of cats with such defects should not location on a chromosome), but blood type B cats
be considered, unless it is known with certainty tliat must always be homozygous (genotype Bb). (See
the defect is not inherited. Chapter 13: Genetics, and Chapter 20: Circulatory Sys-
Some of the more common birth defects involving tem AND Disorders.) Approximately 95 percent of type
the nervous system include cerebellar hypoplasia B cats have high levels of antibody directed against
(usually caused by feline panleukopenia virus infec- type A blood cells. Therefore, when a type B queen
tion of the queen or kitten), spinal cord defects like gives birth to type A kittens (as can happen when bred
spina bifida (especially in tailless cats), and various to a type A male), antibodies in her colostrum destroy
storage diseases caused by inborn errors of meta- her kittens' red blood cells, resulting in a profound
bolism (e.g., GM1/GM2 -gangliosidosis, mucopolysac- anemia. This condition, termed neonatal i.soerythro-
charidosis, mannosidosis, and globoid cell leukodys- lysis (NI), usually becomes apparent within one or
trophy). (See Chapter 23: Nervous System and two days after birth and can be rapidly fatal. Severe
Disorders.) Congenital cardiovascular diseases re- depression, anemia, jaundice (yellowing of the mu-
ported in cats include various septal defects, valve cous membranes), brownish-red urine, necrosis of
defects, aortic stenosis, patent ductus arteriosus, and the tail-tip, and respiratory difficulty may be seen. The
tetralogy of Fallot. (See Chapter 20: Circulatory Sys- diagnosis of NI is confirmed by blood typing. Affected
tem and Disorders.) Portosystemic or portocaval kittens should be removed from the motlier as soon
shunts are being diagnosed more frequently than in as signs are seen, foster-nursed or fed feline milk re-
the past. This defect allows blood flowing from the placer, and given supportive care. Because passage of
intestinal tract to bypass the liver, resulting in a variety antibody in the colostrum is transient, affected kittens
of clinical signs such as drooling, behavior changes. can be returned to their queen after twenty-four to
 KITTENS AND DISORDERS

forty-eight hours. Neonatal isoerythrolysis can be pre- more frequently cause disease in young kittens, such
vented byavoiding the mating of type B females to as roundworms, coccidia, and Giardia. These are
t>pe A males. much more common problems than toxoplasmosis
and, in general, are much easier for the veterinarian
Parasitic Diseases to treat. (See Chapter 31: Internal Parasites.)
Acute toxoplasmosis, a disease caused by the proto-
zoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii, may occur in young
kittens, producing a rapidly fatal illness. Cats are the KITTEN BEHAVIOR
natural hosts for Toxoplasma gondii and, in most
cases, are resistant to its disease-producing effects. See "Critical SocialBehavior.
Development Periods in Kittens,"
Under certain conditions, however, the parasite can Chapter 4: Feline
cause fever, pneumonia, diarrhea, depression, and
neurological abnormalities. The prognosis is very Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank
poor in such cases. There are other parasites that Robert W. Kirk for his contribution to this chapter.
 PART III

Feline Behavior

We should be careful to get out of an experience only the wisdom that is in it— and stop there;
lest we be like the cat that sits down on a hot stove-lid. She will never sit down on a hot stove-
lid again — and that is well; but also she will never sit down on a cold one anymore.
— Mark Twain, Following the Equator
 CHAPTER 4

Feline Behavior

by Katherine A Houpt

Catsreputa maketionexcellent pets.essDespite the feline with

cachespeople
of foodmayattracted
have done
rodents,so because
a favorite thefeline
humans'
prey.
for aloofn and indepen-
dence, many owners can attest to the Cats probably chose to live with humans, rather than
strength of the human/companion-cat being captured and deliberately tamed, as dogs and
bond. An understanding of cats, their origins, and other farm animals were; humans may have tolerated
their natural behavior can help deepen our apprecia- the cats' presence because of killers. their valuePerhapsas rodent
tion for our pets. for
When feline misbe- these reasons there
haviors threaten to has been much less
rupture the bond be- selective breeding of
tween owner and cat, cats than of other
application of our domesticated animals.
knowledge of cat be- One need only com-
havior can help stabi- betweenpare thePomeranians
differences
lize the relationship.
and Great Danes, or
between Clydesdale
DOMESTICATION horses and Shetland
OF THE CAT ponies,
how little to appreciate
the feline
We will never really anatomytered.has
be certain how cats In fact,beenthereal-
became domesticated. The available archeological evi- was little selective breeding of cats until just a few
dence indicates that cats began residing with humans hundred years ago.
approximately six thousand to ten thousand years ago. Behavior can also be modified by selection. The
The cat from which the domestic cat originated is most significant behavioral change resulting from do-
believed to be the North African wild cat, Felis libyca mestication ofcatsThisis the species' greater tolerance
(also known as Felis silvestris-libyca and Felis catus human contact. aspect of behavior can also beof
libyca). Those cats that deigned to share their territory strongly influenced by experience. Once cats were
55
 FELINE BEHAVIOR
56
accepted by humans (and vice versa), they soon In a rural setting, cats have territories that can be as
spread from their home in North Africa to the remain- large as three acres per female or thirty acres per
der of the world. Crossing the vast ocean distances male. In cities, densities can be as high as ten cats per
aboard sailing vessels, cats became valued members acre. In general, the dominant tom's territory encom-
of the crew by killing rats and mice and thus pro- passes the females' territories. Although he will not
tecting the cargo and ship's supplies. Today, cats can hunt on the females' territories, he will repel other
be found on ever\' continent except Antarctica.
ofmales.
theirCatshunting may share a general
and other activity"coretakesarea,place
" butwithin
most
exclusive territorial boundaries. Repeated use of terri-
SOCIAL BEHAVIOR AND tory— and presumably repeated marking of territory
ORGANIZATION — is necessary to maintain this exclusiveness.
Cats have a fairly fluid organization in their social
structure. When food is dispersed, as on an island Aggression
inhabited by ground-nesting birds, cats are solitary, SOCIAL AGGRESSION. 'When two cats approach
but when food resources are clumped, as on a dairy each other with aggressive intent, they walk on tiptoe,
farm, cats are more social. They live in groups usually slowly lashing their tails about their hocks, turning
composed of one tomcat and several, usually related, their heads from side to side, and making direct eye
females. The cats rub on one another, groom one contact. These threatening gestures may be sufficient
anotlier, and may share kitten-raising chores but usu- to intimidate the subordinate cat, so that it slinks oflF.
ally will not accept another adult cat into the group. Evenly matched rivals, however, will continue to ap-
This situation is mirrored in many homes when a new proach. They will walk slightly past one another, and
cat is introduced. then one cat will suddenly spring, seeking a grip at
the napediately of throws
the itself
opponent's
on its neck.
back The latter cat imme-
for protection. The
two adversaries will lie on the ground, belly to belly,
as they claw, yowl, and bite at each other. After a few
moments, one cat, usually the initial attacker, jumps
free. The other cat may adopt a defensive posture,
attack, or run away. The victor usually pursues the
vanquished.
When placed together in a home or a laboratory or
on a farm, cats form dominance hierarchies. Cats roll
( )ver not only as pan of courtship, but also apparently
.IS part of a display of low rank or youth. Aggressive
activity may persist, however. Cats may "divide up " a
house: one's territory may encompass the first floor,
the other's territory the second floor. Roommates —
of the human variety, that is — may find that the two
cats belonging to one person will gang up on the
single cat belonging to the other. Urine spraying in
the house, especially on vertical surfaces, may be trig-
gered by the introduction of strange new cats. (See
Chapter 5: Misbehavior.)
SEXUAL AND TERRITORIAL AGGRESSION.
Aggression directed by one sex partner toward die
other is seen most clearly when the tom bites the
nape of the female's neck before mounting. He may
be testing her, for only a female cat in full estrus
 FELINE BEHAVIOR

would submit to such a bite. Immediately after copula innate predatory behavior patterns toward wliatever
tion, the female may turn on the male, hiss, and strike prey their mother gathers for them. She does not
out at him with her claws. Antagonistic interplay allow them simply to eat the prey; she lets the prey
among males competing for access to an estrous fe- go, and then catches it again. If the kittens attempt to
male has provided inspiration for many a cartoon se- catch or eat the prey, the mother will compete with
quence, while serving as an annoyance to both pet them for it. In this way, the kittens are introduced to
and homeowner. hunting behaviors, learning botli by observation and
Cats are considered to be a nonsocial species be- participation. The types of prey brought to the kittens
cause they do not live in groups as adults. The crowd- by their mother may influence the range of prey spe-
ing experienced in an urban setting thus creates many cies they will seek as adults.
territorial disputes, with fighting among intact males One behavioral characteristic that is distasteful to
being a very common problem. Many toms are repeat- some humans is the feline propensity for playing with
edly presented to the veterinarian for treatment of prey, both before and after it is dead. A cat will catch
bite wounds and abscesses, the result of aggressive a mouse, then let it go and catch it again. After the
behaviors. Castration is approximately 90 percent ef- mouse is dead, the cat may toss it into the air with its
feaive in eliminating roaming and fighting, although paws and leap upon it. The precise function of this
the disappearance of either roaming or fighting may behavior is unknown; it may stimulate appetite or,
not necessarily be associated with a decline in the perhaps, reflect a displacement behavior. Truly hun-
other. gry cats rarely play with their prey; they consume it as
PREDATORY AGGRESSION. The tall posture of soon as it is dead
the predatory effort.and they have "recuperated" from
the cat engaged in territorial or sexual aggression is
to be contrasted with the stalking posture of predatory
aggression. The cat on the hunt carries its body as
close to the ground as possible. Ever so slowly, it COMMUNICATING
steals forward toward its quarry, taking advantage of
any natural cover. The closer the stalking cat gets to Jhe Voice of the Cat
its prey, the more slowly it advances. Almost inevita- Cats possess an extensive vocabulary that may not be
bly, the cat will pause before leaping to attack, only recognized by every pet owner. Feline vocalizations
the tip of the tail moving as it lies in wait. Some cats can be divided into low- and high-volume sounds and
make a chattering sound at the same time especially if strained intensity patterns.
they are separated from their prey by a window. Usu- The purr is the easiest low-volume feline sound to
ally two or three quick bounds separate the stalker recognize. Purring is associated with rapid contrac-
from its prey. When attacking a larger animal, cats try tions of the muscles of the larynx and the diaphragm.
to bite the nape of the neck to sever the spinal cord. Purring occurs only in the presence of another cat
Predatory aggression is not easy to elicit in cats that or person; it may be a submissive signal. Other low-
have not been taught to hunt. Kittens raised with a volume calls are the request or greeting call — which
mother that has killed rodents in their presence will can vary from a coax to a command — and the ac-
kill at their first opportunity; kittens raised alone sel- knowledgment orconfirmation call — a short, single
dom do. Apparently, kittens learn to direct various murmur with a rapidly falling intonation.
FELINE BEHAVIOR

Louder calls are the demand, which can also be a are longer than its front legs, it appears to be slanting
begging demand; the bewilderment cry,- the com- downward from rump to head. Its tail is held low but
plaint; the niiklci- nulling call; and the wail of anger. arched away from the hocks and the hair begins to
The growl and hissing are signs of defensive aggres- stand on end. The ears are held erect and swiveled so
sion. Cats that hiss at one another are frightened, but that the openings point to the side. Whiskers are ro-
they will attack if avoidance is not possible. The loud tated forward and claws are unsheathed.
meows may be given by both contestants through- Frightened cat. The body language of a frightened
out a cat fight {caterwauling). Other intense cries in- cat differs from that of an aggressive cat. The fright-
clude the refusal cry, which is low and discontinuous; ened cat crouches, with ears flattened against its head.
spitting, an involuntary' cr\'; the cry of pain; and the It salivates and spits. The pupils of the eyes dilate,
snarl. The male mating cry may also be intense, and whereas the pupils of an aggressive cat constrict. The
the two-syllable call of the estrous female is so charac- light-colored iris ofof themood.
cat's The
eye eyes
makesof ana frightened
especially
teristic that estrus itself is sometimes referred to as prominent signal
calling. or excited cat appear red, because the retinal vessels
can be seen through the dilated pupils. Contrary to
Body Langttage of the Cat popular belief, the body language and expression of
tlie traditional Halloween cat indicate fear as well as
POSTURE. A cat carries its tail high when greeting aggression; the hissing cat with arched back, erect tail,
or investigating, or when frustrated. The tail is de- flattened ears, and hair standing on end corresponds
pres ed and the tip is wagged when tlie cat is stalking. to the fear-biting dog. Such a cat is fearful but will
When the cat is walking or trotting, the tail is held out
demonstrate aggression if its "critical distance" is in-
atincreases,
a 40-degree angleis held
to thelower.
back, Abutrelaxed
as the catcat'susually
pace
the tail that thevaded.hindOne clue
feet toappear
the frightened cat's emotions
to be advancing while theis
stands with its tail hanging and its ears pointed for- front feet retreat; the paws are gathered close together
ward. When the cat's attention is attracted, the tail is under the body.
raised and both ears are pointed forward and held
erect. Raising of the tail might be considered a greet-
ing signal. GAPE, OR FLEHMEN. Adult cats exhibit a unique
Aggressive cat. The aggressive cat walks erect on behavior and facial expression, the gape or Flehmen,
tiptoe with the head down. Because the cat's hind legs at the odor of foreign cat urine. The components of
 FELINE BEHAVIOR

the behavior are the approach, sniffing and licking of VISUAL ACUITY. Communication in cats depends
the urine, flicking the tip of the tongue repeatedly on their ability to perceive messages. A reflective layer
against the palate behind the upper incisor teeth, within the eye, the tapetum, functions to intensify
withdrawing the head from the urine, and opening any incoming light. Cats can discriminate illumination
the mouth and licking the nose. This gape response at one-fifth the light threshold of humans, but their
is not seen in kittens less than five weeks of age resolving power (ability to separate or distinguish
but can be elicited by the age of seven weeks. The two component points from one object) is only one-
response serves to transfer urine to the vomeronasal tenth that of humans. Siamese cats usually do not have
organ, which is a sense organ located between the the normal binocular vision (the ability to focus
mouth and nasal cavity above the hard palate. Cats both eyes on an object) that other cats do. (See Chap-
probably use this organ to identify the sex of the urine ter 18; Sensory Organs and Disorders.)
donor. A question often put to a behaviorist is whether
animals have color vision. Color vision is well devel-
oped in fish and primates, but not generally in other
Perception mammals. Many mammalian species that have cones,
In order to understand how cats communicate we the retinal cells involved in color perception, appar-
need to know what they can perceive. ently do not normally use them. Cats have two types
of cones that should absorb green and blue light;
SMELL. Smell is a ver>' important means of feline however, it is very difficult to teach cats to discrimi-
communication. The most common method of signal- nate among colors, although they learn other visual
ing involves scent marking with urine, anal sac secre- discriminations with ease. So, cats do have some sense
tions, or skin gland secretions. of color vision but do not use it often.
Urine marking. Male cats scent-mark by spraying
urine. Cats defend only a small home range; spraying AUDITORY ACUITY. In hearing, as in vision, cats
by tomcats is a means of marking that territory and of appear to perceive more than humans do. The human
suppressing the sexual behavior of other young toms. ear can detea 8.5 octaves, whereas the feline ear can
This normal behavior can be a significant problem for detect 10. The absolute upper limit of hearing in cats
pet owners. is 60 to 65 kHz (kilohertz, or kilocycles per second).
Scratching. Cats also mark by scratching. Their fa- In comparison, humans have difficulty detecting
vorite targets outdoors are trees with soft bark in the
areas where they spend the most time. Indoors, their sounds above 16 kHz. Thus cats can perceive the ultra-
favorite targets are prominent vertical features such as sonic calls of rodents as well as of their kittens. Be-
couches, stereo speakers, and corners. cause they can hear ultrasound, ultrasonic rodent
Anal secretions. Cats are well known for the fastidi- repellers could be stressful to cats.
ous covering of their feces; however, cats do use anal Despite their mobile ear structure, cats cannot dis-
sac odors for communication. Two strange cats in- criminate between sounds that are less than 5 degrees
vestigating each other spend a considerable amount apart, whereas humans can distinguish between
of time circling one another, attempting to smell in sounds that are only 0.5 degrees apan. When two
the perianal area. If the cats are not overly antagonis- sounds originate close together in front of a human
tic, they will eventually permit each other to smell. being, the person is able to hear two separate sounds;
Skin secretions. Bunting behavior (rubbing the a cat in a similar situation cannot. Without their exter-
side of the head against an object or person) may also nal ears, which ffinnel sounds to their eardrums, cats
be a form of feline olfactory communication, in that would not be able to hear nearly so well as tliey do.
glandular
on the object secretions from the When
being bunted. cat's face
a cataretwines
deposited
itself ACTIVITY PATTERNS. Cats characteristically dis-
around the leg of a chair or a person, it is also transfer- play briefdistributed
bursts of over
activityrwenty-four
(one to two hours'and total
ring odors, in this case from tail glands (the same activity, hours) are
glands that become infected in the stud tail syn- more active during the day than at night. Caged cats
drome, dermatitis
a of the tail). (See Chapter 17: Skin spend ten hours per day sleeping. Ordinary sleep lasts
AND Disorders.) three times longer than dream sleep. To date, no one
60 FELINE BEHAVIOR
lias investigated tlie sleeping and activity patterns of
house cats.
Farm cats spend approximately 40 percent of their
time asleep, mostly during the night. The rest of the
farm cat's time is variably divided into resting (20
percent), hunting (8 percent, though this will varN'
from cat to cat), grooming (8 percent), traveling (22
percent), and feeding (2 percent). Urban cats are most
frequently seen — and presumably are most active —
at night, between the onset of darkness and dawn.

REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR
Only selected aspects of feline mating behavior will
be discussed here. For a full discussion of this subject,
see Chapter 9: Reproductive Physiology; Chapter 10:
MATING; and Chapter 1 1 : Pregnancy and Parturition.
Catnip
The catnip plant {Nepeta cataria) elicits estrus-type
behaviors, and there has been continued debate as to
whether this represents a release of sexual behaviors
or whether catnip is simply a nonspecific pleasure-
inducer. Estrous behavior is similar — but not identi-
cal— to catnip-induced behavior. Catnip also stimu- Kinens ambulate by pulling themselves along with
lates play-fighting and eating behaviors. Catnip does their forelimbs and paddling with the weaker hind-
not induce vulvar presentation, vocalization, or foot- limbs. As they crawl forward, they turn their heads
treading, and cats in estrus do not head-shake as do from side to side. When they encounter the nipple,
cats exposed to catnip. In addition, male cats respond they pull their heads back and lunge forward with
to catnip in a manner identical to that of the female. open mouths. Eventually the nipple is secured in the
The body-rolling and head-rubbing behaviors charac- mouth. The position of the mother facilitates the kit-
teristic ofboth the estrous and catnip-induced states tens' locating her mammary region.
can be induced in males and females by an extract of By the second day, most litters will have established
tomcat urine. Nepetalactone (the chief constituent a teat order that is usually — but not always — fol-
of catnip) may be similar to one of the substances in lowed. Despite what one might think, the larger kit-
tomcat urine, to which most cats respond, but to tens do not always acquire the best-producing glands.
which estrous females may be particularly sensitive. Once the teat order is established, the kitten can use
the presence of its siblings on either side to help
Nursing guide it to the proper nipple, though sometimes the
To locate their mother, newborn kinens probably kittensress.hinder
Kinens massage rather the
than breast
facilitate
with each other'smotions
treading prog-
sense the heat generated by her body, as well as her of their tiny paws. Treading is one readily recogniz-
mobility and responsiveness. Once they are in contacn able behavior of cats that persists into adult life; pre-
with her, the blind and deaf kittens apparently rely on sumably, it is pleasurable in itself or reflects a
their sense of smell and, probably to a greater extent, pleasurable situation — being comfortable or secure
tactile sensations to find the nipple. Generally, most while
kittens are suckling within an hour or two of birth. The snugly
feline ensconced within has
nursing period an owner's lap. into
been divided
 FELINE BEHAVIOR

three stages. In stage 1 (days 1 to 14), the mother

initiates nursing; in stage 2 (days 14 to 21), both CRITICAL SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
mother and kittens initiate nursing; in stage 3 (days PERIODS IN KITTENS
22 to 35), the kittens initiate nursing. Nursing kittens
probably represent a tactile pleasure to the mother at The sensitive or critical period for socialization of cats
first. However, as they grow older and their feeding is two to five weeks. This is earlier than most kittens
demands become more persistent, the female devel- are placed in homes, so it is particularly important
ops an approach-avoidance type of behavior toward that kittens are handled between the time their eyes
her kittens; she discourages their attempts to suckle open and the time they are adopted. A litter of kittens
from the third week onward by moving away from that is born in a cranny inaccessible to humans will
them. Another ploy of the mother is to lick the kittens hiss, when handled by humans, at two or three weeks
vigorously, thus preventing them from nursing. of age, whereas another litter from the same motlier,
if handled daily, will not react fearfully. Handling kit-
theFeline
canine"retrieval"
form. The behavior is quite different
mother retrieves her kittensfromin tens each day for the first month may improve the
response to auditory, rather than visual, cues. The kittens' learning ability.
more a kitten vocalizes, the more the mother is apt to The reaction to weaning varies with the age of the
retrieve it. She usually picks the kitten up by the scruff kitten. Kittens weaned at twelve weeks of age do not
of the neck, though occasionally she grasps the skin cry upon separation, even though they have been liv-
at the back of the skull or even the kitten's whole ing on theirwillmother's
head. Queens are able to lift and even jump several six weeks cry for amilk day alone.
or two. Kittens
Those weaned
weaned atat
feet while carrying a large kitten. In fact, the peak of two days and fed by dropper may cry for a week.
kitten-carrying occurs when the offspring are three A cat that never had the opportunity to play as a
weeks of age. (Picking cats up by the scruff is an effec- kitten will not respond appropriately to play signals
tive means of establishing dominance, even over an as an adult. Kittens have genetic information adequate
adult cat, probably because the cat is being treated to form the neurologic connections in the brain nec-
like a kitten.) es ary for social behavior; however, the complex con-
nections necessary for play form only if a cat has had
Grooming the proper play asexperience Sleepduring its "sensitive" or
"critical " period a kitten.
Grooming plays an important role in feline maternal
behavior, as it does in most other species. Mothers
lick their kittens frequently. In panicular they lick the
perineum (the anogenital area) to stimulate the kit- Sleep in kittens displays a developmental pattern. Al-
ten to urinate and defecate. In common with most though the percentage of time kittens are awake re-
carnivores, female cats ingest the kittens' urine and mains constant as they mature, the percentage of
feces for several weeks postpartum, thereby keeping "dream" or rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep de-
the nest clean. creases, and the percentage of quiet sleep increases.
Muscle rwitching, which is characteristic of dream
Acceptance of Kittens sleep, also decreases with age. Also, sleep cycles are
much shorter in kittens than in adult cats.
At the time of parturition, queens will accept kittens
that are not too much older than their own. Maternal
behavior persists in cats, so that a queen whose kittens Neurological Development
were removed at birth will accept a kitten — or even a The neurological development of the cat is reflected
baby squirrel — weeks later. in the locomotion of the kitten. At first it drags itself
by the forelimbs, but later the pushing movement of
the hindlimbs grows stronger. The eyes open at seven
days of age (ranging from six to twelve days); orient-
ing responses to auditory stimuli develop a day or two
before.
FELINE BEHAVIOR

remains unchanged (fivePlay

cries per minute) through-
out development.

Play in kittens is first seen at the beginning of the third

week. This is approximately the same time at which
the mother begins the process of weaning by repuls-
ingginsher withkittens'
gentleattempts
pawing toat nurse. Play in kittens
one another. be-
As kittens
improve their coordination, biting, chasing, and roll-
ing replace simple pawing. One kitten is usually in
the belly-up position (lying on its back with all four
legs held in a semi-vertical position). Social play in-
creases from four to eleven weeks of age, and then
declines relatively rapidly. At first, three or more kit-
tens may play together, but by eight weeks almost all
play is between pairs of kittens. A reliable sign of play
is thenotarched
has been back and tail,
identified but a definite "play signal"
in cats.
PLAY PERIODS. There are usually four play peri-
ods aday. Kittens nine weeks of age spend almost an
hour a day playing. Most kitten play-bouts begin with
a pounce and end with a chase. In between, the kittens
Visual acuity, or the ability to see, improves sixteen frequently face-off, hunching forward with tails arched
fold between two and ten weeks of age. Adult cats and out and down. They may bat at one another. Kittens
dogs will respond to a silhouette of their own species also assume a vertical stance in play, rearing back on
as they would to an actual animal. Adult cats appar- their hind legs, sometimes standing up by extending
ently are threatened by silhouettes and will exhibit and stretching the legs. Various exotic leaps are also
pUoerection (hair standing up) toward a silhouette seen. Kittens are much more apt to paw, rather than
on its first presentation. Five-week-old kittens show bite, at one another (as puppies do). The common
no piloerection, and six-week-old kittens show very occurrence of pouncing, stalking, and chasing behav-
little, but eight-week-old kittens demonstrate the adult iors in feline play suggests that this play is rehearsal
response to silhouettes. for hunting. During play-bouts, there may be one
Kittens can make ultrasonic vocalizations, which are chase per minute. Play may occupy 9 percent of the
perceived by the mother. As kittens mature, they be- kitten's total time and only 4 to 9 percent of its energy
come more proficient at finding their way back to expenditure, indicating that play may be important
their home ground. They also vocalize less when but it is not energetically costly.
placed on a cold surface (thirty cries per minute at
one day of age versus seventeen cries per minute at PREDATORY PLAY. The mother plays an active
fifteen days). Once their eyes have opened, the kittens role in the
use visual cues to find the nest; prior to that, they use havior. Notdevelopment
only does she ofattack
her kittens'
and eat predatory be-
prey in front
their sense of smell. Very young kittens will become of her kittens, but she also vocalizes to attract the
less active and less vocal when placed on a warm kittens' attention to it. These behaviors occur when
rather than cool surface, but this calming effect of the kittens are four to eight weeks of age. After that
thermal stimuli is lost after the first week. Being left time, the mother defers to the kittens, in that she
alone induces most of the vocalizing (four cries per rarely kills and almost never eats the prey. The kittens
minute) at three weeks of age; younger and older are more apt to interact with the prey if the mother
kittens vocalize less. The response to physical restraint has just been interacting with it than if a littermate
 FELINE BEHAVIOR

has, activity by four and a half months of age and will

Kittensindicating
also learn that other
the mother's influence
tasks better from isobserving
greater. attempt to mount and bite the scruff of females; the
their mother than from observing another cat. females will reject these attempts until they them-
There is a marked increase in predatory activity selves reach sexual maturity a few months later.
around eight weeks of age. At this time, most kittens Young feral cats may also devote more time to finding
will kill and eat mice and more of their behavior is their own prey.
directed toward potential prey than toward playing
with one another. Once the prey is dead and eaten,
the kittens return to playing with one another, indicat-
ing that the motivation to play is still present but over- EATING BEHAVIOR
rid en bythe motivation to hunt. By two months of
age, those kittens that will be frightened rather than Defense of Body Weight
aggressive toward prey (and other cats) can be identi- Cats gain and lose body weight in cycles of several
fied; these kittens are reluctant to explore their sur- months' duration. Food intake may decrease when the
roundings and to relax with humans in a new set point of body weight of the cat falls during a por-
environment. This is unfortunate, because although tion of the eating cycle (the time when appetite regu-
some people prefer that their pet not hunt, and many lates intake to maintain a lower body weight ). Loss of
wish it to be less aggressive to other cats, almost all appetite and weight loss (several hundred grams [half
owners want tlieir cat to be friendly, even in unfamil- a pound] or more) on the part of the cat may produce
iar surroundings. distress on the part of the owner, but this loss is nor-
mal unless the lack of appetite is persistent or other
SEXUAL PLAY. Elements of sexual behavior are not signs of disease are present.
seen in kitten play. Males play more with objects than Cats can eat for calories. For example, they increase
females do; however, females with male linermates their food intake if the water content of their canned
play with objects more than females without male lit- cat food is increased. And because cats consume more
termates. Because cats are solitary creatures for much when their food is diluted with water, their total water
of their adult lives, play may be more important for intake is increased. This may be advantageous in cer-
intraspecies socialization in cats than it is in other tain clinical situations where an increase in water con-
species. sumption isbeneficial, such as idiopathic feline lower
urinary tract disease.
SOLITARY PLAY. Kittens frequently chase small Food intake decreases in hot weather and increases
rolling objects or even a moving string wiggled by in cold weather; this is a reflection of behanioral ther-
an owner. They particularly like to bat at suspended moregulation. Some cats may become obese, espe-
objects, such as window-shade pulls or tassels. Many cially neutered cats and those living in apartments and
of the pounces and face-offs of social play may be eating very palatable diets, but the low rate of obesity
performed alone orbytheir kittens among cats in general is good evidence that this does
mates, amirror, own with "imaginary"
shadow. Solitary play-
play not occur often. Castration of male cats may also lead
persists in many adult cats. Playfulness is a factor for to an increase in body-fat content, but this has not
which breeders should select, because it enhances the been studied thoroughly.
pleasure a cat gives to its owner as well as to itself. Cats increase their food intake when treated with
Social play may also occur between species. Cats will the hormone progesterone, or with benzodiazepine
often play with dogs with which they are familiar. tranquilizers (e.g., Valium). Valium occasionally is
Such interspecies play consists mostly of chases by the used clinically to stimulate appetite.
dog and elaborate pounces by the cat.
Palatability
DECLINE OF PLAY. Several factors may contrib-
ute to the decline of play in kittens. Juvenile and Cats are notoriously finicky eaters, which is a reflec-
young adult cats, for example, begin to sleep more tion of the strong influence of palatability on their
during the day. Older cats tend to spend more time food intake. Most cats prefer fish to meat, as is com-
sitting quietly but alertly. Male kittens show sexual monly recognized, but diey also prefer novel diets to
FELINE BEHAVIOR

familiar ones. Cat food manufacturers undoubtedly

take advantage of both these feline preferences. If a new INTELLIGENCE OF THE CAT
diet is not more palatable than the usual one, a cat will,
after a few days, begin to favor the old familiar food. Ever>'one wants his or her favorite animal species to
And one peculiarity of cats (including exotic cats, such be the smartest, and there is no exception where cat
as lions) is their indifference to table sugar (sucrose). owners are concerned. Certainly cats are intelligent;
they have been smart enough to identify a species,
Meal Patterns humans, that will feed them, buy them large bags of
Kitty Litter, and provide them with the best in medical
Cats eat many small meals, as many as twelve per day, care. They are also intelligent enough to be able to
when given free access to food, both in the light and survive on their own in both urban and rural sur-
in the dark. One might argue that this intake pattern roundings.
is not natural; a carnivore should eat large meals at Objective tests of intelligence in which species are
infrequent inter\'als. Yet the caloric intake per meal is compared are as likely to be biased as are human
approximately equal to that contained in one mouse. intelligence tests. For example, jumping an obstacle is
A feral cat with good hunting skills might easily catch easy for a horse, but a cat would be more likely to
twelve mice (or three rats) per day. (See Chapter 7: climb over it. Similarly, a cat would find it much easier
Feeding Cats.) to manipulate a string than would a horse or even a
 FELINE BEHAVIOR

dog. Dexterity may be confused with intelligence. for food rewards. Bui feline finickiness can interfere
Maze-learningconstraints,
is relativelyyet independent even with the reward value of food. In general, cats
anatomical cats do not doof anwellanimal's
under will work harder for food rewards if the experimenter
such conditions; in fact, their performance is inferior is the person who feeds them in their home cages as
to that of both dogs and large farm animals. Their well as in the learning situation. Kittens will learn
memory for which box contains food or which door more quickly when the reward is freedom to explore
leads to freedom is better, but still they perform less a room than when the reward is food.
satisfactorily than dogs.
Learning Problem Solving
Cats learn to "operate" on their environment in(a order
form Cats are able to form learning sets, a skill once
of learning called operant conditioning) thought to be confined to primates. Learning set, or
to escape from puzzle boxes. They can also learn to learning to learn, refers to an underlying principle by
pull strings to which a piece of food is attached, select- which a variety of related problems can be solved. For
ing the string attached to a morsel of meat from example, cats can learn to solve a problem, such as
among severalthatothers. Cats tocanblink
also orbe to"classically" choosing an object on the left when identical black
conditioned, is, taught salivate in squares are presented as the stimulus, and then learn
response to a tone (a conditioned stimulus) paired much more quickly on the next problem to choose
with an unconditioned natural stimulus (a puff of air the objea on the left when white triangles are pre-
in the case of the blink, or the appearance of food in
the case of salivation), because they must operate on percent sented.
of Afterthefour problems,
original errors,theandcats'onlyerrors fall to 36of
58 percent
the environment in order to receive the reward. Neu- the number of trials originally necessary are needed
rosis can also be produced in cats by requiring them — thus, they have learned to learn. Cats seldom show
to discriminate between two very similar stimuli. "insightful " behavior; that is, they do not learn to
move a lightweight box to a position under a sus-
Discrimination pended piece of fish in order to reach the fish. Cap-
tured feral cats learn discrimination more quickly
The cat's ability to learn discrimination has been used than do cage-reared cats. These findings indicate that
to great advantage by psychophysicists in studying vi- varied environments or experience may lead to an
sion. For example, color vision can be studied by increased learning ability in cats.
teaching cats to discriminate between two symbols,
and then to discriminate further between the symbols
when they differ in no characteristic except color. Cats Imitation
can, in fact, make this discrimination — but only after
1400 trials. As mentioned earlier, cats do have color Learning by observation or imitation occurs in cats.
vision; however, even when brightness is controlled, Cats watching another cat press a bar or jump a bar-
the color stimulus must be large (i.e., the object big) rier to obtain food can learn to press the bar or jump
iiefore a cat is able to make any use of the hue. the barrier much faster than cats who did not observe
a trained animal. Cats can also be misled, however. If
Rewards cats watch another cat obtain food simply by ap-
proaching but not pressing a bar, they will learn to
Unlike dogs, cats will not usually perform in order to bar-press for food more slowly than nonobserving
be reunited with a person; however, cats will perform cats.
 CHAPTER 5

Misbehavior

by Katherine A Houpt and

DaleD. Olm

lem cat to adequately socialize as a kitten. Kittens usually

Catsfree."are They generally easily as "prob
of broke
tlioughthouse n are removed from the mother at six weeks of age,
not especiallyaredanger ous, as dogs may and
be. long before the peak of playful interactions at eleven
Cats are often selected as pets because weeks. Cats that have remained with other kittens for
d
they do not deman as much time or personal longer than six weeks may be more tolerant of other
involvement as dogs. Often, cat owners are unpleas- cats when adult, including courting toms.
antly surprised to discover Playful behavior itself can
that their feline pet does be a behavior problem, par-
misbehave. Feline misbe- ticularly ifit occurs in the
havior may take several middle of the night. This is
forms. The cat may eliminate most likely to happen when
(urinate or defecate) in an the kitten has been alone,
inappropriate place, scratch and probably asleep, for
the furniture, or be aggres- most of die day and thus has
sive to another cat or — had little opportunity to
more rarely — to humans. play. Subsequent gentle
Less commonly, the cat may punishment may inhibit the
be destructive or may meow kitten's play; more likely the
incessantly. Such behaviors kitten will simply move out
are not abnormal for cats, of range and continue to
but they may be discon- race about, knocking over
certing or expensive for the objects. A regularly sched-
cat's owner.
Inappropriate elimination is the most common fe- ning is the best solution for uledthisplay period
problem.in late Cat eve-
toys
line behavior problem presented to the Cornell Fe- also help. One solution is to have two kittens. This
line Health Center staff. Other common problems usually solves the immediate problem, but two cats
include aggression among cats living in a household that play together as kittens may still become incom-
and rejection of the tom by an estrous queen. These
latter two problems may be related to the failure of a chapter.)patible asadults. (See 'Aggressive Behavior," in this
66
 MISBEHAVIOR

and is very difficult to diagnose without an endoscopic

examination of the bladder. This disease may also be
associated with urination outside the box and should
be
ders.)considered, especially if the cat is urinating fre-
quently. (See Chapter 22: Urinary System and Disor-

TERRITORIAL MARKING. Urine spraying (de-

positing urine on vertical surfaces) is common in in-
tact male and female cats. The frequency increases
with hormonal changes during the breeding season.
However, spraying can also occur in neutered cats of
either sex. Usually, a neutered cat's spraying is associ-
ated with conditions of overcrowding and/or aggres-
sive behavior toward other cats.
ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES. Moving to a new
home,tion ofaachange
new cat,in the dog,owner's schedule,
or person to the orhousehold
the addi-
may be sufficient to initiate problems. Although these
stresses often cannot be altered by the owner, recog-
nizing them can lead to a solution that will compen-
sate for the change in the household routine. Stress
HOUSE SOILING may result also from placing the litter box too close
Moving to a new home can elicit one of the most to a cat's food and water, because cats do not like to
eat in the same area in which they eliminate. Position-
common forms of feline misbehavior — house soiling. ing the litter box in a busy kitchen or in a laundry
In a recent survey of cat owners, 24 percent reported room may be convenient for the owner, but it may
that their cats did not use the litter box. Of 62 behav- encourage a sensitive cat to seek a quieter, less con-
ioralimalcasesClinicpresented to Cornell University'sspraying
Small An-or
during 1995, 41 involved from thegestedfloorspot. Oneto aowner
dressermoved her cats'
to prevent her litter box
dog from
inappropriate urination. The sexes were almost getting into the litter. Subsequently, one of the cats
equally represented, 23 males and 18 females; how- stopped using it.
ever, there were distinct differences in the sexual rep-
resentation ofthe problems presented. Under normal
circumstances, cats are fastidiously clean in their elim-
ination habits; therefore some underlying cause(s) for
such misbehavior must exist.

Causes of House Soiling

FELINE LOWER URINARY TRACT DISEASE
(FLUTD). Cystitis, urethritis, and urethral blockage
associated with idiopathic feline lower urinary tract
disease account for a significant number of the cases
of house soiling. Signs associated with FLUTD include
inappropriate urination and passing of bloody urine.
The aversion to the litter box results from associating
it with painful urination or from an urgency to urinate.
Interstitial cystitis occurs in cats as well as in humans
68 FELINE BEHAVIOR
uncovered) of litter boxes in several locations can be
of tremendous help in eliminating bad habits.
If a recent change in litter material has been made,
the material formerly used can be reintroduced in an
attempt to thwart soiling. Offering several types of
material in the different litter boxes, such as sand or
soil, alfalfa pellets, clay (scented and unscented), saw-
dust, paper, or corncobs, can help bypass an aversion
to a specific substance. Most cats prefer the fine parti-
cles of clumping litter. There are a variety of liners
based on grass, grain, recycled paper, and citrus pulp.
For cats that have had access to the out of doors,
mixing soil with the litter can be helpful. If a cat has
been eliminating on rugs, placing a small section of
carpeting in the liner box or attached to the rim may
be helpful, because some cats prefer a material other
than the plastic interior of a liner box to scratch while
making burying movements. It is important to remem-
Treatments ber that cats are creatures of habit; relatively minor
LITTER BOX HYGIENE. To reestablish consistent changes can create confusion. Sight, smell, shape, and,
use of the liner box, it should be made as attractive to to some degree, color, are daily stimuli that elicit ei-
ther apositive or negative response from cats.
the cat as possible. Cleanliness and accessibility are
essential. Clumping liner should be strained daily and RETRAINING. In cases of overcrowding, some cats
nonclumping liner should be completely discarded if
the cat has a soiling problem. The point is to give the require more time alone with the owner. The time
cat a clean place to eliminate. Soiled liner should not can include grooming or permitting the cat to sleep
be stirred because that spreads the urine rather than on the owner's lap. Such tender loving care, or extra
restricting it to one place. When rinsing the litter box, stroking, has helped some cats that appear to be sensi-
vinegar can be used to neutralize any remaining urine tive to competition from other cats in the household.
odor, which may be as offensive to the cat as to the Another solution is to decrease the number of cats
owner. Cleaning products containing ammonia in the house by finding a new home for one or more
should not be used, because they will intensify the of them, or by providing greater access to other parts of
urine odor. Strongly perfumed products may deter the house.
the cat from using the liner box. Even after these steps have been taken, some cats
may still require retraining to the litter box. Con-
LITTER BOX AND LITTER. The number of liner finement to a small room or a cage with a litter box
boxes should be increased to at least one box per cat,
preferably more. This can be of particular benefit in
multicat households, where one cat may be prevented
from using the community litter box by another cat,
or where a cat simply prefers not to eliminate in the
same area as another. Some owners have observed
that their cats use one box exclusively for defecation
and anotlier for urination. Some cats just prefer larger
boxes; others prefer to perch on the edge of the box;
a box with a platform built around the outside can
make these cats more comfortable when using the
box. Providing different sizes and types (covered and
 MISBEHAVIOR

can help. Cats are strongly inhibited from eliminating nated. This does not affect appetite and can save the
in confined areas because they do not like to soil their life of a cat that would otherwise be euthanized.
sleeping quarters. Once the cat begins to use the litter
box consistently again, it may be allowed access to
increasingly larger areas of the house. WITHDRAWAL
Placing the litter box on top of a favorite elimina-
tion site, and then slowly moving it to a more desir- A change in the cat's environment is not always fol-
able location, has also been advocated. A different
approach involves retraining cats in a manner similar lowed by inappropriate elimination. Another re-
sponse may be withdrawal from the owner. In one
to that used for house-training dogs: as soon as they such case, a cat was taken from a suburban setting,
wake up in the morning cats are brought to the liner where it was free to roam out of doors, and relocated
box and praised for using it. in a high-rise apartment. This cat had always been an
Punishment can produce a negative response. Phys- affectionate pet but now ignored the owner for weeks
ical or harshof itsvocal punishment can result after the move. The owner boarded the cat for two
avoidance owner. Occasionally, sprayingin the
a cat's
cat weeks, on its return to the apartment, the cat again
with water or making a loud noise when the cat is became affectionate. The stress of boarding may have
caught in the act of soiling has helped to discourage
use of a specific spot. However, the usual result of this been
the new,responsible for apartment.
less stressful the cat's sudden adaptation to
is that the cat inappropriately eliminates only when
the owner is not present and/or the cat learns to avoid
the owner altogether. Other methods are usually
more effective. AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR
Repellents and other measures to keep a cat from
eliminating in a given area do not usually solve the Aggression, reflecting misbehavior of psychological
problem. The cat usually chooses another area in origin, occurs in cats in t^-o major forms: aggression
which to eliminate and still avoids the liner box. One toward humans and aggression toward other cats.
can tn' the commercial repellents (to which the cats Pathological causes can be varied.
usually habituate), strongly scented soap can be
rubbed on the carpet, a citrus air freshener can be
used, or the area can be covered with aluminum or Aggression Toward Humans
the heavy plastic material used for hall runners. Aggression directed at humans can be subdivided into
If a cat is spraying, it is particularly important first predatory/playful and irritable aggression. The preda-
to resolve the initiating causes, such as overcrowding tory Vfpe of aggression is preceded by stalking and
or exposure to unaltered tomcats. Because a cat first pouncing and is usually centered on tlie feet of a
sniffs an area before actually spraying it, use of an walking person. If a cat is young and has no other
odoriferous repellent may discourage the cat from kitten with which to play, the aggression probably
moistening a wall or drape. However, this may result represents play. In such cases, biting and scratching
only in the cat's selecting a new location. Owners are are usually inhibited. However, if the owners have not
encouraged to have spraying tomcats or queens neut- reprimanded tlie cat for biting too hard in play, it may
ered, thus reducing their natural inclination to mark not have learned to inhibit its bite. Playful aggression
territory-. A variety' of medications including amitript>'- should be redirected toward swinging toys. The
line (Elavil), buspirone (BuSpar), diazepam (Valium), owner may swing a toy from a string and praise the
and progestins (Depoprovera, Ovaban, or Megase) cat verbally for attacking it, but punish the cat for
have been effective in suppressing spraying, probably biting at people's
because spraying is a sign of anxiety. Care must be is to startle it. Waterfeet.gunsThe orbestaerosol
way towater
punishsprays
the are
cat
taken because progestins and sometimes diazepam very effective; even a loud nonhuman noise, like a
have been found to have serious side effects. (See whistle, can be used. Punishments such as these are
Chapter 12: Reproductive Disorders.) best because the cat does not associate the action with
As a last resort, the cat's sense of smell can be elimi- the owner directly. A similar strategy of startling the
 FELINE BEHAVIOR
70
attacking cat is used for true predatory aggression; door is replaced by a clear plastic barrier. The barrier
toys and rewards are obviously not used. is then further modified, so that visual and olfactory
Irritable aggression is usually manifested while a stimuli are added gradually. One way to make use of
cat is being stroked. The cat, particularly if it is a male, the barrier is to entice the cats to play under the door.
may display aggression by applying to the stroker's When they are willing to play, they are less likely to
hand the nape-bite of copulation. If a verbal repri- fight. It is important that both cats play.
Medication has been used to reduce aggression in
flicked mandwith
does notthe suffice,
thumb theandcat'sforefinger.
nose mayThebe owner
lightly
the aggressor and to reduce fear in the viaim. Diaze-
should also pet the cat more gently and for shoner pam (Valium, a benzodiazepine tranquilizer) has been
periods of time. used by veterinarians to treat aggression in cats, some-
times successfully — most often when fear is the cause
Aggression Toward Other Cats of the aggression. In other cases, aggression may actu-
ally be accentuated by diazepam therapy. Progestins
Aggression among cats living in the same household (female reproductive hormones) may also modify ag-
is the most common feline-aggression problem. gressive behavior. Buspirone can be used to reduce
There are three common causes of aggression: (1) fear in the victim, and amitriptyline (Elavil) or paro-
introduction of a new cat, which results in one cat xetine (Paxil), to reduce aggression in the attacker.
(the intruder or die resident) trying to oust the other; Because of the relatively common occurrence of
(2) change in the physical charaaeristics of one cat, inappropriate elimination and aggression among cats
such as its smell, so that the other cat fails to recognize in multiple-cat households, prospective cat owners
it; and (3) displaced aggression: an indoor cat unable should be advised to have only a single cat. It is only
to reach an outdoor cat turns on the nearest cat (or during the cat's developmental play period — from
person). An example of the second type is a cat who four to eleven weeks of age — that companions are
has been hospitalized at the veterinary clinic, who advisable.
may be attacked when it returns, either because it is
weak or because it smells strange.
Some cases of intercat aggression in households Aggression Secondary to Underlying Disease
with three or more cats are a result of sexual aggres- There can be underlying pathological as well as psy-
sion. One cat acts like the torn and is aggressive to any chological causes of aggression in cats. Meningio-
other male whom he perceives as a challenger to his mas (tumors of the membrane covering the brain),
mate, who may be male or female. He will grasp that feline ischemic syndrome (constricted or ob-
cat by the nape of the neck, mount, and thrust. This structed blood vessels in the brain), rabies, and
behavior, as well as spraying, may persist in a castrated toxoplasmosis have all been associated with the
male because his brain was masculinized during de- development of aggressive behavior. Sudden onset of
velopment, and the sexual behavior occurs without such behavior is generally a poor prognostic sign. The
the stimulation of the male hormone, testosterone.
To treat aggression among cats, the animals are first aggressiona cat
example, is usually well directed;attacked
with toxoplasmosis in one dogs,
case, "for
but
physically segregated in different parts of the house. only when she was with her kittens. (See Chapter 23:
At feeding time, the cats, together with their food, are Nervous System and Disorders.)
placed in separate cat carriers or cages that are kept
at opposite ends of a room. Each day the containers
and their contents are moved closer together. As a
result, each cat learns that it will be rewarded with DESTRUCTIVE BEHAVIOR
food only in the presence of the other. When the
cats can eat in their containers side by side, with no As a general rule, cats develop destructive behavior
hissing or growling, it is safe to place them togetlier problems much less frequently than do dogs. Feline
again. destructive behavior appears to fall into three main
A similar method involves feeding the cats on oppo- categories: clawing and scratching, wool-sucking, and
site sides of a solid barrier, such as a door. Next, the plant eating.
 MISBEHAVIOR

Clawing and Scratching

Clawing or scratching misbehavior is believed to rep-
resent grooming behavior, because during the pro-
cess old layers of the claw are loosened and often
shed. It is also a means of marking. Whatever the
motivation, it is an undesirable behavior if a plush
new sofa or draperies are targeted for a clawing. Many
cats are declawed to eliminate the problem, but bad
scratching habits can also be prevented from devel-
oping inthe first place. If kittens are encouraged early
to use a scratching post, they usually will not abuse
furniture or wall hangings. A good scratching post
should be covered with some loosely woven material
— not a firm rug — because the purpose of the post is
to allow the cat to hook its claws into the fabric. Sisal
fabric or even real logs are good scratching surfaces.
The post should be in a prominent spot to mimic the
trees scratched by free-ranging cats. Because cats
scratch most often after awakening, the post should be
placed
teacher near for athekitten
cat'sisusual sleepingso quarters.
its mother, The bestbe
kittens should
obtained from queens that regularly use a scratching
post. Plastic claw covers are another alternative to de-
clawing.

Wool-Chewing
Wool-sucking or wool-chewing is a behavior problem no evidence of a nutritional deficiency; rather, wool-
that occurs with greater frequency in Siamese and chewing appears to represent a craving for fiber or
Burmese cats than in other breeds. It should be differ- indigestible roughage. For this reason, treatment is
entiated from non-nutritive suckling that many early- aimed at supplying plant material that is safe for the
weaned kittens display. Wool-chewing may or may not cat to eat, and by offering wool, such as an old wool
be related to early weaning. Free-ranging feral cats sweater or sock. In order to teach the cat to differenti-
are weaned at approximately six months of age; most ate between things it is allowed to eat and those it is
domestic kittens are weaned earlier. not, a wool object can be doused with cologne and a
Wool-sucking is usually not presented as a clinical solution of hot pepper sauce. The cat will learn to
problem until a cat is an adult. The behavior is charac- associate the aroma of cologne with the unpleasant
terized bychewing with the molars on cloth. The ma- pepper taste, and thus avoid objects that smell of the
terial chewed is usually wool, but in the absence of cologne. Then articles of clothing, blankets, and otlier
wool the cat may select other materials; synthetics, fabrics can be sprayed with cologne alone to deter the
cotton, and even upholstery. Such cats do not chew cat. In severe cases, in which the owner is considering
on raw wool, preferring knitted or loosely woven fab- euthanasia, feeding a cat a raw chicken wing per day
rics. The behavior is sporadic, but gaping holes in is recommended. Although there is a potential danger
cloth (such as garments and bedspreads) can be pro- to the cat in eating chicken bones, one should keep
duced in a matter of minutes. in mind that many cats kill and eat birds regularly
Wool-chewing seems to be related to feeding, be- without suffering ill effects. Some cats have been
cause the behavior can be stimulated by fasting and helped by treatment with drugs such as clomipramine
inhibited by access to plants, bones, or food. There is that are used for compulsive behavior in people.
FELINE BEHAVIOR

Plant Eating al y, afurry toy or shoe is the object chosen to mount.

Male cats may mount other males or even kittens.
Cats often eat grass. This behavior has been observed
in free-ranging, prey-killing cats as well as in those Modifying Unwanted Male Sexual Behavior
eating canned or dry diets. It is not surprising, there-
fore, that cats may also eat houseplants. Plant eating Castration is a widely accepted procedure for modi-
can have serious consequences because many house- fying sexual behavior in male cats. Prepubescent cas-
plants are poisonous. (See Chapter 39: Procedures for tration (before six to eight months of age) generally
Life-Threatening Emergencies, for a complete list of eliminates sexual behavior. Some owners object to a
poisonous plants.) Regardless of whether the plant or "feminized " male and so delay castration until a cat is
the cat is at risk, the behavior is an undesirable one. twelve or fourteen months old, or after the first seri-
Wlien an owner observes a cat eating a plant, the cat ous fight-induced abscess. The effectiveness of castra-
often is punished or frightened away. As a conse- tion in eliminating
previous sexual behavior
sexual experience. dependsareonadvised
Thus, owners a cat's
quence, however, the cat (like the destructive dog) is to restrict access of their male cats to females until
apt to misbehave
solution is to provide in thetheowner's absence.thatA thebetter
green plants cat after uedsurgery, unless they do not mind a pet's contin-
sexual interests.
apparently needs and desires. Plants that are safe for
cats to chew on can be purchased at pet suppliers. Castration seems to be effeaive in reducing or
Wliile the cat is learning that it is allowed access to eliminating fighting, roaming, and spraying. Most cat
one source of greenery, the decorative plants can be owners interviewed two years after having their cats
moved out of its reach. Later, the cat can be taught to castrated reported a rapid or gradual decline in fight-
discriminate between the plants it must not eat and ing, roaming, and spraying. Ten percent of cats con-
those it may. A water gun can be used to punish the tinue to spray, roam, or fight. The failure of surgery
cat and aid in the discrimination process, but this to eliminate these behaviors completely in all cats is
practice depends on the presence of the owner; the probably a result of the learned components of the
cat would have to be separated from the plants in behaviors.
the owner's absence. Another method is to spray the
leaves of the plant with a hot pepper solution. Sur- ABNORMAL MATERNAL BEHAVIOR
rounding the plant with the specially designed train-
ing mouse traps with a plastic flap instead of a killing There are few maternal behavior abnormalities in
bar will discourage the cat, because when touched, cats; in faa, the efficiency of feline reproduction is a
the trap flies into the air, startling the cat. much more pressing problem. Occasionally a queen
may rejea her litter of kinens, but this happens much
less frequently than in other species.
ABNORMAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOR
Reluctance of a male to mate with a female is usually Infanticide
the result gressiveof the Cannibalism by the queen, although rare, does occur,
toward female's being Inexperienced
his advances. nonreceptive andmales
ag-
usually at parturition (birth) or shortly thereafter.
may be especially intimidated by the aggressive re- An inexperienced queen eating the placenta and um-
sponses ofa female that is not in heat (nonestrous). bilical cord just does not know when to stop and
In the laboratory, only one tom in three will consis- accidentally eats the kitten.
tently copulate with fully receptive queens. It is not Very rarely, tomcats have also been known to kill
surprising, therefore, that many visits to the tom may kinens, usually kittens that are not their own.
be necessary before successful breeding takes place.
Estrous females may indicate a mate preference by Mismotbering
actively rebuffing one male or staying near another.
Masturbation occurs in pet cats, including free-roam- Cats sometimes care for one another's kittens and will
ing, sexually active tomcats and castrated males. Usu- nurse communally. An interesting variation on this
 MISBEHAVIOR

occurred in a newly spayed cat that stole the kittens take of energy that exceeds output. Obesity in cats
of another cat in the household. The problem was may result from lack of exercise and highly palatable
easily solved by shutting the natural mother in a room food, so that more energy is being taken in than is
with the kittens. This case illustrates that maternal be- being used, .^artment-dwelling cats are most at risk.
havior isindependent of ovarian hormones and may Apparendy, when given the opportunity, cats will run
be stimulated by a dramatic decline in estrogen and up and down stairs, or patrol if allowed outside,
progesterone levels, which occurs after spaying as enough to maintain a normal body weight. (See Chap-
well as at parturition. ter 8: Diseases of Dietary Origin.)
Because cats learn to socialize almost exclusively as
kittens, orphan kittens should probably be placed Anorexia
with the litter of another lactating queen, if possible.
The nutritional — but not the social — requirements of A much more difficult clinical problem is anorexia
orphan kittens will be met if they are artificially fed. (inappetence), which is seen often in cats. Anorexia is
(SeeDisorders.)
"Caring for Orphan Kittens," Chapter 3: Kittens most commonly encountered in hospitalized cats or
AND in healthy cats that are placed in a boarding kennel.
Sometimes older kittens will show sucking abnor- In a hospital situation, a moderately sick cat may seri-
malities. They may suck on one another, on a human ously compromise its health by refusing to eat. Al-
finger, on cloth, or on wool. Occasionally this behav- though acat can be maintained by intragastric (tube)
ior can be associated with early weaning, but more feeding, it is far more beneficial to the animal to rein-
commonly there is no immediately obvious explana- state volunury feeding, because food taken orally
tion. The sucking, in contrast to fabric chewing, is stimulates gastric and intestinal secretions much more
than does food given by stomach tube.
graduallynotdiminish
usually injuriouswithto age.
the kittens' health and may
The benzodiazepine tranquilizers, particularly Val-
ium, are often used to stimulate the appetite of an
anorexic cat.
ABNORMALITIES OF
INGESTIVE BEHAVIOR
Obesity
Obesity is the result of the most common behavioral
problem, overeating. The cause, simply put, is an in-
PART IV

Nutrition

Or take a cat, nourish it well with milk

And tender meat, make it a couch of silk,
But let it see a mouse along the wall
And it abandons milk and meat and all
And every other daint)' in the house,
Such is its appetite to eat a mouse.
— Geoffrey Chaucer, from "The Manciple's Tale, " Canterbury Tales
 CHAPTER 6

Feline Nutritional

Requirements
by James R. Richards and June Kirvan-Tuttle

Thethosenutrit ional needs of cats differ from have various eating habits: Some eat one meal every
of other domestic animal species. It twenty-four to forty-eight hours, as is common for
is generally agreed that the domestic cat, their wild relatives, and others eat as many as eight to
Felis catus, is most closely related to the sixteen small meals within a twenty-four-hour period.
African wild cat, Felis libyca, and to a lesser degree to A cat's water intake usually coincides with its food
the European wild cat, Felis silvestris. Domestic cats intake. Water is a particularly important need when
share some of the spe- dry cat foods are
cialized characteris- being consumed.
tics associated with The cat's normal
desen animals, such nutritional needs in-
as the ability tourine con- clude proteins, fats,
centrate and minerals, vitamins, as
to conserve water. well as water. These
The relatively short nutrients are required
digestive tract of the to build various struc-
cat promotes rapid tural body tissues
passage of ingesta (anabolism, the
through the system. body's conversion of
Therefore, the cat simple substances
needs highly digest- to complex com-
ible foods to supply pounds); to support
enough nutrients for chemical reactions; to
growth, reproduction, and maintenance. transpon substances in, around, and out of the body;
Feline metabolism is uniquely adapted to a diet and to supply energy for growth, reproduction, and
high in protein and fat. Because cats are strict carni- maintenance. Cat food should also provide diet palat-
vores, their taste preferences and nutritional needs ability. Basic minimum nutritional requirements for
differ from those of herbivores (cattle, for example) cats have been established by the subcommittee on
and omnivores (dogs, humans). feline nutrition of the National Research Council
Cats adapt rapidly to food availability. Domestic cats (NRC), and the nutrient content of cat foods has been
77
NUTRITION

formalized by the Association of American Feed Con- losses during processing, most commercial cat food
trol Officials in the AAFCO Nutrient Profiles for Cat safety. at least 30 percent to provide a margin of
contains
Foods. It is these standards that are used by pet food
manufacturers for formulating cat foods. (See "Eating All animals need about twenty different amino acids
Behavior, " Chapter 4: Fei.ine Behavior.) to manufacture all the necessary body proteins. If an
adequate source of nitrogen is supplied in the diet,
about half of these — the nonessential amino acids
PROTEIN — can be synthesized by the body in adequate quanti-
ties so that dietary supplementation is not needed.
Dietary protein serves as a source of amino acids The remaining essential amino acids are those that
(nitrogen-containing compounds, the chief .structural cannot be synthesized and therefore must be included
components of protein). Amino acids are used to form in the diet. Of these essential amino acids, taurine
the proteins in muscle tissue, in addition to various deserves special consideration.
hormones, enzymes, and body secretions. The metab-
olism ofprotein also provides energy. Kittens require Taurine
at least one-and-a-half times more protein than adult
cats for growth and development, and adult cats re- Problems arising from taurine deficiency include eye
quire the proportional equivalent of twice the protein lesions {central retinal degeneration ), dilated cardio-
required by humans or dogs. The large quantity of myopathy, and reduced reproduction in queens and
ingested protein is used primarily for maintenance growth in kittens. Total blindness can occur within
rather than for growth. Studies show that diets con- two years if the condition is not remedied. Recent
taining 19 percent protein on a dry matter basis are studies have shown that one form of feline heart dis-
sufficient for maintenance, if individual amino acid ease— dilated cardiomyopathy — will develop when
contents are carefully controlled. However, because the diet contains inadequate amounts of available tau-
of differences in digestibility of various proteins and rine. Improvement is often noticeable by the fourth
 FELINE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

day of supplementation. However, dietary taurine sup- FATS

plementation wil help only the specific form of feline
heart disease related to taurine deficiency.
Currently, pet food manufacturers must assure that Dietary fat is a good source of energy for cats. It also
adequate levels of taurine are present in feline diets supplies essential fatty acids (linoleic and arachi-
they produce. The canning process appears to influ- donic acids), acts as a carrier of £at-soluble vita-
ence the availability of dietary taurine, so canned cat mins (vitamins A, D, E, and K), and gives palatability
foods must contain a higher level of taurine than dry to food. Cats unsadon't havethattheareability to desaturate poly-
foods. The AAFCO Nutrient Profiles for Cat Foods re- turated fat yacids derived from vegetable
quires that canned foods contain a minimum of 2000 oil, so they cannot convert linoleic acid into arachi-
milligrams taurine per kilogram of diet; dry foods donic acid. Therefore, arachidonic acid is available to
must contain a minimum of 1000 milligrams per kilo- cats only from animal sources of food.
gram. As a result of almost universal taurine supple- Most commercial cat foods contain at least 10 per-
mentation ofcommercial cat foods, clinical signs of cent crude fat on a dry matter basis. Though rare,
deficiency are now rare. However, feeding diets de- reported signs of essential fatty acid deficiency in-
signed for dogs to cats should be strictly avoided, clude agreasy and flaky hair coat, grov^^h retardation,
because this may result in taurine deficiency. weight loss, impaired wound healing, and an in-
creased susceptibility to infection.
Effects of Food Processing on Amino Acids
Even if the essential amino acids are provided in a MINERALS
diet, it does not necessarily mean that they will be
absorbed and utilized by the body. Several factors A surprisingly small amount of quantitative data is
involved in food processing can render amino acids available concerning the dietary mineral require-
ineffective. These include excessive heat in the pres- ments ofcats. Certain minerals, such as calcium, phos-
ence of sugars and fats, exposure of proteins to strong phorus, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, copper,
alkaline solutions, and oxidization of proteins when zinc,
stored with polyunsaturated fats. informationiodine
and are critical
available for cats'
for other health.
animal Based itonis
species,
assumed that certain other minerals — chlorine, man-
ganese, sulfur, selenium, molybdenum, fluorine,
CARBOHYDRATES chromium, silicon, tin, nickel, and vanadium — also
are essential for cats.
Sugars and starches make up this class of nutrients. Minerals
Although carbohydrates usually make up about 40 (ion) balance,helptissue to maintain
structure,theandbody's
fluid electrolyte
balance and
percent of commercial dry cat foods, they are not a serve as components of enzymes and organic com-
dietar>' necessity for the cat. In fact, cats can be main- pounds. Mineral requirements are all interrelated — an
tained on carbohydrate-free diets in which energy is excessive dietary quantity of one mineral may bind an-
derived exclusively from noncarbohydrate sources. other mineral, preventing its utilization and causing a
Carbohydrates are included as a source of energy and deficiency. Excessive dietary quantities of certain min-
to provide structure for dry cat foods. erals may also have direct detrimental effects on cats.
Lactose (milk sugar, a carbohydrate) intolerance Supplementation with readily available mineral sup-
may occur in mature cats. In such cases there is a plements islikely to be more harmful than beneficial
deficiency of the intestinal enzyme lactase (which and is a main cause of mineral imbalances in cats.
breaks down lactose), resulting in inadequate diges-
tion of lactose and subsequent diarrhea.
Excess carbohydrate is stored in the body as glyco- Calcium and Phosphorus
gen (animal starch) and fat. The primary side effect These are the two major minerals involved in bone
of excessive carbohydrate intake is obesity. and tooth formation. Calcium is also involved in the
mechanism of blood clotting, in nerve impulse trans-
mis ion, and in many other cellular functions. Phos-
80
phorus is important in many metabolic processes, Sodium and Chloride
particulai ly tliose related to energ\' generation and
transfer and tor cell membrane stability. For cats, a These two minerals help Indiscriminate
to maintain the use
body'sof table
fluid
calcium-to-phosphorus ratio of 1:1 up to 2:1 is satisfac- and electrolyte balance.
tor\ for the absorption and utilization of both. salt to provide sodium and chloride is a dangerous
The iiuivr l oiiimon mineral imbalance is caused by practice because of its potential negative effects on
feccliiii; .111 .ill meat diet, which is deficient in calcium. heart and kidney function. Sodium and chloride defi-
Tlic hi>J\ 111 .in attempt to supply the necessary cal- ciencies are extremely rare in cats; however, the signs
cium i > m imiain the calcium level in the blood, re- of deficiency include weight loss, hair loss, and dry
mows calcium from the skeleton. Classic signs of skin.
calcium deficienq' include bone disease (mineral loss
from the bone causing thin, deformed bones) and Iron and Copper
locomotor disturbances. (See "Nutritional Secondary'
H\perparathyroidism," Iron is present in red blood cells in the form of hemo-
System and Dlsorders.) Chapter 21: Musculoskeletal globin, which carries oxygen to the cells, as well as in
An excessive amount of calcium causes slow growth muscle as part of the protein, myoglobin. Copper is
and decreased thyroid function. Excessive amounts of required for normal iron metabolism and aids in
phosphorus promote kidney damage. other functions as well, including the production of
myelin (the substance forming the sheath around
certain nerve cells), melanin (skin pigment), and
Magnesium connective tissue. Anemia is the most profound clini-
This mineral aids in bone growth, deposition of min- cal sign if either of these mo minerals is lacking. Bone
erals atthe necessary sites in the body, and metabolic abnormalities may also occur with copper deficiency.
reactions. A dr\' matter dietary level of 400 milligrams
per kilogram of food (0.04 percent) is the minimum Zinc
requirement suggested by the AAFCO for adult main-
tenance. Agreater amount is recommended during Zinc is present in trace amounts but is widely distrib-
growth and reproduction. Experimental diets defi- uted throughout the body. Certain tissues, including
cient in magnesium have resulted in poor growth of the pancreas, bones, teeth, skin, and male reproduc-
kittens, muscular weakness, irritability, convulsions, tive tissues, contain a significant ponion of total body
inappetence, and calcium deposition in soft tissues. zinc. Zinc is important in the metabolism of nucleic
Most cat foods contain more than the needed amount. acids (the genetic material), carbohydrates, proteins,
Diets with excessive quantities of magnesium (above and fats. Excessive amounts of calcium in the diet can
0.1 percent by weight, i.e., more than 1000 milligrams bind zinc in an insoluble complex, preventing its ab-
per kilogram of diet), have been implicated in the sorption and thus making it inaccessible. However,
formation of urinary struvite crystals and calculi. (See naturally occurring zinc deficiency is rare in cats.
Chapter 22: Urinary System and Disorders.) Signs of a zinc deficiency include emaciation, produc-
tion of defective sperm, general debilitation, retarded
PoUtssium growth, hair loss, and thickening of the skin.
Potassium is found in high concentrations within body
cells. Potassium is panicularly important for proper Manganese
muscle function and for electrolyte (ion) balance. Manganese, a trace mineral, is required by several
When a deficiency occurs — whether caused by diet, enzyme systems and is important for reproduction
diarrhea, kidney disease, or diuretics (drugs that in- and proper bone formation.
crease urine production) — a cat may appear lethargic,
inappetent, and incoordinated. A severe deficiency Iodine
can result in heart failure. (See "Hypokalemic Polymy- Iodine, as a component of thyroid hormones, plays an
opathy," Chapter 21: Musculoskeletal System and Dis-
orders.) important role in proper thyroid function. Thyroid
 FELINE NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS

hormones regulate the overall rate of body metabo- might be seen with cats consuming diets heavily sup-
lism. Iodine deficienq' is manifested by goiter (en- plemented with liver or other organ meats) can be
larged thyroid gland), and cretinism, a syndrome just as harmful, producing deforming cervical spon-
charaaerized by stunting of growth, skeletal defects, dylosis,painful
a degenerative disease of the neck ver-
skin lesions, and dysfunction of the brain. Naturally tebrae. Other bones may also be aflfected. If the diet
occurring iodine deficiency is very rare in cats. is corrected quickly, this condition may be reversible;
more advanced cases produce irreversible crippling.
ders.)
(See Chapter 21: Musculoskeletal System and Disor-
OOier Trace Minerals
The roles of other trace minerals — selenium, sulfur,
fluorine, molybdenum, tin, silicon, nickel, vanadium, VITAMIN D. The metabolism of calcium and phos-
and chromium — in maintaining the health and well- phorus (and probably magnesium) is dependent on
being of cats have not been thoroughly investigated. vitamin D. Bone deformities may occur, most notably
However, it is thought that most or all of these trace rickets in kittens, when the diet is deficient in vitamin
elements are of importance, based on the need for D. However, bone deformities in cats are much more
them in other animal species. commonly caused by feeding all-meat, all-liver, or all-
kidney diets than by feeding a diet deficient in vitamin
D. Overdosing with vitamin D is just as damaging for
VITAMINS cats as it is for humans, resulting in excessive calcifi-
cation of soft tissues in the body. Long-term, over-
Vitamins are categorized as either fat soluble or water zealous vitamin supplementation by owners has
soluble. Deficiencies of the fat-soluble vitamins (vita- historically been the most common cause of vitamin
mins A,D, E, and K) should be considered in cases of D toxicity in cats. However, many commercial rodenti-
pancreatic insufficiency, chronic diarrhea, or other fat- cides now contain vitamin D as the toxic principle, so
absorption problems. Excessive medication with min- acute vitamin D poisoning is becoming a more fre-
eral oil or petrolatum-containing (petroleum jelly) quent problem.
hairball remedies may prevent absorption of fat-solu-
ble vitamins. VITAMIN E. Vitamin E (tocopherol) acts as an an-
Several vitamins are unstable; their destruction may tioxidant, protecting fats in the diet and in the body
be promoted by light, heat, oxidation, moisture, fat from oxidation. It helps to maintain the structure of
rancidity, or combination with certain minerals. Suf- muscle
ficient amounts of these vitamins are required in the cats whencells.theSteatitis diet is lacking("yellowvitamin
fat" disease)
E. This occurs
problemin
diet to ensure that minimum daily requirements are is further aggravated if the cat is consuming a diet
met. Routinely adding vitamin supplements to a com- consisting primarily of red tuna or a diet that is high
plete and balanced, quality cat food incurs additional in polyunsaturated fats. The fatty deposits that are
expense, is unnecessary, and may cause toxicity. found in the soft tissues of steatitis cases are yellow-
orange in color and very firm. If steatitis is untreated,
Fat-Soluble Vitamins death will ensue.
VITAMIN A. Cats lack the enzyme to convert beta VITAMIN K. Cats, like other mammals, need vita-
carotene to retinol, the active form of vitamin A, in min K,which is necessary for proper clotting of blood.
the wall of the small intestine. Thus, they are com- However, a dietary source of vitamin K is usually not
pletely dependent on dietary sources of preformed necessary because adequate amounts are produced
vitamin A, such as organ meats (including liver). Vita- by intestinal bacteria; naturally occurring vitamin K
min A deficiency is quite rare because most cats are deficiency has never been reported in cats.
fed commercial foods, which contain adequate quanti-
ties of retinol. However, deficiency can result in re- Water-Soluble Vitamins
tarded growth, inappetence, weight loss, ocular
infeaions, night blindness, incoordination, and brain VITAMIN B, . Vitamin Bj (thiamin) is essential for
damage. Excessive consumption of vitamin A (as the metabolic processes involved in utilization of car-
IVUTRinON

bohydrates for energ>'. When thiamin is lacking in the FOLACIN (folic acid). Intestinal microorgan-
diet, neurologic disorders may result. All signs of thia- isms are capable of synthesizing a portion of the folic
min deficiency are alleviated after administration of acid required in the form of folate. Kittens on a folic-
the vitamin. acid-deficient diet stop growing and develop anemia.
Thiamin is a heat-sensitive compound — an im- Pregnant cats require additional amounts of folic acid
because a considerable quantity of folate is trans-
tors of portant point that mustcat bediets.
commercial kept Thiamin
in mind also
by formula-
can be ferred across the placenta to the fetuses.
destroyed m the body when raw fish (e.g., herring,
carp) containing the enzyme thiaminase (which de- BIOTIN. Biotin is synthesized in the intestine. Avi-
stroys thiamin) is eaten. Thiamin deficiency is quite din, a constituent protein of raw egg white, can inter-
rare in cats, most cases being the result of feeding act with the synthesized biotin to render it unavailable
diets containing a large proportion of raw fish. to the body. Although eggs are a good source of pro-
tein, fat, and vitamins, they should be cooked before
VITAMIN B2. Certain microorganisms residing in being fed to cats to destroy the avidin. Biotin defi-
the digestive traa of most animals help to synthesize ciency israrely a problem, but prolonged antibiotic
vitamin B, (riboflavin) and thus make it available to treatment could potentially decrease intestinal micro-
the host. It is not known to what extent this holds true bial production of the vitamin. A deficiency of biotin
for cats. Deficiencies of riboflavin do not occur in is evidenced by dried secretions around the eyes,
ordinary' diets, despite the fact that riboflavin loses its nose, and mouth, scaly skin, bloody diarrhea, and
potency when exposed to light. emaciation.
NIACIN. Cats, unlike other species, are unable to VITAMIN B,, (cobalamin). Vitamin B12 is in-
synthesize niacin (nicotinamide) from the amino volved inthe synthesis of nucleic acids (genetic mate-
acid tryptophan and thus must rely completely on rial) and in red blood cell production. Signs of a
their dietary intake to meet their daily requirements. deficiency, which has been seen only in cats eating
Nicotinamide is widely distributed in common feed diets containing all vegetable protein, can include in-
constituents, so signs of deficiency are extremely un- appetence, weight loss, and anemia. In kittens, a vita-
common. min B]2 deficiency may be manifested by retarded
Signs of niacin deficiency include inappetence, oral
lesions, drooling of a thick, odoriferous saliva, diar- growth.
rhea, emaciation, and, if untreated, death within CHOLINE. Choline mobilizes fat from the liver and
twenty days. If a niacin deficiency occurs, then other contributes to the synthesis of metliionine (an
B vitamins probably are alsosources
deficientof the
in aB cat's diet. amino acid). It is also involved in stimulation of nerve
That is because the dietary vitamins cells. Choline is present naturally as a base compo-
are similar. nent of lecitliin (a fatty-acid-containing constituent of
cells). Choline in lecithin is found in organ meats,
VITAMIN B(,. Vitamin B^ (pyridoxine) acts as a eggs, soybean oil, and yeast. The body is also capable
co&ctor (a required constituent) for enzymes in- of manufacturing choline from the amino acid, serine.
volved in protein metabolism and, to a lesser extent, Dietary deficiencies of choline have not been re-
fatty acids and glucose. Pyridoxine is common in most ported inthe cat.
foods; a natural dietary deficiency of this vitamin has
not been reported in cats. VITAMIN C. Cats normally synthesize vitamin C
(ascorbic acid) from glucose, so there is no need to
PANTOTHENIC ACID. A cat's requirement for supplement the diet unless there is a high metabolic
this vitamin is low compared with that for other vita- need or inadequate synthesis. Excessive supplementa-
mins. The likelihood of a deficiency of pantothenic tion may actually be harmful, because excessive
acid is very remote because the normal diet can pro- ascorbic acid is excreted in the urine as oxalate. A
vide more than adequate amounts. If a deficiency does high concentration of oxalate in the urine has the
occur, signs that may be seen include inappetence potential to contribute to the formation of calcium
and weight loss. oxalate stones in the urinary tract.
 FELINE NUnunONAL REQUIREMENTS

Cats are able to concentrate their urine to a greater

WATER extent, thus conserving more water within the body,
than either dogs or human beings. Not even cats, how-
Although water is not usually thought of as a nutrient, ever, can withstand long-term dehydration.
it is in aauality the most essential component of nu- Under normal conditions, water is lost from the
trition for the growth and maintenance of all living body during respiration, urination, defecation, lacta-
organisms. Living cells cannot exist without a tion, and perspiration. These deficits must be replen-
continuous supply of water. An animal is capable of ished in amounts equal to the loss. Water is obtained
losing most of its body sugars and fats, 50 percent of from solid foods and liquids, and by chemical oxi-
its stored protein, and more than half of its body mass, dation (in the production of energy). The amount of
and still surviving. If 10 percent of its total body water water consumed is influenced by body losses re-
is lost, however, an animal will exp>erience severe sulting from environmental conditions (e.g., hot
metabolic changes, loss of 15 percent of its body water weather), illness (diarrhea, vomiting, excessive urina-
is incompatible with life. tion), or increased consumption of salt. Despite their
Water funaions in vinually every life process. It is ability to concentrate their urine, cats should be given
a solvent, a transporter, a catalyst in body chemistry, access to fresh, clean water at all times.
and a vital component of body constituents. Water
constitutes Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank
is distributednearly 70 percent
throughout it. of an animal's body and Mark L. Morris, Jr., for his contribution to this chapter.
 CHAPTER 7

Feeding Cats
by James R. Richards and
June Kirvan-Tuttle

Food isergythe essences ofrequire life, providing the en- CAT FOODS
and nutrient d for growth, re-
production, and maintenance of body tissues. There are three basic forms of commercial cat food
Properly feeding a cat is an important respon- available to nourish cats: dry, semi-moist, and canned.
sibility. This chapter provides some perspective and No one of these forms is inherently superior to the
l
practica guidelines to others, and both good
using the information and poor diets of each
in Chapter 6: Feline type are available. The
Nutritional Require- differences between
ments. these products are
Pet food manufac- their water and nu-
turers have placed trient content, and
great emphasis on the ingredients used.
cat food develop- Forms of cat foods are
ment over the past de-
cades, because of the is" and ondry-matter
compared an "as
proliferation of cats basis in Table 7.1. Dry
and the millions who matter is calculated
have chosen them as after the removal of
household pets. As all moisture from a cat
a result, the varie- food.
ties and brands of cat
foods in the marketplace present complicated choices
for the novice and experienced cat owner alike. Feline Dry Foods
nutritional requirements demand that the caring cat Although referred to as dry, these foods actually con-
owner learn how and what to feed cats. tain from 7 to 12 percent moisture. Common ingredi-

84
 FEEDING CATS

TABLE 7.1. NUTRIENT CONTENTS OF CAT FOOD

DRY SEMI MOIST CANNED RATION CANNED GOURMET
As is Dry As is Dry As is Dry As is Dry
Water 10% 75% 77%
Protein 35%
23% 10% 41% 12%
31% 34% 4% 53%
Fat 11% 12% 10% 36%
16%7% 14% 6% 27%
12% 10%
Ash 7% 8% 2%
41% 46% 5%
27% 41% 10%
Carbohydrates 8%
3%29 33%
approximate 1600 460
kcal'/Ib 1300 3%
approximate
kcal/oz 100 80 550

• Kcal Oneis thekilocalorie

food. abbreviation
is theforamount
kilocalorie,
of heat orrequired
the "large" caloriethe that
to raise is the unitof one
temperature used kilogram
to measureof water
metabolic energy Celsius
one degree and the{centigrade
energy value). Theof
custom in nonscientific circles is to shorten the term kilocalorie to just calorie, however, scientifically, the term calorie is the unit used to
measure the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius. In this book, the34terms calorie and
kilocalorie are used interchangeably to mean the large calorie.
ents include cereal grains, dried poultry, fish, or other up water molecules, making them unavailable for use
meat products, fats, and vitamin and mineral supple- by contaminating microorganisms. These diets also
ments. The most popular formulations are expanded contain preservatives to prevent growth of molds, and
products, created by combining and cooking the non- organic acids to further inhibit growth of bacteria.
fat ingredients, then extruding the mixture (forcing Propylene glycol was commonly used as a humectant
it through a very small opening) under high heat and in semi-moist foods until 1992, when the Food and
pressure and cutting the extruded ribbon into chunks. Drug Administration (FDA) prohibited its inclusion in
The resulting chunks are dried to about 10 percent cat foods, deeming it a potential health risk for cats.
moisture then coated with fat and other palatability Semi-moist foods do not require refrigeration and
enhancers. have a long shelf life. Their lack of odor is appealing
The primary advantages of dry cat foods include to many cat owners. On a dr>'-maner basis, the cost of
lower cost and convenience for ad libitum (free- semi-moist diets usually lies somewhere between dry
choice) feeding. A secondary benefit is that chewing and canned formulations.
dry food may reduce the buildup of dental tartar, thus
maintaining healthier gums and teeth.
Canned Food
Semi-moist Food Canned foods are quite popular, despite their higher
cost. They are highly palatable to cats, which can be
These foods contain anywhere from 1 5 to 30 percent beneficial for finicky eaters but a liability for obesity-
water and consist primarily of cereal grains, animal prone cats. Canned foods also provide a good dietary
tissues, fats, and carbohydrates. The food is often source of water, because approximately three-quar-
formed into pieces resembling tidbits of meat. In ters of canned food is water.
order to prevent spoilage, semi-moist diets contain Complete and balanced canned foods provide all
humectants (sugars, glycerol, or corn syrup) that tie the nutrition a cat needs and contain blends of ingre-
86

dients such as meat, animal by-produas, and vitamin amounts of fiber and water. This section may list the
and mineral supplements. ash or other nutrient contents of the product. Note
Gourmet-type canned foods are usually sold in that these maximum and minimum percentages are
small cans (three or six ounces). Initially, these foods not the actual amounts of these nutrients, so using
featured organ meats (e.g., kidney, liver) or fish as these numbers to compare different products is ill-
their primary food ingredient. Now they are com- advised. Most labels list the guaranteed analysis on an
posed of a wide variety of ingredients, with poultry "as fed" (AF) basistorather than the
on aguaranteed
"dry-matteranalysis
basis"
viscera (poultry by-products) being a major one. (DMB). In order compare
These foods may or may not be nutritionally complete of diets with different moisture contents, it is first
and balanced. It is important to read the label on all necessary to conven the nutrients to a DMB, as was
cat foods for a statement of nutritional adequacy. done to obtain the "dry" columns in Table 7.1.
Canned foods have an extremely long shelf life and
tend to be highly palatable. They are more expensive
onformulations.
a dr>'-matter basis than either dry or semi-moist Ingredient List
The ingredient list must contain all items used in the
product, listed in decreasing order by weight on an
"as fed" basis. As an indication that the product proba-
CAT FOOD LABELS bly contains sufficient animal-source ingredients, ani-
mal-protein-containing ingredients should be first or
There are a number of different governing agencies second in the list for canned products, or within the
involved in the pet food industry. These agencies ei- first three ingredients for dry. It is important to note
ther have regulatory authority or serve in an advisory that the ingredient list provides no information about
capacity, but often their responsibilities overlap. In the quality of the ingredients. Unfortunately, quality
the United States, these agencies are the Association can vary widely and have a major impact on the nutri-
of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO), the Food tional value of the final product.
and Drug Administration (FDA), the United States De-
partment of Agriculture (USD A), the National Re- Nutritional Adequacy
search Council (NRC), and the Pet Food Institute
(PFI). Final authority resides with the feed control Any claims or statements made on pet food labels —
official in each individual state. even the name of the diet — are regulated by each
Current regulations require that labels on cat foods state. A nutritional claimbalanced
such as for
"guaranteed
produced and sold in the United States contain the tionally complete and all stages nutri-
of a
following information: (1) the name of the product, cat's life" (or growth/reproduction or adult mainte-
(2) the name and address of the manufacturer, (3) nance) must be substantiated. Statements of nutri-
the net weight, (4) the guaranteed analysis, (5) the tional adequacy may be substantiated in one of two
ingredients, listed in descending order by weight, (6) ways: (1) the cat food has supported the health of a
the words cat food, (7) the statement of nutritional group of cats enrolled in a series of feeding trials,
adequacy or the purpose of the diet, (8) the method the protocols for which have been established by the
used to substantiate the claim of nutritional adequaq', AAFCO, or (2) based on the expected nutrient content
and (9) feeding directions, if the diet claims to be of the ingredients, calculations have been made and
nutritionally balanced and complete. In spite of the the diet has been formulated to meet the minimum
apparent completeness of the regulations, the labels and maximum nutrient levels as listed in the AAFCO
do not provide information that allows an owner to Nutrient Profiles for Cat Foods. Therefore, it is im-
know the exact levels of the nutrients in the diet, or portant toremember that not every food that carries
the quality or digestibility of the ingredients. the "complete and balanced" label claim has been
proven to be nutritionally adequate by actually feed-
Guaranteed Analysis ing a group of cats. If the label statement merely
claims that the food meets AAFCO Nutrient Profiles,
The section labeled guaranteed analysis lists the min- then feeding trials may not have been conducted. For
imum amounts of protein and fat and the maximum a number of reasons, evaluation of cat foods by feed-
 FEEDING CATS

ing trial is currently the most reliable method of de- on a per-pound basis than either premium or popular
termining the nutritional adequacy of a diet. brands, the often times poorer quality and digestibility
of the ingredients may make these diets a poor bar-
gain. Iffeeding a generic brand of cat food, make
sure the nutritional adequacy has been validated by
COMMERCIAL FOODS feeding trials.
Premium Brands
Premium diets are generally marketed exclusively
through veterinarians, pet stores or feed stores. Gen- HOMEMADE DIETS
erally speaking, premium foods use excellent-quality Formulating and compounding a cat food at home is
ingredients that are highly digestible, with nutrients a difficult, inconvenient, and time-consuming process.
that are readily available to the cat's system. Most pre- Such diets cannot guarantee the presence or availabil-
ingredientsmium foodsbased use aon"fixed formula"
nutritional valuerecipe,
rather choosing
than cost ity of all the nutrients in the right quantities needed
or market availability. Quality standards may be more by the cat. Commercial, nutritionally balanced prod-
strict, and palatability is high. Claims of nutritional ucts are usually advised unless a veterinarian has rec-
om ended ahomemade ration and provided a
adequacy are usually made based upon AAFCO feed- specific recipe that can be accurately compounded at
ing trials, as opposed to the calculation method, thus home.
giving extra assurance of suitability. Though often
costing more gestibility anond nutrient
a ' per-pound" basis,allows
density often the higher
feedingdi-a
smaller quantity, thus offsetting the cost. In fact, the BASIC GUIDELINES FOR FEEDING CATS
cost per serving is usually comparable to grocery
store or "popular" brands of cat food. A disadvantage Environmental
its. For example,conditionsheavily can affect aareas,
trafficked cat's eating
noise, hab-
the
is that free-choice feeding of such product may in-
crease the probability of obesity. presence of other animals, dirty food containers, or
nearby litter boxes can deter a cat from eating. A cat
Popular Brands owner should be sensitive to a cat's eating behavior
and consider making some adjustments to create opti-
These brands are sold primarily through grocery mum feeding conditions.
stores. In the past, most popular brands of food used Food intake is primarily governed by the energy or
a "variable formula" or "least cost" recipe; the ingre- caloric requirement of the individual cat. Commercial
dients varied, depending on the cost and market avail- cat foods are formulated so that if a cat is eating
ability of the ingredients. As a result, quality and enough to meet its caloric requirements, it will also
digestibility varied from batch to batch. Because the be receiving the proper quantities of other nutrients.
formula was not fixed, it was difficult to substantiate The proper amount to feed is determined by the calo-
nutritional adequacy by AAFCO feeding trials, so the ric content and digestibility of the food and the caloric
manufacturer relied on the calculation method. needs of the individual cat. Body condition, activity
Today, almost all cat foods are validated by feeding level, age, reproductive status, and environment are
trials. but a few of the variables that influence a cat's caloric
requirement.
Generic Brands Cat foods claiming completeness and balance must
include feeding instructions on the label. It is im-
"No portant to note that these are only guidelines. Basic
name Name"
of a storebrands
chain,ofarefood, or thoseproduced
sometimes carryingusing
the guidelines on the amount to feed kittens and cats
abeing
"fixedthecost"primary
formula,consideration.
with the costIfofsuch
the ingredients based on average caloric content of foods and caloric
is the case needs of cats are provided in Table 7.2. The proper
nutritional adequacy may not have been substantiated amount to feed is the amount of food that causes the
by feeding trials. Though often considerably cheaper cat to maintain its optimum body weight. This amount
NUTRITION
Dry
TABLE 7.2. GUIDELINES FOR AMOUNTS TO FEED
Ounces per pound of body weight
kcal/lb
113 body wt 1.4
Kittens: 10 weeks 59
20 weeks 45 1.1
0.6 0.7
0.45
30 weeks
40 weeks 0.36 0.6
0.4
Adult cats: Inactive 36 0.32 1
Active 45 0.36 0.4
1.3
0.4 1.2
Pregnant 0.45 0.6 1.4
323656-145
Lactating* 1 3.3
(Adapted from Nutrient Requirements of Cats, National Research Council, 1986.)
• A lactatinggivenqueen's
Amounts in the cnerg>' requirements
above table vary according
are for a lactating queen tonursing
the number of kittens
four kittens in weekin the
6 of litter and they
lactation. increase
The best methodeachforweek
feedingof lactation.
lactating
queens
adjust their intake to individual needs. Overeating and obesity are not usually problems in this class of cats because of the high andenergykittensneed.to
and growing kittens is to allow free access to food at all times. This "free-choice" method of feeding allows the queen
In contrast, the nonlactating cat should be fed the measured amount of food that causes it to maintain optimum body weight.

may vary considerably, containing 50 to 100 percent from one to another, may be prudent. Just as one
more or less than the averages in feeding guides. shouldn't sentence a cat to a single diet for life, nei-
Table scraps and cat treats can be fed from time to ther should one provide a daily smorgasbord; switch-
time, but they should not be given as a steady diet. ing needn't happen very frequently.
These foods lack the proper proportion of basic nutri- If a complete and balanced food is not being fed,
ents acat requires to maintain its health. Treats should the cat should be converted to one that is complete. A
not exceed 5 to 10with
percent good method to convert a cat to a new food is to
biggest problem table ofscraps
the cat's
anddaily
treatsdiet.is The
that mix the new food with the old, starting at a 1 :4 ratio.
the cat may come to prefer them. (Also, scraps teach Increase the amount of new to old food in one-quar-
tlie cat to beg and interfere with eating patterns of the ter increments (i.e., 1:4, 2:4, 3:4) every few days until
family or owner.) the cat is switched to the new food.
Variety Vitamin and Mineral Supplements
If a nutritionally complete and balanced food is being A cat food that is complete and balanced has an ade-
fed, there is probably no need to feed a variety of quate supply of vitamins and minerals. The use of
brands or flavors. However, in spite of careful cat food vitamin and mineral supplements, including brewer's
manufacturing processes and close regulation, diet- yeast, is unnecessary. As mentioned in Chapter 6: Fe-
induced diseases can still occur. Cats fed only one line Nutritional Requirements, a critical balance of
type of food for extended periods of time may be the these nutrients in the diet is required and the addition
ones most prone to such afflictions. Choosing among ofactually
a supplement
a variety of quality products, with gradual transition harm thewithout
cat. a veterinarian's approval may
 FEEDING CATS

Food Storage Milk production is a function of the suckling stimu-

lus and the physiology of the mammary gland. How-
Unused portions of canned food should be refriger- ever, restriaing food intake two to three days before
ated to maintain quality and prevent spoilage until the weaning the kinens may help to decrease milk pro-
next feeding. Refrigerated food should be brought to duaion for queens that previously experienced milk-
room temperature before feeding. This will prevent swollen mammary glands.
possible digestion problems and food rejection re-
lated to low temperature. Cats may also reject food Kittens
heated above room temperature.
Unused portions of dry cat food should be stored Young kittens (approximately ten weeks old) require
in a cool, dry location and used within six months at least one-and-a-half times as much protein and
after purchasing, because studies show that the po- three times the number of calories per pound as adult
tency of several vitamins declines during storage. cats. If the kittens are eating a complete and balanced
Store dry cat food in an airtight container to delay growth formula, the food intake will provide enough
further nutrient deterioration, help maintain palatabil- nutrients for proper growth and development of
ity, and prevent insect and rodent infestation. bones, muscles, and other tissues.
Within the first rwenty-four to thirty-six hours after
birth, the queen's milk contains vital antibodies that
FORCE-FEEDING provide a certain degree of protection against infec-
When sick, a cat may lose its appetite and refuse to Chaptertious 3:diseases.
Kittens (If a and
kittenDisorders,
is orphaned, see "Feeding, "
for recommended
eat. This becomes a serious situation if the cat refuses feeding procedures.)
food for more than several days. The veterinarian may By three weeks of age, solid food should be avail-
recommend force-feeding a cat to prevent further able to the kinens at all times, as they will begin eating
physical deterioration. (See solid food at that age. A commercially prepared kinen
37: Convalescence/Home Care.)"Force-Feeding," Chapter food (growth formula) can be used. Follow the in-
structions onthe label. If the queen has an inadequate
supply of milk, accelerate the weaning process by
SPECIAL NUTRITIONAL NEEDS mixing a milk substitute with the solid food. By the
sixth to eighth week, gradually wean the kittens from
Throughout a cat's life, there are certain stages that the queen.
have different nutritional needs. These include preg-
nancy, lactation, kittenhood, and old age. There are The Geriatric Cat
also special nutritional needs associated with certain
diseases, such as kidney, liver, heart, and intestinal The average life span of the cat is about fourteen
diseases, lower urinary tract disease, obesit\', and dia- years. However, proper nutrition can aid in extending
betes mellitus. Disease-related nutrition is discussed the cat's ological
longevity.
in the individual chapters dealing with the specific changes thatOldmayage require
results changes
in numerous
in thephysi-
diet.
diseases. Some of these changes include reduced kidney, heart,
and pancreatic function, and less physical activity,
which reduces caloric need. Commercial diets have
Pregnancy, Parturition, and Lactation been developed that consider these specialized di-
Pregnant queens require about 25 percent more en- etary needs. The pet food industry has also taken into
ergy (i.e., kilocalories) and other nutrients than account that an older cat's sense of smell is not as
needed for normal maintenance. The nutritional re- acute as it was; therefore, they make the diets highly
quirements oflactating queens has been shown to be palatable to stimulate food intake. The liability' of
two to four times more than for normal maintenance these foods is that they can create obesity — a serious
depending on the number of kittens. Even at this high medical problem — unless the amount of food offered
level of food intake, lactating queens may lose weight. is carefully controlled. For obesity-prone older cats, a
NUTRITION

nutritionally complete diet containing fewer calories require specific amino acids (arginine, taurine),
(often labeled "light") is a good option. B-complex vitamins, preformed vitamin A, and
preformed arachidonic acid (fatty acid). Serious
consequences
in these nutrients. can result if a cat's diet is deficient
COMMON FEEDING PROBLEMS 3. Overdosing with vitamin and mineral supplements
The following feeding errors are common: has been known to cause severe medical problems
in cats. Imbalances from excess vitamins or miner-
1. Overfeeding can lead to the number one dietary- als can result in binding of other nutrients. Clini-
disease, obesity. The guidelines in Table 7.2 help cally, toxicities of vitamins A and D are more
determine how much a cat should be fed initially, common than deficiencies of these vitamins be-
but always feed the amount of food that maintains cause of unnecessary vitamin and mineral supple-
optimum body weight. (See Chapter 8: Diseases of mentation toan already balanced diet.
Dietary Origin.) 4. Exclusively feeding all-fish, all-meat, or other all-
2. Feeding dog food to a cat is a common feeding animal tissue (heart, kidney, or liver) meals results
error, especially if dogs and cats are in the same in an unbalanced diet and causes related dietary
gin.)
household. Dog foods are developed for the nutri- diseases. (See Chapter 8: Diseases of Dietary Ori-
tional needs of dogs, not cats. The nutritional differ-
ences between omnivore (dog) and carnivore (cat)
diets are profound. Cats, as strict carnivores, Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank
require a higher percentage of protein, and they Mark L. Morris, Jr., for his contribution to this chapter.
 CHAPTER 8

Diseases of

Dietary Origin
by James R Richards and
June Kirvan-Tuttle

disease s areor caused by a sur- close to 20 percent are overweight by age two. The
Diet-induced feit or a deficit of one more nutrien ts. researchers also discovered that body weight in-
Such diseases are unlikely to occur in cats creases even more until about seven years of age, at
if they are fed a high-qualiry, balanced, which time it tends to decline, especially in cats over
and complete diet in the ten years of age.
proper quantity. (See Chap
TER 6: Feline Nutritional Re- Signs of Obesity
quirements, and Chapter 7:
Feeding Cats.) This chapter Obesity in animals is an eas-
provides information on ily recognized nutritionalof
some of the more common disorder. The amount
diseases related to con- flesh covering the ribs is
sumption ofan unbalanced generally an accurate indica-
diet. tor of an animal's
condition. When nutritional
an animal
is underweight, the ribs are
OBESITY visible if the cat has a short
hair coat. At normal weight,
Obesity is the most common the ribs are hidden but can
diet-induced disease in cats, be palpated (felt with the
dogs, and human beings in fingers) with ease. When an
the United States. Recent animal is grossly over-
studies involving research- weight, however, the ribs
ers at the Cornell University College of Veterinary are difficult, if not impossible, to feel. A more quantita-
Medicine indicate that 25 percent of cats seen by vet- tive method to determine the extent of obesity is to
erinarians are overweight. Twelve percent of these have a veterinarian establish an optimum body weight
cats are overweight by as early as one year of age, and for the individual cat and then periodically monitor
NUTRITION

its weight. Generally, the ideal weight of a healthy, ible, and stores as body fat more efficiently than pro-
mature cat is approximately eight to twelve pounds, tein or carbohydrates. Highly palatable diets increase
depending on the body conformation. Most nutrition- food intake, and thus caloric intake. Cats are fre-
ists consider a cat to be obese if its weight is in excess quently characterized as finicky eaters. In reality, most
of 15 to 20 percent over ideal. cats are good eaters but have been made finicky by
Characteristically, in obese cats: feeding and management practices. Considering the
• The abdomen protrudes on either side, or ap- incidence of feline obesity, a diet of low caloric den-
pears pendulous. sity and palatability would be of benefit to many cats.
• The face broadens and appears swollen.
• Noticeable bulges are found on either side of the
tail head (where the tail joins the body). Weight Control
• The animal appears to sway from side to side The basic principles of weight control are increased
when walking. physical activity and decreased caloric intake. As a
• Movements appear lethargic. general rule, losing a single pound of fat requires an
• Respiratory problems may be evident. energy expenditure of 3500 calories, or a consump-
tion of 3500 calories less than maintenance need.
Obesity itsnegatively
reducing life span.affects a cat's health,
Overweight cats are potentially
at higher INCREASE ACTIVITY. Getting an obese cat to ex-
risk for the development of diabetes mellitus and may ercise isdifficult for many modern families, but it is
be prone to certain types of liver disease. The added not a totally unrealistic expectation. The owner should
weight puts excessive stress on joints, ligaments, and schedule a regular daily playtime with the cat. Vary
tendons and can aggravate arthritis. Respiratory prob- the cat's exercise activities to include stretching (e.g.,
lems, such as shormess of breath, occur following by dangling a toy for the cat to reach for) and vigorous
exercise because of the excessive amount of body activities (e.g., by dragging a toy across the floor for
tissue requiring oxygen and the inaaivity frequently the cat to chase and leap upon). If the cat has a limited
noted in obese animals. Skin problems occur more space to roam, provide a carpeted climbing post with
often because obese cats are less able to groom them- stepped platforms. If the cat is trained to a harness, it
selves properly. Obese cats are at greater risk of anes- can be taken on walking excursions. These are just a
thetic and surgical complications, too. Other medical few
problems also may be associated with feline obesity; aaivityof totheutilize
ways calories.
to increase an obese cat's physical
however, few published studies are available in this
area. DECREASE CALORIC INTAKE. "Starvation diets"
may produce rapid weight loss, but they can also pro-
duce very serious abnormalities that may jeopardize
Causes of Obesity the cat's life. Starvation diets are not recommended.
Obesity- results when caloric intake exceeds energy Hepatic lipidosis, a serious condition of the liver, has
expenditure over a long period of time. Several other been frequently reported in obese cats placed on se-
factors can contribute to inordinate weight gain in verely restriaed or starvation diets. A judicious, pro-
animals. gressive reduaion of body weight is a far wiser
Sex hormones (such as estrogen and testoster- approach to a feline obesity problem. The caloric in-
one) appear to influence body weight. One study take of overweight cats should be gradually reduced
showed that castrated male cats ate less food than to approximately 20 to 30 percent below the mainte-
intact male cats, but they gained more weight. Neu- nance level in order to produce a slow, steady weight
tering may increase the incidence of obesity in male loss, usually in the range of 1 to 2 percent of the
cats because they have less tendency to roam and to body weight per week. This can be accomplished by
be restless, thus reducing their physical activity. reducing the amount of the regular diet fed by 20 to
The nature and quantity 30 percent. Another alternative is feeding specially
a direct relationship to the ofdevelopment
an animal's offoodobesity.
have formulated diet cat food, available from veterinarians.
Consumption of high-fat diets is conducive to obesity, The feeding instructions, provided by the veterinar-
because fat is higher in caloric density, is more digest- ian, should be followed carefully. During weight re-
 DISEASES OF DIETARY ORIGIN

duction, high-caloric treats and table scraps should diets are adequately supplemented. In many species
not be fed. of animals, sufficient quantities of vitamin D are syn-
For any weight reduction or maintenance program thesized inthe skin when exposed to sunlight. It is
to be safe and successful, close veterinary supervision not known if cats possess this capability.
is required. Kittens with rickets show a bowing of the legs and
adult cats with osteomalacia develop brittle, easily
fractured bones. Treatment involves feeding a com-
DERMATOSES OF DIETARY ORIGIN plete and balanced diet containing an adequate level
of vitamin D. Supplements containing vitamin D are
Dry, scaly skin and a thin, dull, brittle hair coat can be icity.
not recommended because of potential vitamin D tox-
the result of a number of different nutritional imbal-
ances. However, if a high-quality, complete, and bal-
anced diet is fed, these problems should not occur.
Protein deficiency causes disturbances in the pig- STEATITIS
ment of the skin and hair coat. Shedding of hair is
prolonged. Patchy areas of hair loss m.ay occur on the (Yellow Fat Disease)
head, back, abdomen, and legs. This diet-induced disease occurs in cats as a result of
Essential fatty acid deficiency causes a dull, dry, vitamin E deficiency, a consequence of feeding a diet
brittle hair coat with progressive hair loss. The skin containing excessive amounts of unsaturated fatty
becomes dry, scaly, and inflamed. Dry, scaly skin, and
thinning hair may be signs of a biotin deficiency. acids or inadequate levels of vitamin E. Vitamin E de-
Cats that have a deficiency of zinc in their diets ficiency allows damage to body fat, resulting in an
intense, painfijl inflammatory response. Historically,
develop a thin, slow-growing hair coat, scaly skin, and feeding large quantities of red tuna in oil was most
ulcerated lips.
Food hypersensitivity (or allergy) can cause itchy often implicated in the development of steatitis, be-
skin and a variety of skin lesions. (See Chapter 17: Skin cause the product contains high levels of polyunsatu-
AND Disorders.) rated fat and low levels of vitamin E. Currently,
If any of these conditions is suspected, a veterinar- feeding cats large quantities of fish products is the
ian should be consulted, and the diet should be most common cause of the syndrome.
changed to one of known nutritional adequacy. The first visible signs of a vitamin E deficiency are
a greasy, dull hair coat and flaky skin. As the disease
progresses, steatitis develops, producing lumpy fat de-
THIAMIN DEFICIENCY posits under the skin and especially in the groin. Af-
feaed cats develop a noticeable sensitivity to being
Loss of appetite, weight loss, and neurologic disorders touched,
tite. a reluctance to move, fever, and loss of appe-
occur when thiamin (vitamin Bj) is lacking in the diet. Diagnosis by a veterinarian is usually based on the
Certain food-processing procedures, and the enzyme
thiaminase, found in raw fish, can destroy vitamin B,. patient's history andincludes
tissue. Treatment on a surgical biopsyof fish
elimination of thefromfat
Fortunately, pet food manufacturers routinely add thi- the diet, switching to a high-quality, balanced, and
amin and other vitamins to offset processing losses. complete commercial cat food, and vitamin E supple-
Cats eating a raw fish diet may suffer a deficiency of mentation.
thiamin if other foods are not eaten or the ration is
not supplemented in some other way.
NUTRITIONAL SECONDARY
RICKETS AND OSTEOMALACIA HYPERPARATHYROIDISM
A deficiency in vitamin D causes rickets in kittens and This disease is caused by eating a diet deficient in
osteomalacia (bone softening) in mature cats. These calcium or unbalanced in calcium and phosphorus.
diseases are very rare in cats because commercial This type of dietary disorder occurs most commonly
94
when cats eat a diet consisting primarily of muscle However, excesses of vitamins A and D can over-
or organ meat (such as hean, liver, or kidney). The
absolute or relative deficienc\- of calcium causes re- Vitaminwhelm theD.body's normalquantities
Excessive regulatoryof mechanisms.
vitamin D in the
lease of parathyroid hormone (PTH), causing cal- diet can be toxic to cats by causing calcification of
cium to be removed from bone in an attempt to various tissues, particularly the kidney, lungs, large
maintain the blood calcium level. Kinens are at blood vessels, and intestinal tract. Once calcification
greater risk bccau.se they require a larger amount of has occurred, signs indicative of organ dysfunction
calcium toi ihcii ui owth and development. may appear. Chronic ingestion of high levels of vita-
Reluctance to move, incoordination, and sometimes min D can also cause skeletal abnormalities, resulting
lameness of the hindlimbs are often the first signs in in weakness, joint pain, and stiffness.
kinens. Bone fractures readily occur, but many may Vitamin-D-containing rodenticides (mouse and
heal unnoticed. Osteomalacia occurs in mature cats rat poisons) are highly toxic and potentially devasta-
suffering from the disea.se. The removal of calcium ting to cats, causing acute kidney failure and calcifica-
from the bone to replace the missing dietary calcium tion of all the major organs. Death often occurs within
takes longer in the adult cat than in the kinen because four to five days unless treaunent is prompt and ag-
of the lower need and food intake per pound of body
weight in the adult. The radiographic telltale signs gressive.
Diagnosis of vitamin D toxicity is based on the clini-
of the demineralization process are bones with thin cal signs and a history that usually includes adminis-
cortices (outer layers), and bone fraaures. Treatment, tration of a vitamin supplement or ingestion of a
when possible, consists of providing affected cats with vitamin D rodenticide. Treatment of dietary excess
a nutritionally balanced diet to correct the calcium- simply involves eliminating the source of the excess
phosphorus imbalance. Attempting to supplement an vitamin D. In cases where extensive calcification of
imbalanced diet with calcium is not recommended. body tissues has occurred, the prognosis is guarded.
(See Chapter 27: ENDOCRiiNE System and Disorders, and Treatment of cats with vitamin D rodenticide toxicity'
Chapter 21: Musculoskeletal System and Disorders.) requires hospitalization, coupled with intense therapy
and monitoring. The prognosis is variable, depending
on the amount of poison consumed and how quickly
treatment can be instituted.
CENTRAL RETINAL DEGENERATION Vitamin A. Cervical spondylosis (deformity of
Previously, it was believed that this ocular disorder neck vertebrae) and deformity of limbs and bones
was hereditary in nature. Subsequent studies have are caused by hypervitaminosis A. It is most often
shown, however, that central retinal degeneration is associated with feeding large amounts of liver, cod
caused most commonly by a dietary taurine defi- liver oil, or vitamin A supplements. In some cases,
ciency. Cats require taurine in their diet because they the skeletal changes are irreversible. (See Chapter 21:
are unable to synthesize this essential nutrient. Musculoskeletal System and Disorders.)
Blindness occurs as degeneration of the retina
progresses. Central retinal degeneration can be pre- FELINE LOWER URINARY
vented by providing a high-quality, balanced, and TRACT DISEASE
complete diet.
Feline lower urinary tract disease (RUTD) includes a
wide range of bladder and urethral problems with an
VITAMIN A AND D TOXICITIES equally wide range of causes. Diet has been impli-
cated as one of the contributing factors, especially in
Vitamin A and D toxicities occur more frequently than the formation of urinary crystals and uroliths
do deficiencies of either vitamin. This is attributed (stones) composed of struvite (magnesium-ammo-
partly to the common belief that kittens require addi- nium-phosphate crystals) However, in a recent report,
tional quantities of these nutrients for growth and only 23 percent of cats with RUTD had struvite uro-
development, and the administration of vitamin liths, sothe role these mineral deposits play in urinary
supplements containing high levels of these vitamins. tract disease may be smaller than previously sus-
 DISEASES OF DIETARY ORIGIN

peaed. However, in many cats, the prevention of alate uroliths. Recent surveys suggest that although
struvite continues to be an important and efifeaive the incidence of struvite uroliths is decreasing, the
means of managing FLUTD. number of cats with calcium oxalate uroliths seems to
Diets designed to produce urine with an acid pH be on the rise. (See Chapter 22: Uripsary System and
(between 6.0 and 6.6) reduce the formation of struvite Disorders.)
uroliths. In experimental studies, it has been shown
that diets excessively high in magnesium can also con-
tribute tostruvite formation, although magnesium has
much less efifect than urine pH. The AAFCO Nutrient DILATED CARDIOMYOPATHY
Profiles for Cat Foods requires that balanced and com- RESULTING FROM TAURINE
plete commercial foods contain a minimum of 0.04 DEFICIENCY
percent magnesium on a dry-matter basis for adult A diet deficient in the essential amino acid taurine has
maintenance diets. Most cat foods contain higher lev-
els than this but still considerably lower than the been shown to be a cause of dilated cardiomyopathy.
amount needed to induce formation of struvite uro- However, the incidence of dilated cardiomyopathy is
liths experimentally. now greatly reduced because complete and balanced
Urine-acidifying diets are beneficial in preventing cat foods are required to contain adequate levels of
struvite uroliths, but problems can develop if the taurine.
orders.) (See Chapter 20: Circulatory System and Dis-
urine is too acidic. A condition called metabolic aci-
dosis can be produced, and as a consequence, kidney
and bone health can be impaired. In addition, exces- Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank
sive acidification may increase the risk of calcium ox- Mark L Morris, Jr., for his contribution to this chapter.
 PART V

Sex and

Reproduction

Cats do not copulate with a rearward presentment on the pan of the female, but the male
stands erect and the female puts herself underneath him, and, by the way, the female cat is
peculiarly lecherous, and wheedles the male on to sexual commerce, and caterwauls during
the operation.
— Aristotle, History of Animals, Book V

— Oh Auntie, isn't he a beauty! And is he a gentleman or a lady?

— Neither, my dear! I had him fixed. It saves him from so many undesirable associations.
— D. H. Lawrence, "Puss Puss!"
 H

Reproductive Physiology
by Donald Lein

In human beings and some nonhuman primates, of its reproductive physiology. Most mammals, includ-
females experience menstrual cycles. Approxi- ing human beings, are spontaneous ovulators: at a
mately once a month, they produce a vaginal given stage in the female reproductive o'cle, regard-
discharge of blood and tissue — the menses — les of whether sexual intercourse has occurred, an
from the nonpregnant uterus, for a period of about ovum is produced by a follicle in the ovary. The cat,
five days. Between menstrual periods, the ovaries pro- however, is a reflex ovulator: an ovarian follicle pro-
duce an ovum or egg, which can be fertilized by duces an ovum only in response to mating.
the male reproductive Feline reproduc-
cell (the sperm). Sex- tion also differs in an-
ual receptivity of the other way. The cat,
female is not depen- like the horse, is sea-
dent on the stage of sonally polyestrous
the menstrual cycle. — that is, the queen
By contrast, most experiences estrous
other female mam- cycles during one part
mals— including cats of the year (usually
— experience an es- Februarytober in thethrough Oc-
trous cycle. Estrus Northern
is a recurrent period Hemisphere). During
of varying length, dur- the fall, the cat experi-
ing which the female ences asexually inac-
ovulates (releases an tive period known as
egg from the ovary), anestrus.
produces a watery secretion from the genital tract,
and becomes sexually receptive to the male. Estrus is
preceded by several days of proestrus and is fol- THE FEMALE
lowed byseveral days of metestrus. It is separated
from the next estrus by a quiescent period known as The female feline reproductive system consists of the
diestrus or interestrus. vulva (entrance to the vagina), clitoris, vagina, cervix
The cat is unusual among mammals in some aspects (entrance to the uterus), uterus, two uterine tubes
99
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

(or fallopian tubes), and rwo ovaries. The uterus is Y The estrous cycle and interestral periods are quite
shaped, formed by two uterine horns anteriorly and variable in length. Proestrus lasts for as many as three
a short body joining the cervix posteriorly. Four days, followed by an estrus of three to twent>' days
(sometimes five) pairs of nipples are found on the (the average is seven or eight days). Estrus is mani-
lower abdomen and chest wall. fested bya marked change in personality, constant
Blood serum levels of estradiol (ovarian estrogen) calling, rolling, and rubbing against objects, and exhi-
rise during proestrus, from tlie formation of ovarian bition ofthe crouched mating stance with treading of
follicles (sacs) that are capable of producing eggs the hind legs. The interestral period lasts three to
(ova). During proestrus, follicle growth and develop- fourteen days; it averages nine to thirteen days during
ment progress rapidly over a two- to three-day period the breeding season but can be as long as thirty days.
just prior to the onset of estrus. Estrus usually begins Thus,val from
the onset lengthofofonean unbred
as serum levels of estradiol peak, or during the subse- estrus toqueen's
onset ofcycle
the (the
next)inter-
can
quent rapid decline. Basal (base) estradiol levels of 5 range from six to forty days; most q'cles last twelve to
to 20 picograms per milliliter of serum (a picogram, twenty-two days.
or micromicrogram, is one-trillionth — 10 '■^ — of a If not mated, most queens will experience nonovu-
gram) peak at 40 to 100 pg/ml by or before the onset latory estrous cycles throughout a breeding season.
of estrus. Levels greater than 20 pg/ml are closely This situation results in periods of behavioral estrus
associated with the manifestation of sexual behaviors. (i.e., manifestations of heat) interrupted by periods of
It is at this time that the queen becomes receptive to sexual nonreceptivity.
the male; she is then considered to be in estrus (in
heat)
Ovulation during estrus depends on the release of THE MALE
sufficient amounts of luteinizing hormone (LH)
from the anterior pituitary gland in the brain. The The male feline reproductive system consists of the
release of LH is triggered by vaginal/cervical stimula- penis, two testes, the scrotum, the prostate gland, two
tion during coitus (sexual intercourse). In actuality, bulbourethral glands, and the vas deferens (a tube
luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LH- that carries the sperm [the male reproductive cells]
RH) is first released from the hypothalamus — an- from the testes to the urethra [the channel within the
other area of the brain — and subsequently causes penis through which the urine flows]). The male has
release of LH from the anterior pituitary. LH levels in four or five pairs of nipples, but they are nonfunc-
the bloodstream fluctuate episodically, with increases tional.
occurring every twenty to thirty minutes, probably be- A protective sheath, the prepuce, covers the penis
cause of the episodic release of LH-RH. just below the scrotum. The scrotum, a fur-covered
One to two days after repeated coitus, the ovarian sac under the anus, encloses the testes, where sperm
follicles rupture, sending ova down through the uter- are produced. The penis may protrude from the pre-
ine tubes, which is the process known as ovulation. puce during licking and grooming or sometimes dur-
Following ovulation, ova and sperm meet in the uter- ing stimulating play. The aroma of pheromones
ine tube, where fertilization takes place. Fertilized (odorous secretions) from the queen, and her estrous
eggs remain in the uterine tube for about four days behavior of persistent vocalization, rolling, rubbing,
before entering the uterus. The embryos usually are and extreme affeaion, ready the male for copulation.
spaced evenly in both uterine horns. Implantation An
into the wall of the uterus occurs on about day 12 or tom "appeasement"
to mount. Duringcry thefromusually the queen stimulates the
brief intromission
14 of gestation, (insertion of the penis), sperm from the testes, mixed
formed later. with a "band" or zonary placenta in the vas deferens and pelvic urethra with seminal
Once an ovarian follicle has ruptured, it forms a fluid (a clear fluid) from the prostate and bul-
glandular mass called a corpus luteum (plural, cor- bourethral glands, is released by the process of ejacu-
pora lutea), which produces the hormone progester- lation into the queen's vagina.
one. Ifpregnancy occurs, the placenta will take over Sperm are present in the testes of well-grown toms
progesterone produaion by the thirty-fifth to the by twenty-five to thirty-six weeks of age. The average
forty-fifth day. volume of a tomcat's ejaculate is about 0.05 milliliters,
 REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

containing from millions to hundreds of millions of Siamese cats and Siamese crossbreeds have slightly
sperm. Approximately 80 to 90 percent of the sperm larger litters (average six kittens). First litters of pu-
are active and motile in a normal ejaculate. The pH (a bertal breedings are usually small, and rearing may
measure of alkalinity or acidity) of fresh semen is 7.4. be less successful.
A tom will mark and defend territory. The territory The queen is seasonally polyestrous; that is, she is
will be staked out by his spraying of a mixture of urine receptive to the male several times within the breed-
and an anal-gland secretion containing odoriferous ing season. The season in temperate zones usually
lipids (fats), producing the characteristic penetrating begins twenty to sixty days after the winter solstice
"catty" urine odor. Urine spraying may be inhibited (the shortest day of the year), and it may end any time
by castration of the male or controlled by progester- after the summer solstice (the longest day of the year).
one therapy in the intact or castrated tom. In the northern temperate zone, breeding usually be-
gins in January or February and extends through the
early part of September. In some cases, it may extend
THE REPRODUCTIVE LIFE OF THE CAT into October or early November. The first cycle usu-
ally occurs between January and March, the second
In queens, puberty usually occurs between seven and from April to early July, and the last during late July
twelve months of age, depending on their nutritional through early September. Frequently, the first cycles
status, breed, and freedom from disease, and on the of the year in free-ranging cats have been noted dur-
season of the year when they are born. A queen may ing aJanuary or February thaw. Kittens can be born in
have her first estrus at as early as four months of age, any month of the year.
and some Persians, which tend to mature later than
other breeds may be as late as twenty-one months of theThemare;queen that isis,known as a "long byday"the breeder,
she is influenced like
lengthening
age. If the normal pubertal age and weight of 2.3 to of daylight. Twelve to fourteen hours per day of con-
2.5 kilograms (5.07 to 5 5 pounds) is attained during tinuous artificial light may result in continuous polyes-
die anestrous period of October to December, cycling trus, with no anestrous period noted in the fall and
usually begins in January or February. If pubertal winter. Fewer than twelve hours of artificial light per
weight is attained in early or late summer, then an day, in a cat that is not exposed to daylight, may lead
early pubertal estrus may take place. to anestrus regardless of the season. Even in breeding
Males usually reach puberty at a minimum body colonies with artificial light, some queens will experi-
weight of 3 5 kilograms (7.72 pounds), which is attain- ence afall anestrus.
able at nine months of age. Tomcats usually exhibit depressed sexual activity
Purebred cats may reach puberty later than non- during the fall period.
purebred cats. Cats that are kept indoors, especially The vomeronasal organ is a blind pouch above
those that are housed without other cats, also may the hard palate that communicates with the nasal and
reach puberty at a later age. A British study of several oral cavities via the nasopalatine duct, which opens
breeds showed that, on the average, puberty was behind the incisor teeth. The vomeronasal organ is
reached between nine and ten months of age, with believed to perceive pheromones, which are chemical
considerable breed variation: Himalayans or col- odors in urine and glandular secretions, possibly vagi-
orpoints were the latest (average thirteen months), nal and vulvar secretions, and residual scent marks
and Burmese were the earliest (average 7.7 months). in the environment. Both toms and queens produce
It was noted also that puberty was affected by age pheromones, which act as sexual attractants. The pro-
at weaning, season of birth, and natural or artificial duction ofthe tomcat odor released during the spray-
increase of daylight length. ing of urine for territorial marking is dependent on
The reproductive life of the cat is long, with both the presence of androgen (male sex hormones) and
toms and queens known to continue breeding for is much reduced after castration.
fourteen years or more. Eight to ten years is common In the estrous female, valeric acid is present in
for continuous breeding of a queen. Litter size is re- vaginal secretions. Tomcats may show an open-mouth
duced with age, but the average queen will produce Flehmen response (exposing the teeth by retracting
two litters of two to six kittens (average four per lit- the upper lip) when sniffing female urine. The odor
ter). Some queens will produce three liners per year. of valeric acid also induces a restless and lively search-
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

ing reaction, but without any sexual connotation. response in cats, independent of sex or the presence
Sexually mature queens respond to the odor by of sex organs. It has no sexual side effects, and cats
exhibiting typical estrous behavior; thus, valeric acid enjoy it. The catnip response appears to be inherited
also may induce or facilitate estrus in other females. as an autosomal dominant trait (i.e., it is not sex
Catnip leaves contain a chemical substance called linked; see Chapter 13; Genetics).
nepetalactone, which produces a characteristic be- Cats employ three methods of territorial marking:
havior that simulates the antics of estrous queens. It is visual signs produced by scratching; glandular secre-
an olfactory response mediated by the vomeronasal tions of the head and face; and urine spraying. Tom-
organ. Catnip is not considered a feline sex phero- cats have even been observed to spray the wheels of
mone but an hallucinogen that induces a pleasurable parked cars, a trait frequently displayed by male dogs.
 CHAPTER 10

Mating

by Donald Lein

t is almost al- kittens in good homes. The goal of such matings is to

When cats mate,ncy,theandresul
ways pregna then the binh of further the best qualities of two lines of a pure breed
y
kittens. Pregnanc is either the result by combining them for a desired result in the kittens.
of planned breeding by knowledge- The breeders classify the offspring in the following
able breeder s of purebred cats, by owners of house categories: show quality (the most valuable), breeding
cats who want a litter of kittens, or it is the result of quality, and pet quality. Planned matings require in-
accidental breeding, formation, skil , expe-
in which case the lives rience, and a good
of the mother and
kittens are often in purpose.
tion The
presented informa- here
question. Millions of comes strictly from a
unwanted cats are medical perspeaive.
destroyed each year
because there are
not enough suitable Proper Selection
homes for them. For When choosing males
n, all possi-
this reasomeasur and females for mat-
ble es should ing purposes, many
be taken to prevent elements should be
accidental breeding. considered. Males and
(See Chapter 15; Birth females both should
Control.) be examined by a vet-
erinarian before mating. A tomcat selected for stud is
usually not mated until he is twelve months of age.
PLANNED MATING Although female cats make excellent mothers and sel-
dom have difficulties (if they are properly cared for),
Breeders mate cats as part of an overall plan that in- they should not be bred until they are at least ten
cludes genetic seleaion, informed mating proce- months old and well developed. If a female is bred
dures, proper medical care, and the placement of 103 before maturity, she may never fully develop physi-
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

cally, because many of the nutrients required for her cry" and
is given by the queen Into theindicate that ofshea male,
is in
growth will be passed to the fetal kittens. Further- heat sexually receptive. presence
more, afemale should be examined by a veterinarian she
before breeding to ensure that she is in good health, mount.givesRestlessness,
an "appeasement
a generalcry"uneasiness,
to stimulate
and him pacingto
mature, and free of external and internal parasites. An back and fonh may accompany any of these behav-
examination of the reproductive tract and mammary ioral patterns. A general loss of appetite in both the
glands as well as the other body systems is essential. queen and the tomcat is common during the breeding
The veterinarian also may recommend a diet and a season. Both males and females accustomed to going
nutritional supplement for pregnanq'. outdoors may disappear for days. Fight wounds and
When a male or a female is selected for breeding, ear injuries are frequent at this time.
its pedigree and conformation (aesthetic quality) may
be important, but they must not be the only criteria.
Males and females should be selected from parental Copulation
lines that have a history of normal sexual cycling, do Once the female has shown that she is ready to mate,
not have a history of difficult birthing, have produced the waiting, watchful male approaches from the side
good-sized litters, and have reared healthy litters. and grasps the skin of her neck in his teeth. Next he
The.se desirable characteristics are genetically places his forelegs over her shoulders and mounts.
based and thus can be inherited. (Chapter 13: Genet- He positions himself by straddling her pelvic area and
ics, and Chapter 14: Normal Development and Congeni- treading along her flanks with his hind legs, some-
tal Birth Defects, offer essential information for the times stroking her chest with his forepaws. At this
mating selection process.) Pet owners should keep time the queen reflexively positions her perineum
records of all heats, breeding dates, queenings (the area between anus and genitalia) by arching her
(births), litter sizes, and rearings for providing a back until her vulva (entrance to the vagina) is almost
breeding history and for making future decisions. horizontal, her tail deviating to one side. Once the
position is correct, the tom initiates pelvic thrusting
with his exposed penis and, on contact and intromis-
SEXUAL BEHAVIOR sion (insertion), ejaculates. The length of time from
neck-biting to intromission can vary from thirty sec-
In the queen, sexual behavior is stimulatory; it attracts
tomcats. Behavioral maneuvers during proestrus cry oronds scream
to eight minutes. The queen's
is followed subsequent
by her quickly rollingcoitalor
(the period before estrus) are usually subtle — per- twisting out of the male's grasp and aggressively at-
haps increased affection (or occasional aggression) tacking him if he doesn't move away quickly. She
and a desire to be petted. Sometimes the cat urinates immediatelyof disoriented displays a rolling,
postcoital "afterandaction,"
more frequently than usual. In proestrus or early es- consisting stretching, geni-
trus, asmall quantity of a clear, watery vaginal dis- tal licking, which may last from one to nine minutes.
charge may be present. In one study, 20 percent of The coital scream or cry was once thought to be
cycling queens showed a half- to two-day proestrus in from pain caused by the penile spines, but this reac-
which they demonstrated behavioral characteristics of tion can be elicited in queens in or out of estrus,
estrus — attracting toms, rolling in front of them, me- intact or spayed, with any instrument that invades the
owing— but would not allow mounting or copulation. vaginal and cervical area.
Estrous behavior of the queen in the absence of a Another mating sequence may occur immediately
tomcat usually includes persistent vocalization, roll- following the after action, or the queen may refuse
ing, rubbing, extreme affection, treading of the hind the tom's attempts to remount for a period ranging
legs, lordosis (swayback), and tail deviation. A slight from several minutes up to five hours.
forward and lateral set to the ears is common, and an In one study, the number of copulations with one
intense facial expression like that seen with aggres- female ranged from twenty to thirty-six during thirty-
sion or fright. A repeated monotonous howling for as six hours of observation. Couplings were more
long as three minutes at a time is not unusual and frequent during the first two hours (three to six cop-
may accompany treading and rolling. This "estrous ulations) than any subsequent two-hour period. The
 MATING

torn stays at some distance to survey and guard his occur to ensure that the queen releases adequate LH
territory. In unplanned matings among free-roaming and achieves maximal ovulation.
cats, other toms may challenge him and indeed may
even
result mate
can bewitha litter
"his" fathered
queen. Ifbythey
two areor more
successful, the
different Induced Ovulation
tomcats — an event referred to as superfecundation. Some queens may not exhibit typical behavioral signs
(except for increased affection) during every heat pe-
riod, but they can be induced to do so if properly
The Influence of the Estrous Cycle handled or when exposed to the tom. Treading, lor-
on Copulation dosis, and the typical copulatory stance with lateral
The average length of estrus in the cat is about five to deviation of the tail can be induced by stroking the
flank, back, thigh, or perineum. Rubbing or scratching
eight days, with a range of three to twenty days. Peri- the back of the neck or shoulder induces treading,
ods of ten days or longer are considered prolonged. but usually not the precoital stance. The ear position
The duration of estrus is not greatly influenced by and facial expression may be induced by all of these
mating and induced ovulation, although some believe manipulations. Handling and stroking an estrous
that estrus may be a day or two shorter in average queen may cause enough neural stimulation to induce
duration in mated queens. Others have reported the ovulation (spontaneous ovulation).
opposite effect, with mated queens in estrus for 8.3 to Ovulation can be induced in estrous queens by arti-
8.6 days, and nonmated queens in estrus for an aver- ficially stimulating the vaginal walls or cervix with a
age of 6.2 days. lubricated clean thermometer or cotton swab in order
The duration of proestrus, estrus, and the inter- to enhance the release of LH. Studies have revealed
estrous periods and cycle interval can be quite vari- that sensation from the vagina induces behavioral re-
able. Proestrus can be charaaerized early by the sponses from the queen appropriate to intromission.
presence of a male, or possibly by vaginal cytology
(see Table 10.1). A length of zero to three days has Ovulation can be triggered by impulses from the va-
been reponed for proestrus. The interestrous period gina or the cervix received during intromission.
will last usually three to fourteen days during the Injecting anestrous or estrous queens with luteiniz-
breeding season, but it may be as long as thirty days. ing hormone-releasing hormone (LH-RH) (see Chap-
ter 9:Reproductive Physiology) causes LH release and
Thus
from theseven lengthto offorty
an unbred queen's
days, with mostcycle can being
cycles range results in ovulation during estrus. Ovulation will also
twelve to twenty-two days in length. occur in estrous queens within twenty-six or twenty-
seven hours of the administration of human chori-
onic gonadotrophin (HCG), which is an LH product
Ovulation produced by the human placenta. Fenilization rates
are almost 100 percent if mating occurs within this
Ovulation (release of eggs, or ova) in the queen time. Fertilization rates decline, however, if mating is
depends on the release of sufficient amounts of lu- delayed for more than thirty hours after HCG treat-
teinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary ment. Conception can occur fifty-two or more hours
gland in the brain. The queen, as described in the after HCG administration, however, indicating that the
previous chapter, is an induced, or reflex, ovulator; fenile life of the egg after ovulation is about twenty-
LH is released by vaginal-ceivical stimulation during four hours.
mating. Ovulation usually occurs within twenty-five
to thirty hours after mating if sufficient LH has been
released. Some investigators have reported the occur-
rence ofovulation up to fifty hours after mating. Cer- MATING DIFFICULTIES
tain queens will not release an ovulatory amount of
LH until the second, third, or even fourth day of es- Infertility in the Tom
trus. The best time to breed queens is on the second This problem is infrequently seen or reported. Psy-
or third day of estrus. At least four matings should chological infertility (impotency) may be observed in
106 SEX AND REPRODUCTION
tomcats undergoing environmental or territorial Some queens do not exhibit noticeable sexual be-
changes, or in young novice males placed with aggres- havior during estrus, causing the receptive period to
sive, experienced queens. Time and acclimation may be overlooked. In such cases, vaginal cytology, per-
result in acceptance and a return of fertility. The formed by the veterinarian, can be of assistance.
chances for a successful mating are improved if the Under a microscope, the cells from the lining of the
estroustion forqueen vagina can be seen to change from one stage of the
several isdays.
first Not
allowed to visit will
all tomcats the tom's
mount loca-
any estrous cycle to the next; hence, examination of these
queen, nor will all queens accept any tom. cells can determine a queen's current stage in the
A tomcat's loss of his canine teeth following trauma cycle (Table 10.1).
(e.g., an accident) or dental disease may make it diffi- Cells for vaginal cytology may be collected with a
cult or impossible for him to gr^isp the neck skin of moistened sterile cotton swab (3-mm or 0.1.2-inch di-
the queen and complete the breeding act. The short ameter) or a clean glass eyedropper. The swab or
jaw and huge ruff of Persian cats can also be handicaps eyedropper is passed into the vagina about 1 to 1.5 cm
in mating. (0.4 to 0.6 inch), by first inserting it into the vestibule
A hair ring may form around the base of the glans venically until resistance is met at the roof of the
penis (the cap-shaped end of the penis), especially in vestibule, and then redirecting it horizontally into the
long-haired cats, or after several matings, resulting in vagina. This ensures that the clitoris and clitoral
difficult intromission. If the tomcat does not remove fossa (or channel) are not entered or irritated. The
this ring during routine cleaning, it can be removed swab is then rotated several times in the vagina. (As
by retracting the prepuce and sliding the hair ring an alternative, about 0.25 ml [0.008 ounce] of sterile
over the penis. physiological saline [a salt solution] in an eyedropper
The tortoiseshell male cat is reputed to be sterile, can be flushed two or three times into the vagina.)
but a few have been reported to be fertile. The swab is rolled onto a clean glass microscope
slide, which is then immediately fixed in alcohol or
air-dried (fluid from the eyedropper can be placed on
Infertility in the Queen the glass slide and allowed to dry). The slide is then
Occasionally, a timid queen, low in social standing in dipped in a dye solution so that the cells will be
a colony of females and matched with an experienced stained. Slides should be kept as a reference for
breeding male, will express poor estrous behavior, changes occurring throughout the estrous cycle.
not allowing the tom to mount and breed. The relative Smears of vaginal cells should be obtained daily or
size of the male and female also may influence the every other day to differentiate the stages of the es-
success of mating. Females that are too large or too trous cycle. In some estrous queens, vaginal swabbing
small may make a rapid coital act difficult, resulting in or flushing itself may induce ovulation. If ovulation
a frustrated and unsuccessful tom. Although the activ- does not occur during an estrous cycle, the otology
ity of such a male in attempting to breed with a female will regress to an anestrous type, and noncomified
may be enough to induce ovulation, the absence of epithelial cells (nonhardened cells of the vaginal
intromission and ejaculation will fail to deposit semen lining) will appear.
for fertilization. Red blood cells should not be present in the
Knowledge regarding infertility in the queen has queen's
been enhanced by careful, methodical reproductive If they arevagina found,during any stage
the most likely ofreasons
the estrous cycle.
are trauma
examinations and careful record keeping. The use of to the vaginal cavity during sample collection, a geni-
veterinary diagnostic laboratories to obtain hormone tal tract infection, or sampling during early postpar-
profiles, evaluation of vaginal cytology, provision for tum period.
good veterinary clinical practices, and client educa- In early pregnancy or pseudopregnancy (see
tion have greatly furthered success in the diagnosis "Onsetous cells;
of Pregnancy,
and treatment of infertility. The veterinary profession there is a" thisreappearance,
chapter), therein areincreasing
numer-
as a whole and a number of veterinary colleges and numbers, of intermediate and parabasal cells
private clinics have made small-animal theriogenol- (lower-level epithelium cells), with a rapid decline in
ogy (the study of reproduction) a specialty, as it is for cornified cells. Leukocytes (white blood cells) reap-
large domestic-animal species. pear, with debris and mucus present again. As preg-
 MATING

TABLE 10.1. VAGINAL CYTOLOGY SHOWING STAGES OF ESTRUS

CYTOLOGY
Numerous small round epithelial cells (vaginal lining cells) with a high nuclear to cytoplasmic
ratio (i.e., the cellular nuclei are large) are present. Occasionally polymorphonuclear leukocytes
(a type of white blood cell) are found. There is an increased amount of cellular debris present.
An increased number of intermediate epithelial cells are present. Comlfied (hardened) epithelial
cells begin to appear more frequently before estrus occurs. There is a decrease in size of the nuclei.
There is cellular debris.
The smear is dominated by polyhedral (many-sided) cornified epithelial cells with curled edges.
Because the vaginal fluid is watery, there is less debris than in the other stages of the estrous cycle.
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes are absent
After ovulation, cornified epithelial cells are still present, but the margins are less well defined.
Occasionally, many bacteria and polymorphonuclear leukocytes are present. During late metestrus,
there is an increase in smaller basophilic (dark blue staining when stained with a cytological stain )
epithelial cells.

nancy or pseudopregnancy progresses, the smear will muscularly. This is then reduced to a lower dosage
resemble that seen in anestrus, with intermediate and given on seven consecutive days, depending on the
parabasal cells predominant and fewer cells present, season (lower doses if treatment is given between
although the background may contain a great deal of February and August). When estrous behavior be-
mucus. comes apparent, the dose is further reduced.
Queens that exhibit estrogen surges during preg- A second method, which produces results compara-
nancy or at the end of gestation may reflect this in ble to those of natural breeding, uses a single injec-
their vaginal cytology. If leukocytes are numerous tion of PMSG followed in seven days by an injection of
in any smear and show indications of clumping in smaller amounts of human chorionic gonadotrophin
masses and advanced degeneration or toxicity, or if (HCG). A third method uses follicle-stimulating
the smear contains large numbers of bacteria or red hormone from pituitary extracts (FSH-P) to in-
bloodcesscells, one could duce estrus. FSH-P is administered intramuscularly
and examine further.consider an inflammatory pro- daily for five days or until the queen shows signs of
estrus. On days one and two of estrus, lower doses of
INDUCTION OF ESTRUS. Induction of estrus in HCG are given intramuscularly to enhance ovulation.
a queen (not to be confused with the induced ovula- The queen should then be bred at least four times on
tion previously described) can be enhanced by each day of estrus for a period of up to four days.
lengthening the daily light cycle to which she is ex- Estrogens of estradiol benzoate or of estradiol
posed, socializing her with other cycling queens, cypionate, given intramuscularly and repeated in
exposing her to a tom, or administering hormonal forty-eight hours, will induce false estrus in most
therapy. queens. Testosterone (male sex hormone), given in-
Various hormonal regimens have successfully in- tramuscularly, hasalso been reported to induce estrus
duced queens into e.strus. An 80 percent efficacy rate in queens.
has been reported with use of gonadotrophlns (sex- Using gonadotrophlns to induce estrus in queens
ual .stimulation hormones). This method produces the may inadvenently lead tothatthemayqueen's
best results in queens between the ages of one and waves of ovarian follicles contain producing
immature
five years. It consists of an initial dose of pregnant ova, resulting in cystic follicular degeneration.
mare's serum gonadotrophin (PMSG) given intra- Also, excessively long estrous periods, lasting two to
108 SEX AND REPRODUCTION
four weeks, may occur following administration of quire about one to two hours in the female reproduc-
either gonadotrophins or sex hormones, unless natu- tive tract before they are capable of fertilizing the egg.
ral or artificial mating is provided. Ova remain fenile for up to forty-eight hours. Oviduct
The estrous behavior of queens receiving hormonal transport of fenilized ova takes four to five days. Mi-
therapy should be evaluated daily by a handler or by gration ofblastocysts (the developing embryos) in
observing the uterine horn takes place for six to eight days, with
experiencedthe tom. queen'sStudies
response in the that
indicate presence
queensof anin implantation into the wall of the uterus occurring
which estrus has been induced can produce litters of around day 12 to 14.
normal size. Corpora lutea form after the ovarian follicles rup-
ture and luteinize within one to three days. Progester-
one levels rise over 1 nanogram per milliliter (a
ONSET OF PREGNANCY nanogram is one billionth, 10"', of a gram) by day 3
after ovulation, and reach peak levels of 15 to 90 ng/
Pregnancy in the queen lasts sixty-four to sixty-nine ml by day 15 to 25. Progesterone levels in early preg-
days, with an average of sixty-six days. (Some reports nancy prior to implantation are not different from
have an average of sixty-three days with a range of pseudopregnant levels, but by day 20, pregnant
fifty-eight to sixty-five days, which is probably based queens on the average have higher levels. By day 50,
on timing from the last intromission of multiple placental production of progesterone is adequate to
breedings.) Successful litters have recorded gestation maintain pregnancy and the ovaries' supply is no
periods of fifty-nine to seventy-one days. Variations longer needed.
also may result from breed differences, colony differ- Levels of prolactin (a pituitary hormone that stim-
ences, litter size, and possibly season of the year, A ulates lactation) remain low during the first half of
few queens will show estrus during pregnancy, and it pregnancy, increase threefold to fivefold by day 63,
is estimated that 10 percent of pregnant queens, typi- and reach peak levels just before panurition. Prolactin
cally around twenty-one and forty-two days of preg- levels are elevated in response to suckling during lac-
nancy, may show sexual behavior. Possible super- weaning.tation and decline to basal levels two weeks after
fetation (a second concurrent pregnancy) can occur
at this time. Some queens will be in estrus within Pseudopregnancy can occur after nonfenile mat-
seven to ten days following parturition and may con- ings, inducedCorporaovulation,
ceive ifbred at this time, while caring for the litter ovulation. luteaorpersist
occasional "spontaneous"
for three to seven
they just delivered. Most will show lactational anestrus weeks, with a mean of about forty days, followed by
and not return to estrus until fifteen to sixty days (aver- four to ten days of diestrus. Progesterone levels rise
age two to three weeks) posrweaning, although queens over 1 nanogram per milliliter by day 3 after ovula-
whose kittens are removed from them within three tion, and reach peak levels of 14 to 90 ng/ml by day
days postpartum will return to estrus in six to eight 15 to 25, and thereafter decline. Progesterone levels
days. Postabortion estrus can occur within one week. return to 1 ng/ml by day 30 to 50, although reports
Following a fenile mating and ovulation twenty-five of duration of pseudopregnancy, as the interval from
to thirty hours after sufficient release of LH, ova are mating to the next estrus, range from thirty-five to
fenilized by the ejaculated spermatozoa. Sperm re- sevent)' days, with an average being forty-five days.
 CHAPTER 11

Pregnancy and

Partxirition

by Donald Lein

PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS
determined as early as by pseudopregnancy
Pregnanc possiblye followishould ngbe mating. Early diagnosis disease of the uterus;or see
pyometra
Chapter (a12:life-threatening
REPRODUcrrvE
will ensure proper care of the queen Disorders).
through the gestation period and allow The mineralized opaque fetal skeleton can be seen
plans to be made for queening and rearing the kittens. on abdominal radiographs from the fonieth or forty-
Gestation lasts sixty- fifth day of gestation
four to sixty-nine days until term. If done fol-
(the average is sixty- lowing normal radio-
six days). The most graphic procedures,
common indication this amount of expo-
used in determin- sure is perfectly safe
ing pregnancy is the for the queen and
change harmless to the kit-
nipplesof from the queen's light tens. The approximate
pink to rosy pink in gestation age can be
the second and third estimated by the ra-
weeks following mat- diographic appear-
ing. Pregnancy diag- ance of mineralized
nosis is best accom- bone in the fetus, be-
plished, however, by cause at forty-one
careful abdominal pal- days, the radius
pation of the uterus (smaller bone of the
between days 17 and 25 when the conceptus (the lower foreleg) and ulna (larger bone of the lower
embryo plus accompanying membranes) is round and foreleg) are visible; at forty-three days, the tibia
separated from other conceptuses. After thirty to (larger bone of the lower hind leg), fibula (smaller
thirty-five days, the individual elongated fetuses and bone of the lower hind leg), ilium (upper portion
fetal membranes become difficult to distinguish and of hip bone), ischium (lower, rear portion of
pregnancy can resemble an enlarged uterus caused hip bone), and occipital (back pan of head) bones
109
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

TABLE 1 REPRODUCTIVE ENDOCRINOLOGY

COMMENTS
Luteinizing hormone Released during mating. Ovulating cats have levels of 17 ± 2 ng/ml (nanograms/milliliter;
a nanogram is one billionth of a gram), whereas nonovulating cats have high levels of
8 ± 2 ng/ml.
Progesterone At baseline level ( 1 ng/ml or lower) during first two or three days of pregnancy but
detectable thereafter. The level continues to increase until day 21, when the average level
is approximately 30 ng/ml. After day 21, it decreases, to 4-5 ng/ml before parturition.
After parturition, the hormone level drops to 1 ng/ml or lower. Pseudopregnant queens
have a similar increase; however, by day 30 the level begins to decline.
Estradiol On the day of mating, the level is about 60 pg/ml (picograms/milliliter; a picogram is one
trillionth of a gram). During the next five days it decreases rapidly, to 8-12 pg^ml. That
level is maintained until parturition, when a slight increase occurs. Pseudopregnant cats
follow a similar course, but a more rapid decrease follows mating.
Prolactin Levels are elevated in the last trimester of pregnancy. The averse is 31-2 ± 5.1 ng/ml
through the last week of pregnancy; then it increases to 43 5 ± 5.4 ng/ml during the
last three days before parturition. About two weeks after weaning, prolactin declines to
prelactation levels.

can be seen; at fifty-five days, the entire skeleton is pregnancy are similar to those seen in pseudopreg-
visible. nancy until implantation takes place at about day 12
Pregnancy can also be deteaed by ultrasonography. to 14. Progesterone serum levels on day 50 average
The amniotic sacs may be visible by day 18 of the 13 ng/ml (nanograms per milliliter) in the pregnant
pregnancy. By day 26, the fetus and fetal heartbeats queen versus 2 ng/ml in the pseudopregnant one, and
are detectable. Fetal development, heart rates, and on day 62, the average or mean level is 4 to 5 ng/ml
fetal movemeni can be followed from day 24 or 25 to in the pregnant queen versus 1 ng/ml in the pseudo-
parturition. Fetal resorption (disintegration of the pregnant. Elevated progesterone levels in pseudo-
fetus within the uterus), fetal death, and mummifica- pregnancy coincide
tion can be diagnosed by ultrasonic examination. of implantation and withagaintheon pregnant
about daycat's28,onwhen
her day
the
A phenomenon known as pseudopregnancy can first appearance of regressive luteal changes (ke.,
occur in queens. In faa, a queen can have as many as changes in the corpora lutea that discharged the eggs)
five pseudopregnancies in a breeding season. Ele- in the pseudopregnant cat are seen. At this time, blood
vated progesterone levels occur in pseudopregnant progesterone levels increase in the pregnant queen,
queens. The pseudopregnancy will terminate within while levels in the pseudopregnant queen decline.
about forty days of its onset as progesterone levels At twenty-eight days, the progesterone levels in the
return to prebreeding levels. Ovarian activity is rees- pregnant queen are also enhanced by an increase in
tablished within seven to ten days after the end of a placental progesterone. Corpora lutea of pregnant
pseudopregnancy. queens persist and produce progesterone until forty
A profile of hormone levels measured in the blood to fifty days into gestation, when placental production
can be used to demonstrate the pregnancy cycle. of progesterone is adequate to maintain pregnancy.
Table 11.1 lists the relevant hormones and the various Ovariectomy (removal of ovaries) performed be-
levels they reach at the respeaive stages. tween forty-five and forty-nine days or later will not af-
The progesterone levels in plasma during early fea pregnancy and normal kittens will be born at term.
 PREGNANCY AND PARTURITION

not confined (or even if confined), labor may cease,

CARE DURING PREGNANCY kittens may be moved and nursed, and queening may
be continued hours, or days, later. Longer intervals
The pregnant queen needs a well-balanced diet, with between births may be due to superfetation (fenil-
food provided so that, as fetal growth causes increased ization from a different ovulatory cycle).
fetal weight, maternal food intake increases automati- Once the queen's labor has started, she should not
cally. Overfeeding and excessive weight gain should be disturbed, except occasionally to check to see that
be avoided. Feeding recommendations of commercial all is well. If she has been having strong contractions
cat food suppliers for pregnant and nursing queens for more than two hours, and no kittens have been
should be followed. Veterinary advice should be born, the veterinarian must be called immediately.
sought before supplementation with vitamins, miner- Mother and unborn kittens weaken rapidly, which
als, proteins, or fats. lessens their chances of survival, panicularly if a cesar-
Nonstrenuous daily exercise to keep good muscle ean delivery is needed. The queen does not require
tone is necessary for easy queening. Obesity and poor help in cleaning the kinens or cutting the cords. It is
muscle tone can result in low conception rates and extremely rare for a mother cat not to handle these
difficult queening. procedures perfectly. However, she may stop these
Medication, vaccination, and worming should be normal functions if humans interfere. Queens have
avoided during pregnancy, with treatment being been known to eat their kittens because of too much
planned and performed prior to breeding if possible. human meddling at this stage.
A clean, warm, dry, secluded, comfortable area with a The first litter of a queen with only one or two large
large nesting box should be provided at least ten days kittens may be difficult and assistance may be needed.
before queening, though the queen may not choose Healthy queens seldom have difficulty with delivery.
to use it. Near term, the enlarged abdomen may cause Queens that are inbred, have nutritional deficiencies,
restricted physical activity. Mammary gland develop- or have the stress of a disease may have poor uterine
ment ispresent the last two weeks, and milk secretion contractions ("inenia") deficiency
and require assistance.
can be seen on that last day. The excessive hair in Trauma or a nutritional may result in a
long-haired breeds should be removed from around pelvic deformity causing difficult delivery. Veterinary
the teats and vulva prior to queening, and the vulvar assistance for surgical intervention or medication with
area, if soiled, should be cleansed. uterine-muscle-stimulating and -contracting agents
will be needed for difficult births.
Stillborn kinens and placentas are usually eaten by
QUEENING the queen. Cannibalism is seen, but it is more likely
in the first queening, especially in highly nervous ani-
Rectal temperature falls in the first stage of labor. The breeding. mals. These queens should not be used for further
queen will search for a warm, dark, secluded place
and nest. The second stage of labor is usually quite Postpartum hemorrhage, retained fetal membranes,
rapid; there are a few abdominal strains, similar to retained dead kittens, and uterine prolapse (protru-
those of defecation, before the first kinen is delivered. sion of the uterus into vagina or out of the vulva) are
One or two kittens may be born during this stage of uncommon in the queen. Oxytocin, a uterine-con-
labor. Normal presentation of the fetuses can be ei- tracting agent, may be used to control hemorrhage.
ther forward or backward as they enter the birth canal. Following uterine prolapse, treatment of shock, or
The queen consumes the placenta(s) and cleanses the abdominal surgery with removal of the reproductive
vulvar area. The queen will clean the kittens vigor- traa may be needed. Systemic antibiotics may also be
ously tostimulate breathing and movement. She sev- indicated. A brown vaginal discharge and enlarged
ers the cord by biting. Placental expulsion, the third segments of the uterine horns indicate a retained fetus
stage of labor, follows the fetal delivery quite closely. or placenta. Medical or surgical removal will be
The first kitten may be nursed before the delivery needed to correct this condition.
of the next. Usually the next kinen is presented in less Observe the vulva and surrounding areas of the
than an hour. If the queen is disturbed, especially if queen daily for evidence of abnormal discharges. A
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

bloody discharge is usually present for seven to ten terone to basal (lowest) levels, but detailed studies
days postqueening. Persistent discharges that are are needed to determine if the serum progesterone
odorous or blood\' indicate uterine infections or sub- levels fall to basal levels preceding or following pla-
involution (failure to return to normal size) of pla- cental expulsion. Estradiol- 17f5 is elevated above the
cental sites in the uterus. The mammary glands should base level of 9 pg/ml (picograms per milliliter) be-
also be examined for evidence of mastitis (inflam- tween days 58 and 62 and declines sharply just before
mation oftlie mammarv' gland). parturition. In one study, pregnant queens treated
Abnormal vulvar discharges, evidence of fetal re- with follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) on days 33 to
sorption orabortions, premature kittens, stillborn or 37 and human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) on
mummified fetuses, or weak kittens with neonatal days 38 and 39 developed follicles (average 9 3 folli-
death call for veterinary attention. Specimens of the cles per cat), ovulated (average 3.4 corpora lutea per
vulvar discharge, blood samples, and any fetal or pla- cat), and exhibited behavioral estrus (five of seven
cental tissue or dead kittens should be carefully han- cats). Estradiol- 1715 levels gradually increased, but
dled and submitted to the veterinarian or to a serum progesterone levels remained constant in the
veterinary diagnostic laboratory for examination and treated cats, while in control cats, levels gradually de-
definitive diagnosis, so that meaningful treatment, clined as expected. Gestation periods and litter size
control, or preventive measures can be instituted. The were not significantly different between treated and
queen and any remaining kittens should be strictly control queens.
isolated from other cats, especially pregnant queens, Prolactin blood levels are elevated during the last
because contagious agents may be involved, such as tliird of pregnancy'. In the last three days of gestation,
those that cause feline viral rhinotracheitis, panleuko- levels increase to 43.5 ± 4.5 ng/ml. The suckling stim-
penia, toxoplasmosis, and bacterial infections, which ulus maintains prolactin levels at 40.6 ± 7.2 ng/ml for
can result in fetal loss. Feline leukemia virus the first four weeks postpartum, and 27.8 ±3.1 ng/
(FeLV) and feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) virus ml during the last two weeks of lactation. Following
have also been associated with this syndrome. weaning, levels decrease to approximately 15 ng/ml,
Diseases that primarily affect other body systems with basal levels of 7.3 ± 0.6 ng/ml maintained after
may secondarily affect the pregnant uterus. Any sign the second week. Pseudopregnancy has no effect on
of illness should be examined, treated, and recorded prolactin levels in the queen.
by a veterinarian. The endocrinology and physiology of parturition in
Eclampsia (milk fever) is occasionally seen during the queen have not been fully studied. A few days
pregnancy or following birth. It occurs when pregnant before parturition, the queen experiences a decrease
or nursing mothers become depleted of calcium. The in circulating progesterone to slightly above pre-
signs are restlessness, refusal to eat or to allow the pregnancy levels, and an increase in estradiol- 171S lev-
kittens to nurse, trembling, and, eventually, convul- els. Then the estradiol level drops on the day of
sions. This condition can be fatal within a few hours, parturition, as circulating prolactin levels increase.
but response to veterinary medical treatment is as The endogenous effects and levels of prostaglandin,
dramatically swift as it is life saving. relaxin, Cortisol, and oxytocin are unknown. Clini-
Queens with the above postpartum problems may cally, administration of oxytocin is ver>' effective in
be listless and unable to nurse or care for their kittens. causing uterine contractions to end uterine inertia,
Immediate diagnosis, treatment, and supplemental expel retained kittens or placentas, and initiate milk
care for the young are required, or loss of the mother let-down. Probably endogenous oxytocin is present.
and her kittens may occur. The queen and frequently The queen also reacts to gentle stroking or "feath-
the kittens need antibiotic and supportive therapy. An-
tibiotic-sensitivity tests for organisms cultured from uterine ercontractions.
ing" of the vagina during parturition, resulting in
vulvar discharges or mastitic milk are important. To determine the sex of the kittens on the day of
Whether to separate the mother from her kittens will birth, the anogenital (anus-to-genital) distance is mea-
depend on the severity of the condition, her ability to sured with a soft, pliable-plastic millimeter ruler. The
care for them, and the contagiousness of her infection. distance is shorter in females (Table 11.2).
Parturition is accompanied by a decline in proges- Measuring may not be necessary. Often males and
 PREGNANCY AND PARTURITION

ANOGENITAL DISTANCE About 2 to 3 ml (0.07 to 0.10 ounce) of milk is taken

TABLE 11.2. OF KITTENS by the kittens three times an hour. Kittens double
their weight in seven days and open their eyes be-
tween ten and founeen days. They are able to take 4
Birth 21 Days 42 Days to 7 ml (0.14 to 0.24 ounce) of milk at a feeding in the
Males 11-16 nun 14-21 mm 16-23 mm second week. At this time, the queen will leave the
nest for several hours. In her absence, the kittens will
Females 6-9 mm 8- 1 3 mm 10-15 mm sleep quietly if normal. After feeding, the queen
washes each kitten, especially around its head and
females can be differentiated visually. The male has anal region. She consumes the urine and feces, which
two dots — like a colon. The female has an exclama- are voided in response to grooming. By three weeks
tion point (anus and vulva). of age, the kittens have increased their activity to ex-
ploring and playing. The queen then teaches the kit-
tens to urinate and defecate away from the nest.
MATERNAL CARE AND LACTATION Lactation is supplemented by solid food beginning
with the third or fourth week; weaning is completed
The mother usually remains continuously with her by the seventh or eighth week. (See Chapter 3; Kittens
kittens for a period of twenty-four to forty-eight hours. AND Disorders.)
 CHAPTER 12

Reproductive Disorders
by Donald Lein

t's important to have cycle

some and
knowledge of theof may be important, particularly if the show ring is in-
volved.
normal reproduction physiology
the cat to understand its reproductive diseases All breeding queens should have their blood tested
Iand possible iiifenility problems. for feline leukemia viras (FeLV), feline immu-
nodeficiency virus (FIV),
and feline coronavirus
INFERTILITY (feline infectious peritonitis
[FIP]). A complete physical
A detailed history, a general examination, a hemogram
physical examination, and a (blood screen, or CBC
tliorough genital tract exam- [complete blood count]),
ination ofthe queen are in- and a urogenital tract exami-
dicated for investigation of nation, including vaginos-
an infertility problem. The copy, vaginal cytology, and
history should include her palpation, should be per-
fertility and breeding his- formed. Queens with es-
tory, her littermates, and ma- trous-cycle problems should
ternal and paternal records. be followed through these
Genetic problems are better cycles by investigation of
appreciated if pedigrees are sexual behavior, vaginal cy-
available. The breeding rec- tology,profile
and possibly
ord of males used for mating mone testing hor- for
also should be evaluated. progesterone levels. Queens
General health and di- with poor conception or
etary records should be reviewed. Management prac- with possible early embryonic, fetal death, or abortion
tices resulting in psychological or environmental problems should be followed throughout breeding
stresses within a cattery may be of significance in and pregnancy with vaginal cytology and culture,
some breeding problems. The use of the cat also blood progesterone levels, pregnancy diagnosis, and.
114
 REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS

if possible, ultrasonography (ultrasound, for de- Cystic rete ovarii tubules (meshwork of dilated
termining fetal viabilit>'). Radiographic (x-ray) meth- ovarian tubules) occur in queens of any age. Uterus
ods for detecting late fetal death or genital-tract unicornis (uterus having only one uterine horn) has
abnormalities are available. Laparoscopy (visual in- been reported and may be accompanied by absence
spection ofthe interior of the abdomen) of the uro- of a kidney on the affected side. Cysts involving
genital tract and biopsy of the uterus may be indicated Gartner's duct (located parallel to the uterus) or
for further diagnosis. Bartholin's gland (along the vulvar lips), the tissues
Infertility in the torn rarely occurs; however, when surrounding the ovary and uterus, or the fimbriated
it does, it can be very frustrating to the cat breeder. (fringed) end of the oviduct, occasionally occur. Seg-
The microscopic evaluation of semen can provide in- mental aplasia (imperfect development of a seg-
ment) of the uterus has also been seen.
evaluation forincludes mation on the fertility
a spermof thecount,
tom'san sperm. Semenof
estimation Congenital testicular hypoplasia (underdevel-
the percentage of motile (able to spontaneously opment of the testicles) of the tom may be a con-
move) sperm, and an assessment of sperm morphol- sequence of fetal or neonatal (newborn)
ogy (form and structure). Semen for microscopic panleukopenia.
evaluation can be collected from a torn by using an Tonoiseshell and tricolored cats are almost always
artificial vagina, by performing electroejaculation female. If they are male, they are usually sterile. The
under anesthesia, or bycopulation.
flushing the gene for orange coat color in the tortoiseshell is on
immediately following The queen's
latter ofvagina
these the X chromosome — the female chromosome. (See
methods usually results in a poor specimen, although Chapter 13: Genetics.)
it may .still provide valuable information on the motil-
ity and morphology' of the sperm. Use of the artificial
vagina requires training the tom to ejaculate into a HORMONAL DISTURBANCES
small rubber bulb fitted over a test tube. This training
may take three or more weeks. Hormonal disturbances in females, including abnor-
Poor libido and variable testicular degeneration mal expression of estrus (the sexually active period)
(le.ss functional testes) leading to ab.sence of sperm and anestrus (the sexually inactive period), have
development have been linked to malnutrition, been observed. These cases have not been well docu-
obesity, hypervitaminosis A (caused by diets contain- mented in the form of clinical research studies. The
ing excessive amounts of liver; see Chapter 8: Diseases procedures required for proper diagnosis and follow-
OF Dietary Origin), and hypothyroidism. Proper diag- up are time consuming and expensive for the owner
nosis of the condition, and treatment of the cause, of an individual pet or breeding cattery. Most of rJie
usually result in a return to normal fertility with information that exists originates from studies carried
time. out by reproductive physiologists.
Detailed record keeping, a systematic approach to Underlying causes of hormonal disturbances in the
physical examination, clinical tests and follow-up vet- queen include prolonged repetitive secretion of
erinary visits, and informed owners who are knowl- estrogen, followed by progesterone, from multiple
edgeable about normal reproductive physiology and nonpregnant breeding cycles; cystic follicular degen-
common breeding problems are all essential compo- eration; corpus luteum (ovarian follicle after it dis-
nents of a successful breeding program. charges its ovum or egg) cysts; and granulosa cell
(cells around the ovarian follicles) tumors. Some of
the disorders that these underlying problems can pro-
ANATOMIC CONGENITAL DEFECTS AND duce include cystic endometrial hyperplasia (exu-
INTERSEXUALITY berant overgrowth of inner lining of the uterus);
hydrometra (one or usually both uterine horns dis-
Anatomic or congenital defects of the female repro- tended bya clear, watery, yellowish-gray, nonodorous
ductive system have been reported but are un- fluid); pyometra (accumulation of pus and bacteria
common. Rare cases of intersexuality (having in the uterus); mammary gland hyperplasia (over-
characteristics of both sexes present in the same ani- growth) and neoplasia ( cancer); inguinal ( between
mal also
) have been described. abdomen and thigh in the groin) hernia (rupture);
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

and possible alopecia (absence of hair) on the un- any age is cystic rete ovarii. These queens do not show
derside oftlie body. nymphomania. Found in queens at any age, these cysts
In addition, prolonged high levels of estrogen or can cause complete destruction of the ovary, resulting
progesterone have been shown to produce q'stic en- in a cystadenoma (cystic benign tumor containing
dometrial h\pcrplasia and pyometritis (pus-forming glandular structures). Nymphomania should not be
inflammation of die uterus). Therefore, it is a good misdiagnosed in regularly cycling queens that have
practice to breed t|ueens at an early age, or to use not mated or that have received only a single mating
steroid ccMitraceptives to postpone pregnancy but with insufficient vaginal stimulation to induce ovula-
maintain a normal uterus. Once litters have been pro- tion. Such queens may remain in estrus for ten to
duced, several consecutive nonpregnant cycles should twenty days or longer. Queens that have a sterile mat-
not be permitted because the same disease syndrome ing but ovulate will undergo a pseudopregnancy last-
may develop. As soon as a queen's producing career ing from twenty to forty-five days and then return to
has ended, an ovariohysterectomy (surgical re- estrus within one to two weeks during the breeding
moval of the uterus and ovaries, or spaying) should season. These queens will respond to breeding and
be performed to eliminate the potential threat of pyo- are
metritis and ovarian c\'Sts and tumors. Ovarian cysts, 10: usually
Mating, fertile.
tion.) (See "Onset
and Chapter of Pregnancy,and " Chapter
11: Pregnancy Parturi-
commonly observed in cats, occur more frequently
in older cats. Functional ovarian cysts may lead to Treatment for queens with cystic follicular degener-
hyperestrogenism (excessive secretion of estro- ation includes attempted luteinization (converting
gen) or persistently low levels of blood progesterone. the ovarian follicle into a corpus luteum) of the cyst;
Sex steroid levels, evaluation of sexual behavior, induction of ovulation using human chorionic gonad-
vaginal cytology (microscopic study of vaginal otrophin (HCG); and counteraction of hyperestrogen-
cells), and vaginoscopic (visual inspection of the va- ism with progestins (progesterone). However,
gina with a speculum [instrument for viewing body progestins may produce endometrial hyperplasia, en-
cavities]) and laparoscopic examinations are all useful dometritis (inflammation of the inner lining of the
in the clinical diagnosis of hormonal reproductive dis- uterus), pyometra, or pyometritis. Once a regular
orders inthe queen. cycle has been produced, these animals should be
The queen is a seasonal breeder and responds to bred. If litters are not desired, ovariohysterectomy is
an increase in daylight or artificial light. Pubertal es- indicated.
trus may be seen as young as four months in kittens Hyperestrogenism and nymphomania can be seen
born early in spring, but in those born in late spring in spayed queens. This is usually a result of an ovarian
or later it may be delayed for as long as eight months. remnant or possibly accessory ovarian tissue bet^'een
Continuous anestrus is associated with nutritional im- the removed ovary and the attachment of the ovarian
balance, disease states, gonadal hypoplasia (im- ligament to the body wall. A laparoscopic examination
paired growth of the ovaries or testes), intersexuality, or a surgical laparotomy (incision of the abdomen)
environmental stresses, or insufficient light. Secluded with identification and removal of the remnant is best
house queens that preferentially select dark areas may accomplished when the cat is showing signs of estrus.
never come into estrus. Also, single-housed queens At this time, the follicles or cysts are present, making
are less likely to show estrus than are socialized the remnant easier to identify. A single injection of
queens housed with other cycling queens or with HCG may cause ovulation or luteinization with in-
males. Hypothyroidism (deficiency of thyroid hor- creased blood progesterone levels, but in time the
mones) isuncommon in cats and is seldom a cause of animal will recycle. Excised ovarian remnants should
anestrus. Anestrous queens can be induced to cycle be examined microscopically by a pathologist for
with pregnant mare's serum gonadotrophin or folli- identification of ovarian structures. Excessive hyperes-
cle-stimulating hormone therapy. (See Induction of trogenism in queens can lead to estrogen toxicit\^
Estrus, Chapter 10: Mahng.) bone marrow depression, and resulting deficiency of
Queens with cystic follicular degeneration often blood platelets (cells involved in blood clotting),
show signs of nymphomania, attracting tomcats but rapid hemorrhagic shock, and death.
not allowing mating. Many are ill-tempered during Hypoluteoidism (sterility caused by insufficient
this time. The most frequent ovarian cyst in the cat at secretion of progesterone) in queens produces re-
 REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS

peated embryo/fetal loss, or abortion, at the same has never given birth delivers one or two large kittens
stage of pregnancy. Other possible diagnoses — infec- and in so doing traumatizes the cervix. Diagnosis is
tious diseases, low-grade reproductive tract infections, made by obtaining a history of infertility and by visual
degenerative endometrial conditions, genetic abnor- examination of the cervix. The prognosis is poor for
malities— must be ruled out. Blood progesterone further breeding.
levels taken biweekly are helpful in diagnosing hypo- Pedunculated endometrial polyps (growtlis
luteoidism. Long-acting progesterone injections, be- attached by a stem to the lining of the uterus) have
ginning seven to ten days before the expected been seen in aged queens.
abortion and terminating seven to ten days before the The torn is born with descended testes in the scro-
expected parturition, have been useful in therapy. tum. Cryptorchid (one or both undescended) or ec-
In the absence of coitus, the queen usually has no topic (out of place, usually between scrotum and
luteal phase (the period during which the ovarian body cavity under skin) testes should not be cor-
follicle converts to a corpus luteum and secretes pro- rected, but instead should be removed when the cat
gesterone). Some queens can be stimulated to ovulate has reached appropriate age, size, and maturity, be-
by stroking the perineum. If a sterile mating occurs, cause these conditions may be inherited.
or if ovulation is artificially induced, corpora lutea
are formed and a pseudopregnancy occurs. Very few Neoplasia (Tumors)
queens show overt pseudopregnancy, however. Occa-
sional y, one may see mammary gland engorgement, OVARIAN TUMORS. Cystadenornas are quite
with the queen allowing young to suckle, or dis- common in the ovary of the queen and appear to
playing signs of labor or maternal behavior toward originate from the rete ovarii. They are multiple, thin-
inanimate objects. Usually no treatment is necessary. walled cysts containing a clear, watery fluid and may
If therapy is indicated, long-acting testosterone or in time completely replace the true ovarian tissue.
tranquilization may be provided by a veterinarian. Dysgerminomas are malignant in 10 to 20 percent
One form of hyperadrenocorticism (overactivity of cases. These are analogous to the seminoma in the
of the adrenal glands) has been seen in cats following testes of the male; they consist of a uniform popula-
prolonged and excessive treatment with glucocorti- tion of large, round or polygonal cells. The dysgermi-
costeroids (type of steroid), or progestins such as noma is a highly cellular tumor, containing little
megestrol acetate (Ovaban), administered for skin connective tissue. It grows quickly, and necrosis (cell
conditions, urine spraying in tomcats, aggressiveness, death) and hemorrhages are frequently present.
or prolonged suppression of estrus. This condition is Teratomas are rare tumors that contain a mixture
extremely rare. of normal and cancerous tissues. They may be solid
or cystic and may contain hair, skin, cartilage, bone,
teeth, or muscle. Both malignant and benign terato-
mas have been reported.
PATHOLOGY OF THE GENITAL TRACT Granulosa cell tumors are usually malignant and
will metastasize (spread). These tumors are able to
Developmental and Acquired produce steroid hormones — estrogens, testosterone,
Anatomical Conditions and progesterone — resulting in either nymphomania,
The most common reproductive tract abnormalities virilization (causing male characteristics), or anes-
of the queen are uterus unicornis (lack of one uterine trus. Alopecia and prolonged estrus have also been
horn), and segmental aplasia (lack of development of caused by granulosa cell tumors in cats.
portions of the tract). When one uterine horn is miss-
ing, the ovary on the same side may be missing also; MAMMARY TUMORS. Mammary tumors in cats
or blind segments of the uterus may be present that are common compared with other domestic animals.
become progressively fluid-filled with each estrous They are seen more often in females (although mam-
cycle. Stenotic (narrowed) or fibrous (thickened) mary tumors occur in male cats as well ).
adhesions of the cervix, or complete closure and scar- Progesterone causes mammary gland hyperplasia
ring, may occasionally be diagnosed as a cause of in- in the queen. Hyperplasia can be confused with can-
fertility. This usually results when a young queen that cer as well as mastitis (inflammation of the mammary
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

gland), which is caused by bacterial infection of tlie

lactating gland postpartum or during pseudopreg- INFECTIONS OF THE GENITAL TRACT
nano'.
Feline mamrnar^^ hypertrophy (enlargement), Vaginitis (inflammation of the vagina) should be sus-
also called juvenile fihroadenomatous Ijyperplasia, pected when an abnormal vulvar discharge is present.
may affect a single gland or an entire mammar>' gland Vaginitis can occur as a sole entity or as part of an
chain. Hypertrophy is most frequently seen in young, upper genital tract infection or cancer involving the
sexually intact females, following an estrus that has cervix, uterus, or urinary system. A thorough history,
resulted in pseudopregnancy or pregnancy. It appears physical examination (utilizing vaginal cytology and
to be progesterone dependent. Clinically, it does not culture, and abdominal palpation), and a complete
resemble mammary cancer. The enlargement or en blood count (CBC or hemogram) will assist in de-
gorgement is along the entire mammary gland chain. termining the extent of the disorder. The abnormal
Each gland is round, lirm, and larger than normal. discharge of vaginitis should not be confused with
Breast tumors are usualK .soliian small nodules. Fe- normal vulvar discharge of proestrous-estrous secre-
line mammary hypertrophy has been shown to re- tions, normal lochia (afterbirth discharge), or subin-
gress following ovariohysterectomy but may also volution (partial return to normal size) of the uterus
persist longer. This is thought to be because of in- following delivery. Noninfectious problems, such as
creased prolactin blood levels and further reduction vaginal tumors, clitoral hypertrophy, and vulvar or va-
of progesterone levels. Spontaneous remission also ginal anatomical abnormalities, must be considered
occurs, usually without recurrence of the disease dur- in the differential diagnosis.
ing subsequent pregnancy or pseudopregnancy. Many The entire vagina should be evaluated for inflam-
affected queens are lethargic and have difficulty walk- mation or other abnormalities — tumor, foreign body,
ing, because of the extremely enlarged glands. Ulcer- anatomical abnormality — using a sterile fiberoptics
ation and excoriation (abrasion) of the skin over the endoscope or small veterinary otoscope head. Smears
enlarged glands is commonly seen, and secondary mas- for cytology should be examined for the type and
titis may occur. Warm-water soaks and antibiotic ther- extent of inflammation and the presence of microor-
apy are recommended if bacterial mastitis develops. ganisms. Bacterial culture results should be inter-
Malignant mammary tumors comprise between 6 preted, noting the number and type of organisms
and 11 percent of all feline cancers. They tend to isolated, vaginal cytology results, history of vulvar dis-
occur in older cats, the mean age at occurrence being charge and infertility, and the extent of vaginitis. Anti-
11.5 years. Malignant feline mammary tumors arise biotic sensitivity testing should be performed on any
most commonly in the anterior glands. In contrast to isolated bacteria to identify the proper antibiotic to be
the situation in the dog, these tumors grow rapidly used. Mild antiseptic douches, such as a tepid 1 per-
and are nearly always malignant. Most of them are cent tamed-iodine (Betadine) solution, are useful in
adenocarcinomas of the papillary type. The most com- chronic vaginitis. A disposable bovine teat cannula
mon sites of tumor spread are the local lymph nodes (tube for insertion) or a tomcat urethral catheter also
and the lung; however, tumor masses also can be may serve; the vagina can be lavaged with a syringe.
found in the liver, adrenal glands, kidney, spleen, and If queens in a cattery are chronically plagued by
heart. These tumors are frequently lethal. vulvar discharges and infertility, then culture samples
Nonmalignant ovarian and uterine tumors can be should be obtained from the prepuce or penis of the
removed successfully by ovariohysterectomy. Mastec- breeding tom. If similar organisms are isolated from
tomy is indicated for mammary tumors, but it must the tom and queen samples, then the tom should be
be kept in mind that recurrence following surgery is segregated from the queens until antibiotic treatment
common. Vaginal and vulvar tumors are frequently has resolved the problem.
benign and can be surgically removed with relative The role of the tomcat in venereal spread of infec-
ease. When the base of the tumor is broad, a dorsal tious diseases is not well understood. A negative status
episiotomy (incision through the vulva into the va- for toxoplasmosis, feline leukemia, feline immunode-
gina) may be required in order to obtain adequate ficiency virus, and feline coronavirus would be of im-
surgical exposure. portance when obtaining a breeding tom. Appropriate
 REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS

vaccinations should be administered prior to breed- becomes clinically evident between estrous periods
ing to control disease. or during a pseudopregnancy.
In cystic endometrial hyperplasia, no clinical signs
of illness are present, because as yet no infection has
CYSTIC ENDOMETRIAL HYPERPLASIA, developed in the uterus. The vulva may be swollen
ENDOMETRITIS, METRITIS, and enlarged, and there may be an excessive mucous
PYOMETRITIS, AND PYOMETRA discharge that contains no bacteria, no red blood
cells, and few or no white blood cells. Atresia (func-
Cystic endometrial hyperplasia, endometritis, metri- tional closure) of the cervix may produce muco-
tis (inflammation of the uterus), pyometritis, and pyo- metra (mucus in the uterus) or hydrometra.
metra occur commonly in intact female cats, In cystic hyperplasia associated with endometritis
especially those over three years of age. Pyometritis and metritis, clinical signs of illness usually appear
can arise spontaneously, or it can be secondary to a during the metestrous period (ten to ninety days
systemic bacterial disease process or to postpartum after estrus). Breeding may or may not have occurred.
metritis. Iatrogenic (arising as a complication of Signs include an elevated temperature and heart rate,
medical treatment) pyometritis can result from the loss of appetite, lethargy, and a rough, dull hair coat.
administration of long-acting progesterone com- The white blood cell count is often elevated. Most of
pounds for delaying or suppressing estrus, or from these animals have an odorous discharge from the
use of estrogens in treating vaginitis. Pyometritis can v\jlva that persists for several weeks or more. This
follow a postcopulation or postinsemination infection, odorous discharge must be differentiated from that
or it can be the final result in the cystic endometrial seen in vaginitis or cystitis (bladder infection). After
hyperplasia-pyometra complex. This complex affects a number of weeks, the signs spontaneously regress,
intact queens. Its frequency of occurrence increases only to reappear following the next estrous period,
with age, following repeated nonproductive matings, often in a more severe form. Chronic endometritis
pseudocopulation, and spontaneous ovulation. may be associated with stillbirths, abortion, embry-
Progesterone plays a major role in producing cystic onic deaths, small liner size, and infertility.
endometrial hyperplasia in the queen. Progesterone In pyometra, there is a nearly complete closure of
greatly increases the susceptibility of the uterus to the cervix, preventing escape of the odorous exudate
infection, maintains the funaional closure of the cer- (composed of cellular debris) from the uterus, with
vix, and produces a relaxation of the uterine muscula- distention of the uterine horns. The general condition
ture. of the cat and its hair coat may be good or poor,
Long-lasting progesterone compounds, used to depending on how rapidly the condition develops.
delay or suppress estrus for as long as two years or Pyometra may develop rapidly (within a week) or may
more, have produced hyperplasia-pyometra complex require several months for full expression. The body
in over 10 percent of treated cats. As a result, these temperature in acute cases is often elevated; in
products have now been withdrawn from the market chronic cases it may be normal; in severe, toxic cases,
and are contraindicated, especially in a female in- it may be below normal. Loss of appetite, thirst, dehy-
tended tobe bred at a later date. dration, and occasionally vomiting may occur. The
Most cats with cystic endometrial hyperplasia-pyo- pulse is usually elevated and rapid. The mucous mem-
metra complex are older (more than six years of age), branes (lips, gums) may be pale and, in some cases,
are nulliparotts (having never given birth), and may border on the anemic. Polydipsia (excessive
have corpora lutea in their ovaries. There has been thirst) and polyuria (excessive urination) are com-
speculation regarding this high incidence of corpora monly seen. In toxic cases, nephritis (kidney in-
lutea in a species that is believed to ovulate only after flam ation) with an elevated blood urea nitrogen
the stimulus of coitus. It has been suggested that pet- (BUN) level may be noted. The white blood cell count
ting and stroking of a susceptible cat by its owner is often greatly elevated; most of the cells are neutro-
might be sufficient to induce ovulation. The disease phils, which are important in combating bacteria. A
seldom appears during the anestrous season of Octo- vaginal discharge may be present. It varies in color
ber through January. The pyometra component often from yellowish-gray to reddish-brown and has a char-
120 SEX AND REPRODUCTION
aaeristically fetid odor. The abdomen in some cases size of a fetus or larger. Many will have a small stalk
may be distended and pear-shaped; palpation may re- (pedicle), by which they are attached to the uterine
veal the distended uterus. Radiographs can be used wall. They are usually cystic They can prolapse (ex-
b\- the % eterinarian to confirm the enlarged uterus. tend out) through the cervix and may also twist
The become course acute of pyometra around their stalk. This can lead to a bloody or fetid
cases and severeis quite
vs ithin %-ariable.
a week orSome
two \Tjl\ar discharge, \aginoscopic examination can re-
and require immediate anention to save the patient's veal the prolapsed polyp, which may resemble a neo-
life. In other cases, especially those with an open cer- plasm. Large endometrial polyps can actually be
vix from which pus is draining, the disease may run a palpated. Radiographs, following the infusion of ra-
course of a month or more. Usually, those cases in diopaque contrast fluid into the uterus, also can reveal
which the cenix remains closed are more toxic than the polyps.
those in which a discharge is present. Cases with imi- Adenomyosis, or the ingrowth of hyperplastic endo-
comual uterine torsion (twisting of one uterine meu-ial glands into the uterine musculature, is also a
horn) ha\e been reponed. A purulent peritonitis complication of cystic endometrial hyperplasia. The
(putrefaaive inflammation of the lining of the abdo- affeaed area of the uterus appears as a firm mass and
is frequendy confused with a tumor.
siomen)
ns of themay develop
condition secondan- may occur.to pyometra Remis- Torsion of a uterine horn usually is associated with
The treatment for pyometra, metritis, endometritis, pregnancy, pyometra. endometrial polyps, hydrome-
and qstic endometrial hyperplasia in the nonbreed- tra, mucometra, or any other condition that produces
ing queen is ovarioh\stereaomy, with supportive an increase in size of a uterine horn. Torsion usually
therapy consisting of s\-stemic antibiotics and fluids, results in shock and sudden death.
and blood if necessary-. Deep vaginal cultures, with Extrauterine pregnancy, with or without severe as-
analysis of antibiotic sensitivity of the isolated micro- cites (accumulation of fluid within the abdomen), is
organisms, are especially important if postsurgical an occasional finding in the cat. Often, it is an inciden-
septicemia (blood poisoning) and peritonitis are tal finding at the time of surgery or necropsy (au-
present. The baaerium most fi-equently isolated from topsy of an animal J. The usually mummified fetuses
cases of pyometra is Escherichia coli, a normal inhabit- may be found adherent to abdominal organs: some
ant of the digestive traa. may have been present for years and are nothing but
Further research in the prevention and treatment mineralized masses. Extrauterine pregnancies may
of this syndrome in the queen is needed. Attention to occur as a result of the zygote (fertilized egg) having
hygiene during breeding, queening, and the post- been dislodged from the ovidua and dropped into
partum period, and routine physical examination of the abdominal cavity, or as a result of uterine rupture.
the genital traa. can help decrease the incidence of Most such pregnancies are of the ianer origin. Some
cystic endometrial hyperplasia-pyometra complex in believe that in queens spayed at estrus or soon after,
the cat. zygotes may be traumatically released by surgery into
the
bloodperitoneal
supply. cavity, where they attach and develop a
MISCELLANEOUS DISORDERS OF Chronic vaginitis may be secondary to an open pyo-
THE GENITAL TRACT metra or metritis, but more frequently it is secondary
to a dystocia (difficult birth) or abortion. The vulvar
Bite uoutids of the scrotum and testes are frequently- discharge may vary from scanty and intermittent to
infliaed during territorial fighting. Abscesses of the abundant and continual. Scarring of the cervix or va-
scrotum and accompanying fever should be treated by gina may occur. The prognosis for breeding is poor
a veterinarian. Such injury may necessitate removal of for any queen with scarring: ovariohystereaomy is
the affeaed testis in order to save the nonaffeaed testis. advised.
Endometrial polyps are benign growths found on Several infectious disease agents can cause, or have
the lining of the uterus that projea into the uterine been associated with, fetal resorption (absorption,
cavity\ They occur more commonly as a further ex- dissolution of the cells of the fetus by biochemical
pres ion ofcystic endometrial hyperplasia. Endome- means), mummification, abortion, stillbirth, or birth
trial polyps may be single or multiple and can be the defects. These include feline herpesvirus type 1. pan-
 REPRODUCTIVE DISORDERS

leukopenia virus (feline parvovirus), feline leukemia nance at day 45 to 50. Suspect queens should be
virus (FeLV), Toxoplasma gondii, and Ureaplasma. checked for evidence of any infectious disease and
Aborted fetuses, stillborns, portions of resorbed fetal should always be confirmed pregnant. Treatment con-
material, placentas, and vaginal swabs for culture sisting ofintramuscular administration of long-acting
should be submitted to a diagnostic laboratory for progesterone has been reponed to be successful in
microscopic examination and culture. some queens. Overdosage of progesterone may lead
Habitual abortion that occurs consistently at the to masculinization of female kittens and prolonged
same stage of gestation may result from premature gestation. The predisposition for premature regres-
regression of corpora lutea, or inability to successfully sion of corpora lutea and the frequent inability to
convert from luteal to placenta! progestogenic mainte- successfully carry fetuses to term may be inherited.
 1 3
H

Genetics

by Elizabeth A Oltenacu

may butseemfamilitoarity' be an intimidat- THE PHYSICAL BASIS

Genetics ing subject, with its basic OF INHERITANCE
principles is essential for making im-
eprovem nts in any breed. A complete The inheritance of any trait has a clearly defined phys-
ical basis, in that the
breedingcludeprogr careful am
selecmust
tion in-of elements of the genetic ma-
breeding stock, which can terial can be seen micro-
be done only if the breeder scopical y. The body of a cat
is awareof of the genetic st.
ture the trait of intere na- is composed of individual
cells. Within each cell is a
An incomplete understand- "center of operations," the
ing of genetics will lead to nucleus, which contains the
an ineffectual breeding pro-
gram, while more certain geneticprint"—material
that specifies — the "blue-
the
knowledge will enable the precise vidualstructure
breeder to go a long way in animal. Cellsof thethatindi-
are
improving a breed. halted during the division
This chapter discusses process can be chemically
patterns of inheritance, the stained to reveal, within
possible goals of breeding the nucleus, the threadlike
programs, and choosing an chromosomes, which in
effective breeding and selec- mammals are made of DNA
tion scheme to improve the (deoxyribonucleic acid).
characteristic or characteristics of interest. The It is DNA that carries the genetic information.
breeder should be aware that as more traits are in- All cats have thirty-eight chromosomes per body
cluded inthe selection program, progress for any sin- cell, all contained in the nucleus. When a body cell is
gle trait will automatically be slower. observed during its division process, the chromo-
122
 GENETICS
MALE (sperm)
somes can be seen to duplicate themselves, the dupli-
cates then pulling apart into the two new daughter cells
that result from the division. Each new cell retains the X Y
same number of chromosomes as the original.
But what happens when reproductive cells, or ga- XX XY
metes (sperm in the male and ova in the female), are X Female Male
produced? If each had the full number of chromo- FEMALE
(egg)
somes, then fertilization of an egg by a sperm — the XX XY
joining of two complete cells — would produce an off- X Female Male
spring with twice as many chromosomes as each par-
ent. This doubling would occur in each generation. In
just ten generations the kittens would have over thirty
thousand chromosomes! This does not happen be- The above diagram (called a Punnett square) can
cause in gamete formation the chromosomes are seen be used with any pair of genes to determine the possi-
to line up in pairs, with one member of each pair ble outcomes of a mating. (Here it is used for entire
going into each reproductive cell. Thus each feline chromosomes — the X and Y sex chromosomes — but
sperm cell or ovum contains nineteen (rather than it works just as well for an individual gene pair.) The
thirty-eight) chromosomes. When a sperm fertilizes diagram lists the gametes that each of the nvo parents
an egg, the resulting progeny cell then acquires 19 + can contribute (at top and at left), with the squares
19 = 38 chromosomes, half from each parent. For illustrating the possible combinations that can result
breeders, the important conclusion to be drawn from from the mating.
this is that the individual units of inheritance, the
genes, which are located on the chromosomes, also
occur in pairs. This is important for understanding
how inheritance operates. The thirty-eight chromo- MENDELIAN GENETICS
somes (and therefore the genes along them) are in
actuality Simple Traits
ular trait.nineteen
More on pairs, with two genes for any partic-
this later. An Austrian monk and naturalist, Gregor Mendel
Close examination of the nineteen pairs of cat chro- (1822-1884), was the first person to develop a clear
mosomes shows that shapes differ from pair to pair. understanding of how simple traits are inherited. Re-
In the female, all the pairs of chromosomes consist of markably, he achieved this understanding years be-
two chromosomes that look alike, including the single fore the physical basis of inheritance was discovered.
pair of sex chromosomes (all other chromosomes An understanding of the inheritance of sex was
are referred to as autosomes). In the male, however, achieved later than this, but it makes an excellent first
there is one unmatched pair.sexThesechromosome
are the male's example of genetics in action.
chromosomes. The larger (thesexX In addition to the genes that determine the sex of
chromosome) appears physically similar to the fe- the individual, the sex chromosomes of both sexes
carry some other genetic information. The Y chromo-
But the malsmaller e's sex chromosomes and is inthetheY shape
sex chromosome, of an X.
chromosome, some has few genes on it other than those involved in
also named for its shape, is quite different in size sex determination, but the X carries genes for many
and shape. Females have two X chromosomes and are other traits as well. Such traits are referred to as sex-
therefore XX with respect to their sex chromosomes. linked, because they are controlled by genes on a
This double-X pattern is what makes them females. sex chromosome.
Males are XY. An egg from a female can thus contain A celebrated example of sex-linked traits is orange
only an X chromosome — that's all the female has. color in cats. This color gene can take two different
Roughly half aofY.aHence, male's itsperm cells that
will determines
bear an X, forms, known as alleles. One allele (O) determines
half will bear is the male orange color, the other allele (o), nonorange color.
the sex of each kitten: kittens produced by a Y-bearing In this example, nonorange cats will be black, a color
sperm will be males, and those produced by an X- decided by another gene pair. Each X chromosome
bearing sperm will be females. contains one of the two possible alleles, O or o. (The
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

Y chromosome has no genes for this panicular trait.) One can readily see that the progeny are all alike,
So for a male cat to be orange, it need have only but ihey are not intermediate in hair length. Instead,
one O allele, because it has only one X chromosome. they are all shorthairs\ The gene for short hair (L) is
However, in this particular case, for a female cat to be thus said to be dominant, and the gene for long hair
orange both of her X chromosomes must contain the (1) is said to be recessive. A dominant gene is capable
O allele. Similarly, a male with one o allele is black; a of expressing its trait even when carried try only one
female must have two o alleles to be black. A female member of a chromosome pair — hence, the hair
with one O allele and one o allele is a tortoiseshell as length of the Ll progeny is controlled by the L allele.
neither allele is dominant to the other. Male tortoise- A recessive gene (such as 1) can only be expressed
shells, which are tlie result of an error in chromo- when both members of a chromosome pair contain
some separation, have an extra X chromosome — two the gene — hence, only II cats will be longhairs; all
Xs — and a Y. They are usually sterile. Using a Punnett other combinations will be shorthairs.
square, mating a black male (X°Y) with an orange A cat with two identical alleles (either LL or 11, in the
female (X"X°) gives the following possibilities: case of hair length) is said to be homozygous for that
particular trait; a cat with dissimilar alleles (Ll) is said to
BLACK MALE be heterozygous. For the shorthair kittens described
above, their phenotype (i.e., the visible, physical ex-
X- Y pres ion ofthe trait in question, in this case hair length)
does not disclose their genotype (the genetic makeup
X°Y of a trait, i.e., whether they are homozygous or hetero-
orange zygous for the trait), as it did for the tortoiseshell kit-
ORANGE tortoiseshell
XOX" tens. The heterozygote is said to be a carrier of the
FEMALE recessive gene. Judging by appearance alone, a breeder
X°Y
orange can't
X" tortoiseshell
xox° or onetellL ifandthose one shorthaired
1; because Lkittens have twothe L results
is dominant, genes
are the same either way. This is one of die major
problems in the genetic evaluation of animals. Often,
One can readily see that o the resulting female kittens only a breeding test will disclose which alleles a cat
will all be tortoiseshell,X and the male kittens will all has and can transmit to its offspring.
he orange. If the reverse mating had been made —
orange male (X°Y) with black female (X°X°) — the re-
sult would have been tortoiseshell daughters and Multiple Alleles
black sons. The presence of different patterns of in- A normal cat has only two alleles of a specific gene,
heritance for sons and daughters is a clue that a trait but, in a population of cats, many alleles are possible
may be sex-linked. The outcome of a mating is often at a particular locus (a locus [plural, loci] is the posi-
more straightforward for genes that are not on the X tion on the chromosome where a specific gene is
chromosome but on the autosomes, which of course located). The C locus provides a good example. C, c'',
represent the majority of genes. When the genes are C, and c^ are all alleles (i.e., different forms of the
on the autosomes, the sexes of the kittens are irrele- same gene), any one of which may be found at the C
vant to the geneticinoutcome, and diagram.
the parents' sexesa locus on a single chromosome. Matings among cats of
are not included our genetic Hence, all genotypes for this locus have shown that C (full
mating between a longhair with two 1 alleles and a color) is dominant to the other alleles. The c'' (Bur-
shorthair with two L alleles gives: mese) and c* (Siamese) alleles are codominant —
that is, both are fully expressed in a heterozygous
L L individual, and the result in this case is the Tonkinese
(c'^c'), which is intermediate between Siamese and
LI U Burmese (this is comparable to the Oo tortoiseshell
cat described earlier). The c" allele ranks next, and at
LI LI the end of the list is c (pink-eyed true albino), which
is recessive to all the other alleles at this locus.
 GENETICS

MALE (WwCc")
WC Wc*' wC wc*"
wc WWCC WwCC

WWCc*-
wC WWCc"
WwCC WwCe wwCC WwCc""
(WwCc") WWc''c'' WwCc"
Wwc^c*"
wwCc"
WwCc" wwCc"
Wwc^c"
Locus Interactionswc" wwc^c*"
Interaaions between different pairs of genes (called ofphenotvpes.
genes andThehowresult genotypes are "decoded"
of the black cat mating toshould
give
epistasis) can further confuse prediction of infierited be: nine black kittens (B C ), three Seal Point Sia-
traits. A good example of a rwo-gene interaction is the mese (B c^cO, three chocolate (bbC ), and one
dominant white allele (W), which is dominant over its Chocolate Point Siamese (bbc*c"). Note in this case
color allele (w), as well as over traits that are con- that offspring phenot)pes arise that would never have
trol ed bya separate locus, for example, full color (CC been suspeaed by looking at the parents. This illus-
or Cc^) and Burmese pattern (c'^c''). A heterozygous trates how difficult it can be to predict the outcome of
dominant white cat (in this example, WwCc*' — re- matings of nonpurebred (and therefore more hetero-
member, the W allele is dominant to all the others) z>'gous) animals.
can produce four different types of gametes: WC, Wc'', The example shows a different dominant white (W)
wC, and wc''. There are two loci involved here, and male mated to three females:
only one allele from each parental gene pair is pres-
ent in a normal gamete. The Punnett square for a MALE (WwCC)
mating between two such cats is complex, with six- WC wC
teen squares (4 x 4) representing all the possible
outcomes, as illustrated above.
Some of the offspring genotypes are repeated in
different parts of the square. Because W is the domi- white full color
nant white allele, any kitten with W in its genotype WwCc w^wCc
will be white, like the parents. The rest of a white 2. WWCC WwCc" wwCc"
kitten'scausegenotype Siamese white
the W alleleis prevents
irrelevant theto its phenotype,of be-
expression the full color
other alleles. Thus, in this example, there will be WwCc wwCC
twelve white kittens (W in the genotype, i.e., 3. WWCC
Blue-eyed
white white full color
W ) for every four colored (ww_ ) kittens,
that is, a 3:1 ratio. (The blank spaces indicate alleles
that do not affea the phenotype under consideration.)
Of the four colored (ww ) kittens, three will have In general, it is difficult to know whether two white
full color (C in the genotype, i.e., C ) and one will cats are genetically the same color or not without
show the Burmese (c''c'') pattern. careful test-matings. The male above is white because
You can next try a similar Punnett square for a mat- of the W allele, while female 3 is white because of a
ing between two heterozygous black cats carrying the totally different gene, C. The gene for full color (C) is
chocolate and Siamese alleles (i.e., BbCc'). (For a list- carried by the male, but its effea does not show in his
ing of the major alleles of the cat, see Table 13.1) This phenotype because the dominant W gene prevents
will provide praaice in understanding the inheritance any color expression.
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

MAJOR ALLELES allele is a determining factor. This is a case where

T\Bl£ 13.1. OF THE CAT pedigree (family) information can be of use. If the
Seal Point comes from a line that has never produced
any chocolate (bb) kittens, then the breeder can be
Color fairly certain that its genotype probably is BB. A breed-
A agouti I pigment inhibition ing test with cats of the recessive (bb) genotype is the
( banded hair color ) usual method for substantiating such an assumption.
ter.)
a nonagouti sex-linked orange (See "Breeding Out an Undesired Gene," this chap-
B black o nonorange
b
b'
chocolate brown
red-brown S white spotting of Note
the major that inalleles describing a breed's listed
are commonly genotype,
if the not
breedall
(incompletely
no spotting dominant) is homozygous for them. For example, the homozy-
C full color s gous Seal Point Siamese female's genotype is in actual-
c"Burmese T Abyssinian tabby ity aaBBc'c'DDiioossww (refer to Table 131 for
c Siamese T striped tabby descriptions of the other alleles). However, the D, i,
c^blue-eyed white blotched tabby o, s, and w alleles are usually not listed because they
albmo (pink eyes) are homozygous in the breed. Should this line of Sia-
D intense color W dominant white mese cats also produce Blue Points, then the D locus
d dilute color w colored would need to be included because some cats will be
Dd (carriers of the blue-point characteristic, but not
Hair type Other expressing it because of the dominance of D), or dd
t" (blue point).
H normal hair FD folded ear Another way of stating this is to say that alleles are
h hairless fd normal ear not usually listed at all if a breed conforms to what is
M Manx tail considered to be its wild type (think of the phenotype
L shorthair of the wild cat to picture this). In other words, it is
1 longhair m normal tail the occasional, naturally occurring mutation (genetic
R normal hair Pd Polydactyly change) of wild-type alleles that has formed the basis
r Cornish rex normal number of toes for development of the different breeds, and it is only
Re normal hair these mutated alleles that are listed when describing
re Devon rex the genotype of a breed. The agouti (A), black (B), full
Wh wirehair color (C), intense color (D), normal pigmentation (i),
wh normal hair pd nonorange (o), unspotted (s), striped tabby (T), and
colored (w) alleles are all considered to be wild-type
alleles. The occasional mutations of these alleles have
provided the raw material for anificial selection,
We Colors of Specific Breeds which has developed the different breeds. Many, but
In general, breeds in which few colors are acceptable not all, of the mutations have proved to be recessive
in the standard will be more homozygous for those in nature.
color alleles than will be breeds in which many colors Returning to the Seal Point Siamese, the usual de-
are acceptable. For example, a Siamese cat from a scription ofits genotype would simply be aac^c", be-
long line of purebred Siamese is almost certainly c^c* cause these are the only two alleles that differ from
for the gene for color panern. However, its color the wild type. The B and D loci would be added to
points may take many forms, including seal (aaB ), the genotype if there were reason to suspect that the
blue (aaB — dd), or chocolate (aabb). Note that the Seal Points were not pure-breeding for the intense
genotype aabb of the chocolate cat can be written with (D) black (B) color, but were producing also some
some certainty, because this phenotype depends on chocolateduces some (bb)chocolates
or blue (dd)
its having only recessive alleles. The genotypes of seal and kittens. (A linemust
some blues that pro-
also
and blue are less certain, because the dominant B produce some Lilac Points [bbdd].)
 GENETICS

Deducing the Genotype different genetic reasons. A white cat is a col-

ored cat with just one locus preventing it
The previous section has provided some ground rules from expressing that color. It still passes on
for understanding the genot\pe of a breed, rather color genes to its kittens,
than listing what is known about every breed. Even c) "Silver" or "chinchilla" is believed to be the
result of the I genotype.
an alley cat"
complete geneticof unknown
enigma ifpedigree should
the reader has not be a
grasped 6. Put the pieces together:
the principles thus far described. Of course, there are e.g., a short-haired tortoiseshell: aaL Oo
many more unanswered questions about an alley cat's a long-haired tortoiseshell: aallOo
genotype than there are about tlie genotype of a pedi- a tortoiseshell Siamese: aac^c^L Oo
greed feline. Yet even a purebred is capable of occa- a calico shorthair: aaL OoS
sionally surprising a breeder. Mutations are constantly a blue, short-haired tortoiseshell:
occurring, most of them never coming to the aaddL Oo
breeder's attention. Occasionally, however, a muta- Calico is used to describe a tortoiseshell (Oo) with
tion occurs that affects an important gene in a particu- white spotting (S ).
lar breed. For example, a Siamese gene might mutate
back to a wild-type (C) allele in some of the ova of a Note: If it is certain that shorthairs are pure-breed-
Siamese female. If one of these ova should be fertil- ing, then the L notation can be dropped because all
ized bya purebred Siamese male, the kitten produced the cats are assumed to be LL wild type.
will be Ce. This kitten will not have the Siamese pat- Thus, even cats of unknown ancestry can be geno-
tern, but instead will have color distributed over all typically analyzed to a certain extent. Pedigree and
its body. This is the sort of genetic event that can breeding information (data on phenotypes of ances-
subsequently
being purebred,giveor rise that toan accusations
outside maleofhasa line's not
fenilized fill intorstheand/orblanks
the subject's
in at leastoffspring)
some partswillof permit one to
the genotype.
Purebred cats leave fewer questions in the mind, but
some ofbearthethisqueen's
should in mindova,andandremember
so forth.thatBreeders
not all remember: even purebreds can produce some sur-
such births signify a breach of ethics.
The following scheme is useful for deducing the prises!
genotype
istics: of a cat from its visual phenotypic character- Undesired Gene
This term can be used to describe a gene that is not a
1 . Look at the cat: Does it have unusual features, such desirable part allele
of a breed's
as a rex coat or extra toes? Does the coat have a the full color in a line phenotype
of Siamese (for
cats),example,
or one
particular pattern, such as spotting or the Siamese that produces an abnormality. Some abnormalities
pattern? What color is shown by the colored areas have formed the basis of distinct breeds — for exam-
of the coat? ple, the folded ear of the Scottish Fold breed. Thus a
2. Consider the table of major alleles of the cat. gene that is undesired in one breed may be an essen-
3. If the phenotype results from a recessive genotype, tial feature of another. But genes tliat cause a physical
the cat's alleles at that locus are both known. For abnormality, such as the Manx tail, may be harmful to
example, a long-haired cat is II. ancondition,
individual's
4. If the trait results from a dominant allele, half the wheresurvival if present
they may have a inwider
the impact
homozygous(such
genotype is known. For example, a striped tabby is as having an additional effect higher in the spine of
T — and must also be A , as only agouti shows the Manx). If such a gene also produces a desirable
stripes (except in the presence of the O allele). feature in the breed, then the breeder must accept the
5. Follow some simple rules: fact that the line will have reduced viability because
a) Tabbies must be A unless the orange allele homozygous kittens may not survive to reproduce.
is present. In this case, even aa can be striped. An allele that is lethal may display its effect at differ-
b) White tioisns, as a 'no ent stages in the life cycle. For example, an allele may
whitecolor"
cat canand beleaves
white many ques-
for several produce an effect that is not apparent at birth but is
128 SEX AND REPRODUCTION
manifested as the kitten grows older. If, as a result of ing colony will always have some such allele in it, but
possessing a certain allele, a kitten sunives for some since this gene is recessive, usually it is only discov-
time but cannot reproduce, then the allele can be con- ered when particular matings — often those between
sidered lethal with resprci lo its (. rtect on the species, closely related individuals — are made. How, then, can
though not necessarily lo the iin.li\ idual. At the other a breeder discover the extent of such a problem and
end of the spectrum are alleles that produce grossly de- eliminate an unwanted allele from the breeding stock?
formed offspring, dead either at birth or .shonly there- First, and mo.st obvious, affected animals (e.g., hh,
after. Some lethal alleles or genotypes may even kill hairless cats) or their parents (which must be Hh)
the fetus in utero, should be eliminated from the breeding program.
tlieir existence is theso reduced
that the productivity
breeder's only clue to
of matings The real problem, however, lies in detecting which of
wherein the lethal genotype can be generated. the other normal-appearing (H ) cats carry the h
When kittens are born with an abnormality (a con- allele. All offspring from the Hh parents are prime
genital abnormality), it cannot always be readily de- suspects.
termined that the underlying cause is genetic. It is If the homozygous recessive type (hh in this exam-
true that some genes are known to produce abnor- ple) isnot lethal but is able to survive and reproduce,
malities (for instance, spina bifida in kittens homozy- it can be used in test-matings with suspect individuals:
gous for the Manx allele); congenital abnormalities SUSPECT (H_)
that show up in highly inbred kinens (i.e., from mat-
ings of close relatives, see "Inbreeding," this chapter)
are prime suspects for being genetic in origin. In non-
inbred kittens, however, environmental causes must
also be considered. Nutritional deficiencies or specific RECESSIVE Hh h_
agents such as drugs or microorganisms that influence (hh) h normal
the development of the fetus can also give rise to
congenital abnormalities, which may cause some con-
fusion becau.se they may mimic abnormalities that
have a genetic basis. (See Chapter 14: Normal Develop- If the blank ( ) is an h (i.e., if the suspect animal
ment AND Congenital Birth Defects.) is a carrier), half of the progeny will be expected to
In a breed in which the heterozygous genotype is be hairless. Of course, it takes only one abnormal
desired but the homozv'gous genotype produces a kinen to prove that the suspect (H ) carries the h
gross abnormality-, a breeder has two options: (1) Mat- allele (i.e., that the suspect is Hh). But how many
ings that produce the nonviable kittens can be normal kittens must be produced from such test-mat-
avoided, in which case a higher percentage of "nor- ings before the breeder can be reasonably confident
mal" (butgivealsolitters undesired) that the suspect is HH and thus not a carrier?
This will of normalkinens
size. will
(2) Ifbematings
produced.
that If the suspect is a carrier (Hh), the probability of an
may produce the grossly abnormal kinens are made, offspring's
the breeder must accept these losses and the fact that in the matingreceiving an H allele
of the suspect with from
the hhittest
is Vi.animal:
Hence,
such matings will have a lower than normal produc-
tivity. Chance of 1 Hh kinens = '/2
Some alleles have undesirable — but not lethal — Chance of 2 Hh kittens = Vz x Vi = 'A
effects on individual animals (e.g., progressive reti- Chance of 3 Hh kittens = Vi x V2 x % = Vs
nal atrophy [PRA] leading to blindness as a cat ages) Chance of 4 Hh kittens = V2 X V2 x 'A x V2 =
and cannot be considered an asset to any breed. A V16, et cetera
gene such as that producing PRA should certainly be
"bred out" of anv breed in w^hich it arises. Thus confidence that the suspect is not a carrier
increases with each normal kitten produced. The
Breeding Out an Undesired Gene breeder stops when the probabilities drop to an ac-
ceptably low level (i.e., less than 1 percent). This will
A recessive allele (h) that causes hairlessness in kit- be reached when seven successive normal kittens
tens has a disastrous effect on the individual. A breed- have been produced. (Never forget, however, that just
 GENETICS

one hh kitten will prove the suspect to be a carrier, posed tothe qualitative traits discussed in the previ-
and the testing can stop right there.) ous sections). Quantitative traits often are influenced
If the Trait in question prevents the homozygous by environmental factors, so that tlie phenorvpe
individual from reproducing, then test-matings must comes to represent the expression of the genotype as
be made with carrier (heterozygous) individuals, i.e., modified by the environment. As you can imagine,
those that have produced affected progeny: continuous variation can significantly magnify the
problems of the genetic evaluation of animals.
SUSPECT (H_) To understand quantitative traits, consider the case
of spotting in a cat's
tively controlled by a coat
majorpanern. Spotsbut arethe qualita-
allele (S), degree
H
of spotting is determined by an unknown number of
HH H_ minor modifier genes. Thus it is S that determines tJiat
H a cat will have white spots, but other modifier genes
CARRIER normal normal increase or decrease the amount of spotting. For ex-
(Hh) hH h_ ample, suppose there are only three minor gene pairs
h (hypothetical ly, A and a, B and b, C and c) affecting
normal the amount of spotting. If the baseline aabbcc is 10
percent spotted, and each uppercase allele increases
the amount of spotting by 10 percent, then animals
In such cases, greater numbers of offspring must be can vary continuously from 10 percent spotted
produced before the carrier status of the suspect can
be determined with equal certainty. Only one in four (aabbcc) mals in theto entire
70 percent spottedare(AABBCC).
population studied, they 'Whenwillani-
be
kittens resulting from the mating of two heterozygous seen to show continuous variation in tlie amount of
individuals will be expeaed to be homoz>'gous reces- spotting, with few animals at the extremes and most
sive (and therefore affected); the probability of a kit- in the middle of the range.
Traits involving such important factors as growth
Sixteenten'ssuccessive
being phenotypically normal isaretherefore
normal progeny needed to and reproduction are all quantitative traits. Some,
reach the 1 percent probability level. (Again, test- such as reproductive traits, have a minor genetic com-
matings can stop the moment one abnormal kinen is ponent with a major environmental component (e.g.,
produced.) feeding and health). This must invariably influence
the breeder in the choice of a breeding program.
Which Sex to Test? Heritability is the term used to define what portion
of the phenotypic variation in a quantitative trait is
In general, test-matings are performed to test males genetictive traitsin are
origin.moreSelection
for undesirable alleles. It is not always praaical to difficultschemes
to devisefor than
such those
quantita-
for
expect enough kittens from a single female to ade- qualitative traits, and hence, breeders must under-
quately test her. stand the genetic basis of the trait of interest in order
to evaluate the potential for making genetic progress.
CHARACTERISTICS SHOWING
CONTINUOUS VARIATION
BREEDING PROGRAMS
The principles of basic Mendelian genetics describe Inbreeding
the inheritance of any trait. However, many traits are
controlled by a whole spectrum of genes, each of Inbreeding is the mating of closely related individuals,
which exerts minute, individually inconsiderable ef- often full siblings (brother/sister matings) or parent
fects on the trait — effects that, acting colleaively, can to offspring. The intention is to produce progeny that
produce a continuous range of phenotypic expression are more homoz>'gous, and therefore more uniform,
(continuous variation). Traits controlled in such a than those produced without inbreeding. However,
manner are referred to as quantitative traits (as op- homozygosity' of detrimental as well as good alleles
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

will result; liuis iiiaiiv mhivd lines aiv lost .is ,i result
SELECTION OF INDIVIDUALS
alleles are tinecvered. Inn nu.ie otien a steady loss FOR BREEDING
ol \ igor and reinoduuive ^apabiliix rs encountered.
/\lthou>;h .1 i^ood iiihrcd line is win predictable in its Breeders cenainly should avoid using in a breeding
hi eedmi^ pei !( u iii.uii e, k lose inbreeding is hesi program any animal that shows or carries an undesir-
.ixokled
in inbred lK\.tusi.'
slocks. Ill iIk' decline in quality' often seen able gene. Beyond this, decisions must be made re-
garding the best animals to be bred from, with the
objective of improving the trait(s) of importance. The
Linebreeding more traits a breeder selects for, the slower the ge-
netic progress in any one trait. It is often the case,
Linebreeding is a form of moderate inbreeding that though, that a breeder wishes to consider a few traits
attempts to "concentrate" alleles from an outstanding in making selections. How should such selections be
indi\'idual without mating close relatives. When the made?
pedigree of kittens in such cases is studied, the same Selection intensity has an imponant role in de-
outstanding indi\ idual will appear several times in the termining genetic progress. If eight kittens out of
ancestPi every ten that are born are kept for breeding, intensity
percentageof ofthealleles
kittens'coming
parents.
fromHence, altliough may
that individual the
will be low. If only one in ten is retained, intensity
be quite high, actual jnbreeding of the kittens will not will be high. Genetic progress will be made if the
be excessive. breeder has correctly identified the individual that is
truly superior.
Line Crossing (Outcrossing) Traits in which the environment plays a large role
Line entcrossing is the tomating in determining phenotype are the most difficult to
lines in order extractof desirable
individualsfeatures
from differ-
from evaluate. Certainly no one would mistake a cat known
to have lost its tail in an accident for a cat carrying
both. Often, line-cross or outcross kittens have added the Manx gene. But differentiating among cats with
vigor. This is because of their enhanced heterozygos- superior conformation — some because of true ge-
ir>-, which results from line differences in alleles at netic superiority, others because of being reared
many genetic loci. under superior environmental conditions — is a con-
stant challenge for the breeder. Briefly put, there are
Crossbreeding no simple answers.
Crossbreeding is the mating of cats of totally different Selection for several traits can proceed in one of
breeds. Crossbreeds usually are vigorous because of three ways. The first, tandem selection, is a program
their extensive heterozygosity — a quality referred to in which a breeder selects for one trait over several
as hybrid vigor or lieterosis. Crossbreeding is used generations, then switches attention to another trait
in the creation of a new breed or in the introduction for a period of time. In many cases, the first trait will
of a desired trait into a breed that does not have it. In slip backward once attention to it is dropped. Only
the latter case, crossbreeding is followed by succes- for traits that have an underlying positive genetic rela-
sive matings back to the pure breed (grading up), tionship wil advances in one result in progress in the
with stringent selection and culling of breeding stock. other. Breeders are rarely so fortunate!
First-generation crossbreeds are genetically and phe- In the second procedure, a breeder may decide to
notypically uniform, but, if mated among themselves, establish a cut-off point or standard for each trait of
they will produce divergent offspring. Hence, if a new interest, breeding only those animals meeting the
breed is being developed, very strong culling of all standard in all traits {independent culling lei'els). This
but the best individuals must be practiced. technique maintains selection pressure on all the
traits of interest at all times. Its primary drawback is
that individuals truly superior in one or more charac-
teristics wil not be retained for breeding if they fall
short of the standard in only one other trait.
The third procedure is known as the selection
 GENETICS

index. Here, a single score, or index, for each individ- for heritabilities and genetic correlations can be as-
ual is developed, and animals with the highest index sessed reliably only from large-scale breeding pro-
values are selected. The selection index depends on grams, and so they are usually omitted from the cat
three factors for its success. One is the breeder's abil- breeder's selection index. Nevertheless, such informa-
ity to correctly assess individuals on the traits of im- tion isthe key to a truly effective index.
portance. Ifthe trait is numbers of kittens produced
per queen,
score is decided for instance, the But
objectively. individual's
if the traitnumerical
is head SUMMARY
shape, it's much more difficult
numerical value. The second factor is the assignment to assign an objective
The best advice one can offer a breeder who is design-
of weights to each trait that reflect the relative impor- ing a selection program is to keep it as simple as
tance ofeach trait to the breeder. If a certain trait is of possible and to concentrate on traits for which reli-
overwhelming importance, able information is available. If environment is known
select on that trait alone andthenignore
it's probably
the others.bestTheto to play a major role in the development of a trait, then
third factor is the most difficult to assess, the most comparisons must be made among animals raised and
often ignored, and yet the most crucial to the success kept under standardized conditions. Otherwise, it will
of the selection index procedure. This factor is knowl- not be possible to distinguish genetically superior ani-
edge of the underlying genetics of each trait of inter- mals from those that are superior for other reasons.
est— the degree to which each trait is heritable (as Genetic progress can be made only if the genetically
opposed to being influenced by the environment), superior individuals are identified and used as parents
and the genetic relationship among the traits. Values of succeeding generations.
 Normal Development and

Congenital Birth Defects

by Drew M. Noden

Itmeasurin requiresg nine to ten tely weeks for a fertilized egg, bryogenesis, days 12 to 24; and fetal growth, days
approxima V250 inch in length, 24 to term.
to develop into a newborn kitten. In addition
to the spectacular growth process that occurs Preimplantation
during gestation, the developing organism under- Unlike in dogs, ovulation in cats occurs in response to
goes major transfor- mating. A queen may
mations that bring accept more than one
about the formation male during a heat
of unique tissues and period, which can re-
organs, each in their sult in a litter's having
proper location and several fathers. Fertil-
with appropriate func- ization occurs in the
tions. Knowing how uterine tube (ovi-
these changes occur duct). At this stage
in the embryo will the female gamete
help further the un- (ovum, or egg) is
derstanding ofsome encased in an inert
of the common inher- sheath called the zona
ited, induced, and
spontaneous con- pellucida,
self is surrounded which byit-
genital malforma- several hundred ovar-
tions (birth defects) ian cells (the corona
in cats. radiata). The male gamete (sperm) must penetrate
both of these layers in order to contact and fuse with
the surface of the ovum.
NORMAL FELINE DEVELOPMENT During the preimplantation stage, the fertilized
ovum undergoes cell division, travels down the ovi-
The development of the kitten can be divided into duct, and enters the uterus on about the sixth day of
three phases; preimplantation, days 0 to 12; em- development. There it forms a blastocyst, which is a
132
 NORMAL DEVELOPMENT AND CONGENITAL BIRTH DEFECTS

hollow, spherical structure containing about 250 cells, EARLY DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
covered by a thin layer of cells specialized to make
contact with the wall of the uterus. The cells that will
form the embryo cluster together at one pole of the STAGES CAT DOG HUMAN
blastocyst; most of the remaining cells will contribute Two Cells 3 6 days
to the placenta, the tissue that forms the connection 2.5 days
between the mother and offspring. At this stage the Eight CeUs 133.5 days 8 days 4 days
blastocyst Blastocyst 5 days 16 days 14 days
floats freely "hatches"
within the from
uterinethecavity.
zona pellucida and
Gastrula 1215 days 17 days
Neurula days*
days 20 days
22 days 28 days
Embryogenesis 4-inm Embryo
Embryogenesis is the most critical phase of mamma- (Vain) days 25 days
lian development. It is during this period that the 9-mm Embryo 21 37 days
clustered embryonic cell population becomes totally (Vgin) days
reorganized into the earliest discernible forms, or l6-mm Embryo 24 days 30 days 43 days
primordia, of every organ system in the body. (Vs in) 266 days
The initial stage of embryogenesis is called gastru- Gestation Length 63 days
lation. During this stage, the embryonic cells estab- 62
lish three layers of tissues. These tissues begin to
undergo programming for specific developmental • days following fertilization
pathways — in other words, the selective activation of
special genes is occurring. Next, the organism enters
the neurula stage, during which time the primordia and all these processes continue after binh. For exam-
of the nervous system, the heart, and the vertebral ple, full development of the visual system is not ac-
column are established. This is accomplished by re- complished until five to six weeks after binh, whereas
ar angem nts iall
n three cell layers, a process known nerve cells in the cerebellum continue to form and
as morphogenesis. Blood vessels also appear during develop for several months.
this stage, both within the embryo itself and between
the embryo and the immature placenta. These two
embryonic stages occur very rapidly, requiring only DEVELOPMENTAL MECHANISMS
rwo to three days in cats and dogs.
The neurula stage is followed by a period of embry- Understanding how populations of embryonic cells
onic organogenesis, during which the primordia of become transformed from homogeneous (uniform)
most of the other organs — including the liver and clusters into highly organized, patterned arrays of tis-
digestive tract, respiratory system, limbs, sense or- sues, each with the correct biochemical characteristics
gans, skull, and urogenital structures — are formed. and in the proper location, is a major frontier in biology
This stage is completed by about three and a half today. This is by no means simply a matter of scientific
weeks of gestation in the cat (six weeks in humans), curiosity, for locked within the embryo are secrets to
by which time the embryo measures slightly over half mechanisms of tissue repair and organ regeneration,
an inch in length. genetic programming, and the control of cell prolifera-
tion, which, when unchecked in adult tissues, can result
Fetal Growth in the formation and spread of tumors.
The problems confronting the embryo can most
Fetal development is characterized by rapid growth. readily be illustrated by focusing on the developing
The organ primordia established earlier assume their forelimb. Here, a few hundred embryonic cells must
proper shapes and configurations, nerves develop, proliferate and form a structure complete with mus-
and the hormonal and secretory glands of the organ- cles, cartilages, bones, tendons and ligaments, blood
ism begin to function and control many physiological vessels, nerves, lymphatic channels, secretory struc-
processes. Cats are born in a very immature condition. tures, claws, and hair. Moreover, each of these tissues
 SEX AND REPRODUCTION
134
must have a precise shape and relation to all the oth- ally lethal, resulting either in the immediate death of
ers, and each resulting forelimb must constitute a mir- the embryo or in failure to attach properly to the
ror image of the opposite forelimb. Finally, both limbs uterine wall. Statistically, the gastrula stage, which cor-
must grow synchronously and to the same size after responds tothe time of initial contact between the
birth. embryo and the wall of the uterus, is the time of
The example of the forelimb illustrates the four greatest loss of embryos in all mammals. Up to 70
basic processes of embryonic development: percent of embryos that die at this stage are found to
have severe chromosomal abnormalities.
• Growth The final general point to be made about embry-
• Morphogenesis (development of form and shape) onic malformations is that, in many cases, a defect in
• Cytodifferentiation (the formation of unique cell one system will result in abnormal development of
types) others. As an example, some cardiovascular defects
• Patterning (spatial organization of each tissue) deprive peripheral tissues of sufficient blood supply
for their normal growth. Similarly, a compromise of
Although none of these processes is fully under- the nerve supply to any target tissue will result in
stood, developmental biologists have now delineated secondary atrophy of the muscles and immobilization
several of their major characteristics. It appears, for of the joints in that region.
example, that all four processes are interdependent
and inseparable. In addition, each process requires
that adjacent cells and tissues interact with one an- CAUSES OF CONGENITAL
other. Sometimes, this occurs by direct contaa; more MALFORMATIONS
often, however, the intercellular dialogue is mediated
by chemicals released by the cells. Often, the same Many malformations, especially those associated with
extracellular molecules have different effects, de- highly inbred breeds of cats, have a heritable basis.
pending on the type of receptors for the molecule a This means that the frequency and severity' of the
target cell has, or on subtle differences between the anomaly are direcdy affected by the genetic informa-
particular combinations of molecules present. tion the developing organism has acquired from its
parents. Occasionally, this may be the result of a single
gene alteration or mutation, as in the case of certain
CRITICAL PERIODS enzyme deficiencies (e.g., mucopolysaccharidosis and
The kinds of interactions described above for limb gangliosidosis).
More often, the precise genetic basis for a malfor-
development occur in every tissue and organ in the mation isless obvious because many genes regulate
kitten embryo. These interactions are extremely sensi- or are affected by the products of otlier genes. Some
tive to any sort of chemical or genetic disruption. (Oc- tissues affected in this way include: pigmentation (in-
casionally, these complex spatial and temporal cluding defects in vision and hearing in Siamese and
relationships, which must be established for a struc- Persian cats); the spinal cord and venebral column
ture to develop normally, go awry spontaneously, re- (spina bifida [incomplete closure] in the Manx); the
sulting ina congenital malformation.) limb (polydactylism [added toes); ectrodactyly [ab-
The stage during which each organ is most sensitive sence oftoes]; and hemimelia [absence of all or part
to disruption is called the critical period of its devel- of a limb]); and the head (hydrocephalus [enlarge-
opment. The critical period for most structures occurs ment of the head owing to excess fluid in or around
in the embryonic stage of development, during the the brain]; anencephaly [having no brain]; and di-
third and fourth weeks of gestation in cats. Reaching prosopus [double-faced deformity]). Genetic alter-
the end of the critical period does not guarantee that ations may also create situations wherein no single
a particular developing structure is no longer suscep- gene product is abnormal, but the collective effect of
tible todisruption; instead, its sensitivity to disruption several genes is inadequate to support the normal
declines, so that abnormalities, if they occur, are more development of an organ.
likely to be very localized in nature. Unless extensive breeding studies are performed,
Disruption of development at earlier stages is usu- it's usually impossible to define a genetic basis for
 NORMAL DEVELOPMENT AND CONGENITAL BIRTH DEFECTS

most congenital malformations. The probability that attached only at the head, thorax, or abdomen (such
interactions between families of genes will have a del- twins are often called "Siamese" twins). In other situa-
eterious ef ect on the developing organism is directly tions, only one part will be duplicated — for example,
correlated with the amount of inbreeding. There is no kittens with two faces (diprosopus), two heads (di-
amount of inbreeding that is without risk of increasing cephalus), or two tails have been reponed. These
the incidence of birth defects. anomalies result from duplications that occur be-
Induced congenital defects often are no easier to tween the blastocyst and neurula stages, with those
explain. Any agent that disrupts a normal develop- occurring earlier being more complete.
mental process is known as a teratogen. A teratogen
can be a chemical (such as dioxin [a component Axial Defects
of Agent Orange], alcohol, heavy metals, complex
organic hydrocarbons); a drug (such as aspirin [in Malformations of the brain and spinal cord and the
rodents only] or griseofulvin [an antifungal medica- skeletal tissues surrounding them (vertebral column
tion]); normal
a body produa delivered at the wrong and skull) are the most common in all domestic ani-
time or in excess amounts (many steroid hormones); mals and humans. Most early defects in nervous sys-
or an infectious agent (the most important being fe- tem development will cause abnormalities in
line panleukopenia virus, which can cross the pla- development of the surrounding skeletal structures,
centa from mother to offspring and destroy parts of and vice versa.
the embryonic brain and sense organs). Spina bifida is a general term that includes all fail-
In many cases, a chemical entering the mother is ures of the vertebrae to close normally around the spi-
converted by her into related substances, which can nal cord. If, as usually occurs, nerves within the spinal
cross the placenta. This is an important feature that cord are abnormal or secondarily compromised by
makes comparative teratology such a difficult scien- malformed vertebrae, there will be motor and sensory'
tific area, because each species (and often each indi- deficits in structures innervated by nerves whose roots
vidual) has its own unique metabolic processes and exit the spinal cord at or behind the site of the lesion.
rates. The picture is further complicated by the varied Taillessness in Manx cats is an example of a condition
struaures and transport mechanisms present in the linked to inherited spina bifida. It is caused by an
placentas of various mammals. With any suspeaed te- autosomal (not located on a sex chromosome) dom-
ratogen, the time of exposure and dose delivered are inant gene and shows incomplete penetrance, mean-
critical faaors in the outcome. ing that other genes modify the severity of expression.
While a few chemicals and other faaors (x-rays; hy- Failure of the roof of the skull to form is often
perthermia [abnormally high body temperature]) are correlated with an increased, abnormal expansion of
known to be teratogenic, there is little direct proof that the brain (exencephaly), or, in severe cases, with
most chemicals found around the home and yard can failure of the brain to form a closed tube (anenceph-
cause birth defects. The absence of such proof, how- aly). In the latter situation, brain tissue secondarily
ever, does not mean that they have been proved harm- degenerates before birth, leaving an empty crater in
less. Most chemicals have never been formally tested the top of the head. These lethal conditions are fre-
on companion animals, nor have the possible terato- quently caused by teratogens, but they may occur
genic effects of a very low intake of different combina- spontaneously or as a result of genetic factors.
tions ofnormally "safe" chemicals been evaluated. Hydrocephalus is a swelling of the fluid-filled
ventricles within the brain, which causes an abnormal
expansion of the roof of the skull. This condition can
result from heritable factors (in Siamese cats), micro-
COMMON CONGENITAL organisms, or spontaneous developmental errors.
MALFORMATIONS IN CATS
Axial Duplications Cardiovascular Malformations
Cojoined twins are an anomaly in which two embryos The heart begins as a simple, straight tube formed on
or pans of embryos are attached to one another. In the fourteenth day of development and in the follow-
some cases, both embryos may be fully formed and ing two weeks becomes transformed into a four-
 SEX AND REPRODUCTION
136
chambered organ with separate pulmonary and facial tissues to grow and fuse together. Both condi-
systemic channels. Throughout this period of change, tions reduce the ability of the neonate to suckle, and
the hean is functional and supplies blood without the animals often choke to death. In humans and
interruption to all parts of the embr\'o. This is a re- some animal breeds, for example Siamese cats, cleft
markable feat of biological engineering. palate sometimes shows a familial pattern and may be
Not surprisingly, congenital heart defects are com- accompanied by malformations in other systems.
mon in all animals and represent about 10 percent of Many unrelated teratogens can cause cleft palate in
diagnosed cardiovascular problems in young animals. domesticated species.
Included in this category are failures of the four cham- Dogs and cats are sometimes bred for particular
bers to become fully separated (septal defects), con- facial profiles, a potentially disastrous practice. Select-
strictions of a major blood vessel (aortic or ing for any extreme in facial dimension (ratio of
pulmonic stenosis), and abnormal retention of an length to width and shape of crown) inevitably in-
embnonic blood vessel. The latter includes patent creases the incidence of craniofacial malformations.
ductus arteriosus (PDA), vascular ring defects, and Some of these, for example those recently described
portacaval shunts. in Burmese cats, are lethal.
Patent ductus aneriosus is the most common of the
three. In the embryo and fetus, there is a vessel, the Limb Defects
ductus arteriosus, that connects the pulmonan- ar-
tery' directly to the aorta. This permits oxygen-rich Malformations involving the absence of some or all
blood from the placenta to bypass the nonfunctional structures of the digits or limb are common. Radial
lungs and directly enter the systemic circulation. Nor- hemimelia (congenital absence of the radius, the
mal y, the ductus arteriosus closes within a few days long, median bone of the lower forelimb), ectrodac-
of birth. If it remains open (patent), the pulmonary tyly (absence of digits), and ectromelia (absence of
and systemic bloodstreams will mix, causing the hean an entire limb) are the most frequently seen in this cate-
to work harder and leading to many secondary' com- gory. Syndactyly is a condition in which only a single
plications. PDA may show an increased frequency in digit is present. This malformation is debilitating in
some lines of dogs; no data on heritability are avail- dogs, cats, and humans, but it is normal in horses.
able for cats. In most cases of limb reduction, the cause is un-
A portacaval shunt is the persistence of an embry- known, nor is it understood why forelimbs are more
onic vein joining the major systemic venous channel likely mide
to causes
be affeaed than inhindlimbs. The drugin humans
thalido-
of the trunk, the vena cava, with portal veins carr^'ing a reduaion limb struaures
blood from the intestines to the liver, where the blood such tliat the hands or feet develop close to the shoul-
will be filtered and detoxified. If the shunt persists der or hip, a condition known as phocomelia (seal-
after birth, nonfiltered blood will be allowed to enter shaped limb). Despite many years of intensive study,
the systemic circulation, creating serious metabolic the precise mechanisms underlying this disastrous te-
imbalances in the animal. ratogenic insult have not been delineated.
Both PDA and portacaval shunts are medically and Congenital duplication of a limb can include an
surgically treatable if they are diagnosed early and are entire limb (dimelia) or only the digits (Polydac-
not severe. tyly). Polydactyly is very common in cats and occurs
most frequently on the forepaws. It has been shown
to be inherited in an autosomal dominant manner;
Malformations of the Face and Mouth these "double pawed" cats do not usually suffer any
Cleft palate and cleft lip are, according to the pub- ill effects. Occasionally, an extra claw becomes in-
lished literature, rare in all breeds of cats except the grown into a pad and causes infection.
Siamese, in which there is evidence for an inherited
predisposition. erinarians anHowever, the impression
d cat breeders is that theof many vet-
literature Malformations of Visceral Organs
grossly Gastroschisis is a lethal condition in which the kinen
mations. underestimates the incidence of these malfor- is born with the intestines protruding outside of the
Both conditions result from failure of embrvonic ventral abdominal wall. It results from a failure of the
 NORMAL DEVELOPMENT AND CONGENITAL BIRTH DEFECTS

abdominal wall to form a narrow constriction around

the base of the umbilical stalk. A congenital diaphrag- Malformations of tite Urogenital System
matic hernia is an opening in the diaphragm that per- Malformations of the reproductive and excretory sys-
mits abdominal organs to enter the hean or lung tems are uncommon in domestic cats. There are
cavities and impinge on the normal funaioning of sporadic reports of cryptorchidism (undescended
these organs. This condition, which arises during the testis) and heniuq>hroditism (presence of male and
early stages of the development of the liver and heart, female sex organs). It is known that in some species
is unusually common in cats: it has been estimated to cryptorchidism can be inherited, but there is no evi-
occur once in ever\' one thousand live births. It occurs dence for this in cats. Occasionally, congenital ab-
as a result of an autosomal recessive gene. (See Chap- sence of one kidney or one gonad (ovary or testicle)
ter 13: Genetics.) may be discovered by the veterinarian on routine
physical examination of a cat. Such deficits usually do
not compromise the health of the animal. Cats with
Malformations of the Visual and these abnormalities probably should not be used for
Auditory Systems breeding in the event that a heritable basis exists.
Congenital abnormalities involving the sense organs Manx cats are often born with abnormalities of the
are less common in cats than they are in many other perineal region (area around the anus and genitals).
species. There have been sporadic reports of cata- In the embryo there exists a single cavity (the cloaca)
racts (opacity of the lens of the eye) and dermoid that later becomes divided into the rectum and the
growths on the cornea or third eyelid, but insufficient urogenital traa. When the gene that causes tail reduc-
data are available to determine whether these defects tion acts panicularly strongly (which inevitably occurs
have a genetic basis. Some congenital cataracts have when breeding Manx cats), the cloaca fails to separate
been linked to viral infeaion, prenatally or shortly into rwo cavities. Affected animals are incontinent
after birth. (unable to control urination and defecation), and
Congenital strabismus (in which the orientation often they also have the venebral and spinal cord
and thus the focus of thie eyes is crossed) is seen anomalies described earlier in this chapter.
frequently in Siamese cats and results in compromise
ofneaions
their capacity
betweenfor thedepthretina
perception.
and the The
brainnerve
are con-
also
abnormal in these cats; studies of such cases have MISCELLANEOUS CONGENITAL
provided much valuable information on how the vi- DEFECTS
sual system develops and operates. This condition is Seborrhea Oleosa
genetic, resulting from the incomplete expression of
an albino gene in Siamese cats. True albinos in other A familial seborrhea oleosa has been recognized in
species, including humans, often have similar visual Persian cats. Test breedings and retrospective pedi-
defects. gree analyses suggest that the condition is inherited
Another gene, the dominant white gene (W), which on an autosomal recessive basis. Both sexes and all
suppresses pigment formation in the skin, retina, and coat colors are affeaed. Kittens are born with varying
iris (see Chapter 13: Genetics), may also produce par- degrees of greasiness of the skin and hair coat. The
tial or complete deafness. Cats with white coats and hair coat is constantly matted, and the kittens leave
blue eyes are especially likely to manifest a hearing greasy deposits on everything they contact. The condi-
problem. At present, it is not known how the domi- tion is incurable. Mildly affected cats can be main-
nant white gene acts to produce tissue degeneration tained asacceptable pets with frequent bathing. (See
in the developing ear. Chapter 17: Skin and Disorders.)
 CHAPTER 15

Birth Control

by Donald Lein

United FEMALE CATS

TheStates control free-ranging
has ofbecome an import in theissue
cats ant in
the last twenty years. One study in a city Spaying (Ovariohysterectomy)
in Kansas estimated that the cat population The surgical removal of the ovaries, oviducts, and
increased by 18 percent annually and that 59 percent uterus is a recommended procedure for all female
of the females were spayed. It cats that are six months or
was calculated that 88 percent older and will not be used in
should be spayed to maintain a breeding program. Spaying
a zero population growth. An- should be before first heat.
sideother perspectiofve one
r the results is tofemale
con- The removal of the reproduc-
tive organs also eliminates the
cat having a litter of two fe- behaviors associated with an
male and two male kittens, intact female (see Chapter 9:
with the same q'cle continu- Reproductive Physiology, and
ing in following generations. Chapter 10: Mating) and the
In just five generations, or risk of reproductive diseases
about two years, 324 cats (see Chapter 12: Reproductive
could be born. Disorders). Ovariohysterec-
The yearly cost to collea, tomy produces a healthy
shelter, and destroy aban- young cat and eliminates the
doned and stray animals ex- problem of homeless kittens.
ceeds $500 million. Each year For more on the surgical pro-
there are about 25 million cedure see Chapter 36; Sur-
homeless pets, of which 18 gery and Postoperatix'e Care.
million are destroyed because The spayed cat has a reputa-
they are never adopted. If current trends continue, we tion for weight gain, but statistics vary on the fre-
can expect the cost, in dollars and pet lives, to con- quency ofthis side effect. Other reported side effects
tinue tospiral upward. However, there is a reasonable include behavioral changes, decreased physical activ-
solution to the problem — birth control. As a cat ity, and decreased vaginal discharge. If during surgery
owner, you are responsible for your cat's sexuality. a small pan of the ovaries or uterus is left in the cat,
138
 BIRTH CONTROL

medical problems can occur. The ovarian tissue will used experimentally to prevent estrus in queens.
continue to produce hormones, causing the spayed Studies indicate that there were no apparent effects
cat to come back into estrus. on subsequent estrus, mating, queening, litter size, or
If the uterus is not removed or if a portion of it is developmental defects in kittens. The mechanism of
left, pyometritis (inflamed uterus with production of this drug is similar to that of progestin. It suppresses
pus) can occur. Pyometritis is a frequent consequence the release of pituitary luteinizing hormone. Side ef-
if the drug megestrol acetate or other progestins fects include decreased thyroid function, increased
(progesterone) or estrogens are administered to a serum cholesterol levels, and slight masculinizing in
spayed cat that still retains a portion of the uterus. some female cats.
Studies are being done on immunizing cats to pre-
vent estrus. The vaccine would stimulate production
Tubal Ligation of antibodies against a particular antigen. It is possible
The oviducts (tubes connecting the ovaries to the to produce antibodies against the luteinizing hor-
uterus) are tied off in this surgical procedure. Al- mone, the zygote (fertilized egg), the zona pellu-
though itprevents unwanted pregnancies by prohib- cida (outer layer of the egg), and sperm. However,
iting the sperm from reaching the egg, it does not this technique is still in the experimental stage and
preclude certain reproductive diseases, such as pyo- would be an expensive alternative to spaying.
metritis and tumors, from occurring. And since the
ovaries are not surgically removed, hormones con- Mismating
tinue tobe produced so that the female cat repeatedly
comes into estrus. Queens that "accidentally" mate can be successfully
Because the surgical risks, recovery period, and op- treated with estradiol cypionate (ECP) (an estro-
eration costs are similar to those of spaying, this pro- gen) administered forty hours after mating. The ova
cedure isnot recommended. are retarded in transport through the oviduct for at
least an additional rwenty-four hours, resulting in de-
Estrus Control generation inthe late proliferative state. Reported side
effects from this treatment include endometrial hyper-
Estrus control in the queen by means of oral and plasia, uterine infections, and blood abnormalities
injectable progestins has been successful in Europe (anemia, thrombocytopenia); also, estrous behavior
and Australia. These drugs are neither approved nor may persist for seven to ten days following treatment.
available in the United States. The progestin megestrol
acetate has been experimentally and clinically used in
the United States to control estrus in cats. Injection Artificial Mating
of progestins mimics the release of hormone by the Because cats are induced ovulators, artificial stimula-
corpus luteum (a glandular mass that forms in the tion of the vaginal-cervical area with an instrument
ovary after the egg is released), and there is a negative (pseudocopulation) to cause ovulation can some-
feedback on gonadotrophic-releasing hormones times shorten the estrous cycle in the queen. How-
(hormones affecting the sex organs). Side effects of ever, she will return to estrus within thirty to fifty days.
progestin therapy may include increased appetite, in- Cats that have experienced repeated nonproductive
creased body weight, a calming effect, and increased matings or pseudocopulation have a higher incidence
affection. Prolonged and indiscriminate use may pro- of cystic endometrial hyperplasia-pyometra complex.
duce aCushingoid syndrome (overactivity of the This technique is used mostly by cat breeders who
adrenal glands) or diabetes. Cats with genital tract want to postpone matings for one or two estrous cy-
infections should not be given progesterone or pro- cles.
gestins. Indiscriminate use of progestins can lead to
cystic endometritis (cystic endometrial lining with Abortion
accumulation of pus), enlarged mammary glands, and
possible mammary gland tumors. Abortion may be induced in cats as late as forty days
Mibolerone is a synthetic anabolic steroid approved of gestation with prostaglandin (fatty acids that can
for controlling estrus in young bitches. It has been stimulate uterine contractions). Induced abortion
SEX AND REPRODUCTION

occurs within eight to twenty-four hours following urine spraying, excessive aggression, and the pungent
treatment. Salivation, vomiting, diarrhea, labored odor of male urine are also eliminated. Some males
breathing, and an increased hean rate may occur continue to spray urine even after they have been
shortly after the drug is given. There is a risk of acci- castrated. This may be more of a behavioral problem
dental death of the queen within two hours after the than a physiological one. Eventually, most castrated
injeaion. male cats stop spraying.
Castration also results, either immediately or over
a period of time, in a decline in fighting and roaming
behavior in 80 to 90 percent of male cats. For more
MALE CATS on the surgical procedure, see Chapter 36: Surgery
AND Postoperative Care.
Neutering (Castration)
This surgical procedure consists of removing the tes- Vasectomy
tes, epididymis (a duct connecting the testes to the
vas deferens), and parts of the vas deferens (a tube This is a surgical procedure in which the vas deferens
that carries sperm from the testes to the urethra). This is ligated (tied). Although it renders the male cat
procedure has benefits in addition to preventing the sterile, it does not eliminate the associated sexual be-
impregnation of a female cat. Because the testes pro- havior, because male hormones continue to be pro-
duce male hormones, the associated problems of duced bythe testes.
 PART VI

Anatomy of the Cat

A short-haired black cat always looks longer than any other cat, but this particular one, Babou,
nicknamed the Long-cat, really did measure, stretched right out flat, well over a yard. I used to
measure him sometimes.
— Colette, "The Long Cat"
 CHAPTER 16

Anatomy

by John W. Hermanson

Greek for dissect, systems of the body, with an emphasis on their func-
Anatom or cut, we usefromit tothemean the science of
y andcomes tion and leaves the detail of specific structures of the
body structure. From anatomical study, one cat's body to the remaining chapters. The second part
can appreciate the simple mechanics of is a tour through the accompanying color plates. In
many bodily functi and unders ons tand some of the both parts, numbers in parentheses refer to the num-
medical ailments that afflict bers on the color plates.
an organism. In this larger Directional terms are nec-
sense, the term morph ol- es ary todefine positions. In
ogy isthe study of form and veterinary anatomy, these
function. Anatomical knowl- terms are defined according
edge isusually the first area to position in a standing ani-
of study for students of vet- mal. Similar terms have
erinary orhuman medicine, been defined in humans
and with good reason. This (the "anatomical
knowledge becomes a vast but they refer toposition"),
a person
ng
steppi stone from which standing upright on two
to pursue the study of physi- legs. There are several spe-
ology, pathology, and other cific differences in terminol-
disciplines. This chapter ogy (see Figure 1). In the
cannot provide a complete standing cat (we're on four
anatomy of the cat. One re- legs now!), cranial refers to
cent illustrated guide to cat anything in the direaion of
anatomy filled over two hun- the head, and caudal refers
dred pages of text. (A comparable volume on the anat- to something that is toward the tail. Within the head,
omy of the dog filled nearly nine hundred pages.) the term rostral is used to indicate that something is
This chapter is divided into two parts: the first pro- located more toward the external nasal openings (the
vides an overview of some of the more primary con- nose). Also in a standing cat, terms indicative of veni-
cepts of anatomy and several of the important organ 143 cal position include dorsal (more toward the back-
144 ANATOMY OF THE CAT

Figure 1. A schematic of directional and topographical terms.

bone) and ventral (toward the venter or belly wall). and protect the brain, they are attachment sites for the
These terms are analogous to the use of posterior muscles of mastication. Nerves and blood vessels pass
and anterior, respectively, in human anatomical ter- to and from the brain through gaps betv/een the
minology. Specifically, on the distal limbs we refer to bones or within single bones, through passages
dorsal and palmar (as on palm of the hand) sides of known as foramina (singular, foramen).
the front paws and dorsal and plantar (as for sole of The masseter (26) and the temporalis muscles
the foot) sides of the rear paws. On the limbs, a struc- are the primary muscles of mastication that control
ture isproximal if it is located close to the base of the jaws. These have differing orientations that con-
the limb (such as near the hip or shoulder) and distal tribute slightly different forces to the bite. One end of
when near the extremities such as the toes. the temporalis originates (attaches) at the side of the
In a lean cat, the muscles are clearly defined under skull in a region called the temporalis fossa (fossa,
the protective layer of skin. The underlying muscular a surface). The other end of the muscle, called the
systems of cats, as well as their movements, are well insertion, attaches to the coronoid process, the
understood. The head or cranial region of the cat prominent venically oriented blade, on the mandi-
includes approximately 29 bones that compose the bles. Both the masseter and the temporalis are inner-
skull and the jaws (mandibles) (115). Many of the vated by the fifth cranial nerve, the trigeminal
bones of the head serve to protect the brain. The nerve, and both muscles act to bring the mandibu-
temporal, parietal (122), and frontal (110) bones lar (lower) and maxillary (upper) teeth into occlu-
are large, plaielike bones that completely surround sion (to meet), thus closing the jaw. The jaw opens
tlie brain. They not only provide shape to the skull with the help of gravity' and tlie muscular effort of the
 ANATOMY

Figure
(© 19962.byTheJohnskuUW. ofHermanson)
a six-montfa-old (top) and an adult (bottom) cat, viewed obliquely bom die left side.
ANATOMY OF THE CAT

digastric muscle, an interesting two-part muscle that their salivary product through ducts that emerge more
liiis rostralgeminaland caudal "bellies," innervated by the tri- rostrally in the mouth cavity. Smaller but not insig-
and facial nerves, respectively. nificant glands include the polystomatic mandibu-
The dentition of the cat (see Figure 2) is specialized lar salivary glands, which transport their salivary
for puncturing and shearing food, particularly meats. product via multiple small duct systems to the mouth
This dental arrangement is typical of the carnivores, a cavity. Blockage of any of these duct systems can lead
large group of mammals that includes domestic and to dry mouth and enlarged glands.
wild dogs, wild felids, weasels, skunks, and ferrets. Lymph nodes are important centers for fighting in-
The dentition is heterodont, meaning that all of the fection (see Figure 3). As such, they are located
teeth do not appear identical. Thus, there are two or throughout the body at predictable locations. In the
three slender incisors in the lower and upper tooth head, lymphatic tissue is distributed almost as a ring
rows. These serve to grasp food items in preparation of protection around the caudal end of the mouth and
for chewing. The prominent canines at the corners nasal cavities, thus providing a first line of defense
of the upper and lower front teeth serve to puncture against infectious agents that might enter the body in
and grasp large, resistant food items. These teeth are the air, food, or water. Major lymph structures in the
imponant when a cat seizes a bird or rodent, usually head include the palatine and pharyngeal tonsils
by the back of llie neck, and imparts a killing "snap" near the base of the tongue and at the entrance to the
of the prey's neck vertebrae. This behavior is charac- pharynx. Other important lymph structures include
teristic ofmany of the carnivores, particularly the mus- tlie mandibular lymph nodes and the retropha-
telids or weasels, and may explain why the rostral ryngeal lymph nodes. These structures might be
dentition of carnivores is so similar among various palpable (detectable by manual examination) by the
species. In comparison, the more caudally placed veterinarian in the event that an infection is centered
teeth, the premolars and molars, tend to vary in the head or throat region.
among carnivore species. Cats have relatively short Lymph nodes are small structures located along a
series of lymph ducts that course throughout the
In"faces
fact, ' the and domestic fewer premolars
cats have compared to the dogs.
fewer permanent teeth body carrying fluid that has escaped from cells into
tlian any other species of domestic mammals (thirty). the extracellular companment of the body. When tis-
Characteristic of all carnivores, however, are the car- sue in the lymph nodes recognizes foreign antigens
nassial teeth, the combined upper fourth premolar in the blood, the initial reaction against them is
and lower first molar (see Figure 2). These have been mounted. White blood cells called macrophages,
modified from the somewhat flattened molariform richly present within lymph nodes, initiate the de-
teeth of most mammals to exhibit bladelike occlusal struction offoreign cells or antigens. Lymph is carried
surfaces. The upper and lower carnassial teeth to- to and from lymph nodes in tubular structures called
gether serve to slice meat (or similar food) much like lymphatic ducts. Ultimately, the lymph is returned to
a pair of scissors cuts through paper. Molar teeth are the blood in several locations adjacent to the heart
permanent teeth that do not have a generation of where efferent (conveying away from the center)
deciduous or milk teeth, so they appear in the oral lymphatic ducts drain into the venous system.
cavity relatively late during development. In contrast, Blockage of lymphatic ducts can result in enlargement
the incisors, canines, and premolars all have a decid- and rupture of these normally low-pressure duct sys-
uous generation of "milk teeth" (see Figure 2, top) tems.
that appear at about one month and are replaced se- Cats have a shorter snout region than do most com-
quential y byabout six months of age. parably sized dogs, which, along with having a small
Salivary glands and lymph nodes are other struc- number of teeth, correlates with the fact that the olfac-
tures closely associated with the skull base and the tory' system is not as well developed in cats as it is in
jaws. The large parotid salivary gland, located on dogs. Cats compensate with their excellent eyesight.
the side of the face, the mandibular salivary gland, The teranatomy
and the monostomatic sublingual salivary gland, 18: Sensoryof Organs the eyesandis described
Disorders. in detail in Chap-
located high in the neck and just inside the angle of The major avenues for passing oxygenated blood to
the mandible, create and deliver the salivary secre- the brain and other active structures of the head are
tions tothe mouth cavity. All of these glands transport the right and left common carotid arteries. It is
 ANATOMY

Retropharyngeal lymph nodes

/Tracheal duct
/Thoracic .Tracheobroncheal
duct lymph nodes
^Mesenteric lymph nodes
Iliac lymph nodes
Superficial inguinal
lymph nodes
Ischial lymph nodes

Popliteal lymph nodes

Caudal epigastric lymph nodesi—
Figure
immune 3- system.
A schematic of several major lymph centers and lymphatic ducts that serve as part of tfie body's

possible to get blood to the head especially to the through the neck and into the thorax (the region
brain, via the venebral arteries. These are paired but bounded by the ribs). Finally, within the thorax and
comparatively caudal to the bifurcation of the left and right tracheae,
tebral structuressmaller
of thearteries
neck tothatthepass
basealong
of thetheskull.
ver-
the esophagus continues on its path toward the dia-
Should a carotid artery be occluded (blocked), the phragm and into the abdomen. This caudal thoracic
vertebral arteries could provide a collateral course of region is often a site of megaesophagus. (See Chapter
passage for oxygenated blood to the head. However, 25: Digestive System and Disorders.)
this would be only a short-term solution for such a Once inside the abdomen, the esophagus enters
problem. The right and left external jugular veins the stomach at the cardiac sphincter. The stomach
return blood that has been deox^'genated and con- (96) serves as a short-term storage organ where food
tains metabolic waste products. items are initially broken down by enzymes (pepsin
The path of a food item through the alimentary and gastrin) and by acidity (the pH of the feline
canal begins as food passes caudally from the mouth stomach is about 3 5, compared to a neutral pH of
and enters a region generally termed the pharynx. 7.0). Food in the stomach is also coated with mucus
The pharynx is of interest because it represents a to isolate harmful microorganisms and to encourage
point of intersection between respiratory and diges- easy passage through the remainder of the gastroin-
tive functions: it is the junction of the oral and nasal testinal system. Food next moves from the pyloric
cavities, and it is the point of divergence of the tra- region (pylorus, the distal aperture of the stomach)
chea (98) (the airway) and the esophagus (87). The to the duodenum (86), where the bile ducts dis-
esophagus passes caudally alongside the trachea charge bile from the liver (90) and die pancreatic
ANATOMY OF THE CAT

ducts deliver sodium bicarbonates and enzymes from rigid and open airway through the neck, and then into
the pancreas (94). BUe largely serves to emulsify fat the thorax. Next, the airway diverges into the primary
in the food while the pancreatic secretions neutral- bronchi (84) (one bronchus to each lung). Further
ize acid from the stomach and also serve to break into the lungs, the bronchi become smaller (second-
down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Food (or "in- ary and then tertiary bronchioles). The exchange of
gesta") gases (i.e., the uptake of oxygen by, and removal of
portion passes of the distally next to the
small intestine thatjejunum,
is suspendeda lengthy
from carbon dioxide from, the blood occurs in microscopic
the abdominal roof by an extensive mesentery structures called alveolae, small sacklike structures
(membranous fold that attaches organs to the body that are heavily invested with capillaries to ensure
wall). From the jejunum, the food item is moved complete and rapid diffusion of gases into and out of
through the ileum, a short length of gut tube that the blood. The alveolae are the endpoints of distribu-
generally is found in the caudal abdomen and trans- tion of the bronchial system. The paired lungs (right
mits food from the left side to the right side of the and left) are divided into several lobes. A veterinarian
body and into the cecum and ascending colon. attempts to listen to the sounds of each lobe to ensure
The large bowel, or colon (69), is divided into that an infection, such as a pneumonia constrained to
three parts. Their names are largely derived from one part of one lobe, is not missed in the physical
human anatomy (relative to the standing person). The examination.
ascending colon passes from the caudal aspect of The act of breathing, or ventilation, is effected by
the abdomen along the right side. Food next encoun- the muscular activity of the diaphragm and to a lesser
ters the transverse colon, traversing from the right extent by the muscles of the costal arch, the intercos-
to left side in a rather cranial portion of the abdomen. tal muscles (between the ribs). The lungs are main-
In fact, this right to left transition should always be tained in inflation by negative pressure that exists
placed cranial to the root of the mesentery, the point between the outer lining of the lungs (the visceral
at which the jejunum is attached to the abdominal pleura) and the innermost lining (the parietal
wall. Finally, food moves caudally in the descending pleura) of the chest wall. The pleural cavity is the
colon and toward the rectum (76) (distal portion of potential space, occupied largely by the lungs be-
the large intestine) and anus (60) (terminal orifice of tween the parietal and visceral pleurae. Contraction
the alimentary canal). of the diaphragm enlarges the volume of the lungs
The respiratory system begins with the passage- and causes the inspiration of air. Relaxation of the
ways of the nasal cavity and the mouth. In the pharynx, diaphragm, coupled with the normal tendenc>' of the
the airway diverges from the digestive tract to enter lung walls to collapse, leads to expiration of air.
the larynx, or voicebox. The larynx consists of a se- Forced expiration can be assisted by contraction of
ries of five ringlike, or incomplete rings, of cartilage the abdominal muscles.
(including the cricoid, thyroid, arytenoid, and epiglot- The forelimb of the cat includes a complement of
tic canilages). The mucous membranes lining the air- bones and muscles that are rather consistent within
way (and on the inside of the laryngeal canilages) all carnivores.
contain microscopic cilia to move particulate contami- humans is lackingThe inclavicle (10), or and
most carnivores "collarbone"
many otherof
nants away from the lungs. Several folds of tissue, the mammals and although present in cats, is reduced or
vestibular and vocal folds, line the opening of the vestigial in both structure and function. This bone
laryngeal ventricle (small cavity in the larynx). The serves to reinforce the connection between the fore-
movement of air over the taut vocal folds contributes limb and the vertebral column in those mammals that
toSome
the resonance of sound produced by aofcat'sthemeow. possess it. In the carnivore condition, the reduction
authors claim that the vibration vocal or loss of a clavicle in adult animals is thought to
folds on both inspiration and expiration produce the enhance the mobility of the forelimb and, perhaps, to
charaaeristic purring of content cats. However, nu- facilitate a longer stride length for high speed locomo-
merous other studies suggest that purring is related tion. The bones of the forelimb from proximal to dis-
to blood flow in the common carotid arteries of the tal include the scapula (131) (shoulder bone),
neck. humerus (44, 111) (arm), radius (54, 128) and ulna
Air moves past the larynx and into the trachea (98), (59, 136) (forearm), carpals (39, 105) (wrist bones),
another series of ringlike cartilages that provides a metacarpals (48, 117), and phalanges (51, 124)
 ANATOMY

(singular, phalanx), of which there are generally requirements of the moment. For instance, when a cat
three: proximal, middle, and distal (see Figure 4). stands quietly, the muscle fibers of the soleus are
The hindlimb is firmly rooted to the vertebral col- largely responsible for maintaining limb position (in
umn by the articulation between the pelvis and the particular at the knee) against the force of gravity.
sacrum, this elements
latter "bone" Muscle fibers (the cells, or syncyticium, because
six vertebral that being
have composed of fiveTheor
fused together. muscle fibers contain multiple nuclei) in the soleus
hip joint is the articulation between the pelvis and are largely fatigue resistant and thus can facilitate the
the femur (42, 108) (thigh bone), or, more specifi- stance of our model cat for quite a long period (many
cal y, itis where the femoral head articulates with the minutes). These fibers also produce only small incre-
ments of force but are not capable of generating the
bears a patella(the(50,
acetabulum "socket") of the pelvis.
123) (kneecap) overTheits femur
distal sort of force the cat needs to jump to the kitchen
extremity. The patella is an example of a sesamoid tabletop. For the latter feat, the cat will recruit muscle
bone, literally a bone within the substance of a mus- fibers in the larger medial and lateral gastrocnemius
cle. In this case, the muscle is the knee extensor muscles. These muscles also extend the ankle, as
group, the quadriceps femoris muscle (a four-part when jumping or running. However, many of the
muscle including the vastus lateralis, medialis, and muscle fibers of the gastrocnemius muscle are
intermedius, as well as the rectus femoris). The patella adapted to produce relatively large increments of
appears to provide a smooth change of direction for force rapidly. The trade-off is that these forceful mus-
the pull of the quadriceps femoris muscles as the knee cles fatigue quickly. All of the ankle extensors and
is bent in flexion. The patella also confers some me- digital flexors are innervated by distal branches of the
chanical advantage on the action of this muscle group tibial nerve.
by lengthening the lever arm relative to the center of The musculoskeletal system is replete with redun-
knee rotation. Continuing distally, the large bones of dancy and overlaps of function. In contrast to the
the leg include the tibia (58, 135) and fibula (43, ankle extensors described above, there also exists a
109). These articulate with the tarsals (57, 133) (the suite of ankle flexors. These are located on the crus,
ankle bones). The hindlimb continues distally with but embryologically they form on the side opposite to
a set of metatarsals (49) and phalanges (52, 125) the extensors in the developing limb. This opposition
analagous to the structure of the distal forelimb. The is maintained in life; ankle extensors are on the caudal
only difference is that there are generally only four aspect of the cat's crus, and ankle flexors are on the
well-developed digits, or toes, on the hindlimb in con- craniolateral aspect of the crus. Several muscles ef-
trast tothe five present on the forelimb. fecting ankle flexion (the movement a person would
The hindlimb is considered to be most important use when lifting the foot and toes while the heel re-
in propulsive activity, that is, in providing the force to mains on the ground) include the tibialis cranialis
move the animal forward. How coordinated move- (38) (also called tibialis anterior) and the pero-
ment isaccomplished is a wonder of nature found in neus longus (27). All of these ankle flexors and digi-
most mammals, whose explanation far exceeds the tal extensors are innervated by the peroneal nerve.
space allowed in this chapter. Briefly, we can surmise Smooth coordination of the ankle movement is ac-
that the limb and its joints are spanned by a multitude complished only if there is a smooth recruitment of
of muscles, most of which are relatively well adapted the flexor and extensor muscle groups. The flexor
to perform a specified suite of functions. and extensor muscles oppose each oflier as antago-
We can focus on the muscles that extend the cat's nists, whereas all of the flexors as a group might be
ankle (hock) when standing quietly or when per- considered synergists as they work together to effect
forming amore forceful behavior, such as jumping. precise control of ankle position. Instantaneous as-
On the caudal aspect of the cms (the leg from the ses ment ofmuscle performance is attained by the
knee to the foot), there are two large muscle groups, nervous system, which monitors stretch in individual
the gastrocnemius (20) and soleus muscles, and muscles, as well as joint position, by an array of pro-
the digital flexors. In a general sense, we can identify prioceptors that provide the spinal cord and higher
a clear division of labor among these two groups. The nervous centers with information used to modulate
gastrocnemius and soleus muscles are mainly ankle subsequent muscle recruitment or derecruitment.
extensors, a task they divide according to the force As with the teeth, claws provide another defining
 ANATOMY OF THE CAT
150
feature of tfie cat. Claws are used in climbing as well
as in fighting or killing prey. Contrary to the impres-
sion cats may give, they can exen highly delicate con- Proximal phalan;
trol over the position of the claw. The claw is an Middle phalanx
epidermal structure like skin and is comparable to the
hn^cm.iils i)( people. The claw s i;n)\\ throughout life,
ci)nstaiitl\ replacing the outer lasers with keratin-
ized (reinforced with keratin) dead cells to maintain
their sharpness. Left without proper exercise and
wear, the claws of a house cat become weapons dan-
gerous tofurniture and inhabitants as cats search the
house for something on which to groom their claws.
Some owners choose to have a cat declawed, an oper-
ation that involves removing the claw and its germina-
tive layers. This procedure also involves removal of
part or all of the distal bony phalanx because of the
intimate relation between the germinaiive pan of the
claw and this bone.
Intact cats differ from dogs and other carnivores in Figure 4. A schematic lateral view of the retracted
that the claws of cats are retractile. The distal phalanx ({op) and protracted (.bottom) claws and phalanges of
a cat. The line of pull of the deep digital flexor tendon
ofdorsal
the cat's elastic digit,ligaments
the one that(seebears the 4)claw,thathasserves
Figure two is illustrated by the arrow: pulling on the distal pha-
lanx flexes the distal interphalangeal joint and pro-
to hold the claw retracted. To protract the claw (ex- tracts the claw. Normally, the claw is carried in the
tend the claw and thus damage the couch or anack retracted position. This position is maintained, in
the dog!), the cat must use a muscle called the deep part, by the tension in the dorsal elastic ligaments
(one of which is illustrated). The claw is attached di-
digital flexor to overpower the elasticity of the dor- rectly tothe bone of the distal phalanx.
sal elastic ligament. To effectively control claw posi-
tion, the cat achieves a balance in the aaivity of the
deep digital flexor muscle that inserts on the palmar
or plantar base of the distal phalanx, and the digital treated as a single urogenital system because of the
extensor muscles (the latter insert on and pass over linkage of their development and because their ducts
the dorsal surface of the phalanges). Another differ- emerge to the exterior of the body at a common site.
ence between cats and dogs (and virtually all other The urinary system is necessary to eliminate waste
mammals) is that the claw (and attached distal pha- products and thus to maintain proper balance of the
lanx) retraas to a position on the lateral side of the body's ions (electrically charged atoms, electro-
middle phalanges of each digit. Thus, the aniculation lytes). The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs
beD^'een the middle and distal phalanx is rather asym- lying on the dorsal aspect of the abdomen that regu-
metrical. When the claw is retracted, it withdraws late water, sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium, and
within a protective sheath. many more elements. Blood undergoes filtration in
Watch a cat stalking a toy or even a bird in the specialized units called nephrons that allow critical
backyard. The locomotion of the cat is striking be- substances to be removed at one location and allow
cause of its linearity. As the cat focuses on the target, some of these substances to be resorbed into the
the trajectory of the body is highly linear, with little blood at another location within the nephron. Kidney
side-to-side sway. This is accomplished, in pan, be- function is quite complex; it is critical to maintaining
cause there is little side-to-side (medial-to-lateral) homeostasis (stability) by removing foreign chemi-
movement of the hindlimb relative to the pelvis. Com- cals from the body.
par tively,dog's
a cathipscansway Urine produced in the kidneys is collected in the
The remarkable also tojump
and tofro great
much heights
more.
ureters (80, 100) which pass caudally from the kid-
relative to its own body size. ney to the bladder. The bladder (99) is a distensible
The urinar>' and genital systems of animals are often structure rooted in the caudal end of the abdominal
 ANATOMY

cavity that holds urine until it is voided by the animal. the urethra. Castration of toms involves ligating and
Because of the elastic property of the bladder wall, a cutting the arteries and veins supplying the testes, cut-
full bladder can extend as far cranially as the umbili- ting the ductus deferens, and removing the testes
cus (or navel). Retention of urine within the bladder from the scrotum. Retention of the testicle within the
is effected by the sphincter action of the urethral mus- abdomen, cryptorchidism, is a common sequela
cles (striated and smooth) surrounding the pelvic por- (resultant
tion of the urethra. Upon relaxation of these urethral the testes condition)
from their toabdominal the animal's attempt
origins to move
through the
muscles and contraction of smooth muscle in the inguinal canal and into the testes. This may involve
bladder wall, urine exits the bladder through a rela- retention of the testicle within the abdomen or incom-
tively long neck of the bladder and passes through the plete migration of the testicle through the inguinal
pelvic urethra. At this point, urogenital anatomy is canal and into the scrotum.
dictated by the sex of the animal. In females, the ure- In the queen, the ovaries are paired organs located
thra is a relatively straight and shon passage that within the abdomen that store the oocytes (devel-
emerges at the vestibule (103). In contrast, the ure- oping eggs) throughout much of life. Ovulation, the
thra of the torn is longer and passes through the pelvic release of mature oocytes, is stimulated in many carni-
pan of the penis amidst two accessory sex glands, vores bythe act of copulation. Upon release from the
the prostate and the bulbourethral glands. These ovary, the oocyte is collected by the infiindibulum.
glands provide additional fluid for the semen, includ- a glovelike structure that is at the terminal or ovarian
ing specific sugars thought to provide energy for the end of the uterine tubes. The uterine tubes are usu-
sperm. The male urethra emerges from within the ally the site of fertilization of eggs in mammals. How-
penis, a specialized erectile organ that enlarges dur- ever, itis possible for an oocyte to escape the catch of
ing mating by the retention of blood within two com- the infundibulum and to pass into the peritoneum
partments ofextensible tissues called the corpus (the closed membranous sac lining the abdomen and
cavemosum and the corpus spongiosum. Al- pelvis) where it may be found and fertilized by sperm
though the penis is difficult to discern in a quiescent to develop into an ectopic pregnancy. This sort of
torn, it is unusual in that its orientation is directed happening does not usually result in a successful
caudally from within the pelvis. Only during erection pregnancy and, most fortunately, is rare. As the fertil-
and mating does the penis of a tom emerge externally ized eggs pass to the uterus (81, 101) they enter the
and direct itself ventrally and cranially as in most long uterine tubes where implantation and develop-
other quadrupedal mammals. The distal part of the ment of the embryo take place. In cats, the uterine
penis, the glans, bears minute bristles on the surface body is short and communicates with a similarly short
that are critical to inducing ovulation in the queen cervix (85), a muscular region of the reproductive
during breeding. tract that serves as a defense against penetration of the
Sperm are produced in mammals by the testes, uterus by foreign microbes that may have entered
paired organs that are generally carried in a scrotum the vagina. Distal to the cervix lies the vagina (102)
(external sac) to prevent overheating and loss of via- the organ of copulation in the queen. The vagina com-
bility ofthe sperm. The testes originate embryologi- municates caudally with the vestibule (103) at the
cally in the dorsal abdomen but undergo a relocation point where the urinary tract enters via the external
to the more externally located scrotum. This embryo- urethral meatus (opening).
logical path is reflected by the path of the duct system
of the male reproductive tract. Sperm produced in the
testes are collected at the head of the epididymis
(the duct connecting the testis to the ductus deferens) A GUIDE TO THE COLOR PLATES OF
and move sequentially through the body and tail of THE FELINE ANATOMY
the epididymis. From this point, the ductus defer- The Muscles
ens (also called the vas deferens, the ejaculatory
dua) passes from the scrotum back into the abdomen HEAD AND NECK. There are many small facial
and to the pelvic part of the penis. Sperm enter the muscles that give
common urogenital traa adjacent to the openings of toscutularis (30) expression to a forward
draw the ears cat's face.orTherostrally,
fron-
the prostate glands and then pass externally through and the auricularis muscles (2) draw the ears back-
 ANATOMY OF THE CAT
152
ward or caudally. The levator nasolabialis (23) FORELIMB. The cleidobrachialis (9), a portion of
raises the upper lip. The brachiocephalicus muscle the brachiocephalicus muscle, extends the shoulder.
(34, 8, 9, 10) is a compound muscle divided by anato- The infraspinatus (22) and deltoideus (1 1 ), a mus-
mists into three major pans: the cleidomastoideus cle with two parts, flexes the shoulder. The brachi-
(34) courses from the region of the clavicle to the alis (4) aids in flexing the elbow and the triceps
base of the head; the cleidocephalicus (8) extends brachii (35, 36) extends the elbow. Movement of the
from the clavicle to the back and side of the head and distal forearm is controlled by a number of muscles,
neck. The.se muscles are continuous caudally with the including the extensor carpi radialis (14); flexor
cleidobrachialis (9), which passes distally to insert carpi radialis (16); extensor carpi ulnaris (15);
on the ulna. Together, the function of these muscles flexor carpis ulnaris (17), also an extensor of the
is complicated. If the limb is fixed in position, contrac- carpus although its name implies a different function;
tion of the brachiocephalicus may cause flexion of the and the pronator teres (28). The digits (toes) are
neck or may pull the head to one side. During a run- controlled by the digital flexors and extensors
ning gait, contraction of this muscle may extend the (12). (See Figure 4.)
shoulder and protract (pull forward) the arm.
HINDLIMB. The sartorius (32) is a straplike mus-
DORSUM. The capelike trapezius (1) stabilizes cle that flexes the hip and extends the stifle (knee).
the position of the scapula. The latissimus dorsi (25) The gluteus medius (18) is a major muscle of the
is fan-shaped and flexes the shoulder. More generally, rump that extends the hip (i.e., provides forward
the latissimus dorsi is an important retractor of the thrust). The caudofemoralis (7), illustrated as the
forelimb, a muscle that contributes to forward propul- "gluteofemoralis," extends the hip and rotates the
sion. The thick thoracolumbar fascia (24), part of rfiigh inward (pronation). The tensor feisciae latae
the deep fascia of the body, extends across the back (37) is a triangular muscle that flexes the hip and
at the caudal thoracic and lumbar regions and serves abducts the hindlimb. The semitendinosus (33),
semimembranosus, and biceps femoris muscles
to anchor a number of muscles, including the latissi-
mus dorsi. are often
ute to hipreferred to as(forward
extension the "hamstrings"
thrust) asandwellcontrib-
as to
movement of the knee. The major calf muscle, the
THORAX, ABDOMEN, AND TAIL. The inter- gastrocnemius (20) has two parts, medial and lat-
costal muscles (21) comprise external and internal eral. This muscle extends the ankle, a movement criti-
muscles that span the spaces between adjacent ribs cal to standing or jumping. The peroneal muscles
(the intercostal spaces). Surgical access to the thorax (27) and tibialis cranialis (38) flex the ankle (draw
is usually obtained by dissecting through specific in- the toes upward or dorsally) and contribute to ever-
tercostal spaces. These muscles seem to have an acces- sion (outward rotation) of the foot.
sory role in breathing. The external abdominal
oblique (13) is a large superficial muscle that contrib- Thoracic and Abdominal Organs
utes to the wall of the abdomen. It sweeps caudoven-
trally from its origin on the ribs and inserts along the (Viscera)
midline of the ventral abdomen at the linea alba. The heart (66), is a muscular pumping organ that
The linea alba is a region of strong connective tissue circulates the blood. It consists of four chambers in-
between the paired right and left rectus abdominis cluding two atria (singular, atrium: not numbered in
muscles (29) that course along the ventral midline the plate) with ear-shaped appendages called auricles
of the abdomen. The rectus abdominis is a complex (62, 63), and two ventricles (left ventricle [82]; right
muscle interrupted by inscriptions of connective tis- ventricle [83]). The heart is rotated on its longs axia
sue, the appearance of which give physically fit hu- allowing the viewer to observe part of the right ventri-
mans a"washboard" appearance on the belly. Activity cle from the left side. The pulmonary artery (75)
of the rectus abdominis flexes the body in the abdom- sends blood from the right ventricle to the lungs for
inal region (i.e., a comparison to the person who prac- oxygen uptake. The aortic arch (61) is the vessel
tices aregimen of daily sit-ups can be drawn). The through which oxygenated blood is passed from flie
sacrocaudalis (6, 31) acts to manipulate the tail. right ventricle to the head and upper body by the
 ANATOMY

brachiocephalic trunk, common carotid, and out by the kidneys (89), resulting in the produaion
subsclavian arteries, and to the lower body by the of urine. The urine is transponed through the ure-
aorta. ters (100), collects within the urinary bladder (99),
The liver (70, 90) is a large, brown organ that filters and is discharged through the urethra. In the female,
blood from the digestive traa and performs many the urine is excreted by way of the vestibule (103).
metabolic functions. The spleen (78) is an immuno- The ovaries (92), oviducts (93), uterus (101) with
logic "filter" of the blood, containing many important cervix (85), vagina (102), and vulva comprise the
cells of the immune system. The kidneys (68) re- female reproductive tract. The male reproductive tract
move toxic waste products of metabolism from the is almost entirely outside the abdominal cavity.
blood, producing urine, which travels down the ure-
ters (80) on its way out of the body. Urine is stored Skeleton, Lungs, and Diaphragm
in the bladder (99) and is discharged through the
urethra. In the queen, urine is excreted by way of FORELIMB. The scapula (131) is known as the
the vestibule (103), while in the tom, the ureters shoulder blade. The clavicle (not numbered) is a
pass through the penis. The small intestine or jeju- rod of bone embedded on the cranial aspect of the
num (77) and large intestine or colon (69) form the shoulder in the brachiocephalicus muscle. Unlike in
largest ponion of the digestive traa, where nutrients some mammals, the clavicle does not provide an im-
are absorbed and solid waste (feces) is generated. portant strutlike role in maintaining position of the
Fecal material accumulates in the colon and is ex- shoulder and forelimb relative to the axial body. The
creted via the rectum (76) through the anus (60). In main bone of the arm (between shoulder and elbow)
the female, eggs (ova) are formed in the ovaries (71, is the humerus (44). Two bones span from the
92), then travel down the corresponding oviduct or elbow to the wrist or carpus, the radius (54, 128),
uterine tubes (72, 93), and, if fertilized by sperm from and ulna (59, 136). The bones of the forepaw include
the male, they implant and develop in the uterus (81, seven carpals (39, 105), five metacarpals (48, 117)
101). The cervix (85) is the channel connecting the and two or three phalanges (51, 124) on each digit.
uterus to the vagina (102), the female's organ of cop- HINDLIMB. The pelvis is composed of three
ulation. The site where the urinary (urethra) and re-
productive (vagina) systems of the queen merge is the bones: the ilium (112), ischium (113), and pubis
vulva. The vestibule is the caudal extension of the (127). The main bone of the thigh (between hip and
vulva, caudal to the clitoris. knee) is the femur (42, 108), which articulates to the
pelvis with a ball-and-socket joint. The kneecap or
patella (50, 123) lies cranial to the knee, embedded
Abdominal Organs in the tendon of insenion of the quadriceps femoris
(Viscera) muscles. Between the knee and ankle (hock) are two
The trachea (98) is a cartilage-containing structure main bones, the tibia (58, 135) and fibula (43, 109).
that transports air between the nasal passages and the The bones of the distal hindlimb include seven tar-
lungs (91). The air passes through several genera- sals (57, 133), as well as one metatarsal (49, 118)
tions of bronchii (84) that become progressively and two to three phalanges (52, 125) per digit.
smaller as they pass into the lung. The pulmonary
arteries and veins (95) carry blood to the lungs for TRUNK. Enclosing the chest cavity (thorax) are thir-
gas exchange (to pick up oxygen and to discharge teen pairs of ribs (55) with associated costal carti-
carbon dioxide). The muscular esophagus (87) car- lages (40). The lungs (47) are organs of gas
ries food and water from the pharynx to the stomach exchange for breathing, whose expansion is con-
(96), where it can be acted on by digestive enzymes. trol ed byactivation of the diaphragm (41). The
Also involved in digestion (in addition to the intes- lungs will collapse without active contraction of the
tines) are the liver (70, 90), gallbladder (88), and diaphragm or other accessory ventilatory muscles.
pancreas (94). Food exits the stomach through the The diaphragm also serves to separate the thorax from
duodenum (86), then passes to the jejunum, ileum, the abdomen.
and colon, in that order. Major bones of the feline skull (cranium) include
Metabolic waste products in the blood are filtered the paired firontal (110), parietal (122), nasal (119),
ANATOMY OF THE CAT

incisive or "preni;Lxillar\'" (126),aremaxillaiy includes about twenty caudal vertebrae (106). The
and mandible (US). The teeth rooted in (116),
these spinal cord runs through the center of the cervical,
latter three bones. The orbit (121) is a bony cavity thoracic, and several lumbar vertebrae. The cord actu-
that is occupied by tlie eye and by many significant ally ends in the lumbar vertebral region, but as contin-
blood vessels and nerves. The rest of the axial skele- uations ofthe nervous system, the spinal nerves pass
ton is composed of seven cervical vertebrae (107), further caudally to emerge through the sacrum for
of which the first two are named atlas and axis ( 104), innervation of parts of the hindlimb.
respectively. Proceeding caudally along the vertebral The breastbone or sternum (132) is composed of
column there are thirteen thoracic vertebrae (134) eight sternebrae and connects the ventral parts of the
that articulate with ribs. Next are the seven lumbar ribs (which are cartilaginous) at the ventral midline.
vertebrae (114) and three sacral vertebrae (130). The obturator foramen (120) is an opening on the
These latter bones are fused as the sacrum and help side of the pelvis that, in life, is closed off by a mem-
anchor the pelvis to the vertebral column. The tail branous sheet of connective tissue.
 PART VII

The External Cat

The Owl and the Pussy-Cat went to sea

In a beautiful pea-green boat,
They took some honey, and plenty of money,
Wrapped up in a five-pound note.
The Owl looked up to the stars above.
And sang to a small guitar,
"O lovely Pussy! O Pussy, my love,
What a beautiful Pussy you are,
You are.
You are!
What a beautiful Pussy you are!" . . .
And hand in hand, on the edge of the sand,
They danced by the light of the moon,
The moon,
The moon,

\
 H 1 7

Skin and Disorders

by Danny W. Scott

FORM AND FUNCTION

kin is the outer covering of the cat, giving the cat and may not always begin with an observable
shape, texture, and color to feline form and skin problem. Some skin disorders are caused by sys-
substance. It performs many fiinctions neces- temictations ofdiseases
those and thus appear as secondary manifes-
diseases.
S sary for the maintenance of life and the pre-
vention ofdisease. Skin is a waterproof barrier against Diseases and disorders of feline skin may be caused
invasion of the body by harmful microorganisms and by bacterial infeaion, viral infection, fungal infection,
disease-causing substances. traumatic injury, contact
It retains the body's with physical or chemical
ture and other critical mois-
sub- agents, burns, frostbite, nu-
stances, thus preventing tritional deficiency, emo-
dehydration and main- tional stress, parasitism,
taining an internal environ- hormonal
ment for all other body bolic imbalance, meta-
dysfunction, allergy,
organs. The skin and its hair high indoor temperature
coat provide insulation from and low humidity, self-muti-
extremes of heat and cold lation, and tumors.
and are involved in the regu- Untreated skin disorders
can quickly intensify from
ture.lation And,oftheto body's
a lessertempera-
degree the trivial to the serious.
than in the human body, fe- Signs such as swellings,
line skin perspires. growths, hair loss, itching,
Its sensory surface relays redness, and various other
information to the brain concerning aspects of ex- lesions, require professional veterinary attention.
ternal phenomena, such as atmospheric conditions,
the proximity of objects and other organisms,
temperatures, pain, itch, and wounds, in addition to
daily physical sensation. The cells of the skin also COMPONENTS OF THE SKIN
function as the outpost of the body's immune
system. Epidermis
Skin is the largest organ of the body. Diseases of The outer layer of skin is the epidermis. It contains
the skin may appear at any time throughout the life of pigment cells that establish color, helping to screen
157
 THE EXTERNAL CAT
158
the body against harmful solar rays. The functions of also supports the hair follicles, sweat glands, and seba-
the epidermis are to protect the body from external ceous glands.
conditions, to prevent entrance of harmful material or
disease-causing microbes, and to prevent loss of water SubcuHs
and salts. This protection is achieved largely by kera-
tin, an insoluble protein material that is synthesized The subcutaneous layer or subcutis is found beneath
by special cells within the structure of the epidermis. the dermis and is composed of thick bands of collagen
The epidermis consists microscopically of five dis- fibers and smaller elastin fibers, which interweave and
tinct layers. They are the stratum comeum (horny enclose the fatty tissue of the skin.
outer layer), stratum lucidum (clear layer), stra-
timi graiiulosum (granular layer), stratum spino-
sum (spiny layer or prickle cell layer), and the Hair
stratum basale (basal or foundation layer). In haired
skin areas, the epidermis consists of only four layers, Hair consists of long, slender filaments made of life-
the stratum lucidum layer being absent. less keratin. Each hair consists of a shaft and a root.
The root is contained in a sac or follicle. The base of
the root is expanded into the hair bulb, which sits
beneath the dermis.
Pigment The exposed part of the hair, the shaft, has three
There are many color-producing cells in haired skin. layers: medulla, conex, and cuticle. The inner me-
Melanocytes (cells producing the pigment melanin) dul a iscomposed of a cord containing one to three
are especially prominent in the epidermis of the lips, longitudinal rows of cells that are flattened from top
footpads, the surface of the nose, prepuce (or fore- to bottom. The cells are solidly packed near the hair
skin) of the penis or vaginal folds, scrotum, the top root, but within the remainder of the hair shaft, air
portion of the tail, ears, anus, and umbilical skin of spaces and cellular cavities can be found. The cortex
the fetus, and in the hair bulbs, which are nipplelike consists of spindle-shaped cells that are comified
protrusions at the base of each hair (thus the color of (convened into horny tissue),cells
withcontain
their long
the hair coat is produced within each individual hair). al el to the hair shaft. These the axis par-
melanin
Depending on the color of the coat, the eyelids, pigment that gives the hair its color. The outer cuticle
nose area, lips, and footpads may be unpigmented, is composed of flat, cornified cells arranged like slates
moderately pigmented, or black. Cats with chinchilla on a roof, the free edge of each cell facing the tip of
or silver coats bear darkly pigmented eyelids. the hair.
As red, cream, and tricolored cats mature and age,
they develop larger numbers of frecklelike pigmented
spots (lentigo), which begin as pinpoint dots, on the Sebaceous Glands
eyelids, lips, nose, and footpads. These may first ap- Sebaceous glands are simple saclike structures
pear in cats as young as one year of age, getting larger attached to the hair follicle. They secrete sebum, a
and more numerous with age.
thick,lar debris.
semifluid Sebumsubstance composedthat ofcovers
is the substance fat andthecellu-
hair
Dermis coat with a protective veneer, giving it a lustrous ap-
pearance. Two or three sebaceous glands empty into
The dermis is the underlying support structure di- the upper ponion of the hair follicle around which
rectly beneath the epidermis and provides a second they are clustered. Sebaceous glands are larger and
layer of protection from invasion or injury. It is com- more numerous in certain areas of the body: lips,
posed of collagen (a protein substance in the white chin, upper eyelids, upper surface of the tail, skin fold
fibers of the skin), elastin (elastic connective tissue), covering penis or vagina, and scrotum. Sebaceous
ground substance (a gel-sol substance made from glands are not found in footpads and are found only
blood elements and other tissue cells), nervous tissue, rarely in other nonhaired areas, where they open di-
blood vessels, vessels through which lymph circulates, rectly onto the skin surface. They do not appear to
muscle cells, and other cellular elements. The dermis contain ner\'e structures.
 SKIN AND DISORDERS

Sweat Glands the body by preventing excessive heat loss. Secondary

(or undercoat) hairs are far more numerous than pri-
There are rwo types of sweat glands: apocrine and mary or guard hairs.
eccrine. Apocrine sweat glands are found through- Specialized tactile hairs called sinus hairs are
out the body as appendages of hair follicles. Saccular present on the muzzle (as whiskers), above the eyes,
and coiled, they are larger in the lips, face, upper and on the underside of the lower foreleg. These hairs
surface of the tail, and scrooim. The ducts of the apo- are thick, stiff, and tapered at the tip.
crine glands open into the upper portion of the hair Average daily hair growth is about 0.29 mm (0.011
follicle around which they are clustered. Apocrine inches) for primary guard hairs and about 0.26 mm
glands are not present in the footpads or other hair- (0.010 inches) for secondary hairs. Hair replacement
less areas. Apocrine glands secrete a milky, scented in the cat is mosaic in pattern, unaffected by neu-
fluid that may play a role in sexual attraction. tering, and primarily responsive to the length of time
Eccrine sweat glands occur only in the footpads. the cat is exposed to daylight (or artificial light). Out-
They are small and extensively coiled, and they are door cats in the northeastern United States usually
composed of a single layer of cube-shaped or colum- shed noticeably in the spring and fall, whereas indoor
nar cells and a single layer of spindle-shaped cells. cats often shed noticeably all year long. Sudden shed-
The ducts of these glands travel through the dermis ding of hair maytableoccur
and epidermis and open direaly onto the footpad examination or toafterthe a show
visit toring,
the veterinarian's
probably be-
surface. Eccrine sweat glands appear to promote cool- cause of a loss of telogen hairs (those in the resting
ing by the evaporation of their secretions. These se- stage of the growth q'cle) when the arrector pili mus-
cretions are produced in response to elevated body cles are activated by fright or other stress. Hair follicle
temperature, emotional stress, or excitation. Eccrine activity is highest in summer and lowest in winter. In
sweat tatmay summer, about 30 percent of the primary hairs and
ed cats. be seen on the footpads of excited or agi- about 50 percent of the secondary hairs are in the
resting phase of the hair cycle. However, in winter,
Arrector Pili Muscles these percentages increase to about 75 and 90, respec-
tively, which must be kept in mind when anempting
Arrector pili muscles contain smooth muscle cells and toroots).
assess the ease of epilation (hair pulled out by the
are present in all haired skin areas (however, they are
more developed along the back and on the upper In a typical shorthair cat, the longest primary hairs
surface of the tail). Arrector pili muscles originate in average about 4.5 cm (I'A inches) in length. By con-
the dermis and are attached to hair follicles; when trast, the primary hairs in the silky coat of a show
they contract, they cause the hair to stand erect. This cat may exceed 12.5 cm (5 inches) in length. The
action takes place prior to combat with an antagonist shorthaired
or as a response to emotional stress. is dominant totypetheisothers.
the fundamental "wild " type and
Various mutant hair coat types have occurred,
Hair Coat which have been perpetuated as a breed characteris-
tic. The rex mutant is characterized by curly hairs,
The hair coat consists of three types of hair: primary which occur in rwo major breeds, the Devon Rex and
or guard hairs within the outer coat; awn hairs (inter- the Cornish (German) Rex. Cornish Rex cats lack pri-
mediate-sized hairs forming part of the primary coat); mary hairs, whereas Devon Rex cats have primary
and secondary hairs (downy hair found in the hairs that resemble secondary hairs. Cornish Rex
undercoat). Guard hairs are coarse, thick, straight whiskers are often shon and curly, whereas Devon
hairs that taper to a fine tip. They insulate the body, Rex whiskers are often absent or stubbled. In some
protect the skin, and support the sense of touch. Awn Devon Rex cats, the coat is completely absent on the
hairs are thinner but swell just below the hair tip. chest, belly, and shoulders — a fault many breeders try
These hairs also insulate and protect the body. The to eliminate.
soft secondary hairs of the undercoat are the thinnest The wirehair mutation, seen in the American Wire-
hairs in the coat and are evenly crimped or rippled in hair, is characterized by a coat that looks and feels
appearance. They help to regulate the temperature of wiry, being coarse, crimped, and springy. All the hairs
THE EXTERNAL CAT

are curled in an irregular fashion, the awn hairs re- purple in color. Cellulitis is characterized by poorly
semblingshepherd's
a determined crook.hair reduction has oc- outlined areas of warm, painful, swollen skin tissue,
Geneticalh- which may ulcerate and become necrotic (dead) tis-
curred troni time lo time in various parts of the world, sue.
producing animals such as the Mexican Hairless cat. Abscesses and cellulitis are most commonly seen in
However, intact males of any breed or age, although intact fe-
Cat Faiuy the is tlieonlySphinx
"hairless" breed Hairless).
(Canadian recognizedIn bythese
the males and neutered members of either sex may be
cats, soiiK- tliin h.ms m.iv persist around the muzzle affected. The most frequent locations for abscesses
and on the k gs. .ukI transient, fine, secondary hairs are on the limbs, face, base of the tail, and back, al-
may cover tiie body. though they may occur anywhere. Signs often appear
suddenly and can include pain, swelling, fever, and
regional lymph node enlargement. The lesions are
sometimes painful from the time the bite is sustained,
DISORDERS OF THE SKIN but others are painful only while pus is accumulating.
Bacterial Skin Diseases Still others are painless throughout the course of ab-
scess development. Anorexia (loss of appetite),
The normal skin of healthy cats is highly resistant to fever, and depression may also be seen in affected
invasion by the wide variety of bacteria to which it is cats.
consistently exposed. A small number of pathogenic The frequency with which a pus-producing infec-
(disease-causing) bacteria may produce skin infec- tion (abscess or cellulitis) complicates bite wounds in
tions inthe absence of any obvious impairment of the cats makes early preventive treatment of these
skin's
of normaldefense system. However,
skin defenses, localized
as produced disruption
by maceration, wounds
cat is presented with antibiotics to thea legitimate
veterinarianmeasure.
within 'When
twelvea
or softening, of the skin (from overexposure to water hours of the bite, a single antibiotic injection and local
or topical medications, for example) or physical wound treatment can usually prevent the develop-
trauma (from abrasions, cuts, punctures, insect bites, ment of bacterial infection. In fully developed ab-
scratching, or rubbing) may predispose to develop- scesses, veterinary therapy would include surgical
ment of oven infection. Treatment with immuno- drainage and removal of dead or diseased tissue, ap-
suppressive drugs (such as high doses of plication ofdrains where indicated, and flushing of
glucoconicoids) or the development of immuno- the surgical site with antimicrobial solutions until
suppressive diseases (feline leukemia virus or fe- healing is well under way (five to ten days postopera-
line immunodeficiency virus infection, for example) tively). Cellulitis should be treated with hot packs for
may also predispose patients to skin infeaions. ten to fifteen minutes three times daily, accompanied
by oral or injectable antibiotics until the lesion is
ABSCESSES AND CELLULITIS. Abscesses (lo- brought to a head (production of an abscess) or
calized collections of pus) and cellulitis (diffuse in- resolves without pus production.
flam ation due to infection of soft or connective Castration of intact male cats has been reported to
tissue) are common feline skin disorders. They usu- be an effective preventive procedure. Castration re-
ally occur secondary to bites and scratches. The bacte- sults inrapid or gradual decline in fighting and roam-
ria most commonly causing these disease conditions ing behavior in 80 to 90 percent of the cats treated
are often found as normal inhabitants of the feline (about 50 percent stop almost immediately and about
mouth. 35 percent stop gradually). Some hormone prepara-
An abscess appears as a well-defined, dome-shaped, tions have been effective in modifsang aggressive be-
firm to fluctuant mass in the skin. The redness and havior in cats, preventing or reducing the occurrence
heat seen in other types of skin infections are not of fights and subsequent infections. However, these
often seen with abscesses. Abscesses often rupture hormones can cause side effects if administered over
and drain pus, which may be creamy or watery, white longIn periods of time.
to red-brown in color, and frequently malodorous. the United States west of the Rocky Mountains,
The skin over an abscess about to rupture is thin and abscesses can occur in cats that have plague. This is a
 SKIN AND DISORDERS

serious infeaious disease that also poses a significant claws. A thick, cheesy, white to yellow material can
human health hazard. (See Chapter 30: Bacterial Dis- often be expressed from the claw bed. Claws may be
eases.) brittle, split, malformed, or shed. The forepaws are
most commonly involved. Affected cats may be fe-
FOLLICULITIS AND FURUNCULOSIS. Bacte- brile (feverish) and depressed.
rial folliculitis (inflammation of hair follicles) and Treatment of paronychia consists of correcting the
fiminculosis (boils) are conditions that may be seen underlying cause, removal of affected claws where
as primary bacterial infections or secondary to disor- indicated, warm-water soaking, and systemic antibi-
ders such as feline acne, ectoparasite infestation otic therapy. Depending on the underlying cause, par-
(fleas, ticks), and hypersensitivity (allergic) reac- onychia can be a chronic, relapsing, and frequently
tions. The lesions of folliculitis consist of papules frustrating disorder to treat.
(small, solid skin elevations) from which hairs can be
seen to emerge and which progress to ring-shaped TUBERCULOSIS. Tuberculosis is a very rare infec-
areas of oozing, ulceration, crusting, and hair loss. tious disease of cats in the United States, caused by
Folliculitis can be localized to the chin (secondary to Mycobacterium bovis (cattle form) or, rarely, Myco-
feline acne) or can be present over the head, neck, bacterium tuberculosis (human form) or Mycobacte-
and back. Hair follicle rupture results in painful nod- rium avium (bird form). Transmission occurs by
ules and draining tracts, Itching, pain, and inflamed contact with discharges from infected animals or hu-
lymph nodes can be seen.
Treatment of bacterial folliculitis and furunculosis milk) mans
and(frombyskin lesions,catsnasal
feeding raw, discharges, and cow's
infected viscera. The
may include topical and systemic measures. Helpful development of a specific type of tuberculosis de-
topical treatments include warm water soaks and pends on the transmitting organism, the state of health
shampoo baths with antimicrobial solutions until the of the host, and how the bacteria are introduced into
lesions are healing (five to seven days). Systemic anti- the skin. Because feline infeaions are frequently with-
biotic treatment is often necessary. out clinical signs, they are difficult to diagnose by
routine laboratory tests and represent a significant
IMPETIGO. Impetigo (infection flnat does not in- public health hazard. Cats in close association with
volve hair follicles) has been described in kittens. Be- active cases of bovine or human tuberculosis receive
cause this disease begins on the back or neck and is extraordinary exposure and represent a population of
caused by organisms commonly found in the feline animals at high risk. Fortunately, cats are highly resis-
mouth, it seems likely fliat it is caused by overzealous tant to the organism of human tuberculosis, and
"mouthing" by the queen as she moves and carries proven cases of human-to-cat transmission are rare.
her kittens. The pustules rupture rapidly, leaving be- (See Chapter 30: Bacterial Diseases.)
hind ringlike erosions and yellowish crusts. The dis-
ease is not itchy or painful, and affeaed kittens are FELINE LEPROSY. Feline leprosy is caused by a
usually healthy otherwise. One or more kittens in a nontuberculous Mycobacterium, whose identity is still
litter may be affeaed. Treatment with topical wet uncertain, but it may be Mycobacterium lepraemu-
soaks and systemic antibiotics is curative in seven to rium (the cause of rat leprosy). The disease is seen in
ten days. western Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, but it is
rarely reported in the United States. About 70 percent
PARONYCHIA. Paronychia (pus-forming infec- of affected cats are less than three years of age, and
tion of the claw beds) is seen most often in middle- the disease is most often diagnosed in winter. Clinical
aged and older animals. Paronychia is virtually always signs include single or multiple skin lesions and occa-
secondary to another underlying disease process. Ex- sional inflamed, swollen lymph nodes. Skin lesions
amples ofunderlying diseases include feline leukemia vary from small nodules or abscesses, with or without
infection, feline immunodeficiency virus infection, draining tracts, to extensive nodules up to 3 5 cm in
and immune-mediated disorders. Clinical signs in- diameter (up to Vh inches) that frequently ulcerate.
clude variable degrees of swelling, pain, itching, ooz- Pain, itching, and constitutional signs are usually ab-
ing, redness, hair loss, and crusting of one or more sent. Skin lesions may occur anywhere but are most
THE EXTERNAL CAT

common on the head, neck, and limbs. The therapy microorganisms; they may establish residence on the
of choice is surgical excision, where possible. skin but produce no recognizable lesions; or they may
establish residence and cause disease.
ATYPICAL OR OPPORTUNISTIC MYCOBAC- Because ringworm fungi usually do not invade liv-
TERIOSIS. Atypical mycobacteriosis is an un- ing tissue, surviving instead by digesting the keratin
common disease of cats, caused by various non- in shed skin cells and hairs, the only mechanism by
tuberculous mycobacterial species such as Mycobacte- which they may cause disease is by the production
rium fortuitum and Mycobacterium smegmatis. These of toxic or allergenic substances. These substances
bacteria are found in the environment and gain en- penetrate the living epidermis into the dermis, where
trance to tiie skin following wounds. Atypical myco- the response to the challenge of toxic or allergenic
bacicrio.sis is cli.n .kicn/.cd by nodules and plaques materials is an inflammatory reaction. Thus, ringworm
(hard |:>atches). draining tracts, and nonhealing ulcers. is a type of biological contact dermatitis.
The belly, groin, and lower back are most often af- Ringworm appears to be more common in tropical
fected. Pain, itching, and constitutional signs are un- and subtropical climates. The major predisposing fac-
com on. The treatment of choice is surgical excision tors to infection with dermatophytes are thought to
by the veterinarian. However, postsurgical recur- include age, skin defects, nutritional status, humidity,
rences are common. Treatment with various antimi- immune status of the host, and living conditions. Sea-
crobial agents may be successful but often requires sonal variation in the occurrence of ringworm in cats
many weeks to months. The atypical mycobacteria are in the United States has been observed. Among the
usually resistant to the classical antituberculosis drugs. more common ringworm fungi infecting cats are: Mi-
Some cats with atypical mycobacteriosis undergo crosporum cants {M. cants), Microsporum gypseum
long-term spontaneous remissions. {M. gypseum), and Trichophyton mentagrophytes {T.
mentagrophytes). The ringworm fungi are contagious
RARE BACTERIAL SKIN DISEASES, Other bac- (especially A/, cants), by both direct and indirect con-
terial diseases of cats that can involve the skin include tact and may pass from animal to animal, animal to
bacterial pseudomycetoma (botryomycosis caused by human, human to animal, and human to human. Be-
Staphylococcus species), actinomycosis, and nocar- cause M. cants is so well adapted to the cat, it is not
diosis. However, the incidence of these diseases in surprising that cats are thought to be the primary
cats is very low. Treatment frequently includes surgi- source of M. cants infections for other animals and
cal excision followed by prolonged antibiotic therapy. humans. Importantly, many cats can carry M. cants
(See Chapter 30: Bacterial Diseases.) without showing outward clinical signs of ringworm.
The clinical signs of ringworm are extremely vari-
Fungal Skin Diseases able. Ringworm in cats may be the skin disorder most
overdiagnosed and underdiagnosed by botli veteri-
DERMATOPHYTOSIS. Dermatophytosis (ring- narians and owners. The lesions are often localized,
worm) isone of the most common skin disorders of but not always, and are comm.only present on the
the cat. Although young cats are more susceptible, cats head and limbs. The signs of feline ringworm may
of any age can be affected. Ringworm fungi (der- include any or all of the following:
matophytes) invade the most superficial outer layers
of the skin, claws, and hair. Rarely, dermatophytes may • circular areas of hair loss, stubbled hairs, scaling,
produce deep skin infections and even spread to in- and crusting, usually without itching ("classical
volve other organ systems. Tlie probable source of all itching baldness, with or without redness and
ringworm fungi is the soil, although a number of • patchy
ringworm")
these organisms have given up this mode of existence
for a parasitic life on animal or human skin. • localized or generalized papular dermatitis, with
When dermatophytes contact the skin, a number of or without itching and significant hair loss, espe-
things can happen; They may be brushed off mechani- cial y in cases involving M. ca?its
cally; they may not be able to establish residence be- • pigment alterations of hair and/or skin, with or
cause of an inability to compete with normal skin without other signs of skin disease
 SKIN AND DISORDERS

• large areas of pustular or vesicular (blister) der- disposing causes is fundamental to successful therapy.
matitis and baldness, with or without itching, es- Topical application of an antifungal agent may be
pecial y incases involving T. mentagropbytes helpful, but oral medications are usually needed.
• onychomycosis (infection of the claw and
clawbed ) MALASSEZIASIS. The yeast Malassezia pachy-
• seborrhea sicca (a type of dandruff) dermatis is a common inhabitant of the ear canal, the
• other signs of less frequent occurrence skin, and the anal area. It is frequently involved in
waxy ear discharges. Rarely, it can also cause severe
Veterinary assistance is essential in these cases. Fe- flaking, scabs, greasiness, redness, and hair loss over
line ringworm, especially when caused by M. canis, large areas of the body. Most affected cats have de-
has enormous zoonotic (diseases transmissible from pressed immune systems (for example, feline immu-
animal to human) implications, and infected cats and nodeficiency virus infection). Treatment requires oral
their environments should be handled with great care. and topical medication as well as correcting the im-
Treatment is usually undertaken to prevent further munodeficiencies, where possible.
spread of the infection on the patient, to prevent
spread to other animals and humans, and to prevent SPOROTRICHOSIS. Sporotrichosis is an uncom-
further environmental contamination. To this end, mon pus-forming disease of cats caused by Sporothrix
clipping, topical antifungal agents, and appropriate schenckii This fungus is found in decaying vegetation
isolation and sanitation procedures are indicated. and soil, on sphagnum moss (peat) and rosebushes,
Diseased animals should be separated from clini- and on other environmental substances. The organ-
cally normal animals and isolated if possible. Exposed, ism is usually introduced into skin tissue by a pene-
clinically normal animals should also receive topical trating wound. Puncture wounds from thorns, wood
antifungal therapy. Cats with persistent, recurrent, or slivers, bites, and scratches are usually incriminated.
severe ringworm, and longhaired cats should also be Lesions consist of nodules and plaques, which are
treated orally. Because ringworm fungi may persist in frequently ulcerated, crusted, and draining a brown-
the environment for well over one year, environmen- ish-red, oozing material. The lesions often are present
tal surfaces and objects coming in close contact with on the face, ears, neck, and limbs. Inflamed, swollen
affected cats should be sanitized, disinfected, or de- lymph nodes are often found.
stroyed. Recommended disinfectants include alcohol The treatment of choice by veterinarians for sporo-
and diluted household bleach. These procedures and trichosis isodium
s or potassium iodide. Cats are very
thorough vacuuming (dispose of vacuum bag) are in- sensitive to iodine compounds; signs of toxicity in-
dicated on a weekly basis for at least two weeks be- clude vomiting, loss of appetite, depression, muscular
yond clinical recovery. To date, ringworm vaccines twitching, hypothermia (low body temperature),
have not been proven to be of any great benefit in the cardiovascular collapse, and death. If signs of iodine
treatment or prevention of ringworm in cats. poisoning appear, treatment must be halted until
these signs regress. Other antifungal medicines may
CANDIDIASIS. Candidiasis is an extremely rare be needed.
yeast infection of the skin and mucous membranes of Feline sporotrichosis is now recognized as a public
cats. Candida yeasts are considered part of the normal health concern for practicing veterinarians, veterinary
microbial population of the intestinal and reproduc- assistants, veterinary students, and owners who han-
tive tracts. With lowered host resistance caused by dle cats with skin lesions. All cases of feline sporotri-
prolonged maceration, antibiotics, or immunosup- chosis should be considered potentially contagious,
pressive drugs, or by inherent or disease-induced im- especially if open wounds are present. Infected hu-
munological defects, serious local or systemic mans develop nonhealing sores, especially on hands
infections may be produced by Candida. and arms.
Clinical findings include a blister eruption of the
skin, claw folds, and external ear, and foul-smelling PHAEOHYPHOMYCOSIS. Phaeohyphomycosis
gray-white mucoid plaques or patches affecting the is an uncommon chronic skin infection caused by
oral, anal, and vaginal membranes. Correction of pre- dark, pigmented fungi. These fungi live in soil and
THE EXTERNAL CAT

vegetation and gain access to animal tissues by a pene- Skin ulcers are usually superficial and multiple, affect-
trating wound infection. Lesions consist of nodules ing all areas of the skin, including the footpads. In
and abscesses beneath the skin, which frequently ul- some cases, it is thought that the trauma of shaving
cerate and develop draining tracts. They occur most the skin or the stress of surgery, or both, may precipi-
frequently on the face and limbs. tate the development of lesions.
The treatment of choice is surgical excision, but
recurrences are common. Antifungal antibiotics given FELINE IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS. Feline
orally may be used. immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection causes severe
immunosuppression. Because of this, infected cats are
RARE FUNGAL SKIN DISEASES. Other rare fun- predisposed to chronic or recurrent bouts of bacterial
gal skin diseases include mycetoma, rhodotorulosis, infection (abscess, cellulitis, paronychia, folliculitis,
pythiosis, alternariosis, geotrichosis, protothecosis, otitis
dectic externa),
mange). ringworm, and demodlcosis (demo-
and trichosporosis. There are also systemic fungal in-
fections that may produce skin lesions: blastomycosis,
coccidioidomycosis, cryptococcosis, and histoplasmo- FELINE POXVIRUS INFECTION. Feline poxvi-
sis. (See Chapter 32: Fungal Diseases.) ruseaseinfection (feline cowpox) is an uncommon dis-
of cats that has been described in Great Britain
Parasitic Skin Diseases and continental Europe. Lesions include papules, nod-
ules, plaques, crusts, and depressed ulcers. The face,
See Chapter 19: External Parasites. limbs, paws, and lower back are usually affected. Itch-
ing, pain, fever, eyelid inflammation, and labored
Viral and Protozoal Skin Diseases breathing may be seen.
There is no specific therapy for this disease. Sponta-
Viral and protozoal skin diseases are apparently rare neous remission usually occurs within one to two
in cats. The following is a brief overview of proven months. Humans are susceptible to infection with fe-
and suspected viral and protozoal skin diseases in line poxvirus, and care must be taken when handling
cats. (See Chapter 29: Viral Diseases.) infected cats.
FELINE LEUKEMIA VIRUS. Feline leukemia PSEUDORABIES. In this rare, rapidly fatal herpes-
virus (FeLV) infection has been implicated in a num- virus infeaion of cats, severe itching causes violent
ber of feline skin disorders, including chronic or re- scratching and chewing at the skin.
current abscesses and cellulitis, chronic paronychia
(claw-bed infection), poor wound healing, seborrhea, TOXOPLASMOSIS AND LEISHMANIASIS.
and generalized itching. Feline fibrosarcoma (a ma- These two protozoal infections occasionally produce
lignant tumor) in young cats, feline leukemia virus- skin lesions. (See Chapter 31: Internal Parasites.)
induced lymphosarcoma (lymph node cancer), li-
posarcooia (fat cell cancer), melanoma (pigment
cell cancer), hemangioma (benign tumor of blood Immunologic Skin Diseases
vessels), and multiple cutaneous horns (projections There are a number of diseases whose origins lie in
of hard skin) in cats are among the other disorders in an inappropriate or exaggerated response of the im-
this group with skin manifestations. The true relation- mune system to foreign substances, which sometimes
ship in some of these conditions is speculative. can result in an attack on the body'sat own
Chronic or recurrent abscesses, cellulitis, and claw of these diseases are manifested, least cells. Someby
in part,
infections are thought to be caused by the well-known skin disorders, as described in this section. (See Chap-
immunosuppressive effects of feline leukemia virus ter 28: Immune System and Disorders.)
infection.
URTICARIA AND ANGIOEDEMA. Urticaria
FELINE HERPESVIRUS INFECTION. Feline (hives) and angioedema (large areas of swelling) are
herpesvirus infection (feline viral rhinotracheitis) has variably itchy, edematous skin disorders that are rare
been associated with oral and skin ulceration in cats. in cats. Urticaria and angioedema can result from
 SKIN AND DISORDERS

many causes, both immunologic and nonimmuno- lesions seen in this disease mimic those of atopy. Sur-
logic. Nonimmunologic factors that may precipitate or prisingly, signs related to the gastrointestinal traa
intensify urticaria and angioedema include physical (vomiting, diarrhea) are seen in fewer than 10 percent
forces (pressure, sunlight, heat, exercise), psychologi- of cases.
cal stresses, genetic abnormalities, and various drugs Diagnosis of food hypersensitivity may be made by
and chemicals (aspirin, narcotics, foods, food addi- feeding a hypoallergenic diet for four to six weeks
tives). Substances reported to cause urticaria and and observing if the skin problem improves, then re-
angioedema in cats include certain foods, drugs (peni- feeding the normal diet and observing if the skin
cillin, tetracycline), vaccines (for panleukopenia, ra- problem worsens again. The most accurate hypoaller-
bies, and feline leukemia), stinging and biting insects, genic diets are homemade, based on a thorough
blood transfusions, plants (nenle), and intestinal para- knowledge of everything the cat eats. Commercial hy-
sites. poal ergenic diets do not detect about 25 percent of
Urticaria is characterized by an acute onset of local- the food-allergic cats. Serological allergy tests are
ized or generalized wheals (hives), which may be presently worthless in cats. Therapy consists of avoid-
itchy and may ooze serum. Characteristically, wheals ance of offending foods or administration of glucocor-
are lesions that persist for only a few hours. An- ticoids, antihistamines, or certain fatty acids (response
gioedema ischaracterized by localized large, edema- to the laner is often disappointing). Long-term hypoal-
tous (swollen with fluid) swellings. lergenic diets may be developed by adding single di-
Veterinary therapy includes elimination of known etary items to the basic hypoallergenic diet and
causative factors and symptomatic treatment with evaluating each item for seven days. Consultation with
adrenaline, glucocorticoids, and antihistamines. a veterinarian is essential to ensure that homemade
diets are nutritionally adequate.
ATOPY. Atopy is a common, genetically deter-
mined, itchy skin disease of cats, in which the cat CONTACT HYPERSENSITIVITY. Contact hy-
becomes sensitized (allergic) to inhaled environmen- persensitivity isprobably a rare disease in cats.
tal substances. The clinical signs may be seasonal or Substances reported to have caused contact hypersen-
nonsea-sonal in occurrence, depending on the aller- sitivity incats include plants, topical medications, and
genic substance (allergen) involved. Examples of im- home furnishings. The clinical sign is a red rash,
portant allergens include house dust, pollens, and which tends to be confined to the hairless or sparsely
molds. Skin disorders seen in atopic cats include mil- haired areas of skin. The most likely areas to come
iary dermatitis (multiple scabs, especially over the into direct contact with the environment are chest and
neck and back); eosinophilic granuloma complex; belly, tail, neck, point of the chin, muzzle, and ears. If
itchy facial skin lesions resulting in hair loss around the allergen is a topical medication or if it is a liquid,
the lips, nose, ears, and eyes; and symmetrical hy- aerosol, or powder, then skin reactions may occur in
potrichosis (thinning of the hair as a result of exces- haired areas as well. Reactions to rubber or plastic
sive licking and chewing, especially over the back or dishes are confined to the point of contact, the nose
abdomen). and lips. Reactions to collars are usually confined to
A positive diagnosis of atopy is made by intrader- the neck.
mal skin testing (allergy testing). Serological Therapy includes avoidance of the allergen or the
(blood) allergy tests are presently worthless in cats. administration of glucocorticoids by the veterinarian.
Veterinary therapy includes hyposensitization (al- Avoidance of the allergen is preferable but may be
lergy shots) or administration of glucocorticoids, anti- impossible depending on its nature and whether it
histamines, orcertain fatty acids. can even be identified. In such instances, glucocorti-
coids may be very effective.
FOOD HYPERSENSITIVITY. Food hypersensi-
tivity isan uncommon, nonseasonal, itchy skin disor- DRUG ERUPTION. Drug eruption is an uncom-
der of cats. Unfortunately, information on the specific mon, variably itchy skin reaction to a drug. Drugs
dietary substances involved in feline food hypersensi- responsible for skin eruptions may be administered
tivity is meager. Common allergens include fish, orally, topically, by injection, or by inhalation. Any
chicken, liver, and dairy products. Many of the skin drug may cause an eruption, and there is no specific
166 THE EXTERNAL CAT
type of reaction for any one drug. Drug eruption can Pemphigus is characterized by production of anti-
mimic vinually any skin disease. Reactions to drugs in bodies against the intercellular cement substance of
cats have included: a red rash from certain antibiotics the skin. Frequently, affected areas include the gums,
and antifungals; hives, hair loss, and itching from anti- lining of the mouth, nasal region, facial zone, ears,
biotics; recurrent swellings from panleukopenia, ra- claw beds, and surface of the skin.
bies, and feline leukemia vaccines and certain drugs; When the pemphigus antibody attacks its target, it
contact hypersensitivity from a number of drugs; ery- triggers a reaction that culminates in the destruction
thema multiforme and toxic epidermal necrol>^is of cell-to-cell conneaions. This loss of intercellular
(widespread cell deatli causing blisters and separation cohesion leads to the formation of blisters or pustules
of tissues with redness and peeling over large areas within the affeaed skin layer. Feline pemphigus oc-
of the body) from certain antibiotics and other drugs. curs in three forms: pemphigus I'ulgaris, pemphigus
Diagnosis is based on history, physical examination, foliaceus, 2nd f)emphigus erythematosus. Diagnosis re-
and response to withdrawal of the suspected of- quires biopsy.
fending drug. Skin reactions usually subside within Veterinary treatment of feline pemphigus can be
two to three weeks after administration of the drug is difficult, requiring large doses of glucocorticoids, with
discontinued. Glucocorticoid therapy may be needed. or without other, more potent drugs. Side effects can
be severe, and close physical and laboratory monitor-
FLEA-BITE HYPERSENSITIVITY. Flea-bite hy- ing of the patient is critical. Often, therapy must be
persensit vity ithe
s most common skin hypersensitiv- maintained for the life of the animal.
ity (allergy) of the cat. (See Chapter 19; ExteriNal
Parasites.) SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS. Sys-
temic lupus erythematosus
temic autoimmune disorder (SLE)
of cats.isThe
a rare
causemultisys-
of SLE
MOSQUITO-BITE HYPERSENSITIVITY. This
is an uncommon dermatosis seen in cats that are aller- appears to be conneaed to many faaors, such as ge-
gic to mosquito saliva. The condition occurs in sum- netic selection, immunologic disorders, virus infec-
mer in cats that are exposed to mosquitos. Lesions tions, and hormonal and ultraviolet light effects.
occur on thinly haired areas, especially the nose, ears, Siamese cats may be especially predisposed to SLE.
and footpads. Lesions include red bumps, scabs, ooz- The skin lesions of feline SLE are characterized by
ing, and loss of pigment. The condition is usually redness, scaling, crusting, erosions, ulcerations, hair
itchy. Treatment includes avoiding mosquitos and the loss, and depigmentation, especially on the face, ears,
use of glucocorticoids. and paws. Blisters and oral ulcers may also be seen,
INTESTINAL PARASITE HYPERSENSITIVITY. and paronychia is common. Constiaitional signs in-
clude loss of appetite, depression, weight loss, and
Intestinal parasite hypersensitivity is a rare disorder fever.
of cats. A number of intestinal parasites have been The prognosis for the affeaed feline patient is un-
incriminated, including roundworms, tapeworms, and prediaable and often dependent on the preseiice of
coccidia. Clinical signs include a red rash, itchy dan- the condition in parts of the body other than the skin.
druff, and itching without visible lesions. Therapy in- The veterinarian will begin treatment with glucocorti-
cludes elimination of the parasites. Most of these cases coids until the disease is in remission (a few weeks).
are in young kittens. Long-term control is achieved with the lowest effec-
tive glucocorticoid dosage that will keep the disease
PEMPHIGUS. The pemphigus complex is a in remission. Repeated examinations by the veterinar-
group of rare autoimmune skin diseases of cats. Auto- ian are necessary for control of this lifelong disorder
immune diseases are disorders in which the immune and to obser%'e for serious side efifects from the medi-
system within an individual cat reacts against the cine.
body's own cells, resulting in the production of anti- DISCOID LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS. This is a
bodies and "killer"the cells
In this situation, that destroy
immune the target
system fails tissue.
to recognize rare skin disease of the cat. The cause appears to be
the involved tissue as "self." Autoimmune diseases can connected to several faaors, as mentioned for SLE.
be life threatening without prompt medical attention. Affeaed cats have loss of pigment, redness, scaling.
 SKIN AND DISORDERS

and crusting on the nose. Diagnosis is based on bi- ALOPECIA AREATA. Alopecia areata is a rarely re-
opsy. Therapy includes sun avoidance, photoprotec- ported disease of the cat. The cause is unknown, but
tion, and topical or systemic glucocorticoids. it appears to involve an immune-mediated attack on
hair bulbs. Clinically, alopecia areata is characterized
ERYTHEMA MULTIFORME. Erythema multi- by one or more patches of noninflammatory hair loss
forme is an acute eruption of the skin and mucous (no redness, flaking, or crusting), with a predilection
membranes that is only rarely reponed in cats. The for the head and neck. Pigmentary disturbances in the
cause is not well defined. The disease is believed to skin may be present. Itching and pain are absent, and
be a hypersensitivity (allergy) reaaion associated with afifeaed cats are otherwise healthy. The natural course
various disease states and the administration of certain of feline alopecia areata is unclear. Some cases may
drugs. Feline erythema multiforme is characterized by undergo spontaneous remission, and some may bene-
a symmetrical red rash over the surface of the belly fit from injections of glucocorticoids.
and on the upper pan of the legs. The rash enlarges
radially and heals centrally, resulting in a ring-shaped COLD AGGLUTININ DISEASE. This is a rare au-
toimmune disease wherein antibodies are formed to
or bow-shaped lesion. Scaling, oozing, crusting, ero-
sion, and ulceration are usually not present. Severe the
these red bloodbloodcellscells.
cat's red to beExposure
destroyedto orcoldto causes
block
erythema multiforme is charaaerized by blisters and
ulcers, especially on the face, ears, paws, and in the small blood vessels, resulting in a lack of oxygen to
mouth. tissues. The skin of tlie ear margins, toes, and tip of
Therapy consists of determining the underlying the tail becomes swollen and bluish, and often uirns
cause, with symptomatic treatment of the lesions. black and sloughs off.
RELAPSING POLYCHONDRITIS. This is a rare
TOXIC EPIDERMAL NECROLYSIS. Toxic epi- immune-mediated disease of cats, characterized by in-
dermal necrolysis is a rare, variably painful, blistering, flam ation and destruaion of cartilage. Typically, the
and ulcerative disorder of the skin and mouth. The ears become swollen and meaty, red to purplish in
cause is not well defined. The disease, like erythema color, and
multiforme, is believed to be disease
a hypersensitivity flower ear). eventually scarred and deformed (cauli-
tion associated with various states and reac-
with
the administration of certain drugs, such as antibiotics. OTHER RARE DERMATOSES. The hypereosi-
Clinical signs include the acute, symmetrical develop- nophilic syndrome, sterile granulomas, and seba-
ment of widespread blistering, peeling, and ulcer- ceous adenitis are very rare, possibly immune-
ation; the lesions are frequently quite painful, mediated dermatoses.
resembling a massive sunburn reaaion. Constitu-
tional signs include fever, loss of appetite, and depres-
sion. Secondary bacterial infection of the lesions may Hormonal and Metabolic Skin Diseases
complicate therapy, which is the identification of an Many hormones affect the skin and its adjunct parts.
underlying cause, and supportive care. This section is limited to hormonal (endocrine) dis-
orders affecting the skin. Clinically, equal and sym-
PLASMA CELL PODODERMATITIS. Plasma cell metrical hair loss on both sides of the body is often
pododermatitis is a rare skin disorder of unknown the first noticeable sign of a hormonal skin disease.
cause. It begins as a soft, painless swelling of the foot- The hair coat is often dull, dry, easily pulled (epilated)
pads, which then may progress to ulceration. When and fails to regrow following clipping. Matching pig-
ulceration occurs, pain and lameness may be present. mentary disturbances of the skin may accompany the
The central metacarpal (front) or metatarsal (hind) hair loss. Hormonal skin diseases are not associated
pads are usually affeaed, but the digital pads may also with rashes or itching and scratching.
be involved. Affected cats may otherwise be healtliy.
The therapy of choice is not clear. Some cases regress HYPERADRENOCORTICISM. Hyperadrenoconi-
spontaneously, while others occur on a seasonal basis. cism (Cushing's
Large doses of glucocorticoids may be effective. skin that is thin, syndrome)
abnormally in loose,
cats iseasily
characterized
bruised by
or
168 THE EXTERNAL CAT
torn, and slow to heal. S\ mmetrical hair loss on both "force" varying degrees of hair growth in a number
sides of the body and hyperpigmentation (darken- of nonhypothyroid conditions.
ing) may be seen. Hyperadrenocorticism is rare in
TELOGEN DEFLUXION. Telogen defluxion is
ders.) (See Chapter 27: Endocrine System and Disor-
cats.
sudden, massive hair loss that occurs during the rest-
ing phase (telogen) of the hair growth cycle. It is
HYPERTHYROIDISM. Skin lesions attributed to occasionally seen in cats, especially in the Rex breeds.
feline hyperthyroidism include excessive shedding, Systemic illness or stress may cause large numbers
areas of hair loss associated with excessive grooming, of hairs to enter telogen prematurely, resulting in a
and an increased rate of claw growth. (See Chapter massive, synchronized shedding of hair. This may
27; Endocrine System and Disorders.) occur as a consequence of high fever, anesthesia, es-
trus, birth and lactation, or any other stressful experi-
DIABETES MELLITUS. Skin lesions associated ence. Hair loss occurs two to three months after the
with feline diabetes mellitus include excessive shed- stress. Physical examination reveals varying degrees of
ding, symmetrical hair loss, scaly skin (which can be symmetrical hair loss. Hair regrowth is usually noted
itchy or nonitchy), secondary bacterial infections, and within four to twelve weeks after loss. No therapy is
skin bumps caused by a reaction to excessive amounts indicated or effeaive.
of fat in the blood and tissues (xanthoma). (See
Chapter 27: Endocrine System and Disorders.) ANAGEN DEFLUXION. Anagen defluxion is a
sudden loss of hair that occurs during the growing
FELINE SYMMETRICAL (ENDOCRINE) ALO- phase (anagen) of the hair growth cycle. Various
PECIA. Feline symmetrical endocrine alopecia is a drugs and stresses (high fever, severe illness) cause a
very rare symmetrical thinning of the hair coat. The transient abnormal formation of hair shafts, which are
cause is unknown. It has been theorized that the dis- easily broken. This usually occurs within seven to ten
ease isthe result of a sex hormone deficiency or im- days of the stress. When the stress is relieved, or the
balance, because it is seen in cats neutered at a young drug stopped, hair shaft formation returns to normal.
age and responds well to sex hormone therapy. Af-
fected cats usually have normal thyroid and adrenal EXCESSIVE SHEDDING. Shedding of hair is a
funaion. normal event in the life of a cat. Because shedding is
Thinning of the hair begins in the genital and peri- greatly influenced by daylight (the photoperiod), it
neal areas. There is a diffuse thinning of the hair, tends to be exaggerated in outdoor cats in thie spring
rather than complete baldness, affecting the anogeni- and fall and may be dramatic enough that the owner
tal region, underside of the tail, inner back surface of believes the cat to be sick. Nonseasonal shedding is
the thighs, and abdomen. Hairs in affected areas are seen in indoor cats and in cats that are chronically ill.
easily removed. Rash, itching, and scratching are ab- The shedding of hair by the indoor cat can be frustrat-
sent. Aside from the dermatological signs, cats with ing to an owner, but it is correctable by establishing a
feline endocrine hair loss are normal. natural photoperiod. Otherwise, the owner is bur-
Treatment by the veterinarian consists of combined dened with daily brushing and combing in order to
androgen-estrogen injections. Relapses occur in about remove shed hairs before they cover rugs, furniture,
50 percent of cats treated; therefore, repeated injec- and clothing, or accumulate as hairballs in the cat's
tions are necessary. Occasional transient side effects stomach.
seen with androgen-estrogen therapy are signs of es- The shedding of hair by the chronically ill cat is
trus in females and aggression and urine spraying in usually accompanied by skin lesions, thin and abnor-
males. These signs are seen during the first week of mally wrinkled skin, and scaling. Correction of the
therapy. Overdose of either androgen or estrogen can underlying disorder resolves the skin and hair coat
result in severe liver and biliary tract disease. Thyroid
hormone is also effective. After hair regrowth is problem.
achieved, maintenance doses are continued on a daily PREAURICULAR ALOPECIA. Preauricular alope-
basis. Cats with feline symmetrical endocrine alopecia cia is common in normal cats of any breed, sex, or
are not hypothyroid; however, thyroid hormones can age. Patches of sparsely haired or totally hairless skin
 SKIN AND DISORDERS

are seen bilaterally in the temporal region (in front greasiness in the skin folds about the claws is com-
of the ears). This physiological change can occasion- mon. Ahereditary form of seborrhea oleosa occurs in
alh' be mistaken for disease by an owner. Some Persian kinens.
breeds normally have less hair in this region. The Therapy is most appropriately and most effectively
Siamese breed and its crosses are usually very thin- directed at the underlying cause. Washing is a useful
haired from the ear to the eye. therapeutic adjunct. For seborrhea sicca, most medi-
cated shampoos are not recommended, because they
PARANEOPLASTIC ALOPECIA. This is a rare tend to be drying. Nonmedicated, nonirritating hypo-
condition seen in older cats. There is a sudden onset allergenic emollient shampoos are preferred. When
of symmetrical hair loss that is most prominent on the such shampoos are ineffective, emollient rinses are
lower half of the body (abdomen, chest, thighs). This very effeaive. For seborrhea oleosa, degreasing sham-
is followed by weight loss, poor appetite, and lethargy. poos containing benzoyl peroxide or sulfur are indi-
It is associated with internal cancers, especially those cated. Ingeneral, antiseborrheic shampoos are given
that affect the pancreas. every three days (suds well, leave on ten to fifteen
minutes, rinse well) until the seborrhea is controlled,
Seborrheic Skin Diseases and then as needed (every one to two weeks). Emol-
lient rinses are applied on a weekly or biweekly basis.
Seborrheic skin diseases are characterized by local or Antiseborrheic agents such as coal tars and phenols
generalized defects in keratinization (produaion of (salicylic acid) are toxic to cats. Use only a prepara-
skin keratin). Altered keratinization results in in- tion recommended by a veterinarian.
creased scale or crust formation. This may be accom-
panied bygreasiness, rancid odor, inflammation, and TAIL GLAND HYPERPLASIA. Also called stud tail,
secondary' this skin disease is uncommon in cats. The disorder is
be seen. infection. Itching and scratching may also most common in sexually active purebred male cats,
especially Persians, Siamese, and Rexes. The term stud
SEBORRHEA. Seborrhea is uncommon in the cat. tail is a misnomer, however, as the condition may
It may be primary (cause unknown), or secondary to occur in castrated males and in intact and spayed fe-
another condition. Secondary seborrhea is by far the males. The supracaudal organ (preen gland) of the
more common type in cats. cat comprises a group of modified sebaceous glands
Seborrhea sicca is characterized by dry skin and found along the top of the tail. Stud tail is caused by
hair coat, excessive scaling, variable degrees of hair hyperactivity of these glands.
loss, and itching. This is the most common form of The condition is characterized by an accumulation
seborrhea seen in cats and is usually secondary to of blackheads, and yellow to black, waxy debris on
external parasites (especially mites and lice), internal the skin and hairs of the tail base. Rarely, secondary
parasites, ringworm, malnutrition, many systemic ill- bacterial folliculitis (inflammation of hair follicles)
nesses, environmental factors such as high tempera- and furunculosis (boils), pain, and itching will be
ture and low humidity, and excessive or drying topical present as a result of the condition. Often, bite
medications (shampoos, dips, powders). Affected cats wounds occur in the area of the gland, resulting in
eating balanced diets have been reponed to respond abscess formation. These lesions should not be con-
to fat supplementation ("fat-responsive dandruff"). fused with or diagnosed as stud tail.
Satisfactory control of the disease can be achieved
do Some
a complete cats that jobhaveof notgrooming
been groomed or thatwilldon'tbe
themselves with degreasing antiseborrheic shampoos, used as
presented with excessive dead skin on their backs. needed.
This is difficult to wash out or even comb out.
Seborrhea oleosa is rare in cats and is character- FELINE ACNE. Feline acne is a fairly common skin
ized by scaling, greasiness, variable degrees of red- disease of cats. The cause is unclear; however, feline
ness and hair loss, and itching. Feline leukemia virus acne is not analogous to human acne. The most com-
infeaion, chronic liver disease, and systemic lupus
erythematosus (SLE) have been associated with sebor- failuremontotheoryadequately
for the cause
cleanofitsfeline
chin. acne
The isdisease
the cat'sis
rhea oleo,sa in cats. In the Rex and Sphinx breeds. characterized by blackhead formation on the chin and
THE EXTERNAL CAT

lower lip. Occasionally, secondary bacterial folliculitis form. Primary irritant contact in the outer ear can
and furunculosis will complicate acne, resulting in occur when ear remedies are administered.
variable degrees of redness, swelling, pain, and itch- Therapy involves avoidance of the irritant sub-
ing. Enlargement of local lymph nodes may be seen. stance, removal of residual irritant with large quanti-
In some cats with chin acne, changing where they ties of water (with or without a gentle detergent, such
sleep and the bedding they sleep on will facilitate as baby shampoo), and topical or systemic glucocorti-
recovery. These lesions are more insidious in cats that coid administration.
rest their chins on hard surfaces or on dirt. Softer, Exposure to road tars, asphalt, and paint deserves
cleaner materials for them to sleep on may be benefi- special comment. These substances can cause severe
cial. irritation and dermatitis. In addition, systemic intoxi-
Therapy is usually not required for the blackhead cation can occur if significant amounts of these s '5-
stage of feline acne. Veterinary treatment of the in- stances are ingested through the fastidious cat's
fected stage requires gentle clipping and cleansing attempts to clean itself If the material has dried, af-
with benzoyl peroxide or surgical soaps, manual evac- fected areas can be clipped; otherwise, they should be
uation of blackheads, warm water soaks, and anti- soaked with vegetable oil and wiped off, and the cat
biotics. bathed in a gentle detergent shampoo (baby shampoo
Recurrences of feline acne are the rule. If a cat or a mild dishwashing liquid). Paint removers or or-
continues to progress to the infected stage, or if the ganic solvents should never be used, because they
owner desires a clean-chinned cat, maintenance topi- are irritating and may produce signs of toxicity. Re-
cal therapy with benzoyl peroxide shampoo and the cently, repeated applications of a mixture of equal
application of benzoyl peroxide gel must be adminis- parts of mineral oil and acetone have been recom-
tered every rwo to seven days, for the life of the cat. mended for tar and asphalt removal. Treatment must
Very stubborn cases may require the use of oral syn- be given in a well-ventilated area, and body tempera-
thetic retinoids (vitamin-A like compounds). ture must be maintained with warm water soaks, as
needed.
Flea collar dermatitis is another special case. Clini-
Nutritional Skin Diseases cal signs include variable degrees of dermatitis under-
See Chapter 8: Diseases of Dietary Origin. neath the collar. Rarely, cats become systemically ill
and even die. Therapy consists of removing the collar,
and symptomatic care. Useful preventive measures in-
Physiochemical Skin Diseases clude ensuring proper fit and frequent observation of
the status of the fit. Many cats cannot wear any type of
PRIMARY IRRITANT CONTACT DERMATITIS. flea collar without experiencing skin lesions.
This contact dermatitis is uncommon in cats. Primary Cats are exquisitely sensitive to qiuitemary ammo-
irritant contact dermatitis requires no prior sensitiza- nium compounds. Signs of toxicity include excessive
tion. The most common causes are found in flea col- salivation, eye and nasal discharges, labored breath-
lars, various topical insecticides, kerosene, turpentine, ing,
paint, tars, phenols (such as coal tars and carbolic etal tongue
muscle ulceration,
lesions. dehydration, and skin and skel-
acid), cresols (disinfectants, antiseptics), various
soaps, various oils and greases, highly chlorinated BURNS. Most burns are the result of accidental con-
water, iodine compounds, quaternary' ammonium tact with hot water, cooking oils, tar, or other boiling
compounds, naphthols, fertilizers, acids, salt, benzoyl liquids, chewing on electric cords, or, in rare in-
peroxide, and other topical medications. stances, direct contact with fire. Such injuries are seen
Clinical signs include, variably, a red rash, blisters, in varying degrees of severity and most often occur
or death of skin cells in the relatively smooth and bare ontern.theBurnback injury and down
"contact"perineal areas ofarea,
the skin (abdomen, thighs,and"armpit" may the sidesseem
at first in a minor
"dribbling" pat
but later
areas), footpads, ears, chin, under produce serious damage to the skin. Serious burns
the tail. Itching and pain may be present. Contact der- may be hidden by the hair coat. Burned feet and tails
matitis does not involve haired skin unless the irritat- may be seen in cats that walk on kitchen stoves or
ing substance is in liquid (shampoo, dip) or aerosol harsh chemicals. Depending on the severity of the
 SKIN AND DISORDERS

injury, affected skin may be red, oozing, and very pain- lieved that the ability of certain parts of the coat to
ful, or necrotic (dead), and thus relatively painless. form pigment is inherited. Coat color in these breeds
(See Chapter 39: Procedures for Life-Threatening is affected by external temperature and physiological
Emergencies.) factors that determine heat production and loss. These
phenomena appear to be associated with a tempera-
FROSTBITE. Frostbite is occasionally seen in out- ttj re-dependent enzyme involved in production of the
door cats during the winter in the colder regions of skin pigment melanin.
the United States. The tips of the ears and occasionally The coat color changes associated with various ex-
the paws and tip of the tail are affected. Clinical signs ternal and internal influences on heat loss and pro-
include scaling and hair loss in mild cases, and necro- duction are temporary. The coat usually returns to its
sis (death of tissue) and shedding of dead tissue in normal appearance following the next hair cycle if the
severe cases. (See Chapter 39: Procedures for Life- temperature influences are remedied.
Threatening Emergencies. )
PERIOCULAR LEUKOTRICHIA. This condition
HAIR MATS. Matting of hair is common in longhair is characterized by a patchy or complete lightening of
cats, especially behind the ears, on the abdomen, and the hairs of the mask in a halolike appearance around
on the back of the hind legs. Matting is more common both eyes
in obese or sick cats that do not groom themselves mese cats("goggles").
and is more It common
is occasionally seen inCom-
in females. Sia-
well. If the cat is willing, small mats can be moistened monly recognized predisposing factors include
with liquid soap, slit with a knife, teased apart with a pregnancy, illness (especially upper respiratory dis-
comb, and combed out. If the mats are extensive, clip- ease), and dietary deficiency. Periocular leukotrichia
ping may be required. Prevention of matting requires can also be seen in rapidly growing kittens. The condi-
daily combing and brushing. tion is transient and usually resolves within the next
couple of hair cycles.
SKIN FOLD DERMATITIS. Skin fold dermatitis
(intertrigo) is rare in cats. It arises in persistent folds SOLAR DERMATITIS. Solar or actinic derma-
of skin that accumulate secretions, maintain moisture titis (inflammation of skin induced by sunlight) is a
and warmth, foster microorganism proliferation, and common disorder in areas of the world with warm,
produce constant skin-to-skin friction and maceration. sunny climates. The disease occurs in white cats (es-
Obese cats develop skin fold dermatitis in the armpits, pecially those with blue eyes), and in cats with white
groin, and intermammary area. Persian cats with ex- ears and faces. Because of the lack of melanin (skin
cessively flattened faces and skin folds may develop and hair pigment) and protective hair, these cats suf-
facial fold dermatitis.in the "Rumpy" fer essentially from repeated sunburn.
develop dermatitis caudal Manx cats may alsoor
(tail) depression Initially, clinical signs consist of mild redness of the
dimple. Therapy consists of topical cleansing, weight ear margins and occasionally of the eyelids, nose, and
reduction, surgical removal of the skin folds where lips. As the dermatitis becomes more severe, hair loss,
feasible, and preventive measures (daily cleansing and scaling, crusting, and itching develop, along with curl-
light application of nontoxic powders to absorb mois- ing of the ear margin. These lesions exacerbate during
ture and reduce chafing). the summer and regress during the winter. However,
the dermatitis becomes progressively worse each
TEMPERATURE-DEPENDENT MELANOTRICHIA summer, until actinic keratoses (more severe sun-
AND LEUKOTRICHIA. Many practitioners have burn lesions), persistent ulceration, and squamous
noticed that the hair on the abdomen of a Siamese velop.
cell carcinoma (cancer of surface epithelium) de-
cat (or Himalayan, Burmese, or Birman) shaved for
surgery grows back darker (melanotrichia), that Therapy in the early, noncancerous stage includes
hair grows back lighter (leukotrichia) in the area of keeping the cat out of the sun when ultraviolet rays
a previous abscess, and that the coats of these breeds are most damaging (10 am to 4 pm), application of
of cats are darker in colder climates. Kittens of these topical sunscreens, and topical or systemic glucocorti-
breeds are born white and develop adult "points" coids. Topical sunscreens containing para-amino ben-
under the influence of external temperature. It is be- zoic acid (PABA) and a high sun-protective factor
THE EXTERNAL CAT

(SPF) should be rubbed in one hour before and at the age. Some hair regrowth is seen by eight to ten weeks
time of sun exposure, and every three to four hours of age, but total hair loss returns by six months of age.
thereafter, while sun exposure is ongoing. A few down hairs may remain and fluctuate seasonally.
When areas of persistent ulceration have devel- In the Sphinx cat, there is little or no hair except for
oped, surgery is indicated. Amputation of both ear a few short facial hairs and whiskers. The skin often
flaps vere(pinnae) feels oily and has a rancid odor. Gray-black fat depos-
cases. is the surgical therapy of choice in se- its collect in the claw folds.
Therefected cisats and
no their
specificrelatives
therapyshould
for this
not bedisease. Af-
used for
CHLORINATED NAPHTHALENE POISONING. breeding.
Chlorinated naphthalene poisoning has been recog-
nized in cats. The condition is associated with expo-
sure to wood preservatives. Skin lesions seen include VITILIGO. This is seen most commonly in Siamese
bilateral hair loss, and scaling and crusting on the cats. The cause is unknown. Young adult cats are most
face. commonly affected. There is a sudden or gradual
onset of complete depigmentation of large areas of
SNAKEBITES. See Chapter 39: Procedures for Life- the nose and footpads. Affected cats are otherwise
healthy.
Threatening Emergencies.
Inherited Skin Diseases EPIDERMOLYSIS BULLOSA. The term epider-
CUTANEOUS ASTHENIA. Cutaneous asthenia is molysis bullosa refers to a group of hereditary dis-
eases wherein affected individuals develop blisters
a group of rare inherited disorders of collagen metab- and ulcersencountered
in response intolife.
the Affected
normal "wear
olism. Itis also known as Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, traumas kinens anddevelop
tear"
dermatosparaxis, "rubber kitten" syndrome, blisters and ulcers of the mouth, footpads, and various
"torn skin," and pressure points. Multiple claws are often sloughed.
extensibility of thehereditary fragility
skin. Fragile, stretchyand skin
hyper-
is a No treatment is effective. Affected cats and their rela-
prime feature of this group of connective tissue disor- tives should not be used for breeding.
ders.
Cats usually present at an early age with histories of CHEDIAK-HIGASHI SYNDROME. Chediak-Higa-
fragile, frequently torn skin. The entire skin is fragile shi syndrome has been reported in Persian cats with
or extremely stretchy, or both. The skin is often thin yellow eyes and blue-smoke hair. It is characterized
and velvety in texture ("chicken skin"), and criss- by partial oculocutaneous albinism (absence of
cros ed with thin white scars. Fighting, clipping, punc- pigmentation in the irises, retinas, and skin), a bleed-
ture of a vein, and norrpal scratching often result in
extensive, gaping skin tears ("fish mouth" Thereing tendency, and increased susceptibility' to infection.
is no treatment.
wounds).
Therapy includes avoidance of trauma. Wounds Skin Diseases of Unknoum or Multiple Origin
often hold sutures poorly. Declawing all four feet is
usually necessary, as even normal scratching will pro- MILIARY DERMATITIS. Feline miliary dermatitis
duce severe skin tears. Affected cats and their relatives (miliary eczema,
should not be used for breeding. disease but rather "scabby
a diseasecatcomplex.
disease") Inis fact,
not ait single
is not
HYPOTRICHOSIS. Hypotrichosis (thin hair coat) ato disease:
various stimuli. The most common causes of skin
it is a common reaction of the cat's this
is occasionally seen in cats. All cases presumably arise disorder are flea-bite hypersensitivity, inhalant allergy,
through genetic mutation. Some of these mutations (atopy), food hypersensitivity, bacterial folliculitis (in-
have achieved breed status: Cornish and Devon Rexes, feaion of hair follicles), ringworm, cheyletiellosis
Sphinx, and Mexican Hairless. Hypotrichosis has also (mites), and otodectic mange (ear mites). It is char-
been reported in the Siamese and Birman breeds. In acterized bya red and crusty rash that occurs most
Siamese hypotrichosis, affected cats appear normal at commonly over the back and tail base. Some degree
birth but become hairless by ten to founeen days of of itching is invariable and is not necessarily related
 SKIN AND DISORDERS

to the number or type of lesions. Enlargement of local disease, will choose to live with an alopecic cat rather
lymph nodes may also be seen. Treatment is most than give it drugs that may cause undesirable behav-
accurately and efficiently rendered when a specific ior.
cause has been determined. The reader is referred to Clearly, psychogenic (behavioral) dermatoses are
the ticspecific best managed when the stressful simation is identified
details. diseases within this chapter for therapeu- and corrected. Consultation with a specialist in veteri-
nary behavior may be necessary.
PSYCHOGENIC ALOPECIA AND DERMATITIS.
Psychological stress-related hair loss and skin in- EOSINOPHILIC GRANULOMA COMPLEX A
flam ation are uncommon disorders in the cat. These frequently observed disorder, eosinophilic granu-
diseases are self-induced, in that they are a response loma complex is a group of related lesions commonly
to a source of pain or irritation or result from a behav- found on the skin, lips, and in the mouth. Again, this
ioral aberration. They are associated with excessive complex is not a disease: it is a reaction of cat skin to
licking, scratching, or chewing of the hair coat. Or- various stimuli. The cause of these lesions is not clear
ganic diseases that may trigger these disorders in- in all cases, nor is the relationship between the differ-
clude anal sac disease, tapeworm infestation, external ent forms of the complex well understood. Although
parasitism, hypersensitivity skin disease, feline uro- clinically distinct, the different lesions appear to be
logic syndrome, musculoskeletal disease, neurologic related in that they can all be seen simultaneously or
disease, and foreign bodies. In some instances, how- sequentially in the same cat. In addition, they are all
ever, no organic disease can be found. In such cases, often seen in cats with flea-bite hypersensitivity, inhal-
one can ant allergy (atopy), and food hypersensitivity. Cluster-
style that usually
precededdocument the skin problem, a change such
in theas cat's life-
a change ing of cases has been reported, suggesting a
of environment, addition or loss of another family pet, hereditary or transmissible factor in rare instances;
addition or loss of people in the household, unusual in most cases, the complex does not appear to be
confinement. Whether organically or psychologically contagious.
triggered, the disease is perpetuated as a bad habit. Clinically, the eosinophilic granuloma complex can
Psychogenic skin disease is seen most commonly in be divided into three different lesions. The indolent
the Siamese, Burmese, Himalayan, and Abyssinian ulcer (also known as eosinophilic ulcer or rodent
breeds. ulcer) is seen in cats of all breeds and ages, and three
Psychogenic dermatitis is usually characterized by a times as often in females as in males. These lesions
single scratching lesion located on an extremity, the are well-defined, ulcerated, red-brown, thickened,
abdomen, or the flank. Psychogenic alopecia is charac- glistening areas that are usually not itchy or painful.
terized bysingle or multiple areas of hair loss, espe- Eighty percent of them occur on the upper lip. These
cial y as a "stripe " down the back, or in a symmetrical lip lesions appear to be precancerous and can possi-
pattern mimicking feline symmetrical alopecia. Care- bly undergo transformation into squamous cell carci-
ful inspection will reveal that the underlying skin ap- noma (skin cancer) or fibrosarcoma (connective
pears normal and that the hairs are stubbled and not tissue cancer).
easily removed by pulling. In the Siamese, hair re- The eosinophilic plaque is seen in cats of any breed,
growth in affected areas is much darker in color than age, or sex. The lesion is a well-defined, raised, fire-
normal. red, ulcerated, oozing area of hair loss that is intensely
Psychogenic dermatitis is usually managed with itchy. Eosinophilic plaques may occur anywhere on
short-term glucocorticoid therapy and long-term be- the skin or in the mouth; 80 percent of them occur on
havior-modifying drugs. Treatment should be termi- the abdomen and thighs.
nated every two months initially, to see if the habit The eosinophilic granuloma (linear granuloma)
has been broken. is seen in all breeds, and twice as frequently in fe-
Psychogenic alopecia poses a different therapeutic males as in males. Although cats of any age may be
problem. Although behavior-modifying drugs can be affected, many lesions occur in cats less than one year
used, they are not without possible side effects, which of age. The lesions appear in relatively straight lines
include objectionable personality traits. Many owners, and are clearly defined, raised, firm, yellow to yellow-
when informed that their pet does not have a serious ish-pink areas of hair loss. They occur anywhere on
174 THE EXTERNAL CAT
the skin but most commonly on the hindlimbs. Mouth scribed, rounded, frequently ulcerated, and attached
lesions resemble the skin lesions, but are always pres- to the overlying skin. It often is heavily pigmented and
ent in the form of nodules. Eosinophilic granuloma is thus must be differentiated from melanoma. Metasta-
the most common cause of "fat-chinned" cats (en- sis (spread of the tumor to other sites) is extremely
largement ofchin, often waxing and waning, the so- rare. Treatment consists of surgical excision or radia-
called tion therapy. Basal cell tumors only rarely recur.
protruding lower lip).and
chin-edema) "pouting"granulomas
Eosinophilic cats (swollen,
may Squamous cell carcinoma. This malignant tumor of
also affect the footpads. the superficial epithelium also occurs primarily in
The therapy of choice for eosinophilic granuloma older cats. Excessive exposure to sunlight, presence
complex is early, aggressive use of glucoconicoids. In of nonpigmented skin and a sparse hair coat, and pos-
some cats, lesions do not recur, whereas in others, sibly genetic factors are thought to predispose to its
long-term maintenance therapy is required to prevent development. Squamous cell carcinoma is seen most
relapses. Surgical excision, cryotherapy (freezing), commonly in white cats and cats with white spotting,
antibiotics, or radiation therapy may be effective in especially those with blue eyes. The tumor is usually
selected solitary, unresponsive lesions. Cats with un- single, poorly outlined, ulcerated, is cauliflowerlike
derlying flea-bite hypersensitivity, inhalant allergy, or or craterlike with irregular, hardened borders, and is
food hypersensitivity respond dramatically to flea con- attached to the underlying tissue. It is most commonly
trol, hyposensitization, or feeding of a hypoallergenic found on the head, especially on the ears, lips, nose,
diet, respectively. or eyelids. Multiple carcinomas of the paws may
mimic paronychia (inflammation of the claw beds).
RARE CONDITIONS. Panniculitis, perforating Recently, a syndrome of multiple squamous cell carci-
dermatitis, and acquired skin fragility are other rare, nomas in older, nonwhite cats has been recognized.
poorly understood The lesions appear to be caused by a newly recog-
factorial causes. dermatoses with presumed multi- nized feline papillomavirus.
Squamous cell carcinoma is highly invasive locally
but metastasizes more slowly. Spread is usually to the
local lymph node, then to the lungs. Treatment in-
cludes various combinations of surgical excision and
TUMORS, CYSTS, KERATOSES, radiation therapy. Wide surgical excision often is cura-
AND NEVI tive and represents the therapy of choice. Radiation
Tumors (Neoplasms) treatment is also useful postsurgically, especially
The skin is the second most common site of cancer in where surgical excision is impossible. Chemotherapy
cats, after lymphoma Feline skin tumors are usually has been disappointing. Hyperthermia (heat treat-
malignant; thus, early surgical removal and biopsy ment) may be an effective treatment for more super-
ficial squamous cell carcinomas. Sun avoidance is very
examination are usually recommended. There is a important to help prevent future tumors.
marked increase in the incidence of skin tumors in
cats over five years of age. White cats have an in- PAPILLOMA. This is a rare benign tumor of older
creased risk for squamous cell carcinoma. Therapeu- cats. It is usually solitary, firm, well-defined, cauli-
tic regimens include surgical excision, cryosurgery flowerlike, and fixed to the overlying skin. Papillomas
(removal by surgical freezing), radiation therapy, che- occur anywhere in the skin, especially on the face,
motherapy, immunotherapy, and various combina- eyelids, and limbs. Therapy consists of surgical exci-
sion.
tions of these therapies.
BASAL CELL AND SQUAMOUS CELL TU- SEBACEOUS GLAND AND SWEAT GLAND TU-
MORS. These are the two most common skin tu- MORS. Although uncommon in cats, sebaceous
mors of the cat. gland tumors do occasionally develop in older ani-
Basal cell tumor. This benign lesion occurs in older mals They occur singly, are fixed to the overlying
cats. The tumor is usually single, firm, well circum- skin, and usually are benign rather than malignant.
 SKIN AND DISORDERS

Lesions occur most commonly on the head, neck, and the head and neck. Mast cell tumors can take a variety
trunk, and they are small, raised, smooth, often waxy, of forms. The majority are benign, but some are ag-
pinkish to orangish, and wanlike. When malignant, gressive, malignant growths that spread to lymph
spread is to the local lymph node, then to the lungs. nodes, liver, spleen, and lungs, usually within three to
Early surgical excision of malignant sebaceous gland six months.
tumors may be curative, but the prognosis is guarded. Therapy of the solitary mast cell tumor consists of
Sweat gland tumors also are uncommon, but they surgical excision.
may be seen in older cats. Lesions occur most com-
monly on the head, ears, and neck and may be firm LYMPHOMA. Malignant tumor of lymphocytes is a
to fluctuant, hairless, and ulcerated. They are single rare skin disorder of aged cats. Most affected cats are
masses that are fixed to the overlying skin and usually negative for feline leukemia virus (FeLV) infection.
are malignant. They spread to the local lymph nodes Skin lesions include numerous firm, raised, lumpy-
and the lungs. Early surgical excision of these tumors bumpy masses often fixed to die overlying skin, which
may be curative, but the prognosis is guarded. may or may not be showing signs of hair loss; solitary
or multiple ulcerated areas; raised, red, frequently ul-
FIBROSARCOMA. This malignant growth is the cerated and itchy patches; or solitary and multiple ill-
third most common skin tumor of the cat, usually defined thickenings of the skin. Cutaneous lymphoma
occurring in older animals. The tumor is solitary, vari- in cats is uniformly fatal (usually within a few months),
able in size, irregular or nodular in shape, firm or because of systemic spread of the tumor. Therapy has
fleshy, frequently ulcerated, and fixed to the overlying been disappointing.
skin. Lesions occur most commonly on the trunk, legs,
and ears. MELANOCYTOMA AND MELANOMA. These
The cause of this particular tumor is unknown. are uncommon benign (melanocytoma) or malignant
However, fibrosarcomas that are found in young cats, (melanoma) tumors of melanin-producing cells in the
and that occur as multiple rather than solitary tumor skin that usually occur in aged cats. The lesions are
masses, are caused by the feline sarcoma virus (FeSV). frequently solitary, well defined, brown to black in
Recently, it has been discovered that fibrosarcomas color, and fixed to the overlying skin. Melanocytomas
may occur at the site of vaccinations, especially with occur most commonly on the ear, nose, and neck,
rabies and feline leukemia vaccines. whereas melanomas commonly affect the ear, eyelid,
Fibrosarcoma is locally invasive. It spreads to the lip, and neck. Early surgical excision is die therapy of
local lymph node and/or to the lungs. Wide surgical choice, but the prognosis for melanomas is always
excision is the therapy of choice. However, the prog- guarded to poor.
nosis is always guarded, because recurrence is
common. Radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immuno- LIPOMA AND LIPOSARCOMA. These benign
therapy, cryosurgery, and hyperthermia have all been (lipoma) and malignant (liposarcoma) tumors of fat
of little or no benefit. cells are uncommon to rare in cats; when they do
occur, they are usually seen in older animals. Lipomas
FIBROMA. This is a benign growth of connective are well-defined, firm or flabby, nodular lesions
tissue and is uncommon in cats. It is usually solitary under the skin. Liposarcomas, by contrast, are poorly
and well circumscribed, can be firm or soft, and may defined, firm, frequently ulcerated, and locally inva-
be ulcerated. The tumor occurs in aged cats. Therapy sive tumors that are slow to spread to other organs.
consists of surgical removal. Therapy includes surgical excision, which is usually
curative for both lipomas and liposarcomas.
MAST CELL TUMOR. The mast cell tumor is the
fourth most common skin tumor of the cat. The mast SCHWANNOMA. This tumor of the tissue envel-
cell is a connective tissue cell that plays a role in oping nerve fibers is rare in cats; it usually is seen
normal inflammatory' responses and in allergy. This in older animals. The tumor is poorly defined, firm,
tumor is especially common in older male cats. It can variable in size, occasionally ulcerated, and fixed to
occur anywhere in the skin, but has a predilection for the overlying skin. It is most often malignant. To date,
THE EJCTERNAL CAT

all attempted therapies other than radical surgical ex- ture protruding through a central surface pore,
cision or amputation have been of little or no benefit. usually on the face or neck. Therapy consists of surgi-
cal excision. One should exercise great restraint when
HEMANGIOMA AND HEMANGIOSARCOMA. tempted to squeeze or otherwise manually evacuate
These benign (hemangioma) and malignant (heman- these lesions, because they may rupture into the un-
giosarcoma) tumors of blood vessels in the skin are derlying skin.
rare in cats and usually seen only in aged animals.
Hemangiomas are solitary, small, well defined, bluish- Keratoses
red in color, and friable (easily crumbled). There is
a predilection for the ear, face, neck, and limbs. Ther- Keratoses are firm, elevated, circumscribed areas of
apy consists of surgical excision. Hemangiosarcomas excessive keratin production. Actinic keratoses are
usually are solitary, rapidly growing, soft, and friable, caused by excessive exposure to ultraviolet light (sun-
commonly occurring in the groin or on the legs, head, light) and are seen in cats in temperate and tropical
or ear (especially in white-eared cats). Early wide sur- climates. They may be single or multiple, appear in
gical excision is the treatment of choice; recurrence lightly haired and lightly pigmented skin, and vary in
of the tumor is common, however.
appearance from ill-defined areas of redness, hyper-
SECONDARY SKIN TUMORS. These result from keratosis (overgrowth of horny tissue), and crusting,
the spread of tumors in other organs to the skin, but to hardened, crusted, horny patches. Aainic keratoses
they have only rarely been reported in cats. Breast are most common on the ears and nose. They are
cancer, stomach cancer, and lung cancer are among precancerous lesions capable of becoming squamous
cell carcinomas. Therapy includes surgical excision or
the types of cancer for which cutaneous manifesta- cryosurgery; preventing exposure to sunlight is essen-
tions have been reported. Therapy of the skin lesions tial.
is obviously dependent on the nature of the primary
tumor.
Nevi
Cysts A nevus is a well-defined lesion characterized by over-
Cutaneous cysts are classified as dermoid Of^xs, follic- growth of one Organoid
or more ofnevithe have
skin's rarely
normalbeen
cellular
ular cysts, and the dilated pore of Winer. They are constituents. de
uncommon in the cat. They are usually solitary, well scribed in cats. Either they have been present as long
defined, round, firm to fluctuant, bluish in color, fixed as the owner could remember, or they were never
to the overlying skin, and filled with a cheesy, greasy, noticed at all. Single or multiple, these lesions may
yellowish to brownish-g^-ay material. Ulceration and be firm or mushy, dome-shaped or pedunculated
secondary bacterial infection of cysts may occur. Fol- (stemmed). They occur on the face and head, espe-
licular or dermoid cysts are especially common on cial y in the temporal region (in front of the ears).
the neck and trunk. Dilated pore of Winer is character- Therapy consists of surgical removal or obser\'ation
ized by a cyst with a yellowish, horny, conical struc- without treatment.
 CHAPTER 18

Sensory Organs and

Disorders

by Ronald C. Riis, John E. Saidla,

and James R. Richards

— all At the back of the oral cavity is the epiglottis, an

Taste, these smell, sight,playsound
sensations import ant touch
, and roles in a overhanging part of the larynx that prevents food
cat's survival, from predation to mating. from entering the larynx, windpipe, and lungs during
swallowing.
The sensory organs — mouth, nose,
eyes, ears, and skin — are the means by which a cat The (molars
kitten are
has absent).
twenty-six
perceives its environment. When disease affects teeth The deciduous
adult cat has ora total
"milkof"
any of these organs, thirty teeth: six upper
the ability of the cat and six lower incisors,
to comprehend its two
surroundings is im- lowerupper
canineand teeth,
rwo
paired. six upper and four
lower premolars, and
two upper and two
lower molars. All
MOUTH adult teeth are fully
developed by six
The cat uses its mouth months.
to ingest food, groom, Healthy gums
chase fleas, and should be firm to the
cleanse the skin and touch, tachclosely
hair coat, and for ed to the teeth,at-
various behaviors in- and pink in unpig-
volved in prey capture. Its tongue is long, thin, mented areas. (Cats may normally have black spots
and facile, with multiple spines forming an abra- like freckles of multiple sizes on their gums, some-
sive surface. The roof of the mouth is formed by the times in large numbers.) The condition of the gums
bony structure called the hard palate, which be- is a key signal membranes
to the cat's health.
comes the soft palate toward the back of the mouth. the mucous around When the gums
the eyes) (and
are pale,
177
THE EXTERNAL CAT

the animal may be bleeding internally or suffering significant problem for the cat. These lesions are
from anemia or a number of other systemic diseases. formed by the resorption (biological dissolution) of
(See "Mouth," the tooth and its root from some unknown cause.
When the gums Chapter 35: Clinical
are swollen Signs of especially
and reddened, Disease.) Human cavities are caused by bacteria in the mouth
around at least some teeth, and an odor is present, digesting the tooth structure. Cats experience tremen-
some form of dental disease should be considered dous pain when the eroding process penetrates the
and the cat examined by the veterinarian. enamel (the hard covering of the tooth) and enters
Gingivitis (inflammation of the gums) and the into the middle of the tooth where the nerves and
more serious periodontitis (inflammation around blood vessels are located. Unlike humans, cats most
the teeth) are frequently encountered and are often often develop their lesions just beneath the gum mar-
frustrating problems for the cat owner and the veteri- gins, thus producing gingivitis as well as the lesions
narian. Both conditions have many causes ranging in the tooth surface. Unfortunately, the process of re-
from very simple bacterial infections to very severe sorption iusually
s so far advanced when the condition
and life-threatening diseases. Some, such as bad teeth, is recognized that tooth extraction becomes the only
are easily corrected; others, however, require exten- effective treatment. Some cats seem particularly prone
sive diagnostic and therapeutic measures to reduce to the development of these lesions, and because the
the severity of the problem. cause has not yet been discovered, there are no
Mild gingivitis is well tolerated by the cat, and only known preventive measures that either the owner or
the most observant owner will be aware of its pres- the veterinarian can take to prevent the formation of
ence. The signs of severe gingivitis are readily appar- the cervical line lesions or to stop their progression
ent and include ptyalism (drooling), halitosis (bad and the subsequent tooth loss. It has been estimated
breath), and pain or difficult)' in eating. Examination that 45 to 85 percent of cats over four years of age that
of the mouth reveals reddened, swollen, and some- are brought to veterinarians for dental problems have
times ulcerated and bleeding gums, which may be one or more cervical line lesions. These lesions have
painful or bleed significantly when touched, when been found in cats as young as eleven months and as
brushing is attempted, or when they are examined old as 18 years. As long as cats do not have to hunt for
and wiped with a surgical sponge. their food, they do not need their teeth to survive.
Dental extractions in the cat must be performed
Causes of Gingivitis under anesthesia and by skilled veterinarians. As pain-
ful as extracting teeth sounds, it is tiar less painful for
The following list includes the most commonly en- the cat than leaving in affected teeth.
countered causes. Broken teeth with exposed pulp cavities may de-
velop tooth root abscesses. Swelling of the gums sur-
DENTAL DISEASE. A common and easily treated rounding the tooth and abscessation of the soft tissues
form of gingivitis results from the accumulation of next to the tooth root may result. Tooth extraction
plaque and tartar around the teeth. Dental plaque is and treatment with antibiotics are usually curative. If
a layer or film of proliferating bacteria trapped in the neglected, the infection may extend to the bones of
food debris and saliva that coat the tooth. Dental the jaw. Bone infections (osteomyelitis) are difficult
tartar, or calculus, develops when plaque mineral- tohealth.
treat and can be dangerous to the cat's overall
izes. Extension of plaque and tartar beneath the gums
produces inflammation, with resultant redness, swell-
ing, and loss of gum tissue and even loss of the bone VIRUSES. Several viruses can cause gingivitis and
underneath, eventually resulting in loosening and loss ulcers in the mouth. Although primarily associated
of the teeth. Professional teeth cleaning to remove with upper respiratory disease, feline calicivirus can
both the plaque and the tanar, and the removal of also cause severe oral ulcerations. This virus may per-
loose teeth are necessary to restore health to the sist in the cat's body for a long time, causing recurrent
gums. gingivitis and upper respiratory disease to flare up
Dental cavities similar to those experienced by hu- periodically, especially when the cat is under stress.
mans do not exist in the cat. Lesions do develop in Feline defense
leukemiamechanisms,
virus (FeLV) rendering
suppresses diethecatbody's
cat's teeth (cervical line lesions) and they are a natural sus-
 SENSORY ORGANS AND DISORDERS

ceptible to a number of normally trivial infections, medical treatment, but they can only be used when a
including gingivitis caused by an overgrowth of the single lesion is present.
normal bacteria found in the mouth. Gingivitis related
to FeLV infection can be especially persistent and re- LYMPHOCYTIC, PLASMACYTIC GINGIVITIS-
sistant to treatment. PHARYNGITIS-STOMATITIS. Lymphocyte or
Medical cure of viral diseases is still not possible. plasma cell gingivitis-pharyngitis-stomatitis is a com-
Therefore, treatment generally involves the use of an- plex disease causing accumulation of plasma cells
tibiotics to prevent secondary bacterial infections, (some of the cells that make antibodies) in the gums,
allowing oral cavity, and pharynx of the cat. As with EGC, the
cats have the contagious cat's natural defense
diseases; to improve.
therefore, exposureSometo cause is unknown. Affected areas are thickened, glis-
other cats should be avoided. tening, and ulcerated, and they have a raw and often
bleeding, irregular, cobblestonelike surface. The
SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA. Squamous cell color of this lesion resembles raw ground beef The
carcinoma is a malignant tumor that may affect the raised, circular, meaty-looking lesion involving the
gums, oral mucous membranes, underside of the pharynx is especially characteristic. Response to treat-
tongue (an important site in old cats), and even ment isvariable; a number of therapeutic approaches
the tongue. The lesions may initially resemble ulcers have been investigated, with limited success. Steroids
rather and
than halitosis
classic "lumps." Difficulty and pain ofwhen given in higher than usual doses, and given consis-
eating are frequent consequences the tently for long periods of time, have given the most
tumor. Biopsy is necessary for accurate diagnosis. Sur- promising long-term results. The response to steroids
gical removal and /or radiation therapy are the current would indicate an allergic or immunologic cause for
methods of treatment. Left untreated, squamous cell the condition. Oddly enough, extracting all of the cat's
carcinoma will slowly progress to the point where no teeth has produced long-term remission or significant
treatment is effective. Often, when lesions are found reduction of clinical signs in 50 to 70 percent of the
in the mouth, the tumors have already spread into the cats that underwent full mouth extraction. This proce-
regional lymph nodes. dure should be reserved for nonresponsive cases and
as the last resort.
PEMPHIGUS. Pemphigus is an uncommon disor-
der of the immune system affecting the skin and mu- SYSTEMIC DISEASES. Severe kidney disease and
cous membranes. Ulceration of the skin, anal and diabetes mellitus are sometimes associated with gingi-
genital mucous membranes, and the gums and mouth vitis and oral ulceration. Cats suffering from these dis-
may be seen. At one time, most cases of pemphigus eases are often obviously ill and require prompt and
were invariably fatal. Now, although the disease is still aggressive treatment. If the underlying disease can be
serious, its effects can often be controlled by the veter- controlled, the gingivitis usually resolves.
inarian using steroids or gold-containing drugs, both
of which decrease inflammation. Biopsy and special
staining techniques are used to diagnose pemphigus. Diagnosis and Prevention
(See Chapter 17: Skin and Disorders.) Like any disease process, gingivitis and the other oral
and dental conditions are easiest to treat when diag-
EOSINOPHILIC GRANULOMA COMPLEX. The nosed early. Your veterinarian will demonstrate how
eosinophilic granuloma complex (EGC) produces to examine the cat's mouth regularly to discover signs
raised and often ulcerated, red-colored areas in the of oral disease early in its progress. All cats with sig-
skin, gums, and oral cavity. The cause of the disease is nificant gingival disease should be examined by a vet-
unknown; it does not appear to be contagious, but it erinarian. Ifthe cause of the problem is not
does appear to be related to trauma, especially on the immediately obvious (e.g., bad teeth), diagnostic test-
lip margins. The appearance is so characteristic that ing (blood counts, blood chemistry evaluation, FeLV
diagnosis seldom requires biopsy. Veterinary treat- and feline immunodeficiency virus testing, bacterial
ment with steroids or progesterone hormones is often cultures, biopsies) may be required. Virus isolation
effective, but some lesions respond poorly. Radiation cultures for calicivirus are costly but may be valuable
therapy may be effective in resolving cases resistant to to breeders with many affected cats.
THE EXTERNAL CAT

THE SKULL AND TEETH

Angular process
Condyloid process
Coronoid process
External
Frontal auditory meatus
Lacrimal
. Malar
. Mandible
.. Mastoid
Maxilla process
Nasal
Orbit
Occipital
Parietal condyle
. Premaxilla
. Ramus
. Sagittal crest
. Squamosal
. Supraorbital process
. Tympanic bulla
. Zygomatic arch

SINUSES AND
SKULL CAVITIES
Cerebral cavity
Frontal sinuses
Occipital
Turbinatescavity
Tympanic bulla

Normal range for eruption of teeth

DECIDUOUS PERMANENT
DECIDUOUS: 2-3 weeks 3'/2-4 months
2- 3 weeks 3V2-4 months
4-4'/2 months
PERMANENT: 3- 4 weeks
3-4 weeks 5 months
Premolar none
2 months 4V2-5 months
2 months 5-6 months
(upper) 2 months 5-6 months
Premolar none
none none
(lower) 4-5 weeks 5-6 months
4-5 weeks 5-6 months
none
 SENSORY ORGANS AND DISORDERS 181

Periodic professional teeth cleaning reduces the nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissue. The
contribution of dental large, round globe in the center of the orbit is the
teeth can be kept clean bydisease
brushingto gingivitis.
the surface Aofcat's the eyeball. The eyeball is filled with clear aqueous fluid
teeth with a soft toothbrush and toothpaste formu- in front and vitreous humor in back.
lated for cats, or by using one of the special applica- Eyeball movement is dependent on extraocular
tors developed for cats. This should be done daily if (outside the eye) muscles and cranial nerves that in-
possible and for begunhumans
as earlyshould
in thenotcat'sbelifeusedas possible. nervate (stimulate) them. The eye rotates around
Toothpastes because three axes: the horizontal axis, the vertical axis, and
the swallowed toothpaste can cause excessive saliva- the anterior-posterior axis. The muscles are grouped
tion and possibly gastrointestinal upsets. Feeding dry into three opposing pairs, all of which act together for
food helps prevent the formation of tartar. coordinated movement of both eyes so that both are
positioned in the same direction at the same time.
The lids and third eyelid (haw) function to protect
NOSE the eye. The third eyelid is found between the lower
lid and the eyeball at the inner corner of the eye near
Cats have a highly developed sense of smell, which the nose. In its normal position, it is hardly noticeable
plays a vital role in proteaion, behavior, appetite, and except when the cat blinks. In some cats, however, it
reproduction. The sense of smell originates with ol- is always partially visible. The third eyelid is usually
factory nerves located in the turbinates (rolled struc- pale pink but may sometimes be pigmented. Cartilage
tures within the nose that filter, warm, and humidify the reinforces its conformation to fit the curvature of the
inhaled air), septum, and sinuses. These nerves com- cornea. The base of the cartilage is surrounded by a
municate information to the brain for interpretation. lacrimal gland (tear gland). No specific skeletal mus-
The nose is a major structure of the respiratory cle is associated with the third eyelid; therefore, pas-
system as well as being a sensory organ. A complete sive movements and positional changes of the
description of the structure and function of the nose structure are usually related to eyeball retraction and
can be found in Chapter 24: Respiratory System and relaxation. The return of the third eyelid to normal
Disorders. 'Various diseases that affect the cat's sense position results from the elasticity of the tissue, nor-
of smell, such as sinusitis, rhinitis, and systemic dis- mal orbital contents, and normal neurological status
eases, are covered there. of the tissues. If the third eyelids of both eyes are
covering a significant portion of the eyeball (i.e., they
are prolapsed), it can be a sign that the cat has a
EYE gastrointestinal upset or disease. But if the cat shows
no other signs of illness and the third eyelids eventu-
The size, color, shape, and design of the eye contrib- ally return to their normal position, there may have
ute greatly to the allure of the domestic cat. The lids been an irritant that has dissipated. When the third
and the pupils reflect its mood and even play an in- eyelid covers only one eye, it usually means there is
trinsic role when it is exerting dominance toward something irritating that eye.
other cats by out-staring a challenger. The white, outer layer of the covering of the eyeball
The ofcat's visionis measured
evolved asbythattheof portion
a predator. is called the sclera. The layer beneath the sclera,
field vision seen Theby which contains the blood vessels, is the uvea; and the
both eyes, the portion that can be seen by only one portion of the uvea at the back of the eye is the cho-
eye on each side, and the portion unseen behind the roid. The lining of the eyelids is the conjunctiva,
head. The cat has a rather large binocular field of 120 and its continuation over the anterior eyeball is the
degrees directly in front of it, with a relatively small bulbar conjunctiva.
uniocular area of 80 degrees to each side. The poste- The clear cornea is the front of the eye and is the
rior blind area accounts for approximately 80 degrees. major refractive structure of the eye. It reshapes and
In a scientific sense, the cat eye can be more easily focuses rays of light onto the retina. Although the cor-
explained in structure than in function. The bony nea isrichly supplied with extremely sensitive nerves,
struaure containing the eyeball is referred to as the blood vessels are considered abnormal in the healthy
orbit; struaures within the orbit include muscle. cornea.
182 THE EXTERNAL CAT

CROSS SECTION OF THE EYE

Just behind the cornea is the anterior chamber, At the center of the iris is an opening called the
which in the cat is a relatively deep, large space filled pupil.sionItsand constriction
size and shapeof aretliecontrolled
with aqueous fluid. From the side of the eye, delicate iris aroundby it.the The
expan-cat
strands of iris tissue can be seen attaching to the in- pupil is a vertically orientated slit when constricted^
side of the cornea. This structure is referred to as the which becomes oval to round when it dilates. This
pectinate ligament. type of pupil is characteristic of nocturnal animals
The iris provides the color and shape that give the who also enjoy lying in the sun. The slit pupil acts as
cat eye a character of its own. The color shades vary an optical aperture (similar to a camera lens aper-
from brown when the melanin pigment is dense, to ture), protective to the lens and retina in bright light
orange, to yellow when the pigment is scarce. The while maintaining excellent dorsal and ventral visual
yellow to green luster of the iris is from iridocytes acuity or sharpness.
(cells that produce iridescence). Tlie blue to gray Directly behind the iris is the clear, biconvex lens.
color is derived from an iris and retina with very low This structure helps focus images onto the retina, es-
pigment levels, whereas a truly albino cat, which is pecial y for close vision.
very rare, has pink eyes, because the total absence of The posterior chamber contains the lens and vit-
pigment in the iris and retina allow the blood vessels reous humor, a clear gel-like material. The vitreous
to be seen. Iris color differences have no functional helps hold the retina in place. Within the retina, spe-
ramification. cialized cel s called rods and cones convert light rays
 SENSORY ORGANS AND DISORDERS

into nerve impulses. Other cells relay impulses and conjunaiva. The defect causes severe ocular irri-
through the optic nerve, at the center of the retina, to tation. Treatment involves complete surgical removal
the brain's visual center. of the dermoid from the surrounding conjunctiva.
When a cat's Lid ankyloblepharon. The eyelids of newborn kit-
responsible is aeyes shine in reflective
specialized darkness, layer
the structure
beneath tens normally separate by the fourteenth day. Neona-
the retina, the tapetum lucidum. It is positioned tal conjunctivitis occurs from a bacterial or viral
mainly in the upper half of the eye so that light below infection while the lids are still fused. Infectious pu-
the head is focused on this special area of the retina. rulent (puslike) material causes a bulging of the eye-
The tapetum is made up of cells with reflecting mate- lids. The cornea becomes ulcerated and possibly
rial that is a crystalline complex of amino acids, miner- perforated. One or both eyes may be affected. The
als, and riboflavin. The tapetal function is to reflect bacteria most often isolated are Staphylococcus and
any light not absorbed during its first passage through Escherichia colt.
the retina, back for a second opportunity to be ab- The therapy is to force open the lids to allow for
sorbed. Studies have confirmed that responses from drainage and treatment. This can be done with gentle
the nontapetal retina are less sensitive to light than the traction, using a cotton-tip applicator at the inner cor-
tapetal retina. Researchers estimate that a cat's light ner of the eye. If the eye does not open after gentle
sensitivity pressure, the veterinarian will have to cut along the
ably mainlyis because
nearly sixof times greaterreflection.
the tapetal than man's, prob-
natural lid margin. A culture and antimicrobial-
The debatedquestion byof many. the cat's sensitivity test of the exudate (liquid material or pus)
been Mostability to see agree
observers color that
has retrieved can determine the specific bacteria involved,
color has little significance for the cat when used in allowing the appropriate, most effective antibiotic to
training. Scientific investigation has ascertained that be used. An oral and topical broad-spectrum antibiotic
the retina is endowed with cones that have the ability is suggested until the specific sensitivity is known.
to analyze some hues of color. How the cat perceives Corticosteroid preparations should be avoided. The
color may never be known. prognosis is good if the cornea has not perforated.
The area centralis of the retina is a highly differen- Entropion. Normally, the lid is in tight contact with
tiated area of cone photoreceptors. The ratio of cones the globe (eyeball). Changes in the orbit or globe
to ganglion nerve cells (major nerve-cell transmitters) may cause the lid to lose support so that it folds in-
indicates a more sensitive visual area than the periph- wardly, allowing the facial hair to traumatize die cor-
eral areas of the retina. It is this area that the cat nea and often causing it to ulcerate. This folding in of
uses to concentrate on the particle of dust in a ray of the lid is known as entropion. Entropion in cats usu-
sunlight, or on a resting fly. ally involves the temporal lower lid (its outer por-
tion) and may affect one or both eyes. Blinking,
Disorders tearing, and ulcerations are usually associated with
entropion. Whether an ulcer stimulated the blinking
EYELIDDISORDERS. Upper lid agenesis. Eyelids and tearing, resulting in entropion, or the entropion
can develop abnormally, resulting in defects of the caused the ulcer, is difficult to determine. If the prob-
lid. This maldevelopment may affect as much as one- lems are related to the entropion, a surgical correc-
half to two-thirds of the lid. Consequently, facial hair tion will halt the damage to the cornea. If the
then touches the eyeball, irritating the cornea. The entropion appears to be secondary, therapy can be
cornea is funher irritated by exposure because of an directed mainly at the corneal ulcer rather than the
incomplete blinking ability. The only effective therapy lid. A contact lens or tissue flap may be used as a
available is lid reconstruction to remove the irritating bandage to protect the cornea for ten to founeen days.
hairs and fill the defect. Agenesis of the eyelid is often Topical antibiotics are recommended during this
associated with oflner congenital defects of the eye. healing period. Cats with very shon muzzles appear
Congenital defects of the lateral canthus (outer to be prone to eyelid entropion, especially of the
corner of the eye ) are seen in some Burmese cats and lower lid; genetic predisposition is suspected.
are associated with dermoids (congenital masses of Blepharitis. Blepharitis is inflammation of the eye-
tissue containing skin and hair follicles) of the cornea lid. Itis frequently found in intact males as the result
THE EXTERNAL CAT

of fighting. Bacterial infections and wound abscesses a slow-growing ulcerative tumor on the lid margin. As
are common in and around the eye. Veterinary ther- with other white-haired species, this tumor is preva-
apy is to establish drainage, flush the abscess with lent in white cats and is associated with solar radia-
antiseptic or antibiotic, and administer systemic anti- tion. The incidence increases with age. Metastasis
biotic aswell as a topical ocular antibiotic. Hot com- (spread to areas far from the original tumor) is late,
pres es aid the absorption of the medication. usually to regional lymph nodes. Adenomas, adeno-
Another possible cause of blepharitis is dermato- carcinomas, fibromas, fibrosarcomas, and mast cell tu-
mycosis (fungal skin infection). The usual agent is mors may also involve the eyelids. The choice of
Microsportim canis (ringworm). Young animals are therapy depends on the type of tumor. Surgical re-
more frequently involved. Children playing with af- moval, sometimes combined with thermotherapy, ra-
fected kittens may also develop the infection. As the diation therapy, or immunotherapy, has been
organism is contagious, the affeaed animals should successfijl. The earlier these tumors are treated, the
be isolated while being treated. The organism can better the prognosis. (See Chapter 33; Cancer.)
persist in a dr\' environment for over one year. Diag-
nosis isdetermined from cultures, skin scrapings, and CONJUNCTIVAL DISEASES. Complaints of fe-
a fluorescence to Wood's light (50 percent of the time line conjunctivitis are common. The signs include a
ringworm glows in this ultraviolet light). Therapy in- discharge from the eye, blinking, and exposed third
cludes clipping all involved hair, using topical antifun- eyelid. In severe cases, the conjunaiva is .swollen and
gal preparations, and oral antifungal medication. (See red. Mechanical irritants, such as dust, or chemical
Chapter 17: Skin and Disorders.) irritants can cause inflammation of the conjunaival
Cat scabies. Cat scabies (Acariasis) is caused by the tissues. However, the most common causes are infec-
mite Notoedres cati. The skin on the head and neck is tious; multiple cats in a household may be affected,
usually intensely pruritic (itchy), wrinkled, thick, and or there may be a history of boarding, grooming, or
crust\-. This parasite can survive for only a short time showing the cat. The outdoor cat may develop allergic
off the host (cat, dog, or man). Skin scrapings demon- conjunctivitis from primary plant sources. This type of
strate the mite in most cases. Therapy is to remove ocular irritation has a seasonal incidence, but many
the crusty areas and treat with 2.5 percent solution times baaerial infections prolong or complicate the
of lime-sulfur, repeated at ten-day intervals for three initial cause. Eosinophilic conjunaivitis is a newly de-
treatments. Subcutaneous (under the skin) injections scribed condition in the cat. Cats with eosinophilic
of Ivermectin can also be used in two treaunents over conjunctivitis tend to squint and have watery eyes;
several weeks. (See Chapter 19: External Parasites.) they also have swollen, thickened, and reddened con-
Skin allergies can also affect the eyelids. Inhalant junaiva. The cause is not known, but an underly-
allergies, food allergies, or flea allergies can cause the ing allergy is suspected. Topical corticosteroid
skin to be itchy, so the typical case has swollen lids (cortisonelike) eye medications are usually effective.
with Viral conjunctivitis. Viral conjunctivitis often ac-_
relievemultiple the itch.scratchesHair lossfromis marked.
the cat's Isolation
attemptingawayto
companies viral upper respirator^' disease. Feline her-
from the cat's normal environment and food, with pesvirus (cause of rhinotracheitis), calicivirus, and
challenge test diets or intradermal skin tests, may help reovirus have been isolated as causative agents. It is
define the allergic cause. (See Chapter 17: Skin and difficult to diagnosis viral conjunctivitis if the only
Disorders.) complaint is a waterv' discharge from one or botli
Pemphigus, an immune-mediated or autoimmune eyes; a history of respiratory' involvement helps to
skin disease, may involve the skin of the eyelids. Con- confirm the diagnosis. The eye may be watery for days
trol of this rare disease is ver\' difficult; treatment re- to weeks with no response to the usual antibiotic ther-
quires high doses of cortisonelike medication or apy. Conjunctival scrapings may be helpful to rule out
more potent immunosuppressive drugs. (See Chapter Mycoplasma and Chlamydia (nonviral microorgan-
17: Skin and Disorders.) isms) within the cells of the conjunctiva. Virus cultures
Eyelid tumors. Eyelid tumors are rare in the cat. are expensive but especially helpful in large cat popu-
Unfortunately, they are usually malignant. The most lations. Ifthe diagnosis is herpesvirus conjunaivitis,
common tumor is squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). It specific therapy with antiviral preparations is helpful.
is a cancer of the squamous skin cells that appears as Cats with herpesvirus infeaions usually become carri-
 SENSORY ORGANS AND DISORDERS

ers, and with stress or conicosteroid therapy may de- ease signs from thirty days to four to five days.
velop recurrent chnical signs. The recurrent signs are Mycoplasma felis is sensitive to chloramphenicol, gen-
usually milder and shorter in duration. If the dis- tamicin, and tetrac>'cline.
charge becomes discolored to yellow, orange, or red, Excessive tearing. Excessive tearing can be caused
and very thick, a secondary bacterial component by either an increased production of tears (excessive
should be suspeaed. Antibiotic medications are com- lacrimation) or by abnormal drainage of tears; either
patible with antiviral medications; therefore, simulta- may result in epiphora (an overflow of tears). Other
neous use is advised. Vaccines for feline herpesvirus than a lack of tears and epiphora, diseases of the lacri-
and calicivirus are available. Although a vaccinated cat mal system are uncommon in the cat. The ducts of the
is not immune to infeaion, conjunctivitis and upper lacrimal system are very small and can easily become
respiratory disease caused by the infection is mini- obstructed, resulting in epiphora. The two lacrimal
mized. (See Chapter 24: Respiratory System and Disor- puncta are the small openings to the canaliculi, or
ders.) ducts, leading to the lacrimal sac. The nasolacrimal
Chlamydial conjunctivitis. Chlamydial conjunctivi- duct drains the sac into the nose. Congenital atresia
tis iscaused by the microorganism Chlamydia psittaci. (absence) or misalignment of the puncta or canaliculi
It often begins in one eye and spreads to the other in occurs, but occlusion (blockage) is usually second-
about one week. Initially, the discharge is watery, but ary to inflammation. Facial conformation and entro-
it becomes mucoid (mucuslike) within a few days. pion may contribute to epiphora in extremely short-
Chemosis (excessive swelling of the conjunctiva) is nosed cats. Tumors of the lid margins or nasal cavity
characteristic in the acute phase. When chronic, could obstruct the lacrimal flow. Excessive lacrima-
lymphoid follicular hyperplasia of the conjunctiva oc- tion is a reflex reaction from ocular irritation and
curs; itappears as small gray bumps on the conjuncti- must be differentiated from normal lacrimation that
val surface. Untreated, some cats become carriers, has abnormal drainage.
with infection lasting months to years. The diagnosis A veterinarian can test the lacrimal system by put-
can be determined from conjunctival scrapings that ting dye in the eye to monitor dye flow into the mouth
show the microscopic organisms within cells, by cul- or nasal cavity. If flow is not demonstrated, irrigation
ture, or by performing an ELISA (enzyme-linked im- of the system under anesthesia is recommended.
munosorbent as ay) test on conjunctival cells. (See Therapy is directed at the cause, which may range
Chapter 24: Respiratory System and Disorders. ) from lid abnormalities, conjunctival problems, cor-
Therapy includes topical tetracyclines three to four neal ulcers, or adhesions, to obstructions.
times a day for one to three weeks after the resolution Keratoconjunctivitis sicca. Keratoconjunctivitis
of the conjunctivitis. Systemic tetracycline administra- sicca (KCS) is caused by a lack of tears reaching the
tion is often beneficial along with the topical treat- surface of the eyes. This condition can result from
ments. Vaccines are available that decrease the local trauma, extreme inflammation of the conjuncti-
severity of the conjunctivitis. Difficulty in controlling val glands and ducts, scarring of the conjunctiva with
the disease in catteries and hospitals has been noted, constriction of the ducts, denervation (lack of nerve
probably because of the short-lived immunity of the stimulus) of the lacrimal glands, or medication caus-
vaccine and the presence of the carrier animals. ing glandular dysfunction. Cats with KCS have mini-
Mycoplasmal conjunctivitis. Mycoplasmal conjunc- mal discharge, chronic conjunctivitis, a lackluster
tivitis iscaused by the microorganism Mycoplasma cornea, and squint. If the cause of KCS is denervation,
felis. In many cases this organism occurs with other pilocarpine (a drug that stimulates nerve impulses)
infeaious agents. Initially, the ocular discharge is wa- stimulation can be successful if given topically or
tery, with marked redness and swelling of the con- orally. Cats find this medication irritating to their eyes
junctiva. The third eyelid is usually visible. When the and taste buds, but occasionally rwo drops of 1 per-
discharge becomes mucoid, a pseudomembrane may cent pilocarpine in their food can be tolerated. The
develop on the surface of the swollen conjunaiva. treatment of conjunctival inflammation with an antibi-
The diagnosis can be made from a conjunctival otic ointment is necessary. If conjunctival swelling is
scraping submitted for microscopic cell examination severe, corticosteroids (cortisone-like drugs) may aid
or by culture. Topical and/or systemic antibiotics for in the return of tears by reducing swollen tissues. Tear
up to three weeks are effective in shortening the dis- substitutes or lubricants should also be used. If the
THE EXTERNAL CAT

KCS becomes chronic and medical management is aesthetic, the prolapse itself is not usually detrimental
unsatisfactory, a parotid duct (tube leading into the to vision and usually resolves with time.
mouth from the salivary gland below the ear) trans- Tumors. Tumors of the third eyelid are rare. They
plant may be considered. Topical cyclosporin (an usually include squamous cell carcinomas, hemangi-
immunosuppressant drug) in oil has aided the KCS omas (benign masses of blood vessels), hemangio-
dog population, and it appears to be beneficial to sarcomas (malignant masses of blood vessels),
some cats with KCS as well. adenomas (benign tumors that contain glandular tis-
sue), and adenocarcinomas (malignant tumors that
THIRD EYELID DISORDERS. The third eyelid contain glandular tissue). Most of these can be suc-
becomes visible or prolapsed when the globe shrinks cessfully treated if they are managed early in their
in size or changes position, allowing the membrane growth; once they have invaded the orbit or eye itself,
to move across the eye. It can prolapse for a variety of management is difficult.
reasons. Ocular irritation causes the globe to retract Cherry eye. Prolapse of the third eyelid that reveals
into the orbit as a means of protection, producing a the tear gland at the base has been called cherry eye.
prolapse. Increased muscle tone, such as with tetanus This condition has been thought to be related to in-
or poisoning, causes eye retraction. When there is herited factors, most probably skull and orbital con-
decreased orbital tissue mass from dehydration, formation. Environmental factors may aggravate the
cachexia (seriously poor health from any cause), or condition. Therapy should be aimed at surgically relo-
generalized skull muscle atrophy (shrinking or wast- cating the gland by attaching it to the front of the
ing away), the eyeball loses support and becomes situ- globe or periosteum (tissue covering the bone) of
ated deeper into the orbit, allowing the third eyelid the orbital rim. Excising the third eyelid and gland
to become prominent. The eye itself can cause third- may eventually lead to keratoconjunctivitis sicca.
lid prolapse as a secondary response to microph- Eversion (rolling out) of the cartilage inside the
thalmos (abnormally small eye), or to post-traumatic third eyelid looks like a scroll curling out of the inner
or inflammatory eye atrophy with adhesions. Neuro- corner of the eye. It may cause epiphora, squinting,
genic causes leading to decreased sympathetic tone and ulceration of the cornea. A hereditary predisposi-
(lack of nervous input) will produce a small pupil, lid tion issuspected; it usually becomes apparent when
droopiness, eye retraction, and third eyelid prolapse. cats are between six months and two years of age.
This sary.
Surgical correction of the defect is frequently neces-
(See group
Chapterof23:signs is known
Nervous Systemas and
Horner's syndrome.
Disorders )
An idiopathic (cause unknown) prolapse of both
third eyelids called Haws syndrome is noted in appar- DISORDERS OF THE CORNEA. Keratitis (in-
ently normal cats and may persist for three to six flam ation ofthe cornea). The cornea can become
weeks. This type of prolapse frequently responds to inflamed as a reaction to congenital or acquired le-
one drop of 2.5 percent phenylephrine (a nerve sions. Superficial keratitis is often associated with
stimulant) or 0.5 percent Neo-Synephrine twice daily. mechanical factors such as traumatic injuries, lid agen-
Probably the biggest percentage of third eyelid pro- esis, entropion, or abscesses. Herpesvirus infection in
lapses falls into this group of nonocular conditions. young and adult cats is a common cause. Keratocon-
These seem to be independent of hydration and junctivitis sic a or facial paralysis (lid nerve palsy)
weight loss. A disruption in nerve stimulation is pres- leaves the cornea exposed, causing keratitis. Exposure
ent, although no other signs are present. Some veteri- during globe proptosis (dislocation of the eye from
narians believe internal parasites can cause these the socket) can cause keratitis. Chronic keratitis has
signs. A novel viruslike organism has been isolated the prominent feature of superficial corneal vascu-
from some cats with prolapse of both third eyelids larization (formation of blood vessels on the surface
and diarrhea; the role this organism plays in causing of the cornea). The cornea develops varying degrees
the prolapse is not known. To diagnose the exact of opacity due to edema (swelling, resulting from
cause of third eyelid prolapse requires a thorough fluid uptake), scarring, cellular infiltrates (abnor-
ocular and systemic examination. The therapy is di- mal cells within the cornea), and cellular pigmenta-
rected at the basic cause. Although not particularly tion. The management of nonulcerative forms (where
 SENSORY ORGANS AND DISORDERS

there is no loss of surface corneal tissue) of superficial ral ointments are indicated for the duration of healing.
keratitis is mainly with topical corticosteroids, but all Bacterial and viral microorganisms may be involved
mechanical causes must be removed prior to their in some sequestra formations.
use. The corticosteroids minimize corneal scarring Complicated deep ulcerations. Complicated deep
and vascularization. Topical antibacterial and/or anti- ulcerations, descemetoceles (herniations of the
virals should be used if indicated. Atropine (a drug membrane at the back of the cornea), and perfora-
that blocks nerve stimulation to the iris, causing pupil tions with iris prolapse ( iris protruding through the
dilation) ointment may be helpful in decreasing ocu- cornea) are all conditions requiring surgery. The most
lar pain if ulcerative lesions are present. common cause is claw injury from fighting. Deep ul-
Deep keratitis is usually associated with chronic in- cerations usually require surgery or gluing with spe-
flam ations within the eye. These inflamed eyes often cial tissue adhesive. Topical and systemic antibiotics
have a small pupil, iris adhesions, and changes in iris are to be used for two weeks postoperatively.
color and texture, which means the interior of the eye Eosinophilic keratitis. This is a unique corneal dis-
is undergoing a reactive inflammatory process as well. ease in cats. The cause is not known. Cats with eo-
Veterinary management is directed at those inflam- sinophilic keratitis develop a raised, nonpainful,
matory signs when present. If corneal ulceration is tan-colored, and rough-appearing growth on the sur-
not present, topical corticosteroids in combination face of the cornea and adjacent sclera — especially the
with mydriatics (drugs that dilate the pupil) are rec- surface corresponding to either the 10 o'clock posi-
om ende . Iulceration
f is present, topical nonsteroi- tion ornosedtheby examining
2 o'clock position.
dal anti-inflammatory medications are recommended a biopsy The
or acondition
scraping isofdiag-
the
with mydriatics. Antiviral medication may be indicated abnormal tissue under a microscope. Corticosteroids
in nonhealing ulcers. given topically or by injection under the conjunctiva
Ulcerative conditions usually heal after neovascu- usually resolve the condition, but in difficult cases,
larization (new blood-vessel ingrowth). Once the corticosteroids or other medications given internally
ulcer is epithelialized (covered with epithelium, i.e., may be necessary.
surface tissue), topical corticosteroids are recom- A few rare corneal diseases merit mention. Corneal
mended to minimize the scarring and persistent ves- dystrophy is a rare inherited corneal disease most
sels. Remember that a normal cornea has no blood commonly seen in Manx cats, although other breeds
vessels. Ulcers that involve only the epithelial layer may be affected, too. Beginning as early as four
(the outer layer) will usually heal if given a small months of age, there is a progressive swelling and
amount of protection. A special contact lens that cloudiness of both corneas, eventually leading to de-
serves the purpose of a bandage may aid the healing struction ofthe corneal surface. The prognosis is very
process. It is easily fitted and is usually worn for seven poor, and there are no effective treatments. A reces-
to ten days. Topical medicated drops do not interfere sive mode of inheritance is suspected. Primary cor-
with the contaa lens during this period. neal edema most often affects domestic shorthair cats.
Corneal sequestrum. This disorder is unique to the Like corneal dystrophy, it begins early in life; pro-
cat cornea. It has also been called corneal nigrum, gressive opacity of both corneas eventually leads to
corneal necrosis, and mummification. Charaaer- blindness. Lysosomal storage diseases such as ganglio-
istically, a black to brown plaque forms on the corneal sidosis, mannosidosis, and mucopolysaccharidosis,
surface. Blinking, squinting, excessive tearing, and commonly cause accumulation of material within the
prolapse of the third eyelid indicate pain. The plaque cornea, making them cloudy. Storage diseases are
may continue to increase in size and incite vasculari- rare, inherited disorders that become apparent early
zation. Ablack tearing is commonly noted. The earlier in life, and cause profound problems elsewhere in
the plaque is surgically removed, the less extensive the body. Nervous system signs are common. (See
the surgery and corrective care. Even if the surgery to Chapter 23: Nervous System and Disorders.)
remove the .sequestrum is relatively successful, there
is an occasional recurrence. If it occurs unilaterally, DISORDERS OF THE ANTERIOR CHAMBER.
the opposite eye may also develop a sequestrum in Hypopyon is the accumulation of white blood cells
the future. Postsurgical topical antibiotic and/or antivi- in the anterior chamber of the eye. It appears as either
THE EXTERNAL CAT

clumps or a fluid line of gray material adherent to the blindness, and corneal haziness from edema. If the
inside of the cornea. The stimulus for this response lens is loose in the anterior chamber, it is difficult
can be either external (such as a corneal ulceration) to document whether the lens luxation started the
or internal (ocular manifestation of systemic disease). glaucoma or the glaucoma caused globe distention,
Hypopyon is usually sterile. It resorbs when the cause which ruptured the lens's fiber support. If the eye is
has been resolved. A residual persistent haze on the greatly enlarged and the lens is in the anterior cham-
corneal endothelium (inner corneal layer of cells) ber, the sight cannot be salvaged. The signs of devel-
is common and of minimal consequence. oping glaucoma are probably more subtle in the cat
Fibrin is the insoluble protein substance of nor- than in other species, which makes it difficult to catch
mally clotted blood. Fibrin in the anterior chamber is the disease when it is still possible to regain or pre-
common after an acute insult such as a perforation serve some vision.
from a cat claw. A perforation causes fluid loss before Once an eye is lost to glaucoma, die remaining eye
the hole self-seals. Plasma (the fluid ponion of should be treated preventively with antiglaucoma
blood) from the intraocular blood vessels reinflates medication. Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (drugs
die anterior chamber, but since tlie plasma is rich in that block the enzyme that helps water transfer), beta-
fibrin, it organizes into a clot. The condition disap- blockers (drugs that inhibit nerve impulses), and
pears rapidly as the inflammation resolves. Remnants miotics (drugs that contract the pupil) help control
of fibrin strands are often attached or left floating in the pressure. Secondary glaucoma from inflamma-
the anterior chamber. Occasionally, small opaque tions and lymphoma responds to corticosteroid and/
patches remain attached to the cornea or lens. or antineoplastic (anticancer) therapy, but the prog-
Glaucoma is an elevation in the intraocular pres- nosis ispoor.
sure beyond normal. Aqueous fluid is produced be- Cats that have gone blind from noninfectious glau-
hind the iris in the ciliary body tissue. Even though coma often develop greatly enlarged globes diat are
aqueous fluid is produced in the posterior chamber, it very disfiguring. A cosmetic removal of the eye con-
does not intermix with vitreous humor. Their physical tents (evisceration) and volume replacement with a
propenies are much like oil and water. Most theories silicone prosthesis has become a popular alternative
and proven causes of glaucoma have dealt with out- to eye removal (enucleation). This surgical proce-
flow obstruction of aqueous fluid. The normal outflow dure gives fantastic results in appearance and comfort.
of aqueous fluid is through a meshwork of tissue be-
tween the iris and cornea. As the fluid passes through DISORDERS OF THE LENS. The lens can remain
the meshwork, it drains into the vascular system normal throughout life, become sclerotic (hard-
of the globe. Secondary glaucoma, more common ened), luxate (dislocate) out of its normal position,
in the cat, is associated with tumors or any intraocular or become opaque (cataractous).
disease that causes inflapimatory adhesions or allows Nuclear sclerosis. Of all these disorders, the most
blood or fibrin to collect in the anterior chamber. As common is nuclear sclerosis. Because the lens contin-
a result, the meshwork becomes obstructed and won't ues to grow slowly throughout life, the central region
allow aqueous fluid to escape. Glaucoma is an ocular becomes compacted and very dense compared to the
set of signs, not a disease. Therapy must be directed outer region, which causes the center to become hazy
at the disease causing the secondary glaucoma, which gray with age. The condition does not interfere appre-
could be feline ocular lymphoma (cancer of lym- ciably with vision, nor does it obstruct an examination
phocytes), irisbombe (iris bowed forward by excess ofrosis.the retina. No therapy is indicated for nuclear scle-
fluid trapped between the iris and the lens), anteri-
orly luxated (forwardly dislocated) lens, granulo- Cataract. A cataract is any opacity of the lens or lens
matous inflammations (collections of reactive capsule. Cataracts are not as common in the cat as
tissue), and tumors. they are in the dog. The most common causes are
The signs of chronic glaucoma include buph- inflammations, which leave evidence of adhesions;
thalmos (enlarged eye), ciliary vascular conges- cellular and fibrin debris; direct and indirect trauma,
tion (red eye), dilated fixed pupil (pupil that does which could injure the lens; and intraocular hemor-
not contract), firm eye (high intraocular pressure), rhage, which may impair the nutrition of the lens and
 SENSORY ORGANS AND DISORDERS

result in cataracts. Senile cataracts in many cases have bia (light hypersensitivity) and blepharospasm
no known etiology (origin). Congenital cataracts (spasm of the eyelid muscle) are common. Decreased
generally do not progress to blindness. Although they vision or blindness may be obvious, especially if the
may cause marked visual problems in a kinen, vision inflammation is bilateral.
improves as the eye and lens grow, because the opac- The common causes of anterior uveitis are trauma,
ity becomes relatively smaller. Cataract surgery can feline leukemia virus infection, feline infectious peri-
be performed with relatively good results when the tonitis, toxoplasmosis, systemic mycotic (fungal) dis-
cataract is not a result of inflammatory causes. ease, lens-protein inflammations, bacterial infections,
toxins, allergies, and neoplasia (cancer). If cancer
DISORDERS OF THE IRIS. Iris disorders are has metastasized from another site in the body, it is
usually first noted by the owner, because the cat iris usually difficult to diagnose initially.
is so visible that anything unusual becomes quite ap- Most cases of uveitis respond to aggressive anti-
parent. inflammatory therapy. If the cause is noninfectious,
Persistent pupillary membranes. These membranes corticosteroid therapy administered systemically,
are commonly seen in young cats, but they usually subconjunctivally (under the conjunctiva), and top-
disappear with age. They are nothing more than fine ical y for two weeks will resolve many cases. Topical
strands of embryonic tissue that bridge the pupil and 1 percent atropine is indicated as frequently as neces-
occasionally attach to the cornea or the lens capsule, sary to dilate the pupil. Blood samples are used ini-
causing focal opacities. Persistent pupillary mem- tial y for diagnostic evaluation and two weeks later for
branes should be differentiated from acquired iris ad- comparison if necessary. If the uveitis is progressive
hesions and inflammatory residues. and nonresponsive to anti-inflammatory therapy, addi-
Inflammation affecting structures within the ante- tional diagnostic tests are indicated.
rior chamber is common in the cat. If the inflamma- Inflammation within the eye can also affect the cho-
tion involves only the iris, it is called iriditis or iritis. roid and retina, causing a condition called posterior
If other pans of the chamber are also inflamed, the uveitis. Active chorioretinal lesions are hazy or lack
name of the condition reflects the structures involved: sharp detail when viewed through an ophthalmo-
for example; iridocyclitis, if the iris and ciliary body scope. Color changes and pigment clumping are often
(another structure within the anterior chamber) are
inflamed; or anterior uveitis, if the uvea is also in- present.
Iris color difference. Iris freckles are common in
volved. The uvea is the middle vascular layer (under caLs. They are similar to benign nevi (moles ) or pig-
the sclera). The front portion of the uvea is the iris. ment spots. If they are flat and do not alter the iris
The rear portion is called the choroid. The choroid surface in either maximum constriction or dilation,
is the blood supply to the retina. Uveitis is frequently fliey are of linle concern, although their size should
bilateral (in both eyes), and is often a secondary be monitored. If the spots change and invade the iris
ocular complication of a systemic disease. The main tissue, the anterior chamber, or the vitreous body,
challenge is the diagnosis, whether the disease is ex- especially displacing lens position, neoplasia should
ogenous (from an outside source) or endogenous be suspected. Some iris freckles or nodules respond
(from a .source in the body), and whether the type of to subconjunctival corticosteroids. Those that do not
inflammation is granulomatous (collections of reac- may be cancerous. The most common are melano-
tive tissue, usually against fungal or parasitic agents) mas (cancers of pigment cells) or adenomas.
or nongranulomatous (tissue reactive to bacteria Iris cysts. Iris cysts are black bodies that may be
or viral agents). attached or free within the anterior chamber or poste-
Whatever the classification, the signs are dramatic. rior chamber (vitreous body). With a bright light,
Iris coloration changes and the surface becomes ha2y these cysts can be easily transilluminated to verify that
and rough. In cats with a blue iris, the coloration they are fluid filled, which differentiates them from
becomes darker and duller. The pupil is usually mi- iris melanomas. Unless the cysts are extremely large,
otic (small), irregular, and immobile. It may become they are left to do whatever they wish, which is usually
adherent to the lens. Typically, the inflammation roll freely about inside the eye. Visually obstructive
causes the eye to be softer (hypotonic). Photopho- cysts can be deflated nonsurgically or by laser therapy.
THE EXTERNAL CAT

RETINAL DISEASES. Retinal diseases in cats are sion in cats is quite rare; hypertension secondary to
varied and complex. They often are manifestations of renal failure or hyperthyroidism is common. Success-
disease in other parts of the body. Blood disorders, ful resolution of retinal disease secondary to hyper-
such as clotting abnormalities, anemia, certain types tension isdependent on control of the hypenension.
of cancer, or hyperviscosity (blood thickening) syn- (See Chapter 20; Circulatory System and Disorders.)
dromes, often cause retinal hemorrhage. Anemia Retinal detachment. Retinal detachment is common
from haemobartonellosis (see Chapter 30: Bacte- in the cat. It can be of variable degrees from various
rial Diseases), leukemias, and thrombocytopenias causes. As previously noted, systemic hypertension is
(platelet deficiencies causing poor blood clotting) can a common cause, but retinal detachment can also re-
manifest as large blot and spot hemorrhages within sult from feline infectious peritonitis, lymphosarcoma,
the retina, behind it, or in front of it. H)perviscosity toxoplasmosis, glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis,
syndromes cause vascular distention and efi^iision antifreeze toxicosis, trauma, or toxemias (poison-
(blood escaping into tissues). Lymphoid cancers com- ings). A thorough medical work-up is always indi-
monly spread into the retina. Discrete or diffuse gray cated, and therapy is determined by the underlying
monling of the tapetum, retinal detachment, and cause. Even with proper management, the prognosis
blood clots are all possible. Definitive diagnosis is for return of vision is poor. However, if the retina
usually based on systemic signs and ophthalmoscopic becomes detached and disinsened at the periphery,
examination of the retina. Rapid recovery may occur the prognosis is grave without hope of vision.
with therapy. Nutritional retinal degeneration. Also called feline
Panleukopenia. Panleukopenia can cause a retinal central retinal degeneration, nutritional retinal degen-
dysplasia (abnormal development) if the virus has erations were once very common in cats. The retinal
infected the kitten between one week before birth lesion begins with a focal granularity in the area cen-
and one week after birth. The lesions in the tapetum tralis region. It increases in size to an oval-shaped,
appear as sharply demarcated areas of increased re- hyperreflective region surrounded by a dark margin
flectivity and altered color. The nontapetal areas have that can progress to generalized hyperreflectivity, vas-
focal pigment disruption (spotty depigmentation). cular attenuation, and blindness. Retinal lesions in
Cerebellar hypoplasia (underdevelopment of the both eyes are symmetrical. In the early stages, no clini-
cerebellum) signs also may be present. Usually, no cal signs are noted. At these stages, the condition can
clinical signs are attributed to the eye lesions because be arrested and blindness prevented if it is diagnosed.
the other nervous signs are so outstanding. These cats The cause of this degeneration is a deficiency in the
are very shaky and incoordinate. amino acid taurine. Well-balanced cat foods are now
Inherited retinal degenerations. Inherited retinal supplemented with adequate levels of taurine, so the
degenerations leading to blindness at an early age condition is much less common than in the past. Cats
have been reported in the Persian and Abyssinian fed dog foods or table scraps may become deficient,
breeds and various domestic shorthair types. The le- especially if they are habitually addicted to one type
sion has a diffuse hyperreflective tapetal appearance of diet.
with vascular attenuation (thinning of the blood
vessels) in the end stages. In most cases it is a reces- DISORDERS OF THE OPTIC NERVE. The optic
sive inherited disease; however, one form of the dis- nerve of a cat transmits visual impulses to the brain.
ease in Abyssinian cats has an autosomal dominant Incomplete and complete lack of development of the
mode of inheritance. optic nerve are termed optic nerve hypoplasia and
Traumatic retinal degeneration. Traumatic retinal aplasia, respectively. Both of these conditions are re-
degeneration is usually the result of globe proptosis, vealed clinically as blindness, with widely dilated pu-
especially if the optic nerve and blood vessels are trau- pils that are unresponsive to light stimulus. These are
matized. Many eyes can be saved cosmetically but are congenital abnormalities. Optic nerve hypoplasia is
blind. Multiple smaller areas of retinal degeneration difficult to differentiate from acquired optic nerve de-
can be secondary to infections and appear as scars. generation, especially in the cat.
Systemic hypertension is a common cause of retinal Optic neuritis. Optic neuritis is an acquired abnor-
disease in cats and is capable of causing both hemor- mality ofthe optic nerve caused by inflammation as it
rhage and detachment. Primary or essential hyperten- extends into the nerve from adjacent tissues such as
 SENSORY ORGANS AND DISORDERS

the brain, orbit, or retina. Common causes include over each other wifliin the optic nerve to the opposite
Toxoplasma chorioretinitis (inflammation of the side of the brain). These extra nerve fibers crowd out
choroid and retina), Cryptococcus infection of the ret- those fibers needed for binocular vision and normal
ina, orbit, or central nervous tissues, feline infectious conjugated (equally coupled) globe position. The
peritonitis, cancer that has spread from elsewhere in globe malposition (cross-eye) is not present at binh.
the body, and toxic ingestions. Blindness may or may The convergent strabismus condition develops from
not be a clinical sign, depending on where the lesions two to six monflis of age. It is thought that the strabis-
are located. The optic disc ( end portion of the optic mus develops as an anempt to compensate for the
nerve) may show abnormal character. Any swelling of abnormal retinal transmissions to the brain. These
the optic disc is considered abnormal in the cat. A cats certainly compensate, as there appear to be few
diagnostic test giving the greatest amount of informa- clinical signs or difficulties with vision.
tion is the cerebrospinal fluid analysis. Specific ther-
apy must be directed at the cause, but symptomatic
treatment using anti-inflammatory medication is fre- EAR
quently helpful at reducing the swelling of the optic
nerve. If the swelling is not reduced, it can begin to The ear — the organ of hearing and balance — can be
harm the cat's eyesight in a relatively short time. divided anatomically into three main components: the
external ear, which consists of the outer ear itself
DISORDERS OF THE GLOBE. The eyeball, or (known as the pinna or auricle) and the ear canal;
globe, is generally assessed as being either too big the middle ear, which consists of the eardrum (tym-
(buphthalmos), too small (microphthalmos), or panic membrane) and the auditory ossicles
shrunken (phtlusis bulbi). Microphthalmos is a con- (small bones); and the inner ear, which contains the
genitally small eye, which is common in cats. In eyes sensory structures of hearing and balance. Both the
that are mildly to moderately small, the structures and middle and inner ear are enclosed within the skull.
function may be relatively normal. Microphthalmos The pinna (plural, pinnae) is a thin, delicate, funnel-
may be pan of multiple ocular anomalies such as cata- shaped structure supported by cartilage (auricular
racts, persistent pupillary membranes, retinal dyspla- canilage). It is supplied with a number of muscles and
sia, and eyelid agenesis. Because the globe is small, is extremely mobile in cats. The pinna acts to locate
entropion and prolapsed third eyelid also may be and concentrate sound waves, directing them down
present. Phthisis bulbi is an acquired decrease in into the ear canal toward the sensory components of
globe size caused by severe intraocular damage. the auditor^' system. At the lower end of the canal is
These eyes are blind. The corneas are usually opaque the eardrum, a translucent membrane that vibrates in
and the globe position deviated (strabismus). Be- response to sound and acts as a connecting wall be-
cause of the chronic conjunctivitis, entropion, and tween the external and middle ear. Within the middle
facial-hair irritation, these globes should be removed ear are the three auditory ossicles, tiny bones that
(enucleated) to alleviate discomfort and prevent are responsible for transmitting the vibrations of the
generalized inflammation. eardrum to the inner ear. Also within the middle ear
Panophthalmitis. Panophthalmitis is an inflamma- is the origin of the eustachian tube, a short canal
tion of all the ocular tissues, whereas endophthalmitis that communicates with the nasopharynx (back of
is inflammation inside the globe; both are usually de- the throat) and acts to equalize pressure within the
structive beyond visual salvation. Occasionally, inten- ear (this is the structure that commonly "pops" in the
sive, heroic flierapy may save the globe but not the ear
vision. Surgical removal of the globe is most fre- the during
inner earyawning are theor semicircular
a change in altitude).
canals, "Within
which
quently recommended regulate balance, and the cochlea, a curled bone that
Strabismus. Crossed orforesotropic
the cat's comfort.
eyes are common contains the organ of Corti, the actual organ of hear-
in Siamese cats. The degree of globe deviation varies. ing. Cats are able to capture acoustical signals from
Occasionally, a fine nystagmus (rapid eye move- the environment in a far higher range than any detect-
ment) is noted. Albino cats and blue-eyed Siamese able bydie human ear, up to 50 to 60 kilocycles (or
have a higher number of nerve fibers crossing at the kilohertz). The upper end of the human auditory
optic chiasm (where nerves from each eye cross range is approximately 16 to 20 kilocycles.
THE EXTERNAL CAT

Congenital Abnormalities mites found in the canal can be staggering. Head-

shaking,ence of brown
ear-scratching,
material restless
in the behavior,
canal are and pres-
common
FOLD-EARS. Inward folding of the tip of the pinna
occurs in some individuals and forms the basis for signs. Cats also may acquire ear mites from dogs. Ne-
the Scottish Fold breed. Folding is inherited in an glect of ear mite infestation can have serious, even
autosomal dominant manner; that is, only one gene fatal, consequences. (See Chapter 19: External Para-
sites.)
for fold-ear needs to be pre.sent for the trait to appear.
However, homoz\'gous individuals (those having rwo
copies of tlie gene for folding) are afflicted with a HEMATOMA. Hematoma, the collection of blood
number of serious skeletal abnormalities; heterozy- from broken vessels in the space between the auricu-
gous individuals w ith only one copy of the gene are lar cartilage and skin, is a less common problem in
healthy. Breeding of fold-ears witli each other is dis- cats than in dogs, but it is no less severe in its physical
couraged because of the probability of producing ho- effects. Fighting, continual shaking of the head,
moz>'gous offspring. scratching at the ears (as from a mite infestation), or
Outward curling of the pinna is the distinctive char- blunt trauma may produce a hematoma. Hematomas
acteristic ofanother breed of cat, the American Curl. may be small and barely noticeable or they may ex-
The upper one-third of the pinnae begin to curve pand and test the limits of elasticity of the overlying
backward toward the center of the rear of the head skin by producing a taut, balloonlike bulge inside the
when kittens are approximately four to seven days of auricle. A severe hematoma usually permanently dam-
age. Unlike Scottish Folds, homozygous individuals ages the conformation of the pinna.
apparently suffer no ill consequences as a result of Treatment ranges from aspiration of the bloody
their heredity'. (See Chapter 13: Genetics.) contents through a needle and syringe (smaller hema-
tomas) tosurgical drainage (larger lesions). In some
ATRESIA. Atresia (congenital absence or blockage) cases, an Elizabethan collar or a soft bandage dressing
of the ear canal is a rare congenital defect in cats and may be applied postsurgically to prevent swelling and
usually causes no significant problems. minimize deformity of the pinna.
DEAFNESS IN WHITE CATS. Inherited deafness OTITIS. Inflammation of the middle ear (otitis
in white cats is also caused by an autosomal dominant media) or outer ear (otitis externa) may be pro-
gene, but not all white cats are deaf, nor are they duced bybacteria, fungi, parasites, or foreign bodies.
necessarily deaf in both ears. White cats with both Treatment depends on the underlying cause. Fortu-
eyes blue are approximately 3 to 5 times more likely nately, cats, with their upright pinnae and renowned
to be deaf than those with one blue and one nonblue habits of cleanliness, are affected less often and less
eye. Combining the results of several studies, deafness severely than are their canine counterpans. Otitis in-
was found in 65 to 85 percent of cats with two blue terna (inflammation of the inner ear) is occasionally
eyes, 40 percent of those with one blue eye and one seen, presenting with signs of incoordination, loss of
nonblue eye, and only 17 to 22 percent of cats with balance, or hearing impairment. Purulent infections
nonblue eyes. If deafness occurs in only one ear of a can lead to fatal meningitis and brain abscess.
cat with a single blue eye, the deafness is invariably Bacterial infections of the outer ear are dealt with
on the same side as the blue eye. Deafness is not by thorough cleansing of the affected ear canal and
usually obvious unless both ears are affected. There is application of topical antibiotic medication. Foreign
no effective treatment for congenital deafness. bodies — plant awns (bristles, "foxtails"), for exam-
ple— must be located visually and removed. Ears with
Acquired Disorders fungal infections are cleaned thoroughly and treated
with an antifungal medication. Malassezia, an espe-
EAR MITES. Mites (Otodectes cynotis) parasitizing cially common yeast, is found in many cases of otitis
the ear canal are a common problem of kittens and externa in both cats and dogs. Parasite infestations
adult cats. They are the most common cause of otitis (the mites Otodectes and Notoedres) are treated with
externa in cats. Kittens frequently acquire an infesta- appropriate topical preparations. (See Chapter 19: Ex-
tion from their mother; in some cases, the number of ternal Parasites.)
 SENSORY ORGANS AND DISORDERS

Infections of the middle or inner ear are generally priate treatment relies on the correct diagnosis of the
more serious and may produce irreversible effects. underlying condition.
Rupture of the eardrum and disturbances of hearing
and/or balance may occur. Surgery may be required CERUMINOUS GLAND TUMORS. Tumors of ce-
in some cases to remove pockets of pus and to flush ruminous glands (glands that produce the waxy dis-
affected areas with antibiotics or antifungal medica- charge ofthe ear canal) are seen in middle-aged and
tion. The guarded prognosis depends on the identity' older cats. They are dark cystic structures that appear
of the infecting organism and the extent of damage from the margins to the depths of the ear canal. They
that has been produced to the acoustical structures. may even penetrate the eardrum. Ceruminous gland
tumors may be benign (adenoma) or malignant (ade-
POLYPS. Polyps — small pinkish growths protrud- nocarcinoma). Treatment depends on the location of
ing from the surface of a mucous membrane — can the tumor and its extent of growth. Surgical excision
occur in cats of any age. In the auditory system, they may or may not be feasible.
arise within the middle ear and the external ear canal,
often in the vicinity of the eardrum. Chronic ear-mite FELINE IDIOPATHIC VESTIBULAR SYN-
infestations and perhaps chronic infections may pre- DROME. This is an acute disturbance of balance
dispose to polyp formation. Treatment, when re- with a remarkable seasonal predilection (it occurs al-
quired, usually consists of surgical excision. A polyp most exclusively during the summer months). Mildly
from the middle ear occasionally passes into the naso- affected cats may show nothing more than a slight
pharynx, where it may cause gagging. head-tilt, whereas severely affected animals will lie
down and roll, their sense of balance utterly dis-
SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA. Squamous cell rupted. Gradual improvement usually occurs over a
carcinoma, a type of skin cancer, occurs often on the period of weeks. Some animals recover completely,
pinna of white and while-spotted cats and is associated but others show residual effects (a head-tilt, for exam-
with excessive exposure to sunlight. (See Chapter 17: ple). The cause is entirely unknown, and there is no
Skin AND Disorders.) treatment that has been proven to be of benefit. Af-
fected cats must be closely cared for and supported
MISCELLANEOUS PINNA DISORDERS. Al- until signs of the disease spontaneously diminish.
most any skin disease (e.g., ringworm, the eosino-
philic granuloma complex, bacterial skin infections, Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank
mite infestations, and allergic conditions) can affect Jeffrey E. Barlough and Linda Susan Jorgensen for
the skin on the pinnae. Determination of the appro- their contributions to this chapter.
 CHAPTER 19

External Parasites

by Danny W. Scott

are living organisms residing on or Dermatoses (skin diseases) caused by ectoparasites

Parasite withinsother living organisms. They ingest are the most common skin disorders of cats. They cause
blood, lymph, cells, or tissue from the bodies suffering through annoyance, irritability, pruritus
of their hosts as a source of nutrition. Para- (itching), disfigurement, secondary infections, and
sites live at the expense of their hosts, causing consider- myiasis (infestation of the body by fly larvae). In
able detriment to their health. Those forms residing addition, ectoparasites may be important in the
within their hosts are transmission of viral,
endoparasites, or in- protozoal,
ternal parasites. Those thic (parasitichelmin-
worm),
living on the surface of and bacterial diseases.
their hosts are ecto-
parasites, orexternal
parasites. The external MITES
parasites of cats in-
clude avariety of small Microscopic in size,
to microscopic insects these sitesirksome para-
and arachnids: fleas, are arthropods
ticks, flies, lice, and (isms
invertebrate organ -
mites. with segmented
Ectoparasitism
volves the skin in the in- bodies),
ble insectswhich resem-
but belong
form of tissue damage to the class Arachnida,
and inflammation, causing itching and pain to the host. placing them in the same taxonomic class as spiders.
Some external parasites, such as fleas, injure their hosts Some are barely visible to the naked eye. Although
with toxic substances when they draw blood as a food there may be up to twenty thousand species of arthro-
source. External parasites can carry dangerous viruses pods, only a few belonging to the major subgroups
and bacteria, infecting their hosts. The host may be- are of direct medical concern for cats.
come devoid of energy and vitality, experiencing weak-
ened resistance to infection and disease.
194
 EXTERNAL PARASITES

Notoedric Mange (red bumps), wheals (hives), or crusts and excoria-

tions over pet-contact areas, especially the arms, legs,
Notoedric mange is a rare to uncommon disease of chest, and abdomen. Itching is severe. If the source of
cats, with no apparent age, breed, or sex predilec- mites is eliminated, the dermatitis in humans resolves
tions. The disease is worldwide in geographic distri- without specific treatment within two to six weeks.
bution. Inthe United States, it appears to be endemic
in a few areas. Female mites deposit eggs inside the Sarcoptic Mange
outermost layer of skin (intraepidermal burrows).
The life cycle, which is spent entirely on the cat, is Dermatitis due to Sarcoptes scabiei is extremely rare
completed in about two weeks. The mites are thought in cats. Many cats that contract this infeaion were
to feed on lymph and epidermal cells. Notoedric immunosuppressed first. Clinical signs resemble
mange is highly contagious via direct and indirea those described for notoedric mange but Sarcoptes
contact. Notoedres cati is quite susceptible to drying scabiei mites are larger than Notoedres cati and have
and cannot live for more than a few days off the cat. a terminal anus (rather than dorsal). Because cats are
The first sign of notoedric mange is usually intense, not known to have their own specific variety of Sar-
constant pruritus about the ears, head, and neck, with coptes scabiei, infections are presumably derived from
scratching and head-shaking. Skin lesions, character- other species, especially dogs and humans. Morpho-
ized by erythema (redness), scales, alopecia (hair logical studies have emphasized mite variability and
lo,ss), thick grayish-to-yellowish crusts (scabs), li- the consequent difficulty in distinguishing among
chenification (thickening of the outer layer of skin), mites of different species. Details of clinical signs and
and excoriations (self-induced sores) then appear, veterinary therapy are as described for notoedric
especially on the ears and neck. Lesions can also ex- mange.
odor tenisd to the
oftenhead, noted. face,Rarely,
paws, notoedric
and genitalia. A "mousy"
mange occurs Otodectic Mange
as a ftiiminating dermatitis (sudden and intense skin
inflammation) in litters of kittens, with the abdomen, Otodectic mange, caused by Otodectes cynotis, is the
perineum, and limbs most severely affected. In severe, most common cause of otitis externa (inflammation
untreated cases, death may result from secondary bac- of the external ear canal) and an occasional cause of
terial infection, interference with eating, loss of appe- skin disease in cats. Skin lesions vary from partial hair
tite, emaciation, and toxemia (blood poisoning). loss to redness, scaling, and crusted itching dermatitis.
Regional lymphadenopathy (swollen lymph nodes) Lesions are most commonly seen on the head, neck,
is usually pronounced. Diagnosis is based on history, rump, or paws. In one study of feline miliary derma-
physical examination, and skin scrapings. titis, Otodectes cynotis caused four of the 133 cases
Veterinary therapy includes isolation; gentle clip- (3 percent). In addition, Otodectes cynotis has been
ping and cleansing of affected areas to remove hair reported, but rarely, to cause skin lesions in humans,
and thick crusts; and total-body parasiticidal dips. In- which were characterized by itching, erythematous
jected glucocorticoids (a type of steroid) and antibi- papules (red bumps), wheals (swollen skin irrita-
otics may be used to control severe itching and tions), crusts, and excoriations on the arms and torso.
secondary infection, respeaively, where appropriate. When the source of mites is eliminated, the human
Other cats and dogs that have been in contact should dermatosis regresses within three weeks without spe-
be considered infested; they should be isolated from cific treatment.
the symptomatic cat and dipped twice. Although not Diagnosis is based on history, physical examination,
licensed for use in cats. Ivermectin (given by mouth otoscopic examination, and microscopic examination
or by injection) is a very effective, safe, and convenient of ear swabs. Treatment may include thie frequent ap-
treatment for notoedric mange. As the mite does not plications ofmiticidal otic preparations, or the use of
persist for long off the host, a single thorough clean- Ivermectin. (See "Notoedric Mange," this chapter.)
ing (vacuum, dispose of bag, and wash) of the envi-
ronment suffices.
Notoedres cati can also produce skin lesions in hu-
mans. Lesions consist of erythematous papules
THE EXTERNAL CAT

dicosis may include the use of a topical mite-killing

Lynxacariasis agent. The topicals are applied once a day until skin
Lynxacariasis is an uncommon cause of skin disease scrapings are negative. Some cases spontaneously re-
in cats. The mite Lywcacarns radovskyi (the cat fur gress without therapy. Demodectic otitis externa is
mite) attaches to hair shafts. It is thought to spend its treated with a mite-killing otic preparation until mites
entire life cycle on the host and to feed at the base of are eliminated.
the hairs. This large mite can be confused with lice. Generalized demodicosis has been successfully
Clinically, there are no apparent age, breed, or sex treated by veterinarians with weekly parasiticidal dips
predilections. In affected cats, the entire hair coat is or shampoos until three to four weeks after skin
dull, easily epilated (removed by the roots), and scrapings are negative. Spontaneous remission of gen-
speckled. The skin may be normal, scaly, or reddish eralized demodicosis in cases with no detected under-
in appearance. lying disease has been reported after a course of
Diagnosis is based on history, physical examination, several months.
and skin scrapings or acetate tape impressions. Treat-
ment consists of weekly parasiticidal dips or powders
for three to four weeks. Ivermectin is also an effective, Cheylettellosis
safe, convenient treatment. Cheyletiellosis ("walking dandruff') ismites
an uncommon
dermatosis of cats. Three Cheyletiella are known
to infest cats: Cheyletiella blakei (most common),
Demodicosis, or Demodectic Mange Cheyletiella parasitivorax (common on rabbits), and
Two species of demodicids (Deniodex mites) have Cheyletiella yasguri (common on dogs). These mites
been associated with demodicosis, a rare skin disease do not burrow but live in skin surface keratin. They
in cats. The life cycle of these mites is incompletely move about fairly rapidly, but periodically they attach
known, but it is assumed to resemble that of other firmly to the epidermis, pierce the skin with their
demodicids: (1) the entire life cycle (twenty to thirty- chelicerae (head pincers), and become engorged
five days) is spent on the host; (2) the mites are with tissue fluids. The life cycle is thought to be com-
normal residents of cat skin; (3) the disease is not pleted on the host in about thirty-five days. Larvae,
contagious; and (4) factors that suppress immunity nymphs, and adult males usually die within forty-eight
may predispose hours after leaving the host. Adult female mites may
dicosis. Generalizedthefeline
cat todemodicosis
develop clinical
has beendemo-
seen live off the host for ten days. Cheyletiella mites have
in association with feline leukemia virus infection, been seen crawling in and out of the nostrils of cats,
feline immunodeficiency virus infection, diabetes thus adding a new twist to the epidemiology and ther-
mellitus. Gushing s syndrome, systemic lupus erythe- apy of this disorder. Transmission occurs via direct
matosus, and chronic respiratory disease with lym- and indirect contact. Cheyletiella mites have been
phopenia (decreased lymphocytes in the blood). found on fleas, flies, and lice, and it is conceivable that
Clinically, there are no apparent age, breed, or sex these larger ectoparasites may play a transport role-in
predilections. Localized demodicosis is characterized the spread of Cheyletiella from animal to animal.
by single or multiple areas of poorly- to well-circum- Clinically, there are no apparent age, breed, or sex
scribed areas of alopecia with or without erythema, predilections. Clinical signs of feline cheyletiellosis are
follicular plugging, scaling, crusting, papulopustular variable, and may include dorsally distributed sebor-
dermatitis (inflamed, pus-filled skin elevations), and rhea sicca (dandruff), with or without itching; miliary
pruritus. The head, ears, and neck are most commonly dermatitis (scabby rash over back); pruritus with mini-
affected. Generalized demodicosis may be character- mal or no lesions; and an asymptomatic carrier state.
ized bythe above lesions over a large part of the body Diagnosis is based on history, physical examination,
or, more commonly, by a symmetrical hypotrichosis various laboratory tests (skin scrapings, acetate tape
(thinning of hair) or alopecia (loss of hair) over the preparations, flea combings), and response to treat-
trunk. Demodex mites may also cause a ceruminous ment. Because laboratory tests are negative in about
otitis externa (waxy secretion and inflammation of one-half of the infected cats, response to treatment is
the ear canal) in cats. Treatment for localized demo- frequently the only way to diagnose the condition.
 EXTERNAL PARASITES

Therapy includes isolation and weekly application

of parasiticidal dips, powders, or shampoos until two Dermanyssiasis
weeks beyond clinical cure. In-contact dogs and cats Dermanyssiasis is a rarely reported dermatosis of cats.
should be considered infested and treated accord- The poultry mite, Dermanyssus gallinae, lives in
ingly. Ivermectin is an effective, safe, and convenient cracks and crevices in the walls of poultry houses or
treatment. Environmental treatment is important in in bird nests. Adult mites suck blood. Lesions consist
cheyletiellosis and should include spraying or of papules, crusts, and excoriations on the head, back,
fogging, as described for fleas. Recurrent cheyle- and limbs. Itching is intense.
tiel osis inanimals that go outdoors should prompt Diagnosis is based on history, physical examination,
one to suspect a wild animal source (e.g., rabbits, and demonstration of mites in skin scrapings or in the
squirrels). environment. Therapy consists of parasiticidal dips
Skin lesions produced by Cheyletiella mites in hu- and eliminating or treating infested premises with mi-
mans have been frequently reported. Human involve- ticidal sprays.
ment has been reported to occur in 20 to 80 percent
of the feline cases. The lesions of cheyletiellosis in
humans begin as single or grouped erythematous TICKS
macules (red spots), which rapidly evolve into pap-
ules. Lesions frequently become vesicular (blister- Ticks are rarely found on cats. They display no appar-
like). Old lesions often develop central necrosis ent age, breed, or sex predilections when they are. In
(cell death producing a black spot). Itching is intense. some areas, ticks can always be found, and they tend
Humans suffering from Cheyletiella should see their to be more of a problem in warm, humid climates.
physicians. The arms, legs, and torso are commonly Argasid ("soft")inticks
affected. If the source of mites is eliminated, the such as cracks poles,layunder
their eggs
boxesinorsheltered spots,in
stones, and
human dermatosis resolves without specific treatment crevices in walls. Larvae and nymphs suck blood and
within three to six weeks. lymph, before dropping off the host to become adults.
Ixodid
such as ("hard") ticks cracks
wall crevices, lay theirin eggs
wood innear
sheltered areas,
the ground,
Trombiculidiasis
Trombiculidiasis (infestation with harvest mites or and under stones and clods of soil. Larvae ("seed
chiggers) is a rare dermatosis of cats. Trombiculid ticks")
suitable climbhost toontopassgrass
by. and shrubbery and wait for a
adults and nymphs are free-living and feed on inverte- According to the number of hosts required during
brate hosts or plants. The larvae normally feed (suck their life cycle, ticks can be classified into three
tissue fluids) on small rodents, but they may also at- groups: one-host ticks, rwo-host ticks, and three-host
tack cats. They are visible with the naked eye, varying ticks. Each species of tick is adapted to certain ranges
in color from red to orange to yellow. These larvae of temperature and moisture. In general, ticks are not
are usually aaive in summer and fall, especially in terribly host specific. Local reactions to tick bites are
forested and swampy areas. After feeding for seven to variable, depending on the properties of the tick in
ten days they drop off the host. question, and on the host-parasite relationship.
Trombiculidiasis occurs in late summer and fall. Ticks and tick-related dermatoses are seen in spring
Cats contact the active larvae in forests, grasslands, and summer. Cats bearing ticks usually show little or
and fields. There are no apparent age, breed, or sex no evidence of irritation and are most often presented
predilections. Skin lesions consist of papules, pus- to the veterinarian because the owner noticed a
tules, crusts, and excoriations on the head, ears, or "growth" on the skin. Ticks are usually found on the
paws. Itching is usually intense. Careful inspeaion head, ears, neck, and paws of cats. Though rare, nod-
may reveal the small larvae in the center of some of ules (bumps) or ulcers (open sores) may result
the lesions. when tick mouthparts are left in the skin. Diagnosis is
Therapy includes a single topical application of a based on history and physical examination. Specific
parasiticide, systemic glucocorticoids for severe pruri- identification of the ticks is of value in determining
tus, and avoidance of infested environment. the control measures required. A few ticks may be
THE EXTERNAL CAT

removed with a mosquito forceps or large tweezers. of dips, powders, or shampoos for four to five weeks.
The tick's capitulum (head) is grasped as close to Because lice do not live for long off the host, a single
the cat's skin as possible, using gentle, firm retraction thorough cleansing (vacuum, wash, dispose) of the
for a straight pull-out. Severe infestations are treated environment suffices.
as described for fleas.
FLEAS
SPIDERS
Fleas are by far the most common ectoparasite of cats.
Spiders inhabit woodpiles, old buildings, and refuse Fleas are not host specific and cats are occasionally
areas. There are four species that are medically im- parasitized by fleas from a number of sources. In the
portant inthe United States; black widow (Latrodectus United States, the flea most commonly found on cats
mactans), red-legged widow {Latrodectus bishopi), is Ctenocephalides felts (cat flea), followed by Cteno-
brown recluse {Loxosceles reclusa), and common cephalides cants (dog flea), followed hy Pulex irritans
brown {Loxosceles unicolor). (human flea) and Echidnophaga gallinacea (poultn,'
Spider bites occur most commonly on the front stick-tight flea). Fleas are small, bro^vn to black, wing-
legs and face. Small puncture marks may be visible less insects with laterally compressed bodies. Adult
initially, but they disappear as variable degrees of fleas are powerful jumpers.
swelling and redness develop. Lesions may be painful, Fleas develop by complete metamorphosis. The
and some may turn black and ulcerate. Diagnosis is eggs, which are ovoid and white, are laid on the cat
based on history and physical examination. and then fall into the environment where the life q'cle
Treatment may include the use of local anesthetics, is completed.
glucocorticoids, routine wound care, or antivenin relative humidityAmbient(65 to temperature (60°critical
85 percent) are to 90°F)for and
the
(antitoxin). flea's development. Larvae hatch from eggs (typically
in 1 to 10 days) and move deep into carpets, cracks in
wood floors, and under the soil surface or organic
LICE debris outside. They feed on organic debris, espe-
cially adult flea feces. At the end of the larval stage
Pediculosis (louse infestation) is an uncommon in- (about 5 to 11 days), a silklike cocoon is produced
festation ofcats. Lice are highly host-specific parasites in which pupation occurs. Adult fleas emerge from
bound to a specific environment and rarely survive cocoons when appropriate stimuli are present, espe-
longer than seven days off the host. Felicola subrostra- cially temperature and physical pressure. This can
tus, the chewing louse of the cat, feeds on exfoliated occur within five days, but adult fleas can remain in
epithelium (sloughed-off skin surface) and cutane- cocoons for as long as 140 days. In most households,
ous debris. Trichodectes cants, a chewing louse of die cat flea completes its life cycle within three to four
dogs, has been reported to affea kittens rarely. Trans- weeks. Because of their dependence on the host for
mis ion isby direct and indirect contact. Adult lice are protection and food (blood), adult fleas spend their
visible to the naked eye, and they stick their eggs entire life (up to 100 days) on the cat or other host
(nits) to hairs by a clear adhesive secretion. Louse animals. In general, fleas are panicularly devastating
populations are much larger (and thus, clinical signs in warmer climates (for example, in the southern
are most obvious) in winter. United States) and do not sur\'ive at elevations over
Pediculosis is often associated with neglect, debili- five thousand feet. Echidnophaga gallinacea fleas lay
tation, or poor sanitary conditions (overcrowding, their eggs Poultryunder and
the poultry
host's skin,
filth, and so forth). Pediculosis has no apparent age, irritation. housesresulting
are the insources
local
breed, or sex predilections. Clinical signs are variable of infestation.
and include dorsally distributed seborrhea sicca (dan- Hypersensitivity (allergy) to flea salivary antigens
druf ), with or without itching; miliary dermatitis; pru- plays a critical role in dermatoses seen in flea-infested
ritus without lesions; and asymptomatic carriage. cats. It is ver\' likely that skin lesions resulting from
Therapy includes the weekly topical administration flea bites occur only in sensitized (allergic) individu-
 EXTERNAL PARASITES

EXTERNAL PARASITES

CAT FLEA EAR MA\GE MITES MANGE MITES

Ctenocephalides felis 0 1 in Otodectes cytiotis 0 01 in Notoedres cati 0 01 in

als. Results of intradermal skin testing in cats with nodes); and 5.5 percent of the cats had recurrent eo-
flea-bite hypersensitivity suggest that they develop pri- sinophilic granuloma complex lesions that paralleled
marily an immediate hypersensitivity reaaion. the aaivity of their flea-bite hypersensitivity. In gen-
Cats with simple flea infestation may harbor an in- eral, feline flea-bite hypersensitivity is a seasonal dis-
credible number of fleas, yet show few or no clinical order inthe United States (April to November), except
signs. There are no age, breed, or sex predilections. where household infestation has been established and
Blood loss anemia can be produced in kittens and in the southern United States where it may be seen
debilitated adults.
Cats with flea-bite hypersensitivity show varying de- year-round.
Diagnosis is based on history, physical examination,
gre s of pruritic (itchy), erythematous (reddish), intradermal skin testing, and response to flea control.
papulocrustous (crusty bumpy) dermatitis (mili- Findingappear fleas, asfleasmalleggs,blackor specks"flea dirt"
ary dermatitis). The dorsal lumbosacral (lower which on the(fecal
skin casts,
or in
back) area, fliighs, ventral abdomen, head, and neck the environment) supports the diagnosis. However, it
are most commonly affected. In some cats, the cra- must be emphasized that the presence or absence
nial or caudal (head or tail) aspects of the body of these findings neither confirms nor negates the
are almost exclusively affected, and in other cats the diagnosis in any given animal. Clearly, many cats can
dermatosis is generalized. Some cats show only in- have flea infestations that are not contributing to any
tense itching and traumatic alopecia. They chew and dermatosis they may have. Likewise, it may be impos-
lick the hair off their backs, tummy, or inside of their sible to identify fleas and their products in cats that
hind legs, but produce no rash or sores. Some cats have been recently baflied or dipped.
develop lesions of the eosinophilic granuloma com- Effective control of flea infestations requires the si-
plex (e.g., an ulcer on the upper lip, or a firey red, multaneous treatment of all in-contact cats and dogs,
itchy sore on the abdomen or inner thigh). In a study and of the indoor and outdoor environments. Flea
of 133 cats with miliary dermatitis, seventy-three cases control is much easier in animals that are kept exclu-
(54.9 percent) were caused by flea-bite hypersensi- sively indoors. Flea control on the animals involves
tivity; 80.8 percent of the cats with flea-bite hyper- the use of various topical parasiticides, which may
sensitivity developed clinical signs at three years of bepreferences,
selected according to the toowner's capabilities andof
age or older; no breed or sex predilections for flea- and according any idiosyncrasies
bite hypersensitivity were found; 12.3 percent of the the patient. None of the currently available products
cats with flea-bite hypersensitivity had pronounced is 100 percent effective in killing or repelling fleas.
peripheral lymphadenopathy (enlarged lymph The cat's susceptibility to insecticide toxicity must
THE EXTERNAL CAT

always be remembered. In general, chlorinated hy- The cumulative toxic effects of insecticides are
drocarbons and most organophosphates are contrain- often overlooked. Insecticides from the same class
dicated. Even carbamates can be toxic in mdividual should never be used in different forms on the same
cats and in kittens. Most insecticidal products cannot animal. For example, organophosphate dips should
be used on kittens less than two to three months of not be used on a cat wearing an organophosphate flea
age. In such cases, light applications of pyrethrin or collar. This principle also applies to insecticides used
pyrethroid sprays or shampoos are preferred. A flea on the premises. Using carbamate powder on the cat
comb is very useful for physically removing fleas, and organophosphate
whereupon they can besolution. killed by putting them in alco- environment may resultsprays or foggers
in toxicity. Cats within the cat's
flea-bite
hol or an insecticide hypersensitivity may require the occasional or chronic
Most shampoos are, in general, ineffective for flea use of systemic glucocorticoids (a type of steroid) to
control. They lack residual activity. The often routine control their dermatitis.
shampooing of cats prior to application of parasitici- The house is usually the most important and the
dal dips is not necessary and may be contraindicated, most difficult in the flea control process, especially if
in that it removes skin surface lipid film (a fatlike the household has multiple pets, some of which go
substance) in which the dips may be .soluble. outdoors as well. Indoor flea control is most success-
Powders (pyrethrin and carbamate) are effective, fully achieved by a multiphasic approach that com-
especially for shorthair cats, and should be applied bines the use of insecticides with premise clean-up.
two or three times weekly. Powders tend to be drying Thorough house-cleaning should be performed first;
and may produce a dull, dry coat and varying degrees thorough vacuuming is very helpful.
of seborrhea sicca. They may also be irritating to the
oral and respiratory mucosa of some cats and humans. notAlthough
treat important foggers (flea
areas "bombs")
such as are
thoseuseful, they do
underneath
Sprays are effective and should be applied daily or furniture and under furniture cushions. Thus, it is es-
as needed. Pressurized sprays may cause a significant sential that these areas be treated with hand-directed
"startle" reaction in the patient, and alcohol-con- pesticide sprays. Products containing adulticides
taining sprays can be irritating to the skin. The fre- (which kill adult fleas) and growth regulators (which
quent application of some pyrethrin products to cats interrupt the flea life cycle) are preferred. The proper
can cause toxicity. Pump-action sprays, and those that application and reapplication of these products is crit-
do not contain alcohol, tend to be better tolerated. ical and should be thoroughly discussed with a veteri-
Dips are effective, especially in longhair cats, and narian.
are applied weekly. Many cats resent getting wet, and Lufeneron (Program) is a recent addition to the war
dips can be quite drying. The drying effect can be against fleas. This product is given by mouth once a
countered, if needed, by adding one capful of Alpha month. When adult fleas take a blood meal from the
Keri bath oil, or a similar emollient, per gallon of cat, they also ingest the lufeneron, which causes them
dipping solution. No feline toxicities have been seen to lay defective eggs. Thus, the life cycle of the flea is
with the approved commercial D-limonene (citrus interrupted, and no more adult fleas are produced.
oil) dips, but neither has there been any appreciable However, this produa has no effect on existing adult
efficacy against fleas. fleas, and will not prevent the cat from acquiring more
Flea foams (mousse) are effeaive, easy to apply, adult fleas from other animals or outdoors.
and often well tolerated by cats. Flea collars (includ- Outdoor flea control is also best accomplished by a
ing the ultrasonic type), oral thiamine (vitamin BJ, multiphasic approach. The outdoor flea-control pro-
oral brewer's yeast, oral garlic, and oral sulphur are gram should be performed at the same time as the
rarely beneficial in the control of fleas on cats Hypo- indoor treatments. The first and most environmentally
sensitization with aqueous whole flea extract has not sound step is to restrict the pet from visiting the trou-
been very effective. The procedure is time consuming, ble spots (crawl spaces, under decks, gardens, fields).
expensive, and effective in fewer than 10 percent of Sanitary upkeep of these areas includes mowing, rak-
cases. ing, and removal of organic debris. There are many
Ideally, all cats and dogs in the household should insecticidal sprays and dusts available for outdoor use.
be treated with the same vigor, even if only one of the These are generally applied to the trouble spots once
animals has problems. or rwice monthly during flea season. Commonly over-
 EXTERNAL PARASITES 201

looked outdoor point sources of flea infestation in- with the large numbers of maggots. A nauseating odor
clude the family vehicle and the cat carrier. is usually striking. Heavy fly strikes may cause death
Flea bites in hypersensitive humans produce a vari- by Therapy
toxicosis. includes correaing predisposing causes;
ety' of skin lesions. The typical lesion is an urticarial
papule (hives). A tiny hemorrhagic punctum gentle clipping and cleansing; removal of larvae by
(small blood-spot) is often present in the center of flushing and manual means; and supportive and symp-
the urticarial lesion, and vesicles (blisters) may sur- tomatic care. Pyrethrin shampoos or sprays (nonalco-
mount the papular lesions. Widespread lesions are holic) may be used to kill the larvae.
common in children. In adults, lesions are fewer in
number and characteristically occur in groups of Cuterebriasis
three. Lesions favor exposed extremities and are se-
verely pruritic. Cuterebriasis is a seasonal disorder of cats, most com-
monly affecting kittens and young cats during the
summer months. Adult Cuterebra fly species lay eggs
in the soil or on plants near the entrances of rabbit
FLIES and rodent burrows. Larvae may then penetrate the
skin of their normal hosts, or of an occasional cat, and
Myiasis develop in subcutaneous cysts. Larvae usually remain
Myiasis (infestation with maggots) is an uncommon in these cysts for about one month, then leave to pu-
dermatosis of cats and is caused by the larvae of vari- pate on the ground.
ous blowflies and flesh flies. Adult blowflies lay clus- Skin lesions of feline cuterebriasis consist of firm
ters of light yellow eggs in wounds, soiled hair, or subcutaneous nodules, which become fluctuant
carcasses, being attracted by the odor of decomposing (fluid-filled) and develop fistulae (central "breath-
matter. Larvae hatch from eggs in eight to seventy-two
hours and reach full size in two to nineteen days. Full- exudesing" holes),
and through which aspiny
the brownish, blood-tinged
larva can discharge
be seen
grown larvae are grayish-white or pale yellow in color moving. These lesions usually occur in the neck or
and lower jaw areas; they are usually single and asymp-
in dry"hairy" parts orof"smooth."
a carcass, Larvae
or evenpupate
in thein the
hairground,
of live tomatic but may occasionally be multiple or result in
animals. Larvae produce proteolytic (protein-split- abscesses. Larvae may also parasitize the cranial cavity,
ting) enzymes and damage the skin. Myiasis is a sea- nostrils, spinal column, or scronjm.
sonal, warm-weather disease, most commonly seen in Diagnosis is based on history' and physical examina-
debilitated cats, especially those with neglected tion. Occasionally, the larvae will have dropped out
wounds, maned hair coats, and feces- or urine-soiled before the cat is seen, and the clinician will be pre-
hair coats and skin. sented with a slowly healing wound or abscess with a
Myiasis has no apparent age, breed, or sex predilec- telltale circular hole.
tions. Itmost commonly involves the skin around the Veterinary therapy consists of removing the larva
anus, genitals, eyes, and on the dorsal midline (over and symptomatic wound care. The larva is gently ex-
the backbone). Lesions are characterized by multiple tracted with a forceps, enlarging the breathing hole if
"punched-out" ulcers that necessary. Care should be taken not to rupture the
ulcers with scalloped edges.coalesce
Large tosections
produceof large
skin larva in situ (in the wound), because an anaphylactic
may become undermined and may be seen to "crawl" (shocklike) reaction may occur.
 P A R T VIII

The Internal Cat

Tyger! Tyger! burning bright

In the forests of the night,
What immortal hand or eye
Could frame thy fearful symmetry?
When the stars threw down their spears,
And water 'd heaven with their tears,
Did He smile His work to see?
Did He who made the lamb make thee?
— William Blake, "The Tyger"
 CHAPTER 20

Circulatory System

and Disorders

by N. Sydney Moise and James R Richards

systems, includ
tory (anerie es the heart, The endocardium is a thin membrane that lines the
Thebloodcircula vessels arterioles, venules, internal cavities of the heart, while the epicardium
veins, capillaries), blood, and spleen. This covers the outer surface. The myocardium is the
system is responsible for transporting oxy- muscular layer of the heart. The pericardium is a
gen and nutrients to all body organs; transporting car- fibroserous membrane that encapsulates the heart.
bon dioxide and metabolic wastes to the excretory The pericardium prevents rapid changes in heart size,
organs (e.g., lungs, kidneys); prevents excessive mobility
transporting hormones and of the heart, and protects the
enzymes throughout the heart against the spread of
cavity.
infections within the chest
body; regulating the body's
temperature; and fighting in-
fectious diseases. Also in- The heart has four cham-
cluded in this discussion is bers: left and right atria
the lymphatic system, an in- (upper chambers) and right
terconneaing network of and left ventricles (lower
vessels and specialized struc- J chambers). Between the
tures called lymph nodes, j\ 1B>*'7 heart vessels
chambersare valves
and main
which is responsible for re- / blood that
moving fluid from tissue lH I control blood flow, main-
spaces and returning it to iH I taining one-directional
the bloodstream. Within the ventricles flow.
are
chordae tendineae (tendi-
nous strings) that connect
the papillary muscles (conical muscular projections
COMPONENTS OF THE on the ventricle walls) of the ventricles to the valve
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM leaflets. The chordae tendineae and papillary mus-
Heart cles function to properly open and close the valves.
The septum, a muscular wall, separates the two sides
The heart of a mature cat is about the size of a small of the heart.
plum. The heart wall is composed of various layers. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from
205
THE INTERNAL CAT

the cranial and caudal venae cavae (large, primary The pulse is a reflection of the heartbeat. The pro-
veins). The blood then flows through the tricuspid cedure used to take a cat's pulse is simple; however,
valve and enters the right ventricle. The right ventricle ahuman
cat's pulse
contracts, pumping blood through the pulmonic pulse may be more
because difficult toFirst,
it is weaker. locate
locatethanthea
(pertaining to the lungs) valve into the pulmonary femoral artery (on the inside of the hind leg). Care-
artery, which enters the lungs. The blood exchanges fully press with your fingers along the inside thigh
the carbon dioxide, which is a waste product from until you feel a pulsating sensation. Once you locate
metabolism, for oxygen. The carbon dioxide is ex- the throb of the femoral artery, count the number of
haled via the respiratory system. The oxygenated times you feel the pulsations within one minute (or
blood travels through the pulmonary veins and enters take a reading for fifteen seconds and multiply by four
the left atrium. The blood then flows through the mi- to get the number of heartbeats per minute). Also, the
tral valve into the left ventricle. When the left ventri- pulse can be taken by feeling the heartbeat through
cle contracts, it expels the blood through the aortic die rib cage.
valve into the aorta. The blood then travels through Another indicator of a healthy, or unhealthy, circu-
smaller and smaller arteries into arterioles, finally latory system is the color of the gums or tongue. A
reaching the capillaries to exchange oxygen for car- bluish-gray color (cyanosis) is indicative of insuffi-
cient oxygen in the blood, which may be related to
returnsbon dioxide
to the with heart the body'sa series
through cells. ofThevenules
blood (very
then
heart-lung problems.
small veins) and veins into the cranial and caudal
venae cavae, back to the right atrium. Blood
The contraction and relaxation of the heart is con-
trol ed byelectrical impulses. Sodium and calcium The average mature cat has about 65 ml (2.2 ounces)
ions, which are atoms that lose or gain electrons, of blood per kilogram (2.2 pounds) of body weight.
cause positive or negative charges and influence the Red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and
conductivity of electrical impulses within the cells plasma are the "ingredients" of blood. Each compo-
(i.e., repolarization and depolarization). The sino- nent plays an integral part in die body's well-being
atrial (SA) node, located between the cranial vena and health.
cava andmaker.theThe SArightnodeatrium, is the heart's
generates die initialnatural pace-
electrical ERYTHROCYTES. Erydirocytes, or red blood
impulse, which is then transmitted to the atrioven- cells, are red, concave, disk-shaped blood cells that
tricular node (located between the right and left contain hemoglobin (an iron-containing compound
atria). After a brief delay, die signal is sent to the protein), which gives them their red color. They are
bundle of His (small band of heart muscle fibers produced, along with their hemoglobin, in the bone
that propagate the atrial contraction rhythm to die marrow. Oxygen inhaled by the lungs binds to the
ventricles), the bundle branches, and finally to hemoglobin for transportation to the body's cells.
the Purkinje fibers, which are modified muscles in
the heart tissue that transmit impulses. The electrical LEUKOCYTES. Leukocytes, or white blood cells,
impulses generated by the SA node can be affected come in many forms, but all are responsible for de-
by the central nervous system; by concentrations of fending the body against disease-causing agents such
metabolites (products of metabolism), electrolytes as bacteria, viruses, and parasites. Most leukocytes are
(substances capable of ionizing), and hormones; and produced
by certain drugs. The voltage produced by the cardiac tions of die invarious the bone whitemarrow. The are
blood cells typesas and ftjnc-
follows;
muscle cells during depolarization and repolarization Neutrophils. Neutrophils phagocytize (surround
can be analyzed by veterinarians with an electrocar- and digest) bacteria and other foreign particles. Usu-
diogram (ECG). ally, die neutrophils are destroyed in the process.
Eosinophils. These white blood cells function to de-
perA minute.
cat's heartStrenuous normallyexercise,
beats from
stress,120excitement,
to 240 timesor
toxify, especially to contain allergic reactions, and to
fever will accelerate the number of times the heart suppress parasitic infections. In comparison to neu-
contracts genated to blood.
keep up with the body's demand for oxy- trophils, their phagocytic abilities are limited. They
are not as effective in destroying bacteria.
 207
CmCULATOKY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

Basophils. These white blood cells, together with very small vessels that connect the arteries and veins,
mast cells (connective tissue cells), contain hista- thereby forming a complete network for blood flow.
mine and serotonin, chemicals that affect dilation of The venules and veins carry blood back to the heart
the blood vessels, contraction of the smooth muscles, for recirculation.
gastric (stomach) secretions, the heart rate, and hep-
arin, an anticoagulant. Histamines also promote hy-
persensitivity reactions. The number of basophils in
the blood seems to be regulated by the pituitary, adre- The spleen, located in the Spleen
abdomen, has a connective
nal, and thyroid glands. tissue capsule and internal fibromuscular bands (tra-
Monocytes. Monocytes are larger than other white beculae) that support it. These trabeculae enable the
blood cells. They can rapidly engulf and destroy bacte- spleen to contract, thus making blood volume
ria and are capable of destroying fungi and protozoa. changes possible. The spleen filters and removes old,
Monocytes contain lysozyme and other bactericidal damaged blood cells and platelets from the blood-
substances that aid in destroying pathogens. stream and acts as a reservoir for extra red blood
Lymphocytes. These unique white blood cells are cells.
distributed in the lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils, thy- If the spleen is removed, most of its functions will
mus gland, bone marrow, and blood. Unlike the other be performed by other blood-forming tissues, which
white blood cells, they recirculate. The T-cell lympho- are primarily lymph nodes and bone marrow.
cytes funaion in cell-mediated immune re-
sponses (immune responses aaivated by the aid of
the cell), which include delayed hypersensitivity, graft Lymphatic System
rejeaion, and acquired resistance to infectious organ- The lymphatic system is composed of a highly special-
isms. The B-cell lymphocytes synthesize and secrete ized interconnecting network of lymphatic vessels that
antibodies, which are functionally manifested by im- transport lymph from all body tissues back to the
mediate hypersensitivity reactions and by antibody- heart through the venous side of the circulatory sys-
mediated protection against infeaious organisms. tem. Lymph is a clear admixture of tissue fluid, pro-
teins, solutes, and large molecular particles. Lymph
PLATELETS, Platelets (also called thrombocytes) travels from the peripheral perivascular (around a
assist in the clotting mechanism. Platelets are formed vessel) spaces to regional lymph nodes, and through
by the breakup or fragmentation of megakaryocytes, lymphatic vessels back into the venous side of the
which are large cells that are produced in the bone circulatory system. Lymph nodes are specialized col-
lections ofcells, which aa as filters for the lymph,
removing foreign particles that are then subjected to
PLASMA. This liquid composes 60 to 70 percent of destruaion by the immune system. The lymphatic and
the blood. Water, various proteins, electrolytes (ions immune systems are of great importance in protecting
of minerals like sodium, potassium, chloride, and cal the body against invasion by microbial agents, cancer,
cium), and sugars are the major constituents of and autoimmune (self-attacking) diseases.
plasma, in which red blood cells, white blood cells,
and platelets are suspended. Important proteins in the Blood Types
plasma include coagulation or cloning factors neces
sary for the formation of blood clots, and antibodies, All cats have one of three blood types: type A, type B,
which play a role in fighting disease. or the extremely rare type AB. The types are distin-
guished bythe presence of specific antigens on the
Blood Vessels surface of the red blood cells.
Blood types in cats are inherited as simple autoso-
The blood vessels provide a transportation network mal traits, with type A being completely dominant
throughout the body for blood. The arteries are mus- over type B. Type A cats can be either homozygotes
cular vessels that maintain pressure, thus assisting in (AA genotype) or heterozygotes (Ab genotype), while
the circulation of oxygenated blood through the body. all type B cats are homozygotes (bb genotype). As a
Arterioles are smaller arteries. The capillaries are result, crosses between type B cats will produce only
THE INTERNAL CAT

type B kinens, but crosses between type A cats or a heartbeat. Adult cats may become noticeably less ac-
type A and a type B cat may produce kittens with tive, tire easily, and experience shortness of breath
either blood type. The inheritance of type AB blood after the slightest exertion. Far too frequently, though,
is not yet completely understood. (See Chapter 13: serious signs of disease develop suddenly, even when
Genetics.) owners
Ninety-seven to 98 percent of all domestic cats in A heartaremurmur closely isobservant a commonof their
sign ofcat'sheartbehavior.
disease.
the United States have type A blood, but the percent- Murmurs occur when the flow of blood through the
age varies greatly among purebred cats. Oriental heart or large vessels becomes turbulent and creates
Shorthairs, Siamese, Burmese, Ocicats, and American a "whoosing " sound audible through a stethoscope.
Shorthairs almost never have type B blood; less than Leaking or narrowed heart valves, and abnormal com-
5 percent of Maine Coon Cats and Norwegian Forest munications between chambers of the heart or major
Cats are type B; 10 to 20 percent of Abyssinian, Somali, vessels near the heart, are the most common heart
Japanese Bobtail, Persian, Himalayan, and Sphinx cats disorders that cause murmurs.
have type B blood; 20 to 30 percent of Cornish Rex
and Exotic Shorthair cats are type B; and up to 40 to
50 percent of Devon Rex and British Shorthair cats Congenital Heart Diseases
have type B blood. The significance of different blood These are diseases that are present at the time of birth.
types will be discussed later in this chapter. The incidence of congenital heart disease is low, oc-
curring only in 1 to 2 percent of kinens born. Gener-
ally, the Siamese breed seems to be afflicted with a
heritable predisposition to several of the congenital
DISORDERS AND DISEASES heart diseases.
Heart ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) VALVE MALFOR-
There are many conditions that can adversely affect MATIONS. Defects of the mitral and tricuspid
the heart, but a consequence that is common to most valves occur more commonly in the cat than in most
of these disorders is heart failure. Heart failure is species of animals. Cats may have valves that are un-
usually described as being primarily either right-sided usually thick or misshapen, or valves that are improp-
or left-sided, but in the latter stages, both sides of the erly attached to the heart wall. Each of these defects
heart usually become involved. Cats with either right- renders the valve incompetent to perform its funaion.
or left-sided failure are weak and tire easily. As the The signs indicate the side of the heart that is affected.
condition worsens, fluid tends to build up in various Cats with mild defects may never progress to con-
parts of the body (congestive heart failure). Dyspnea gestive heart failure; those that do may respond favor-
(labored breathing) caused by pulmonary edema ably to medical management. Surgical correction of
(excessive fluid in the lungs — more common in left- AV valve defects is not possible at this time.
sided failure) or pleural effusion (fluid in the chest
around the lungs — more common with right-sided PATENT DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS. The ductus ar-
failure) are frequent findings in cats with congestive teriosus isa vessel that connects the pulmonary trunk
heart failure. Ascites (excessive fluid in the abdo- and aorta in the fetus, allowing oxygenated blood to
men) due to right-sided heart failure is not as com- bypass
mon in cats as it is in dogs and man. Cardiogenic arteriosusthe (PDA) fetus's isnonfunctional lungs. Patent
a persistent opening of thisductus
fetal
shock or a fatal arrhythmia can cause sudden death in conneaion after birth. Normally the fetal ductus will
congestive heart failure. close within three days after birth. If PDA is present,
Heart disease may be well advanced before the signs can occur from one month to five years of age.
problem is noticed, partially because of the sedentary The veterinarian's diagnosis is made by hearing a
lifestyle often adopted by indoor cats. Early recogni- murmur, seeing changes in the electrocardiograph,
tion of the typical signs of heart disease can help. For and interpreting results from radiography of the heart.
example, some kittens with congenital heart defects Definitive diagnosis requires echocardiography or,
grow slowly, are less active, have labored breathing, rarely, cardiac catheterization with selective angiog-
are in generally poor condition, and have a throbbing raphy (aform of radiography that utilizes a radio-
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

paque dye to visualize the blood vessels and changes it overrides the interventricular septum and receives
of the heart). The treatment is surgical ligation (clos- venous as well as arterial blood; right ventricular hy-
ing) of the PDA. A normal life can be expected if the pertrophy; and ventricular septal defect. Blood shunts
surgery is performed early and if the vessel does not from the right to the left ventricle, bypassing the
reopen. Without surgery, the prognosis is very poor. lungs.
Signs of the disorder typically include weakness,
SEPTAL DEFECTS. Septal defects are openings cyanotic (bluish) appearance of skin, exercise intol-
that occur in the septum. Ventricular septal defects are erance, and poor growth and weight gain. Diagnostic
openings between the right and left ventricles that procedures performed by a veterinarian may include
allow inappropriate blood flow from the left to the electrocardiography, echocardiography, and radiogra-
right ventricle (shunt). This is one of the more com- phy. Treatment may be medical (i.e., drug therapy) or
mon congenital defects occurring in the cat. Also, surgical. However, the surgical procedure is complex
atrial septal defects can occur. These are openings and requires sophisticated equipment. Prognosis is
between the right and left atria.
Frequently, no unusual signs indicating illness are guarded.
observed. However, if signs are present, usually they ENDOCARDIAL FIBROELASTOSIS. EFE is a
take the form of respiratory- complaints, such as la- rare defea that most commonly occurs in the Siamese
bored breathing or coughing. and Burmese breeds. It is characterized by an en-
The tests used by a veterinarian to detect septal larged left ventricle wall and the conversion of the
defects include radiography of the lungs and heart, endocardium into a thick fibroelastic membrane.
echocardiography (an ultrasonic test), and, rarely, Sometimes the leaflets of the aortic valve are irregular
cardiac catheterization with selective angiography. in size and thickened.
Medical treatment for congestive hean failure is Kinens with EFE have difficulty in breathing, some-
prescribed if necessary. Prognosis is poor if the shunt times breathing with their mouths open. These signs
is sizable. Surgically placing a band around the pul- are first noticeable between the ages of three weeks
monary artery may be helpful in select cases, but sur- and four months. Sudden death with no apparent
gery to repair the defea is not currently feasible in signs can occur. Treatment is rarely successful.
the cat.
PERSISTENT RIGHT AORTIC ARCH. This con-
AORTIC AND PULMONIC STENOSES. Stenosis genital defect is a rare deformity in the cat. During
is a narrowing at or near the valve. Aortic stenosis fetal development, the aorta is constructed from the
(constriction of the aonic valve) limits blood flow right fourth embryonic arch rather than from the left.
from the left ventricle. The left ventricle must work The result is that the aorta forms to the right of the
harder to provide the necessary blood circulation re- trachea and esophagus. Because the pulmonary veins
quired bythe body, which causes increases in size of develop normally (over the left side of the trachea
the heart muscle (hypertrophy). Signs are the same and esophagus), the esophagus becomes constricted
as for left-sided hean failure: labored and noisy between the major blood vessels. Regurgitation of
breathing. food from the esophagus results from this strangula-
Pulmonic stenosis, which affects the pulmonic tion. Surgery will remedy the problem.
valve, has the same effect on the right ventricle.
Hence, signs are indicative of right-side heart failure.
Positive diagnosis requires echocardiography or car- Acquired Heart Diseases
diac catheterization and angiography. These heart diseases are not present at the time of
Heart failure is managed medically. Because it re- birth, but can develop during the cat's lifetime. They
quires specialized equipment, surgery to correct aor- can be wofhere inthe
primary
body. origin or secondary to disease else-
tic or pulmonic stenosis is not readily available.
TETRALOGY OF FALLOT. This is a multiple car- ARRHYTHMIAS. Arrhythmias are variations from
diac defea, which includes four concurrent defects: the normal heartbeat. Changes in cardiac electrical
pulmonic stenosis; dextroposition of the aorta so that impulses disturb the natural rhythm of the heart.
THE INTERNAL CAT

thereby causing a variety of arrhythmias. Oxygen de- tion disturbances (e.g., left anterior fascicular block)
ficiency tothe heart muscle, acid-base imbalances, occur commonly in cardiomyopathy.
electrolyte imbalances, drugs, toxins, and heart dis- Usually, decreased cardiac output is associated with
ease can cause arrhythmias. arrhythmias, causing reduced blood flow to the brain,
Alterations in serum potassium (potassium levels in spleen, and kidneys. Antiarrhythmic drugs are helpful
the blood) are responsible for a majority of cardiac in treating arrhythmias, but treatment is best focused
irregularities that occur with electrolyte imbalances. on correcting the underlying cause of the arrhythmia,
Imbalances in calcium, sodium, hydrogen, and mag- if possible.
nesium can cause critical changes in cardiac conduc-
tivity. ACQUIRED VALVULAR HEART DISEASES.
Atrial and ventricular premature beats occur when These are disorders in which one or more of the
there is an early electrical discharge that does not valves is affected by a primary pathologic process.
originate within the SA node (the natural pacemaker). They can be caused by degenerative processes, sys-
They are frequently observed in cats that have hypo- temic bacterial infections, and chronic dental infec-
lemia kacanlemia (occur
alow levelfromof serum chronicpotassium).
bouts ofHypoka-
severe tions. Diseases affecting the valves cause the valves'
edges to thicken and shrink so they do not close com-
vomiting or diarrhea, diabetes mellitus, or excessive pletely, and this results in regurgitation of blood. Con-
urinary loss due to kidney disease or diuretic adminis- gestive heart failure can result.
tration. Treatment is aimed at correaing the underly- Although bacterial endocarditis occurs infrequently
ing cause of hypokalemia. in the cat, when it does occur the left valves are usu-
Atrial and/or ventricular fibrillation occurs when ally affected. Typical signs of infeaion include fever,
the heart sends erratic electrical impulses, preventing lethargy, and loss of appetite.
complete contraction of the hean muscle. Atrial fibril- Broad-spectrum antibiotics are administered to
lation isunusual in the cat, probably because of the treat infections. However, if heart damage occurs from
small heart size. However, when it occurs, it is usually the infection, the veterinarian may prescribe addi-
associated with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (see tional medication to assist in cardiac funaion. The
later section). Ventricular fibrillation is an extremely early.
prognosis is fair if bacterial endocarditis is treated
serious arrhythmia that results in the death of the cat.
Bradycardia (a slower than normal heart rate)
commonly occurs in cats with urethral obstruction PRIMARY MYOCARDIAL DISEASES. Cardio-
(blockage of the urinary tract). The obstruction causes myopathy. Cardiomyopathies are primary diseases
an electrolyte imbalance (excessive serum potassium) that affect the heart muscle. The ultimate result is an
and metabolic acidosis, which slow the heart rate. Se- inability of the heart to function properly, and heart
vere bradycardia and conduction disturbance in this failure may occur. Inheritance, viral infections, auto-
setting must be treated as an emergency, for death immune mechanisms, biochemical disorders, and diet
will soon occur. Other causes include various medica- deficiencies (e.g., insufficient taurine) are factors that
tions, hypothermia, and congestive cardiomyopathy. may
Tachycardia (a faster than normal heart rate) can thies. contribute to the development of cardiomyopa-
be caused by hyperthyroidism (excessive functional Cardiomyopathies are subdivided into hypertro-
activity of the thyroid gland), certain congenital de- phic, dilated, restrictive, and unclassified. Middle-aged
fects, cardiomyopathy, and bacterial endocarditis (in- male cats and certain breeds seem more predisposed
flam ation ofthe lining of the heart). Tachycardia to cardiomyopathies. Generally, the observed signs of
may also be associated with fear, stress, anemia, or labored breathing, lameness or paralysis, lethargy,
fever. and rarely ascites (accumulation of fluid in tlie abdo-
Conduction disturbances can result from any in- men) result from cardiac arrhythmias, congestive
ter uption ofthe normal conduction of electrical im- heart failure, or blood clots (arterial thromboem-
pulses responsible for normal heart function. As with boli). In advanced stages, collapse may occur, such as
the other arrhythmias, the causes are multiple and when a partial or complete temporary suspension of
include electrolyte imbalances, and congenital or ac- respiration or circulation results from obstructed arte-
quired heart disease. Some specific types of conduc- rial blood flow.
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS
211
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. HCM is the most of the heart impeding the ability of the heart to ex-
common form of acquired hean disease in the cat, pand and contract. Older cats are predominantly af-
and it predominantly affeas young to middle-aged fected.
male cats. It is the enlargement of the left ventricular Diagnosis of cardiomyopathies. Diagnostic tests that
wall, papillary muscles, and septum, which limits the may be performed by a veterinarian include electro-
size of the left ventricular chamber. This type of en- cardiogram, radiography, serum chemistries, and
largement prevents the heart from expanding (to re- hemogram (includes blood counts, packed cell vol-
ceive blood) adequately, thus decreasing cardiac ume, percent of hemoglobin). These tests do not nec-
output. Cardiac arrhythmias and conduaion distur- essarily help in dififerentiating among the various
bances are also common. The incidence of blood clots types of cardiomyopathies; however, they can provide
is somewhat greater than in other forms of cardiomy- vital information on the function of other organs. This
opathy. The dynamics of this clotting directly relate to information is important in determining appropriate
the restricted ventricular filling, which allows the methods of treatment.
blood to remain for a longer period of time in the left Sophisticated tests that can be performed at pro-
atrium, thereby having a greater chance of forming gressive small-animal clinics or at veterinary college
blood clots. clinics are echocardiography and, very rarely, angio-
With HCM, left-sided heart failure is most promi- cardiography. These tests can differentiate between
nent, so typical signs include labored and noisy the various types of cardiomyopathy and allow moni-
breathing from pulmonary edema, lethargy, and loss toring ofthe effectiveness of therapy.
of appetite. Sudden onset of lameness or paralysis Recently, an increasing number of cats have been
of the hind legs because of arterial blood clots may diagnosed with myocardial disease that is not easily
occur. classified as DCM, HCM, or restrictive cardiomyopa-
Prognosis is fair if arrhythmias and clots can be thy. Because of the variability of this disease, therapy
controlled medically. Treatment by the veterinarian must be tailored specifically for each individual cat.
consists of dosages of negative inotropes (sub-
stances that affect the force of muscle contraaions), SECONDARY MYOCARDIAL DISEASES. Infec-
diuretics, and carefully controlled doses of aspirin. tions myocarditis is an inflammation of the heart mus-
Dilated cardiomyopathy. DCM occurs primarily in cle caused by direct invasion of an infectious agent,
middle-aged to older cats. Also, there is an increased such as a baaerium, fungus, virus, or protozoan.
incidence of DCM in Siamese, Abyssinian, and Bur- Treatment is directed at the primary cause but may
mese breeds. DCM is the enlargement of all the also require medication to control heart failure.
hean's chambers. This enlargement of the ventricles DRUGS USED IN TREATMENT OF HEART
and atria stretches the heart muscle cells, thereby cre-
ating thinner, weaker hean walls. Right-sided heart DISEASE. The goal of therapy is to reduce the
failure is more common in cats with DCM. workload on the heart and improve oxygenation of
Studies have proven that a deficiency of taurine blood. The therapy regimen varies according to the
(an essential amino acid) in the diet is the major cause type and severity of the heart disease. Also, a low-
of DCM. Cat food manufacturers have added taurine sodium diet can be beneficial to the patient by pre-
to cat food to meet the new recommended taurine venting fluid retention. Some of the drugs used by the
level, so that now DCM is infrequently diagnosed. veterinarian follow.
Treatment by the veterinarian consists of taurine Calcium-channel blocking drugs like diltiazem
supplements, positive inotropes to strengthen the have multiple therapeutic effects and are often used
heart muscle, and diuretics to remove excess body to treat cats with HCM or hypertension. These drugs
fluid. Usually, if treatment is given in a timely fashion, slow flie heart rate, promote vasodilation, and, like
the cats recover. The incidence of this disease has the beta-blocking drugs, they improve ventricular fill-
declined greatly since taurine has been added to cat ing. Most cats tolerate this class of drugs quite well
food. with minimal or no adverse side effects.
Restrictive cardiomyopathy. Restrictive cardiomyop- Diuretics are commonly prescribed for feline pa-
athy (endocardial fibrosis) is not common in the cat. tients experiencing edema or fluid accumulation. Di-
In this disease, fibrous tissue covers the inner lining uretics act primarily by blocking reabsorption of
212 THE INTERNAL CAT

sodium by the kidneys, thereby encouraging excre- SYSTEMIC HYPERTENSION. Systemic hyper-
tion of excessive fluid from the body. tension, orabnormally high arterial blood pressure,
Digitalis like drugs (digitalis and digoxin) are classi- can be classified as either primary (essential hyper-
fied aspositive inotropes (which increase the strength tension) orsecondary hypertension, which is a con-
of contractions by the heart) and tliey also reduce the sequence ofdisease elsewhere in the body. Essential
heart rate. Therefore, tliese drugs are often used to hypertension is rare in cats. Most hypertensive cats
control atrial tachyarrhythmias (rapid, irregular have secondary hypertension; kidney disease and hy-
heart rhythm) and improve cardiac performance in perthyroidism arethe major causes.
cats with DCM, restrictive cardiomyopathy, or certain A number of complex factors influence the devel-
congenital heart diseases. The veterinarian must main- opment ofhypertension in cats with renal disease. As
tain close supervision of dosage because toxicity can one example, diseased kidneys are often unable to
easily occur. An acute onset of vomiting, loss of appe- excrete adequate amounts of sodium, and as a result,
tite, and diarrhea are signs of toxicity. the retained sodium causes fluid retention by the
Dopamine and dobutamine are examples of posi- body and circulatory congestion.
tive inotropes sometimes used on an emergency basis Cats with hyperthyroidism often become hyperten-
for acute heart failure and cardiogenic shock. These sive. Anumber of complex and interrelated mecha-
drugs are given intravenously by the veterinarian. nisms are responsible: increased heart rate, vaso-
Vasodilators (e.g., nitroglycerin, hydralazine, capto- dilation, and enhanced strength of heart muscle
pril, and enalapril) influence the blood vessels, usu- contractions are examples.
ally by decreasing peripheral vascular resistance Uncontrolled systemic hypertension primarily af-
(restricted blood circulation in the extremities). This fects the ocular, cardiovascular, renal, and neurologic
effect is particularly important in counteracting the systems. Thus, as might be expected, the physical prob-
vasoconstriction that occurs in hean failure. Vasodila- lems observed in hypertensive cats can be extremely
tors help in preventing the onset of pulmonary edema variable. Ocular signs are often the first to be noticed;
by reducing pulmonary venous pressure. they include changes in the retinal blood vessels, reti-
Beta-adrenergic blocking drugs like propranolol nal hemorrhage, retinal detachment, or blindness. En-
and atenolol are classed as negative inotropes (which largement ofthe heart similar to what is seen in cats
decrease the strength of heart contraction) and also with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a fairly common
slow the heart rate. They aa to improve the filling of finding in cats with hypertension. Hypertension can
the ventricles and are useful in cats with HCM or heart either promote progression of kidney disease or be the
disease due to hyperthyroidism. Propranolol should initial cause. Interestingly, because hypertension is
not be used in cats with asthma, bradycardia, and both a cause and a result of kidney disease, it is often
some types of heart failure. difficult to determine which condition came first.
Control of systemic hypertension in cats is most
HEART DISEASE SECONDARY TO OTHER successful if the underlying cause can be discovered
DISORDERS, Kidney disease. When the kidneys and treated. For cats with hyperthyroid-induced hy-
are diseased, they cannot perform their functions ade- pertension, this goal is usually easy to meet, but treat-
quately. This dysfunction affects the cardiovascular ing hypertension caused by renal disease presents a
system. Kidneys produce erythropoietin, a hor- much more difficult task. Medical means employed to
mone that stimulates red blood cell production. control hypertension involve dietary sodium restric-
Kidney disease decreases the production of erythro- tion, and administration of diuretics, vasodilators,
poietin, resulting in anemia, which stimulates the and/or beta-adrenergic blocking drugs.
circulatory system to increase circulation. (For infor-
HYPERKINETIC CIRCULATORY DISORDERS.
^X^^enmatiothe n on anemia,
kidneysseeare"Blood,"
unable this chapter.)wastes, a
to remove These are cardiovascular diseases that cause increased
buildup of toxins occurs. The toxins stimulate bouts cardiac output in the presence of congestive heart
of vomiting and diarrhea, causing a loss of potassium. failure. Cardiac output is based on hean rate and
This loss is further aggravated when additional pot- blood volume from contraction of the left ventricle.
as ium islost in the urine. The resulting hypokalemia The causes include hyperthyroidism, severe chronic
causes atrial and ventricular premature beats. anemia, and arteriovenous fistula.
 CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

Hyperthyroidism. Hyperthyroid cats secrete exces- moved fluid can be analyzed to help determine the
sive amounts of the hormone thyroxine. Thyroxine cause of the fluid infiltration into the pericardium.
direaly increases the body's metabolic rate and heart Drugs that may be used include antibiotics, steroids,
rate. Because of the increased metabolic rate and oxy- and diuretics. Surgery may be necessary to alleviate
gen consumption caused by hyperthyroidism, more constrictive pericarditis. If FIP is the cause, the prog-
heat is produced, resulting in the expansion of blood nosis ispoor.
vessels (vasodilation). Hence, blood flow through
the blood vessels increases. As a result, the blood HEARTWORM DISEASE. Fortunately, the cat is
volume handled by the heart is increased and the not the preferred host of the parasite, Dirofilaria.
heart rate increases. Because of increased heart rate However, this disease does occur in cats. (See Chapter
and the demand to meet the increased peripheral- 31: Internal Parasites.)
tissue oxygen need, cardiac work is increased. Over a
period of time, hypertrophy of the heart occurs. As Blood Vessels
mentioned, hyperthyroidism can also produce hyper-
tension, causing additional adverse effects on the Various problems can plague blood vessels, such as a
heart. blockage caused by a blood clot, or increased pres-
Approximately 50 percent of hyperthyroid cats have sure from hypertension.
increased heart size as detected by ECG, radiographi-
cally, or echocardiographically. (See Chapter 27: En- ARTERIAL THROMBOEMBOLISM. The artery
docrine System and Disorders.) becomes blocked by a blood clot (embolus) that
Anemia. Severe chronic anemia stimulates an in- breaks free from the site of formation. Causes include
crease incirculation to compensate for the reduction cardiomyopathy, congenital heart disease, bacterial
of oxygen-carrying red blood cells. This is accom- endocarditis, trauma to the heart (e.g., heart surgery,
plished byincreasing the heart rate and the diameter cardiac catheterization, penetrating chest injuries), or
of blood vessels (vasodilation). Treatment is directed injury to the aorta or peripheral aneries.
at correcting the underlying cause. Signs of arterial thromboembolism relate to the
ArteriovenotAS fistula. Arteriovenous fistula (AV) is area that is obstructed. For example, if the occlusion
an abnormal, direa junction between an anery and (blockage) is in the femoral artery, the cat may be-
vein in the absence of a capillary. Congenital defects come lame or paralyzed in that leg as the blood sup-
— and on rare occasions, penetrating wounds — can ply isreduced to the tissues; or, if it affects circulation
cause AV fistulas. Cardiac output is increased if the to the brain, the signs are of neurologic origin, such
shunt is large, because of blood volume overload. The as head-tilt, incoordination, and sudden death.
occurrence of AV fistulas in cats is low. Tests that aid in diagnosis include electrocardiogra-
Treatment is to surgically close all AV communica- phy, angiography, and serum chemistries. Treatment
tions. Ifcongestive heart failure existed before sur- is based on location of the occlusion and the cause,
gery, drugs are administered to control the problem. and may include anticoagulant and vasodilator drug
therapy or platelet suppressants. Follow-up visits are
PERICARDIAL DISEASE. Cats rarely suffer from important for monitoring the cat's progress on treat-
this malady. However, feline infectious peritonitis ment.
(FIP) and congestive heart failure are the most com-
mon causes for acquired pericardial disease. The pri- ARTERITIS. A rare condition in cats, arteritis (vas-
mary manifestation of this disease is cardiac culitis) isan inflammation within the wall of an artery,
tamponade (compression of the heart due to the which may be caused secondarily by infectious agents
filling of the pericardium with fluid). This constricts such as feline infectious peritonitis, bacterial endocar-
the heart and decreases its ability to expand. Echocar-
diography isa conclusive diagnostic procedure. drugs. ditis, heartworms. Rocky Mountain spotted fever, or
Treatment is based on establishing and then treat- The signs depend on the severity of the lesions on
ing the cause. Initially, a pericardiocentesis (re- the arterial walls and on the distribution. Usually, the
moval of pericardial fluid via needle aspiration by a early signs include lethargy, decreased appetite,
veterinarian) is done to relieve the pressure. The re- weight loss, increased thirst and urination, lameness.
214 THE INTERNAL CAT
and pain. More advanced signs include peripheral bleeding or blood-sucking external or internal para-
neurologic involvement, progressive kidney insuffi- sites, such as fleas or hookworms, respeaively). He-
ciciio . \(imiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, sudden molysis can be caused by blood parasites (e.g.,
blindiK's.s, and skin ulcerations. Haemobartonella or Cytauxzoon), by drugs or chem-
Because the disease is multisystemic, the list is ex- icals (e.g., acetaminophen, naphthalene mothballs), or
tensive for the diagnostic tests that a veterinarian may by immune processes. (See Chapter 28: Immune System
perform to determine the priman.' cause. Treatment AND Disorders.)
is based on the underlying cause. Nonregenerative anemia. The most important de-
pressive influence on the cat's marrow is the feline
Blood leukemia virus (FeLV), which also may inhibit produc-
tion of white cells and platelets. In addition to FeLV,
Blood, the fluid that circulates through the heart, ar- certain drugs may depress marrow funaion, such as
teries, capillaries, and veins, carries nutrients and oxy- pyrimethamine, used to treat toxoplasmosis, or chlor-
gen to the body cells and removes waste products of amphenicol, anantibiotic that is very valuable but po-
metabolism such as carbon dioxide. Blood consists of tential y toxic in large doses. Cancer within the bone
a pale yellow liquid (plasma) that contains micro- marrow can "crowd out" the normal blood-cell-
scopic formed elements: erythrocytes (red cells), leu- producing tissue and cause nonregenerative anemia.
kocytes (white cells), and thromboates (platelets). Inadequate red cell produaion due to dietary defi-
The red cells and most white cells originate in the ciencies isuncommon in cats. Cats get ample iron in
bone marrow; other white cells called lymphocytes food. Deficiencies such as those of vitamin B,2 and
originate in lymphatic tissues (lymph nodes, spleen, folic acid are of rare natural occurrence.
and thymus gland). The red cells get their color from In blood-loss and red-cell-destruction anemias,
oxv'gen-carrying pigment, hemoglobin. blood transfiisions can be lifesaving until the cause of
Abnormalities affecting numbers or types of blood the anemia can be treated or eliminated. Unhappily,
elements may be caused by disorders in the blood- inadequate red cell produaion caused by FeLV cannot
forming tissues themselves, by a multitude of disor- be reversed with any measures currently available,
ders elsewhere in the body, or, less often in the cat, and therefore, FeLV-induced anemia has a very poor
by deficiencies of nutrients required for blood forma- prognosis, although the lives of affeaed cats can be
tion. prolonged in some cases by blood transfusion and
symptomatic treatment for secondary illnesses.
DISORDERS OF ERYTHROCYTES. Anemia. In an FeLV-negative cat whose marrow has been
Anemia is a decrease below normal in the number of damaged by a toxin or drug, a blood transfusion buys
red cells. There are two general mechanisms that time until the marrow can recover on its own. Some-
cause anemia in cats: (l) the red cells are being lost times the marrow responds to stimulation with ste-
by bleeding (hemorrhage) or are being destroyed roids or anabolic hormones. If it does not,_ a
(hemolysis), or (2) the bone marrow is not manufac- transfusion of marrow from a donor cat may be suc-
turing high enough numbers of new red blood cells cessful, although this procedure is not widely avail-
to replace older ones that are being taken out of circu- able.
lation. Anemias caused b\' the first mechanism are Polycythemia. Polycythemia is an increase in the
called regenerative anemias, while those caused by total red cell mass of the blood, caused by overaaive
the second are called nonregenerative anemias. It is produaion of red cells by the marrow. A physiologic
very important to classify the type of anemia from compensatory polycythemia can occur in response to
which a cat may be suffering because the causes and a lack of oxygen in the tissues (e.g., in lung or cardio-
prognoses are different. Simple blood tests are usually vascular diseases). A relative polycythemia occurs
capable of revealing the type, but in some cases, a when plasma volume is decreased and the red cells
sample of bone marrow may need to be evaluated. become more concentrated, as in dehydration. True
Regenerative anemia. Hemorrhage in cats may be polycythemia
obvious (such as from a laceration or other traumatic known cause isin a which myeloproliferative
not only reddisorder
cells butof also
un-
injury) or quite subtle (such as from gastrointestinal white cells and platelets are increased in number.
 CmCULATOKY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

True polycythemia is fairly common in humans but ated with an increased susceptibility to infections in
very rare in cats. Good, long-term control is achieved affected cats. However, a bleeding tendency has been
in humans by periodic blood studies and removal of described. Persian cats with this syndrome are not
blood as needed to maintain the hematocrit (per- reponed to have severe or progressive clinical dis-
ease.
centage ofred cells in whole blood) at about 45 per-
cent. When platelet numbers increase to a level that Pelger-Huet disorder This disorder has been re-
poses a clanger of forming clots, with a threat of ported to occur in cats. It is characterized by failure
thromboses and embolisms, the patient is treated with of the nucleus of granulocytes (certain types of white
a marrow-suppressive drug. In occasional cases, true blood cells) to segment in a normal fashion as they
polycythemia ultimately develops into leukemia. mature. It is suggested that this condition may impair
Blood parasites. Haemobartonella felis, Babesia, granulocyte funaion.
and Cytaiixzoon felis are parasites that destroy the Mucopolysaccharidoses. This group of inherited
erythroates. This destruaion results in anemia. (See disorders in the cat is characterized by inclusions
Cr-vpter 30: Bacterial Diseases, and Chapter 31: Inter- (granules) in neutrophils and lymphocytes. The basis
nal Parasites. ) of these disorders is an enzyme deficiency.
Leukemia. Leukemia is a form of myeloproliferative
DISORDERS OF LEUKOCYTES. Septicemia disease, or cancer, that affects leukocytes. The abnor-
{blood poisoning). The white cells are an important mal leukocytes, produced in the bone marrow in ex-
body defense against threats of many kinds, especially cess, choke off normal blood cell production and are
injury and infeaion. They rally rapidly to the site of incapable of providing protection against pathogens
a bite wound or foreign objeCT, where they engulf invading the body. Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is
infeaious organisms, products of degeneration, and the most common cause of leukemia in the cat. (See
other paniculate matter. When the challenge is local- Chapter 29: Viral Diseases, and Chapter 33: Cancer.)
ized, the response may be localized, but in systemic
infeaion, especially if baaeria and their toxins are MYELOPROLIFERATIVE DISORDERS. These
present in the bloodstream (septicemia), the total cancerous disorders may involve any one of the cell
number of leukocytes may increase rapidly and spec- types of the bone marrow. The form they usually take
tacularly, with young cellular forms appearing in con- is leukemia, which is characterized according to the
siderable numbers. In overwhelming cases of proliferating cell involved: granulocytic or myeloge-
septicemia, however, the total of white blood cells nous (neutrophilic series), eosinophilic, or baso-
may fall below normal — a grave sign. Although leuko- philic. Proliferations of red cells (erythremic
cytes often fight off infection on their own, serious or myelosis) and of platelet precursors (megakaryo-
persistent infeaions require antimicrobial treatment. cytic leukemia) also occur, as do leukemias involv-
Often, an antimicrobial is chosen on the basis of a ing cells not of bone marrow origin (lymphocytes,
veterinarian's monocytes, plasma cells, and mast cells). The feline
or blood) and experience, but a culture
an antimicrobial sensitivity(of test
pus, may
tissue,be leukemia virus is the cause of most of these leuke-
necessary. mias. (See Chapter 29: Viral Diseases.)
In the following uncommon feline disorders, ab- Signs may include weakness, pale mucous mem-
normal struaures may be observed microscopically branes; fever; enlarged lymph nodes, liver, and
in white blood cells. spleen; as well as bleeding tendency. Diagnostic tests,
Cbediak-Higashi syndrome. This inherited auto- performed by a veterinarian, include a complete
somal (nonsex-linked) recessive trait has been blood count (CBC), FeLV test, and examination of
reported in Persians. The normal Blue Smoke Per- bone marrow removed through a needle.
sian has copper-colored irises. Affeaed Blue Smoke The prognosis for all forms of myeloproliferative
Persians have yellow-green irises with an unusual disease is poor; treatments of myeloproliferative dis-
basket-weave panern. Microscopically, there are char- orders inthe cat are usually unsuccessful. Even if che-
aaeristic round, eosinoptdlic inclusions (gran- motherapy issuccessful in inducing remission, it is
ules) occurring in neutrophils, lymphocytes, and typically short-lived and survival time is very short.
eosinophils. These inclusions have not been associ- Although available only on a limited basis, bone mar-
216 THE INTERNAL CAT
row transplantation is being explored as a treatment covered incats, but hemophilia is the most common
for cats with myeloproliferative bone marrow dis- severe inherited blood-clotting defect. It is inherited
eases. The procedure involves destroying the diseased as a recessive X-linked trait, so although females are
tissue by radiation or chemotlierapy and then replac- carriers of the disorder, only males exhibit a tendency
ing itwitli healthy bone marrow. to bleed. Both hemophilia A (a deficiency of clotting
factor VIII more common in nonpurebred cats) and
DISORDERS OF PLATELETS. Platelets, disk- hemophilia B (a deficiency of clotting factor EX
shaped, non-nucleated blood elements from precur- more common in nonpurebred and British Shorthair
sor cells (megakaryocytes) in the bone marrow, are cats) have been described. Factor XII deficiency is
necessary for proper blood clotting. Therefore, any fairly common in both Siamese and nonpurebred do-
platelet disorder itffects the clotting of the blood. mestic cats. It is inherited as an autosomal recessive
Thrombocytopenia is a decrease in the number trait, and although laboratory tests of clotting funaion
of platelets circulating in the blood, caused by prema- are abnormal, this defect does not cause abnormal
ture destruction, decreased production, or sequestra- bleeding tendencies.
tion of platelets in a diseased spleen or as a result of Vitamin K deficiency resulting from anticoagulant
Die (see later section). The most obvious indications rodenticide poisoning is one of the most common
of thrombocytopenia are capillary bleeding, such as acquired disorders of blood clotting. The liver re-
from the gums or nose, and purplish areas on the quires vitamin K to produce essential clotting factors
skin. Anemia resulting from blood loss may also be (VII, EX, X, and prothrombin). Rodenticides con-
present. taining coumarin or indanedione compounds inter-
Immune-mediated destruction (caused by anti- fere with the body's use of vitamin K; if enough poison
is ingested, hemorrhaging can result. Outdoor cats
curs bodies reacting againstin the
less frequently cats body's
than inowndogs.
platelets) oc-
However, are more susceptible to rodenticide poisoning, be-
when it does occur, the underlying causes can be cause they have a greater opportunity' to prey on poi-
autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythe- soned rodents or track through poisons. Treatment
matosus, tumors, or infectious agents. It is also fre- consists of doses of vitamin K to counter the effect of
quently associated with an underlying FeLV infection. the rodenticide.
(See Chapter 28: Immune System and Disorders.) Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC)
Diagnostic tests may include platelet count, pro- is a complication secondary to a wide variety of other
thrombin time (a test of blood coagulation rate), disorders. In DIC, the coagulation factors are activated
complete blood count (CBC), examination of bone by the primary disease, thus causing the formation of
marrow aspirate, and various immunologic tests (e.g., small clots that block arterioles. A complex combina-
antinuclear antibody [ANA], rheumatoid factor), and tion of events then follows, ultimately resulting in
the Coombs' test. (See Appendix C: Diagnostic Tests.) hemorrhage. Treatment for DIC is based on correct-
Initial treatment is to control any associated bleed- ing the underlying cause, if possible, and careful use
ing. Blood transfusions may be necessary during this of the anticoagulant heparin.
stage. Drugs used may include corticosteroids or
other immunosuppressive drugs to reduce platelet NEONATAL ISOERYTHROLYSIS AND TRANS-
destruction and increase platelet release from the FUSION REACTIONS. Cats with type B blood
bone marrow. Follow-up visits are important for mon- have antibodies directed against type A red blood
itoring the cat's and progress in treatment. Relapses can cells, and vice versa. These antibodies, called isoanti-
occur suddenly, the prognosis is guarded. bodies or isoagglutinins, are naturally occurring and
Nonimmunologic destruction or injury of platelets are present whether or not an individual has pre-
can occur from vascular diseases, certain drugs, and viously received a transfusion of blood from a donor
certain infectious agents. of differing type. The most severe incompatibility re-
actions are caused by anti-A antibodies in type B cats.
MISCELLANEOUS DISORDERS OF COAGU- Transfusion reactions. Anemia in cats is not uncom-
LATION. Not infrequently, cats have disorders of mon, and transfusions are often required if the af-
the blood-clotting (hemostatic) mechanism. A num- flicted cat's life is to be spared. However, type B cats
ber of congenital bleeding disorders have been dis- transfused with type A blood are at great risk for an
 217
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

immediate, severe, and potentially life-threatening TUMORS. The most common tumor of the lym-
transfusion reaction. In type B cats with high quanti- phatic system is lymphosarcoma, usually caused by
ties of anti-A antibodies, transfusion of even very small the feline leukemia virus. (See Chapter 29: Viral Dis-
quantities of type A blood can cause a severe reaction. eases.) Inthe abdomen, the spleen and lymph nodes
T>pe A cats transfused with type B blood are far less may occasionally be the site of a malignant tumor of
likely to have a severe reaction, but even in this situa- blood vessels (hemangiosarcoma). It appears that
tion, the transfused red blood cells have a shortened this tumor does not spread as extensively in cats as it
life span. Because type B blood donors are often more does in dogs. ^
difficult to locate, breeds of cats likely to have type B
blood should have their blood typed, in case transfu- TRAUMA. Injuries involving the abdomen (e.g., car
sion isever required. accidents) may rupture the spleen. Minor cracks heal
Neonatal trum, containsisoerythrolysis.
high quantitiesTheof "first milk,"antibodies
protective or colos- by themselves; severe hemorrhage is a life-threaten-
(maternal antibodies) that are ingested and absorbed ing emergency often requiring removal of the spleen.
by kittens during the first hours of life. These antibod-
ies serve to protect kinens from infectious disease CHYLOTHORAX. Chyle (milky-looking intestinal
until their own immune systems become more ma- lymph) is carried by a major lymphatic vessel (the
ture. However, type A kittens born to type B queens thoracic duct) that empties into the vena cava
are at risk for neonatal isoerythrolysis (NI). The anti-A (large vein) in the chest. Traumatic rupture or, much
maternal antibodies destroy the type A kittens' red more often, obstruction of the thoracic duct due to
blood cells. Anemia, jaundice, red-colored urine, loss a variety of causes (hean disease, infectious disease,
of the skin on the tail and ear-tips, weakness, and parasitism, diaphragmatic hernia, tumor), leads to ac-
death are common consequences. To avoid this seri- cumulation ofchyle in the chest cavity. Expansion of
ous incompatibility reaction, it is recommended that the lungs is increasingly limited, so that the cat
type B queens be bred to only type B males. breathes with ever more difficulty and may die unless
the fluid is drained promptly. It is essential to dis-
Lymphatic System tinguish chyle from other effusions. Diagnosis is de-
pendent on the history, clinical signs, gross and
The spleen (a flat, oblong organ in the anterior abdo- microscopic examination of chest fluid, radiography
men), lymph nodes throughout the body, and nests (x-rays), and ultrasound examination of the heart and
of lymphoid tissue in many organs, together with a chest. Treatment is decided on once the underlying
network of vessels, constitute the lymphatic system. cause of the disorder has been determined. Specific
(See Chapter 28: Immune System and Disorders.) This treatment for the condition includes drainage of fluid
system is important for trapping harmful agents and from the chest, dietary fat restriction, cage rest, and
for forming antibodies. Because the spleen and lymph resolving the underlying cause, if possible. Patients
nodes represent a filtering system, they may become unresponsive to therapy may require exploratory sur-
enlarged in infeaious diseases, and they are sites of gery to identify and repair the underlying cause or the
spread from malignant tumors. placement of special drains or shunts.
 Musculoskeletal System

and Disorders

by Jeffrey E. Barlough and Julia T. Blue

THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

tal system comprises the formation of joints, where it is referred to as articu-
Thestructu ral oskele
muscul elements that give shape and sup- lar cartilage. Joints are complex structures that con-
pon to the body and allow for movement sist of articular cartilage, ligaments (strengthening
of its component parts. The skeleton is the bands of fibrous tissue, for stabilizing joint structure),
bony frame upon which the soft tissues depend for and a highly effective lubricating substance, synovial
support. Like muscle, it is composed of living tissue. fluid, which facilitates virtually frictionless movement
This tissue is supplied of one cartilage sur-
with blood vessels, face against another.
lymphatic vessels, and It is frequently
nerves. Minerals — venient to divide con-
the
calcium, magnesium, skeleton into two
phosphorus, fluoride major pans: the ap-
— provide the rigidity
characteristic of bone; ton, composed pendicular skele-
of the
their deposition in the limb bones and pel-
skeleton represents vis; and the axial
an important reser- skeleton, consisting
voir of these sub- of the vertebrae, skull,
stances for tlie body. ribs, and sternum.
The bone marrow is Muscle tissue is
the soft center of the composed of bundles
bones and contains of muscle fibers, each
blood-forming elements of the blood vascular system of which consists of many myofibrils (slender,
—precursor cells of the red and white blood cells. threadlike tissue) protected by a delicate cell mem-
The periosteum is the thin and sensitive outer brane, the sarcolemma. Around the sarcolemma are
sheath of the bones, a specialized layer of connective wound layers of connective tissue, which ultimately
tissue that is an important source of growing bone. are continuous with the tendons (fibrous cords) that
Cartilage is another type of specialized connective connect muscles to bone, or with the fiisciae (sheets
tissue that is important in bone growth and in the of fibrous tissue), which sheathe and define the mus-
218
 MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

cles. Like bone, muscles are supplied with blood ves- ence of four whisker pads. The defect is inherited as
sels, lymphatics, and nerves. an incomplete dominant trait.
There are several different types of muscle. Skele-
tal muscle is under voluntary control and includes MYASTHENIA GRAVIS. Myasthenia gravis (MG)
most of the muscles of movement attached to the skel- in cats can be eitlier congenital or acquired. With ei-
eton. Smooth muscle is not under voluntary control; ther form, a defect in the transmission of signals from
this type of muscle services the major internal organs the nerve endings to the muscles causes profound
and the blood vessels and is responsible for the nor- muscle weakness. In the more common acquired
mal muscular functioning of these structures. Cardiac form, a malfunction of the body's own immune system
muscle is a specialized muscle tissue found in the is responsible for the disease; antibodies are pro-
hean. Contraaions of cardiac muscle occur without duced that destroy the nerve signal receptors on the
conscious control and are responsible for mainte- muscles. Response to treatment varies, depending on
nance of the heartbeat for the general circulation of the individual case.
the blood. Other muscle diseases that are suspected or known
to have a hereditary basis include feline X-linked mus-
cular dystrophy, nemaline myopathy, and fibrodys-
MUSCULOSKELETAL DISORDERS plasia ossificans progressiva. These are rare disorders
with no known treatment.
In general, disorders of the musculoskeletal system —
with the notable exception of those caused by trau- Metabolic Diseases
matic injury — are relatively uncommon in cats. Those Metabolic diseases involve imbalances in the normal
that do occur are associated with a variety of under- physiological processes of the body. A number of
lying problems: congenital, metabolic, infectious, these disorders are dietary in origin, caused by a de-
inflammatory, or neoplastic. In some cases, the diag- ficiency or an excess of a certain nutrient, mineral,
nosis may be readily apparent to both the owner and or vitamin. Others are secondary to an underlying
the veterinarian; in other cases, a clinical and labora- problem, such as kidney failure or cancer. Some meta-
tory work-up
the cause may be required in order to uncover
of illness. bolic diseases produce serious physical effects that
cannot be easily corrected. The diagnosis frequently
relies on clinical and laboratory procedures to iden-
tify or confirm the nature of the imbalance.
Congenital/Hereditary Diseases
Although not a disease in itself maxillofacial com- HYPERVITAMINOSIS A. Vitamin A is a fat-soluble
pression (shortening of the lower and upper jaw) is vitamin important in the growth and differentiation of
often associated with various deleterious conditions. cells. It is present in many foodstuffs, including butter,
A number of breeds, including the Burmese, Persian, cheese, egg yolk, liver and fish-liver oils, tomatoes,
Himalayan, and Exotic Shorthair, are purposely bred and carrots. Vitamin A normally is stored in liver tis-
to show this accentuated brachycephalic (flat-faced) sue; excessive consumption of this organ meat is the
characteristic. Though the appearance is esthetically principal cause of hypervitaminosis A in cats.
appealing to many, the result is that some of these Signs of toxicity usually develop after a cat has been
cats have attendant problems, such as abnormalities fed an exclusive diet of liver, or has been heavily
of tooth eruption, or they suffer from chronic upper supplemented with vitamin A for a prolonged period
respiratory or ocular disease. of time (months to years). The clinical manifestations
The "newcephalic flook" strain of Burmese cats has a brachy-of are quite characteristic. Deforming cervical spon-
acial conformation, but nearly a quarter dylosis, inwhich some of the cervical (neck) verte-
the kittens born to "new look" parents are affected brae fuse together, results in an inability of the cat to
with a lethal birth defect. The principal features of flex its neck. Bony outgrowths (exostoses) of the
this defect involve exencephaly (the brain bulging vertebrae, which interfere with normal vertebral
through the skull), involuted eyelids secondary to oc- movement, can often be felt with the fingers. Such
ular degeneration, absence of nasal tissue, and pres- deformities, in some cases, can result in damage to
220 THE INTERNAL CAT
associated nerves or nerve roots. Depending upon the physiological factors, induces a decrease in the level
severity of the toxicity, similar bony fusions may be of circulating calcium. The parathyroid glands, adja-
found in the elbows and in other limb joints. Such cent to the thyroid, detect this change and secrete
skeletal changes are irreversible, unless a dietary alter- parathyroid hormone (PTH), which, among its
ation ismade very early in their development. Other other activities, helps to extract calcium from its "stor-
clinical signs, which are secondary to ankylosis (im- age bins" in the skeleton. In this way, the parathyroids
mobility ofa joint) and impaired movement, include attempt to restore a normal phosphate-calcium bal-
poor quality of the hair coat (from lack of grooming), ance and to make calcium available for the vital physi-
weight loss (from difficulty in eating), constipation, ological functions for which it is required. The result
and pain along the neck and back when touched (cu- is a thinning and a weakening of the basic bone struc-
taneous hyperesthesia). In cases diagnosed early, ture, which can be quite striking when viewed on an
replacement of liver with a balanced diet (or cessation x-ray of the skeleton. As more and more calcium is
of vitamin A supplementation) may allow for regres- removed, the bones become very brittle and suscepti-
sion of signs. Cats with irreversible disease can be ble to fraaures. Nutritional secondary hyperparathy-
made more comfortable with low doses of anti-in- roidism ismost often seen in kittens (whose growing
flammatory agents. Food and water dishes should be bodies have a special need for minerals) that are con-
placed a few inches off the floor so that affected cats fined indoors and fed an all-meat diet. Such cats have
will be bener able to eat and drink. The prognosis is no access to calcium supplementation.
guarded to poor. Affected kittens show a reluctance to move and may
resist being handled. Weakness or limping suggests
NUTRITIONAL SECONDARY HYPERPARA- the presence of fractures. In severe cases, bony de-
THYROIDISM. Calcium is the most abundant min- formities develop, such as bowing of the legs, curva-
eral in the body and one of the most important. ture of the spine, and venebral compression of the
Together with phosphorus, magnesium, and fluoride, spinal cord or nerve roots. Nerve damage can pro-
it forms the hard structural substance of the bones duce abnormalities such as ataxia (incoordination)
and teeth. It is essential for the maintenance of cell and partial or complete paralysis of affected muscles.
membranes and for the functioning of molecular Pelvic fractures can narrow the pelvic canal, resulting
transport systems across those membranes. Calcium in obstruction of the digestive tract and obstipation.
is required for the normal functioning of the nerves Either pelvic fractures or spinal cord compression can
and muscles (including heart muscle) and for blood produce tentioparalysis
clotting. It is also an imponant constituent of many n ofurine. of the bladder with subsequent re-
enzymatic reactions. Because of the many important Animals showing severe bony deformities usually
roles calcium plays in the maintenance of life, its cir- cannot be saved. If the disease is diagnosed at an
culating levels in the^ blood and in cellular compart- earlier stage, however, significant improvement can
ments are very strictly regulated. When this regulation be obtained by calcium supplementation and institu-
is uncoupled — as by a dietary imbalance — the conse- tion of a balanced diet. Cage confinement for several
quences can be severe. weeks is required to allow small fractures to heal and
Nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism is es- to prevent development of new fractures during the
sential y calcium
a deficiency induced in cats by an recovery process. The prognosis for these types of
overzealous consumption of meat. Meat, as a rule, is cases is good.
high in phosphorus but low in calcium content. In Older cats that remain indoors and have for some
nature, cats that catch prey consume more than just reason been switched to an all-meat diet also may
the calcium-deficient muscle tissue; bones and other develop nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism.
components of the prey feast prevent any potential The signs usually are less severe than those in kinens
calcium deficit. Feeding an all-meat diet without ade- because active growth of the bones has ceased. Over
quate calcium supplementation (milk, commercial cat a period of time, however, progressive demineraliza-
food) predisposes pet cats to the development of a tion of the skeleton develops and results in brittleness
calcium deficiency. of the bones and readiness to fracture. Curvatures of
Chronic ingestion of a high-phosphate (oxidized the back and pelvic collapse, with resultant effects on
phosphorus) and low-calcium diet, because of certain the digestive or urogenital system, may be seen. Prog-
 MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

nosis and treatment depend upon the severity of the Infectious/Inflammatory Diseases
malformations and the length of time the disease has
been present. CHRONIC PROGRESSIVE POLYARTHRITIS.
Renal secondary hyperparathyroidism also results CPP is a disease of adult cats, usually males, in which
in a calcium-deficient state. In these cases, however, chronic inflammatory changes leading to arthritis
impairment of kidney function, rather than dietary id- occur in joints and tendon sheaths of the lower limbs
iosyncrasy, isthe root of the problem. The kidneys (carpus and tarsus regions). The cause is unknown,
may be malfunctioning because of chronic disease or but there may be a relationship to one or more viral
a congenital abnormality. The prognosis is guarded, infections. One form of CPP is similar to a disease
depending upon the underlying cause. of human beings known as rheumatoid arthritis.
Primary hyperparathyroidism, in which a functional (Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic, progressive, ulcera-
abnormality of the parathyroids causes an elevated tive arthritis that is believed to have an immunologic
output of PTH with resultant calcium depletion from basis; i.e., antibodies and cells of the immune system
the skeleton, is extremely rare in cats. It may be pro- appear to be involved in producing the underlying
duced bya benign parathyroid gland tumor (an ade- inflammatory response that leads to the destructive
noma). In such cases, surgical removal of the tumor arthritic lesions.) Diagnosis of CPP is based on the
is indicated. Postoperative calcium supplementation history, clinical signs, radiography, and joint-fluid ex-
usually is required for a variable period of time. The therapy. amination. Treatment involves anti-inflammatory drug
prognosis is guarded, especially in animals with se-
vere demineralization. (See Chapter 27: Endocrine
System and Disorders.) SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS. SLE is a
noninfectious inflammatory disease that, like rheuma-
HYPOKALEMIC POLYMYOPATHY. Depletion toid arthritis, appears to have an immunologic basis. It
of potassium from the body, perhaps by chronic loss can produce a wide variety of clinical signs involving a
from malfunctioning kidneys combined with the feed- number of organ systems, including the skin, and can
ing of a low-potassium diet, can produce clinical signs affect the joints with resultant clinical lameness. Diag-
of muscle disease in cats. The loss of potassium in- nosis isbased on the history, clinical signs, examina-
duces changes in muscle tissue that are responsible tion of joint fluid, and specialized immunodiagnostic
for the clinical signs. These include generalized mus- tests such as the LE (lupus erythematosus) cell test,
cle weakness, muscle pain, stiffened posture, reluc- which detects blood cells that contain ingested nuclei,
tance to move, and an inability to raise the head and the antinuclear antibody (ANA) test, which detects
because of neck muscle weakness. Signs can be re- antibodies directed against cell nuclei. Treatment re-
versed byproper potassium supplementation. lies on anti-inflammatory drug therapy. The progno-
sis, in general, is poor.
OSTEOGENESIS IMPERFECTA. Similar to the
inherited disease in humans, osteogenesis imperfecta OSTEOMYELITIS. Deep bone infections (osteo-
is a metabolic bone disorder that causes the bones to myelites) caused by pus-producing bacteria or other
be extremely fragile and easily fractured. Thankfully, microorganisms are most often seen secondary to in-
it is a rare condition in cats; no effective treatment is jury (open fractures, extension from a tissue infec-
known. tion) or Orthopedic surgery. Contamination of a
fracture site may occur following bone injury, before
MUCOPOLYSACCHARIDOSIS. Mucopolysaccha- reduction (setting) of the fracture can be accom-
ridosis (MPS) is a form of lysosomal storage disease, a plished. Osteomyelitis resulting from contamination
rare hereditary defect. It is a disorder with profound during surgery, although relatively uncommon, must
impact on multiple systems in the body, including the always be considered as a possible consequence of
skeleton, eyes, and nervous system. Both forms of MPS orthopedic procedures. The diagnosis of osteomyeli-
recognized in cats have an autosomal recessive basis tis is usually made in a fairly straightforward fashion
of inheritance. There is no known treatment and the — history, presence of pain and draining purulent
prognosis is poor. (See Chapter 23: Nervous System tracts, and lameness. Appropriate antibiotic therapy is
and Disorders, and Chapter 13: Genetics.) indicated. It should be kept in mind that osteomyelitis
222 THE INTERNAL CAT
may be a difficult problem to treat and that prolonged the causative agent and appropriate antibiotic ther-
antibiotic administration may be necessary. The dis- apy. Judicious administration of anti-inflammatory
ease may be chronic or episodic (subject to periodic agents is indicated for most noninfectious cases. Se-
recurrence). Occasionally, a deep bite by another cat verely affeaed joints may require surgical fixation
that reaches the bone of the tail or limb and is not (arthrodesis) to produce fusion of the joint surfaces
treated with an antibiotic results in a chronic osteomy- (effectively "locking" the joint in place, so that move-
elitis. ment— and the pain associated with movement — are
eliminated).
HYPERTROPHIC OSTEOPATHY. HO is an un-
common syndrome that is characterized by a slowly CRUCIATE LIGAMENT INJURIES. Injury to the
progressive thickening and proliferation of the sur- cruciate ligaments (paired ligaments within each knee
faces of the long bones and digits. HO is observed that lend stability to the joint) is fairly rare in cats, but
secondary to chronic lesions, such as cancer, involv- when it does occur, tearing of the anterior cruciate
ing chest structures (especially the lungs). It is be- ligament (one of the pairs) is the most common.
lieved toresult from lesion-induced changes in blood Sudden onset of moderate to severe lameness, most
flow to the affected bones. Clinical signs include lame- often seen after trauma, is the most common sign.
ness, reluctance to move, and swelling of the lower Surgical repair or temporary strict confinement are
limbs. Diagnosis is based on the histon,', physical tlie rwo options for treatment; the choice depends
findings, and x-rays. The prognosis is dependent upon upon the situation. Weight reduction is important for
the nature of the underlying cause: with cancer, the obese cats.
prognosis is poor, with treatable chest lesions, the
disease usually resolves along with the primary prob- HIP DYSPLASIA. Hip dysplasia is a defect in which
lem. the socket of the ball-and-socket hip joint is too shal-
low, causing secondary degenerative changes to take
Noninflammatory Diseases place in the joint. Although a rare condition in ran-
dom-bred domestic cats, it can be seen with some
DEGENERATIVE JOINT DISEASE. Degenera- regularity in purebred cats; a genetic predisposition
tive changes in the articular canilage (thin layer of is suspected. Most affected cats suffer no ill conse-
cartilage on the joint surfaces) can result in degenera- quences and require no treatment. Weight reduction
tive joint disease, manifested chiefly by lameness. The is helpful for obese cats with discomfort.
development of this type of arthritis in cats is believed
to be similar to the development of chronic arthritis PATELLAR INSTABILITY. Normally, the patella
in humans. {Not to be confused with rheumatoid ar- (kneecap) slides within a groove at the lower end of
thritis in humans, a disease with an immunologic the femur (thigh bone). Various conditions (either
basis.) Degenerative joint disease is a chronic disease congenital or traumatic) can cause the patella to be-
of aging, but it can also occur as a result of traumatic come unstable, allowing it to slip either to the inside
injury to bone, canilage, or ligaments (witness the (more commonly) or the outside of the groove. De-
postcareer arthritic problems experienced by many pending on the degree of instability, affected cats may
professional athletes, particularly football players). or may not be in pain or develop degenerative joint
The lameness associated with uncomplicated degen- changes. Surgical correction is necessary for more se-
erative joint disease typically is exacerbated by cold, verely affected cats. Congenital instability is more
damp weather conditions, and by exercise. Infectious common in some breeds of purebred cats; a genetic
arthritis, resulting from infection (usually bacterial) predisposition is suspected.
in one or more joints, can produce osteoarthritic
changes of fairly acute onset.
Diagnosis of degenerative joint disease in cats is Neoplastic Diseases
made by a combination of the history, physical, and Tumors of the skeletal structure and musculature are
radiographic (x-ray) findings, and examination of occasionally seen in cats, although the frequency of
joint fluid. Treatment is based on the underlying their occurrence is much lower than it is in dogs.
cause. Infectious arthritis requires identification of Nevertheless, consideration must be given to neopla-
 MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

sia (cancer) in the differential diagnosis of musculo- Diagnosis is made by radiography and biopsy, along
skeletal disease in the cat. Unfortunately, most of the with the history and physical findings. The prognosis
tumors are malignant, and prospects for treatment is poor.
and recovery may be less than optimal. Osteogenic Osteochondromas frequently are very far advanced
sarcoma, osteochondroma, and chondrosarcoma are by the time veterinary attention is sought, and it may
the bone tumors that occur most frequently in cats. be impossible to remove them. The sheer number of
tumor nodules may make surgery a useless endeavor.
OSTEOGENIC SARCOMA. A destructive tumor In addition, most of these cats are FeLV positive.
of bone, osteogenic sarcoma (also known as osteo-
sarcoma) ismalignant and hence capable of spread- CHONDROSARCOMA. Chondrosarcoma is a ma-
ing from the site of its development — a process lignant tumor of cartilage-producing cells and is un-
known as metastasis. In cats, osteogenic sarcoma com on in cats. This form of cancer grows more
arises most commonly in the hindlimbs or skull. Clini- slowly than does osteogenic sarcoma, and there is less
cal signs at the tumor site can include local pain and tendency to spread. Clinical signs may resemble those
swelling, deformity, and lameness. There may be of osteogenic sarcoma. Therapy depends upon the
lymph node enlargement. Osteogenic sarcoma grows extent of tumor invasion of local tissue and whether
less rapidly and spreads less readily in cats than in or not spread has occurred.
dogs. Spread usually occurs to the lungs, where meta-
static tumors can be identified by chest x-ray. The MULTIPLE MYELOMA. Multiple myeloma is a
syndrome of hypertrophic osteopathy can be produced neoplastic proliferation of plasma cells (antibody-
by these lung lesions. producing cells) that usually arises in bone marrow.
Diagnosis of osteogenic sarcoma is made by x-ray The disease is uncommon and typically affects older
and biopsy (microscopic examination of sample) ex- cats. Neoplastic plasma cells can form solid masses in
amination. Surgical amputation of the affeaed limb, bone marrow or in other tissues, but in most affected
perhaps combined with chemotherapy, may be indi- cats, the neoplastic plasma cells proliferate through-
cated. However, if the tumor has spread to the lungs, out the marrow. As the number of plasma cells be-
the prognosis is poor. comes very high, they secrete large amounts of a
single type of immunoglobulin (antibody). The
OSTEOMA. This is an uncommon, benign mmor protein concentration in blood rises because of the
that arises most often in the skull. Osteomas are usu- increasing concentration of immunoglobulin, a condi-
ally single, dense, and slow growing. Surgical excision tion called hyperglobulinemia. Because the immu-
may or may not be feasible, depending upon the tu- noglobulin belongs to a class of serum proteins called
mor's exactroundinglocation gamma globulins and because it is very uniform in
structures. and the extent of damage to sur- composition, such a cat is said to have a monoclonal
gammopathy. The amount of immunoglobulin can
OSTEOCHONDROMA. This curious benign neo- become so high that the viscosity of blood is in-
plasm may occur as a solitary mass or as many dis- creased, which can damage kidneys and other tissues.
persed tumor masses (multiple cartilaginous In many affected cats, the malignant process is silent
exostoses). In many species, osteochondromas are until blood viscosity is very high and the kidneys fail
inherited; in the cat, these tumors occur in adults and to function normally. Signs of renal failure, such as
are believed to be caused by feline leukemia virus increased water consumption (polydipsia) and in-
(FeLV). Clinical signs are related to bony enlarge- creased urination (polyuria) accompanied by inap-
ments virtually anywhere in the skeleton. These petence, lethargy, and weight loss, are often the
growths can progress and produce considerable de- presenting signs of multiple myeloma. Multiple my-
formity, pain, and interference with movement. Facial eloma isdiagnosed by demonstrating a monoclonal
tumors may interfere with breathing or chewing. Tu- immunoglobulin in serum using a blood test called
mors of the scapula (shoulder blade) can result in serum protein electrophoresis and by finding an
atrophy of the associated limb. Tumors arising inside infiltrate of plasma cells in bone marrow or other
the skull can produce severe neurological changes, tissue through microscopic examination of smears of
such as arching of the back, blindness, and stupor. aspirated tissue. Infection with feline infectious perito-
THE INTERNAL CAT

nttis virus (FIPV) or feline immunodeficiency virus of the supporting structures of a joint. A partial separa-
(FIV) can cause a monoclonal gammopathy and tion of joint surfaces is also known as a subluxation.
should be ruled out by appropriate serology tests and A fi-acture is the breaking of a bone. Fractures can
consideration of the clinical signs. Multiple myeloma be simple or compound. In a simple (or closed) frac-
in cats, unlike the disease in human beings, almost ture, the injury occurs without disruption of the over-
never causes weakening of bones that results in patho- lying skin. In a compound (or open) fi^acture, bone
logic fractures. Therefore, radiographs of most cats breaks through the overlying skin, creating a commu-
with multiple myeloma do not show lytic lesions nication between the fracture and the external envi-
(areas of bone resorption and thinning) ronment. Obviously, compound fractures are more
susceptible to infection by microbial organisms than
MISCELLANEOUS TUMORS. Other tumors that are simple fractures.
can affect the bones of cats include fibrosarcomas and Cats are lightweight animals possessed of an ex-
squamous cell carcinomas. The prognosis depends traordinarily resilient body structure that can absorb
upon the location of the tumor and how advanced it bone-shaking impacts with astonishing ease. For the
is at the time of diagnosis. Wide surgical excision — most part, bruises and sprains in cats are of minor
medical concern. Luxations and fractures, however,
often amputation of the affected limb — is the treat- require immediate veterinary attention. (See Chapter
ment of choice. 38: First Aid.)
Tumors of muscle tissue — rhabdomyomas (be- Before reduction of a fracture is undertaken, the
nign) and rhabdomyosarcomas (malignant) — are veterinarian must perform a complete physical exami-
extremely rare in cats and are usually treated by wide
surgical excision if the location permits. nation ofthe patient so that other, less obvious inju-
ries may be identified. For example, cats experiencing
trauma to the forelimbs may have concurrent injuries
Traumatic Injuries to the thorax (chest) or skull. Injuries to the hind-
limbs may be attended by fractures of one or more
Physical trauma can exert a number of deleterious bones of the pelvis, rupture of the urinary bladder or
effects on the musculoskeletal system, many of which urethra (the tube connecting the bladder and the
require immediate veterinary attention. These effects external urinary orifice), or internal bleeding re-
are the result of powerful physical forces acting on sulting from trauma to the liver, spleen, or other or-
anatomic structures until the weakest or most vulnera- gans. Radiographs (x-rays) may be taken not only to
ble of the structures gives way. An unexpected leap evaluate the primary fraaure site but to assess dam-
or fall, aggressive action by human beings or other age to other bones and possibly soft structures. In
animals, and encounters with moving vehicles are brief, the patient must be stabilized and a full inven-
among the more common causes of traumatic injury tory of its injuries compiled before reparative ortho-
in domestic cats. pedic therapy is undertaken.
Injury to the musculoskeletal system can be divided
loosely into four broad categories: FRACTURES OF THE FEMUR. Fractures of the
A contusion (or bruise) is an insult of a superficial thigh bone or femur are quite common in cats. Simple
nature that results in damage to muscle or bone with- fractures of the femur that do not involve hip or knee
out disruption of the overlying skin. Such an injury joints can be repaired using intramedullary pin(s)
may go unnoticed by an owner and m most cases will (stainless-steel rods) and orthopedic wire (stainless-
heal without complications. steel wire). With good alignment of the fractured seg-
A sprain is an injury to a joint involving damage to ments, such fraaures heal rapidly. If the femur is frac-
one or more ligaments (fibrous bands) supporting tured into many pieces, a metal bone plate may be
the joint. Complete disruption of a ligament does not required to realign the fragments and hold them in
occur (there is no disruption of the joint itself). The place. The bone plate is girded to the several frag-
joint may be swollen and painful, but in most cases ments bysmall screws and can be custom-contoured
will not require medical attention. Such an injury may to "mold" to the shape of the underlying bone. Bone
or may not be noticed by an owner. plates usually provide a quicker return to function for
A luxation (or dislocation) is a major disruption the patient.
 MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

Fractures of other long bones also are usually re- the cat manages to lap liquid food while the fracture
is healing.
paired bysome form of pinning or plating. Fractures
of the metacarpal and metatarsal bones, if serious,
ma\' require reduaion with pins or plates but can FRACTURES OF THE PELVIS. Pelvic fractures
usually be stabilized with a splint. A fractured toe also are a fairly common occurrence in cats. Because
sometimes has to be removed because of poor heal- of their light weight and relatively great muscular
ing. strength, many cats compensate quite well for minor
fractures of pelvic bones. Within a few weeks of injury,
FRACTURES AND SEPARATION OF TAIL VER- a fine meshwork of new bone, called a callus, begins
TEBRAE. An automobile injury to the hind end of a growing across the fracture site, helping to stabilize
cat may separate the first tail vertebrae from the sa- the fracture. In the case of minor fractures, callus for-
crum. The tail dangles limply, and the cat cannot move mation wil be followed by hard bone formation and
eventual return to normal funaion. In more severe
it. A frequent and grave complication of this injury is
fecal incontinence and impaired control of urination. cases, however, such nonsurgical reduction of a frac-
If an owner is willing to express the urine from the ture ("letting nature take its course") may be harmful.
bladder by manual compression several times a day, (As a general rule, major fractures of any bony struc-
ture, ifleft alone, can result in serious consequences.)
the cat's ability to empty its bladder may gradually If an unattended fracture involves a pelvic joint struc-
return (over days or weeks), depending on the sever- ture (the hip joint), it may predispose to the develop-
ity of the injury. The paralyzed tail should not be re- ment of arthritis and a permanent limp. Deformation
moved until there is good evidence that the cat will of the shape of the pelvis by traumatic injury may
be able to empty its bladder.
A fraaure or vertebral separation toward the tip of produce other unpleasant effects as well, such as con-
striaion of the intestinal tract (caused by narrowing
the tail usually requires amputation if the blood sup- of the pelvic canal) with resultant chronic constipation
ply isseverely damaged, but sometimes this heals with or even complete intestinal obstruction. Fractures
splinting. may also impinge upon nerves and produce severe
pain and neurologic abnormalities in the hindlimbs.
FRACTURES OF THE JAWS. A common fraaure Hence, any cat suspeaed of sustaining physical trauma
in cats that have been hit by cars or have fallen from to the pelvis (or to any other body structure) should
heights involves the lower jaw, most often at the mid- be presented for evaluation to a veterinarian, to pre-
line of the chin where the two halves of the mandible clude the development of serious secondary compli-
are joined. This fracture is easily reduced or stabilized cations. Bone plating or pinning may be required to
by wiring around the canine teeth or by pinning. bring pelvic fragments into satisfactory alignment.
A front-to-back fracture of the hard palate, often
accompanying a midline fracture of the mandible, FRACTURES OF VERTEBRAE. Fracture or dislo-
may require side-to-side wiring to prevent develop- cation ofa venebra may damage the spinal cord, per-
ment of a permanent opening through which liquids haps causing paralysis of the hindlimbs. Where the
lapped by the cat will get into the nasal passages. injury is serious, as when a cat has been struck by a
Other fraaures of the jaws may need wiring or plat- car, the animal may have to be euthanized at once in
ing at the fracture site but can often be stabilized by order to spare needless suffering. Occasionally recov-
wiring the upper and lower jaws together or by tem- ery is possible by bone plating or by pinning the
porarily applying a wire-reinforced tape muzzle spines of the venebrae if the spinal cord has not suf-
around both jaws. Despite the limitation of motion. fered extensive damage.
 CHAPTER 22

Urinary System

and Disorders

by James R. Richards and June Kirvan-Tuttle

URINARY SYSTEM
metabolic two hundred thousand nephrons in the kidneys. Each
Thewasteurina ry the
s from and esregulates the
m remov
systebody nephron is composed of a glomerulus, a proximal
chemical and water components of the tubule, the loop of Henle, and a distal tubule, which
blood. Two kidneys, rwo ureters (tubes drains into a collecting duct. The glomerulus (a tiny
that connect the kidneys to the bladder), the urinary web of blood vessels) separates the fluid and cellular
bladder (a sac made of muscle and membranous tis- components of blood. The resulting filtrate is further
sue that holds urine modified in the prox-
and discharges it imal tubule, which
through the urethra),
and the urethra (a provides forof the
absorption usablere-
tube from the bladder compounds such as
to the exterior of the glucose, amino acids,
body) are the func-ts sodium, sium.andThe usablepotas-
tioning componen
of the system. compounds are then
Waste by-products recycled back to the
are produced from body via the renal
the metabolism of nu- vein. The loop of
trients. These wastes Henle concentrates
must be removed the resulting urine.
from the body before The control of elec-
levels become toxic to trolytes and water is
the cat. accomplished in the distal tubule and collecting
The kidneys, located behind the rib cage on either duct, after which the urine drains into the renal pel-
side of the spine, contain a unique filtration system vis. Then the urine empties into the ureters. The
that is designed to remove the wastes from the blood. urine is stored in the urinary' bladder until it is ex-
The waste-laden blood enters the kidneys through the pelled. When the urinary bladder contracts, the urine
renal arteries and through smaller and smaller arte- flows through the urethra to the outside. In males,
rial vessels, until it reaches one of the approximately urine is voided through the penis, and in females.
226
 227
URINARY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

urine is voided between the folds of the vulva. In male teroliths if in the ureters, cystolitfas if in the urinary
cats, the terminal pan of the urethra is constriaed by bladder, and urethroliths if in the urethra.
the rigid surrounding tissue of the penis; it is here Chemical analysis of almost 3500 cases of urolithi-
that asis revealed that the majority (approximately 61 per-
lodgeurethral
and cause "plugs" and tinyfatalsandlike
potentially blockage.stones usually cent) were composed primarily of magnesium
The kidneys also aid in the production of erythro- ammonium phosphate, often called struvite. Twenty-
poietin,hormone
a that stimulates the production of six percent were primarily composed of calcium oxa-
red blood cells, and produces renin, an enzyme that late, the remainder composed of other compounds.
assists in the control of blood pressure. Most of the uroliths found in the upper urinary tract
were composed of calcium oxalate, whereas the ma-
jority found in the lower urinary tract were composed
DISORDERS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM of struvite.
Most currently available commercial cat foods are
Disorders of the urinary system can be categorized formulated to promote the formation of an acidic
into those of the lower tract (bladder and urethra) urine and also contain a restricted quantity of magne-
and the upper tract (kidneys and ureters). sium. These changes have been helpful in diminishing
the incidence of struvite urolithiasis. However, recent
studies show that the number of uroliths composed
Lower Urinary Tract Diseases of calcium oxalate is on the rise, prompting some
Lower urinary tract diseases are those that affect the researchers to suggest that this type of diet may, in
urinary bladder or urethra. A cat that displays signs fact, create urinary conditions favorable to the forma-
such as .straining at the litter box, bloody urine, urinat- tion of calcium oxalate. Researchers are attempting to
ing in inappropriate places, vomiting, loss of appetite, clarify the role that diet plays in the formation of each
and a uremic odor to the breath should be seen by a typeOccasionally,
of urolith. small uroliths formed in the bladder
veterinarian immediately.
pass through, or obstruct, the urethra of the male cat.
UROLITHIASIS. Urolithiasis refers to the forma- In gross appearance (the appearance to the naked
tion of stones in the urinary tract and also to the disor- eye) and consistency, the feline urolith is unquestion-
ably different from the feline urethral plug of the male
favorsdersstone
they cause. The cat'swhenhighlycertain
formation concentrated
substancesurine
are cat. The urethral plug is a soft, pastelike, compressible
present to excess, sometimes as a result of dietary mass composed of varying proportions of crystals and
influences or urine pH. Occasionally they form as a matrix. In contrast, the urolith has a rocklike consis-
result of other acquired or congenital disorders. Uro- tency and assumes a variety of shapes. Many uroliths
lith formation has two developmental phases: initia- of cats are shaped like tiny wafers or disks, but a
tion and growth. urethral plug resembles a maggot about two to three
Uroliths are hardened solids composed of poly- millimeters (0.08 to 0.12 inch) in diameter. If an ob-
crystalline (of many crystals) concretions that typi- struction isnot relieved, the plug is lengthened as
cally contain 90 percent organic or inorganic crystals material continues to build up within the urethra.
and less than 10 percent organic matrix (mucopro- The formation of uroliths in cats requires a suffi-
tein-base ground substance). Cross sections of uro- ciently high concentration of urolith-forming minerals
liths frequently reveal a distinct center with in the urine, a favorable urine pH (acid-base ratio)
laminations (layers) formed from the center out- for their crystallization to occur, and adequate time in
ward, corresponding to the initiation of the urolith at the urinary tract. Urinary tract infection usually is not
the center and subsequent growth. Uroliths are usu- an important factor in their formation. Congenital and
ally named according to their chemical composition, acquired anatomical abnormalities in the lower uri-
such as calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate, magne-
sium ammonium phosphate, ammonium urate, uric tinaryon as well
tract mayas inflammation
predispose theandsystem to stone forma-
infection.
acid, or cystine. They may also be named according to Cystitis. Cystitis is an inflammation of the urinary
their organ location, such as nephroliths if in the bladder, which may precede or be secondary to uro-
kidneys (nephros is the Greek word for kidney), ure- lithiasis. Signs of cystitis are frequent trips to the litter
THE INTERNAL CAT

box, straining, and often bloody urine. The bladder is disorder. The urethral obstruction can be relieved by
usually empt>' and tightly contracted to walnut size. a number of different means, again depending upon
Although there exist a number of different conditions the case. Usually, a tranquilizer or light anesthesia is
capable of causing these signs (e.g., bacterial infec- required. If the obstruction cannot be relieved, urine
tions, urolithiasis, congenital defects, and various must be withdrawn from the overdistended bladder
types of cancer), the majority of cases don't have a by suction with a needle directly through the abdomi-
recognizable cause. In such cases, the term idio- nal and bladder walls. If a cat suffers repeated epi-
pathic cystitis is frequently applied. Some research- sodes of obstruction, the last resort is surgery to
ers suggest a viral cause; others report a similarity' to provide a new urethral opening (perineal urethros-
a frustrating condition of humans called interstitial tomy) created by the removal of the constricted pe-
cystitis. nile portion of the urethra. Although some
Feline lower urinary tract disease. Previously urethrostomies fail because of recurrent bladder in-
known as feline urologic syndrome (FUS), FLUTD is fection or poor funaion of the artificial opening, the
a catchall term used for a wide range of problems operation enables many cats that would have died or
associated with the lower urinarv' tract of both male been euthanatized to live in complete or reasonable
and female cats. Cystitis is a common feature of such comfort.
cases and may be accompanied by the formation of Treatment. The type of lower urinary tract disease
uroliths or uretliral plugs. A number of factors seem will determine the treatment prescribed. Feeding a
to be responsible for the syndrome; therefore, it is urine-acidifying, low-magnesium diet (less than
not unusual if treatments and methods of prevention twenty milligrams of magnesium per 100 calories) is
vaiy. advisable for cats that are predisposed to struvite uro-
Urethral obstruction. Much controversy exists over lithiasis orurethral obstruction. For all cats, encourag-
what triggers the formation of urethral plugs. It may ing exercise and frequent urination, preventing
well be a combination of factors. Urethral plugs are obesity, avoiding extreme confinement, keeping the
usually composed of variable quantities of a thick pro- litter box clean and easily available, and always having
tein matrix, cellular debris, and crv'Stallized mineral. fresh water readily available will assist in preventing
If the plug contains a high quantity of crystallized min- lower urinary tract disease.
erals, factors that have probably contributed to the
condition include an abundance of stone-forming HYPOSPADIAS. Hypospadias is an extremely rare
minerals in the diet, and high concentration and favor- congenital defect resulting when the urethral opening
able pH of the urine. The source of the protein matrix is on the underside of the penis or on the perineum.
is not known in most cases. A chronic, recurrent cystitis occurs with this defect
Urethral obstruction in the male ("blocked cat") is because surface bacteria can easily migrate into the
a life-tlireatening emergency for which owners must urinary tract. Reconstructive surgery of the urethra
be alert. The cat keeps licking at its penis and going provides an effeaive treatment.
to its litter box, but it produces no urine or only a
few drops (which may be bloody). Sometimes urinary
"sand" is rpresent on the tipowners
of themaypenis Upper Urinary Tract Diseases
ounding fur. Experienced be orablesur-to Kidney disease can be congenital or acquired and can
palpate the tense, overfull urinarv- bladder like a large be further classified by the part of the nephron af-
lemon in the posterior abdomen. The cat must be fected. "When thein the
kidneys
taken to a veterinarian at once; a delay of only a few to accumulate blood.malfunction, wastes begin
Excessive accumulation
hours can mean death. The owner must not make the of wastes is toxic to the animal. If the proper balances
common mistake of assuming that the cat is consti- of electroKies, minerals, and water are not main-
pated and waste precious time plying the cat with tained, additional complications can occur with other
laxatives.
organs.
Because the kidneys filter the blood, other diseases
Proper
tion when management
presented to depends upon theAn cat's
the veterinarian. condi-
imbalance and infections can indirectly damage the kidneys, such
of electrolytes is the most common cause of death, so as uterine infection, diabetes, feline leukemia virus
attention will initially be paid to that aspect of the infection, hypertension, feline infectious peritonitis,
 URINARY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

and severe periodontal disease or tooth infeaion. from urethral obstruction in the male cat. Other
Also, ingesting certain toxic materials, such as anti- causes are trauma and ingestion of toxins such as eth-
fre ze or poisonous plants, can injure the kidneys. ylene glycol (antifreeze).
One or more of the following signs may be indica- Pyelonephritis is the medical term for a kidney
tive of a kidney problem. infection. Usually, the infection is the result of bacte-
rial cystitis (bladder infection) that migrates up to
1. Increased thirst or water consumption with in- the kidney. However, it can also be secondary to a
creased urine volume severe infection located elsewhere, such as periodon-
2. Decreased thirst with linle or no urination
3- Decreased appetite tal disease or pyometra (uterine infection). The kid-
4. Intermittent vomiting or diarrhea neys continue to function normally until over 70
5. Noticeable coat changes (dullness, excessive percent of the kidney is affeaed, at which time signs
shedding, breakage of hairs) become more noticeable (lethargy, weight loss, some-
times fever). Treatment may be effective if given in
6. Weight loss the early stages. If the damage has progressed too far,
7. Lethargy kidney failure will result.
8. Mouth sores Glomerulonephritis is an inflammatory disease
9. Halitosis that results from damage to the glomeruli by an anti-
10. Discolored tongue gen-antibody reaction. (See Chapter 28: Immune System
11. Pronounced back pain (a cat assumes a hunched AND Disorders.) Glomerulonephritis may be associ-
position) ated with diseases affecting other body systems, such
12. Bloody urine as systemic lupus erythematosus, endocarditis, pyo-
metra, heartworm disease, viral infections, feline leu-
CONGENITAL KIDNEY DEFECTS. Congenital kemia virus infection, and feline infectious peritonitis,
defects result from abnormal development and matu- or it may have no identifiable cause (idiopathic).
ration of the kidneys. Renal hypoplasia is the term Subcutaneous and abdominal accumulation of fluid
used when one or both kidneys have a reduced num- are charaaeristic signs.
ber of functioning nephrons. Kittens may develop The disease is usually progressive, and the long-
normally until one or two years old, when signs begin term prognosis is guarded, although some cases of
to appear, such as frequent vomiting, decreased appe- spontaneous remission have occurred. Currently,
tite, and decreased urine output. Although there is no treatment is directed toward the underlying cause and
cure, treatment consisting of dietary management and the kidney failure present.
fluidRenal
therapy may refers
aplasia prolongto the
the cat's
lack oflife.development of Hydronephrosis
vents normal urine outflow. occurs when
The anretention
obstruction pre-
of urine
one or both kidneys. Often a kitten will survive with causes abnormal enlargement of the affected kidneys.
only one kidney, if that one develops and functions Potential causes include urinary stones, tumors, con-
properly. If both kidneys are absent, the kitten will genital defects, and trauma. Hydronephrosis of one
die at birth or immediately after. kidney is not life threatening. Death will occur from
In a cat born with polycystic kidneys, multiple kidney failure if both kidneys are affected.
cysts replacing normal tissue eventually cause kidney Amyloidosis occurs when an insoluble protein
failure. substance (amyloid) is deposited in the kidneys. This
is an uncommon disorder in cats, except for the famil-
ACQUIRED KIDNEY DISEASES. The risk of ac- ial amyloidosis in Abyssinians, in which the kidney
quired kidney disease is greater for middle-aged or medulla is mainly affected. In these cats, the disease
older cats (generally seven years or older). Pyelone- is usually progressive with little response to treat-
phritis, interstitial nephritis, glomerulonephritis, amy- ment. The cause is unknown. Kidney failure eventu-
loidosis, and hydronephrosis are different types of ally results as medullary fibrosis and tubular damage
acquired kidney disease. These diseases can usually increase. The severity and progression vary; cats may
be further classified as chronic (long term) or acute live up to twelve to fourteen years. However, most
(short term). affected cats die by five years of age. Two drugs (di-
Acute kidney disease and failure most often result methyl sulfoxide and colchicine) have been used ex-
 THE INTERNAL CAT
230
perimentally in treating amyloidosis, but the nine are checked. A marked elevation in these two
effectiveness of these drugs has not been established. levels indicates that the kidneys are not adequately
Interstitial nephritis is usually of unknown cause filtering wastes from the blood. Other blood constit-
but may sometimes be the last stage of other kidney uents that may be measured
diseases. The damaged kidney tissue has been re- regulatory flinctioning includeto evaluate the calcium,
potassium, kidneys'
placed bynonfunctional scar tissue. The kidneys are phosphorus, glucose, total protein, and albumin. A
greatly reduced in size, with an irregular surface. complete blood count will provide information on
Treatment is directed toward preserving as much kid- any inflammation or infection that might be present.
ney function as possible. A complete urinalysis provides additional information
on the extent of kidney damage, urine-concentrating
CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE. Chronic kidney ability, and whether an infection is present in the uri-
failure occurs when about 70 percent of functional nary tract.
kidney tissue has been destroyed. There are many Significant changes in the size, shape, or position of
possible causes, including glomerulonephritis, inter- the kidneys can be seen with radiographs (x-rays).
stitial nephritis, congenital renal diseases, kidney in- Sometimes mineralization of the kidneys indicates
fections, feline leukemia virus infection, feline chronic inflammation or a mineral imbalance. Also,
infectious peritonitis, hypertension, amyloidosis, and kidney stones may be detected.
toxic chemicals. Sometimes it is not possible to deter- An intravenous pyelogram (IVP) procedure con-
mine the underlying cause of kidney failure. sists of injecting a harmless dye, which can be seen
Cats with chronic kidney failure may have de- radiographically. During the procedure, several radio-
creased appetite, lethargy, vomiting, foul mouth odor, graphs are taken to provide information about the
increased water intake and urine output, joint pain, entire course of the urinary tract.
and a tendency to bleed easily. Ultrasound studies of the kidneys can also be used
The objective of treatment is to control the progres- to diagnose kidney disease. This noninvasive tech-
sion of the disease. There often is no cure. Initial nique isbecoming much more readily available.
treatment may include fluid therapy to restore hydra- The removal of a small piece of kidney tissue for
tion, electrolyte balance, and acid-base balance in the microscopic evaluation (biopsy) can provide insight
patient. A diet low in protein and phosphorus may as to which kidney disease is present. However, it is
slow the progression of the disease. These special of little value in assessing kidney function.
diets are often less palatable, and a cat may refuse to Test results may differentiate between kidney fail-
eat the food. However, adding chicken broth, tuna ure and kidney dysfunction. Kidney dysfunction does
juice, or clam juice, or warming the food, may entice not necessarily imply kidney failure but simply im-
a finicky cat to eat. paired function. In cases where only one kidney is
damaged (congenital malformation, trauma, or infec-
KIDNEY STONES. Kidney stones are rare in cats; tion), the other kidney, if healthy, will adequately
however, when they do occur, they can be very pain- compensate in most cases. Kidney failure of a type
fiji. Kidney stones are mineral deposits that accumu- that cannot be reversed by treatment ends in death.
late and form into "stones." If kidney function is TREATMENT. Treatment is determined by the type
impaired by kidney stones, surgery may be needed to
remove the stone(s) or affected kidney. of kidney disease and the amount of damage done to
the kidneys. Surgery may be indicated in the case of
KIDNEY TUMORS. Kidney tumors are rare in cats, unilateral hydronephrosis, whereas antibiotics may be
except for the very common lymphosarcoma associ- administered for pyelonephritis. In addition, the vet-
ated with the feline leukemia virus (FeLV). (See Chap- erinarian administers fluids to correct electrolyte
ter 33: Cancer.) (mineral) imbalances and combat dehydration.
When kidney dysfunction progresses to the extent
D I AG N O S I S . If a cat demonstrates any signs of kid- that retained protein waste products and electrolyte
ney problems, a veterinarian will take blood and urine disturbances are evident, dietary changes are rec-
samples for testing. When kidney disease is suspected, om ended. The diet should be low in protein and
the blood levels of urea nitrogen (BUN) and creati- phosphorus and high in nonprotein calories (carbo-
 URINARY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

hydrates and fat). The metabolism of carbohydrates is a viable option. This highly specialized procedure is
and fats yields products excreted via nonkidney currently performed in several veterinary institutions
routes. Commercial foods are available that are for- nationwide.
mulated to meet these special dietary requirements.
Also, a veterinarian can suggest a homemade diet that Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank
will meet the same nutritional needs. Johnny D. Hoskins for his contributions to this
In selected cases of renal failure, a kidney transplant chapter.
 CHAPTER 23

Nervous System and

Disorders

by Brian A Summers

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Thecomple nervous is divided

systemonneae into two very chemical neurotransmitters from the terminal por-
x, interc d masses of cir- tion of the axon to receptors on the recipient neuron.
cuitry: the central nervous system Many functions of the nervous system are under
(CNS), which consists of the brain and spi- voluntary, conscious control; many are not. An exam-
nal cord, and the peripheral nervous system ple of conscious control is the movement of an arm
(PNS), which consists of the cranial, spinal, and pe- or leg. Motor nerve impulses from the brain, in re-
ripheral nerves. sponse to a conscious
Each nerve or neu- command, travel via
ron, whether within the spinal cord and
the CNS or the PNS, peripheral nerves to
is composed of a the cleappropriate mus-
ceU body (con- groups to produce
taining the nucleus the desired muscle ac-
and the surrounding tion. An example of
cytoplasm ); the short, involuntary, or uncon-
branching processes scious, control is the
called dendrites; and
an extended finger- regulationtilityof(movement)
mo-
like process known as within the wall of the
an axon. Dendrites digestive tract, which,
act as receptors for although influenced
the neuron, picking by conscious states, is
up both inhibitory and excitatory signals from inter- performed for the most part in the absence of con-
con ecting nerve cells. The axon is the transmitter of trolled supervision by conscious processes. A similar
the neuron; it sends electrical impulses out from the control mechanism is involved in regulation of the
nerve cell body to other nerves or to organs that the beating of the heart.
neuron affects. The site at which one neuron connects The neurons responsible for these largely uncon-
with another is known as a synapse. Transmission of a scious "housekeeping" asfunctions of the bodynervous
are re-
signal across the synapse involves the movement of fer ed to collectivelv the autonomic

232
 NERVOUS SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

system. These nerves, which include elements of also is capable of simple reflexes, in which certain
both the CNS and the PNS, control not only the mus- sensory and motor neurons, interconnecting within
cular contractions within the viscera (internal organs) the cord, carry out their activities in the absence of
and blood vessels, but also the secretory activities of control from higher brain centers. (A common exam-
many glands. Within the autonomic nervous system, ple is the patellar reflex, in which a sharp blow ap-
two separate functioning (and often antagonistic) enti- plied just below the kneecap results in a forward jerk
ties are recognized. One, the parasympathetic ner- of the lower leg. )
vous system, whose neurons originate in the brain
and lower ponion of the spinal cord, is in control
when conditions are normal. The other, the sympa- NEUROLOGIC DISORDERS
thetic nervous system, whose neurons originate at
all levels of the spinal cord, takes over when the body Fortunately for cat owners and their charges, disor-
is under stress, by increasing the heart rate, dilating ders of the nervous system occur relatively rarely in
the cats (less than 1 percent of the feline population).
cles. pupils, and increasing blood supply to the mus- The most common causes are injury from vehicular
The hypothalamus is a critical portion of the accidents and falls from great heights. Drug toxicities,
brain concerned with operation of much of the auto- poisonings, feline ischemic encephalopathy, periph-
nomic nervous system, production of certain hor- eral vestibular dysfunction, tumors, nutritional defi-
mones that are subsequently stored in the pituitary ciencies, and congenital defects are also contributing
gland, and regulation of body temperature, sleep cy- causes of nervous system disease in felines.
cles, and food and water intake. The thalamus is a The brain and spinal cord are unique tissues, and
portion of the brain that serves as a conduit for sen- this very uniqueness can make neurologic dysfunction
sory information coming from the rest of the body difficult to treat. Moreover, the capacity for regenera-
and for nerve impulses concerned with balance and tion and repair in the CNS is limited; consequently,
coordination arising from the cerebellum. many animals (and human beings) experiencing neu-
The brain is the ultimate control center of the body, rologic injury are left permanently incapacitated. The
coordinating all other systeins through the spinal cord diagnosis of neurologic disease is based primarily on
and the complex network of peripheral nerves. It is the patient'sexamination, history and which
on a complete
surrounded by three protective layers of tissue known neurologic is designedphysical and
to identify
as the meninges. The brain proper is composed of the location of the disease within the nervous system.
the cerebrum, the cerebellum, and the brain stem. The The examination is divided into five areas of interest:
cerebrum is divided into four lobes, each with very mental attitude and behavior, in which functioning of
particular functions. The frontal lobe is concerned the higher brain centers is evaluated; gait, which tests
with intelligence, behavior, and fine motor skills; the for strength and coordination of the limbs; postural
parietal lobe processes and interprets sensory per- reactions, which test for more subtle deficits in limb
ceptions (e.g., smell, taste); the occipital lobe is de- fijnction; spitral nerves, in which muscle tone, skin
voted to vision; and the temporal lobe is concerned sensation, and spinal reflexes (such as the patellar
with complex behaviors and hearing. The cerebel- reflex) are evaluated; and cranial nerves, in which
lum isresponsible for the coordination of movement, visual, auditory, and other nerve functions involving
whereas the brain stem houses many of the twelve the head are examined.
cranial nerves, which control facial muscles and cer-
tain specialized functions of the head (sight, hearing, Trauma
smell). The brain stem also acts as a nerve conduit,
connecting the brain to the spinal cord. The spinal Head injuries occur in approximately 40 percent of
cord, also covered by the meninges and further pro- cats injured by automobiles. Although the brain is well
tected byencasement within the venebral column, is protected within the skull and bathed in cerebrospi-
the major thoroughfare for the transmission of motor nal fluid (CSF), which helps to cushion shocking
nerve impulses from the brain to the peripheral blows to the head, major traumatic injuries neverthe-
nerves and of sensory nerve impulses ascending from less can inflict considerable damage on the brain and
the peripheral nerves to the brain. The spinal cord produce neurologic complications. If the brain is
THE INTERNAL CAT

bruised (a contusion), a cat will appear dazed but Veterinarians at Cornell University have recognized
remain conscious. With a concussion (a violent that griseofultin, a medication for the treatment of
shock to the brain), however, a cat loses conscious- ringworm, can produce birth defects in kittens when
ness momentarily or for a longer period of time. given to pregnant queens. These defects have in-
Signs of brain injury appear rapidly, usually within cluded cleft palate, spina bifida, hydrocephalus, short-
twenry-four hours of trauma. The signs vary according ened tails and hindlimbs, and absence of the lower
to the degree of damaging pressure that has been jaw, among others. (It must be kept in mind that the
applied to the delicate brain tissue and other injured administration of any drug to pregnant animals
areas: should be viewed with extreme caution.)
Mild: Pupil size, ocular movements, and respiration Panleukopenia virus (infectious feline enteritis
are normal; andslight virus or feline distemper virus) can infect the brain of
movement gait.weakness is observed in the cat's unborn or newborn kittens. Infected kittens have an
Moderate: The cat is semiconscious; pupil size and underdeveloped cerebellum, which is manifested by
ocular movements may be abnormal; there is general- a stiff, swaying gait, wide-based stance, and bobbing
ized weakness, sometimes spasticity; breathing is ir- head, becoming grossly apparent as the kittens begin
regular. to ambulate. These signs become increasingly notice-
Severe: The cat is comatose (unconscious); irregular able but do not progress in severity. Some animals
breathing (gasping) is noted; the heart rate slows; ab- can compensate reasonably well for their defect, but
normal pupils and an absence of ocular movement the cerebellar damage is permanent. This disease can
are noted. be prevented quite easily by vaccination of the queen.
Trauma to the central nervous system may be a life- (See Chapter 29: Viral Diseases.)
threatening situation requiring immediate examina- Lysosomal storage diseases, such as ganglio-
tion of the patient by a veterinarian. Corticosteroids, sidosis, occur in all species and constitute an im-
antibiotics, and anticonvulsant drugs are commonly portant group of metabolic disorders. The basis of
used to treat brain contusions and concussions. Se- these disorders is an enzyme deficiency. Cellular de-
vere head injuries are more difficult to treat and re- generation occurs because the animal stores sub-
quire immediate emergency attention and medication stances (in various tissues) that cannot be broken
to alleviate post-traumatic swelling of brain tissue. Var- down into simpler compounds because of the defi-
ious neurologic problems, such as behavioral ciency (or absence) of the proper enzyme. Signs often
changes, may occur as a result of severe brain da.mage. reflect CNS involvement because affected neurons
cannot be replaced. Cerebellar involvement is com-
mon. Lysosomal storage disorders are inherited, with
Congenital Disorders signs first becoming apparent at about one to three
Congenital disorders of the CNS are uncommon in months of age. (See Crapter 27: Endocrine System and
Disorders.)
cats. Hydrocephalus which is quite common in cer-
tain breeds of dogs, is rarely encountered in the cat. Portosystemic shunts are vascular abnormalities
It occurs when the normal flow of CSF in and around that prevent normal blood flow to the liver. These
the brain is obstructed, causing fluid buildup and sub- congenital abnormalities produce neurologic distur-
sequent pressure-related damage to brain and spinal bances because of the lack of normal detoxifying activ-
cord tissue. This problem usually occurs during fetal ity by the liver. Clinical signs include excess salivation,
development. The severity can be determined only as lethargy or depression, and seizures. (See Chapter 26:
the kitten matures. There is to date no widely effective LrvER, Pancreas, and Disorders.)
treatment.
Manx cats, a tailless breed, are predisposed to
spina bifida, a malformation of the lumbosacral Infectious Diseases
(lower back) vertebrae, with associated changes in the Infections of the central nervous s>'Stem involve a
spinal cord. Related problems include poor control of spectrum of disease-producing microorganisms.
urination and defecation (incontinence) and im- Cryptococcosis is caused by a yeast, Cryptococcus
paired ability
fective to move
treatment for thisthecondition.
hindlimbs. There is no ef- neoformans. It can produce disseminated menin-
goencephalomyelitis, a widespread inflammation
 NERVOUS SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

of the brain, spinal cord, and meninges. Signs can Parasitic Diseases
include depression, incoordination, paralysis, and sei-
zures. The infection may also involve the eye or the Toxoplasmosis is caused by a tiny crescent-shaped
upper respiratory tract and nasal passages. In many protozoan organism. Toxoplasma gondii, which in-
cases, signs referable to infection of the latter struc- fects awide range of animal species. Cats, domestic
tures predominate and neurologic disturbances are and wild, are the definitive host (the host wherein
absent. The exact mode of transmission of the agent the adult or sexually mature stage of the parasite is
is uncertain, but it may be inhaled or perhaps inocu- produced) and represent the primary reservoir of in-
lated through small breaks in the skin. Treatment is of fection throughout the world. Domestic cats are by
no avail once signs of neurologic disease are appar- far the most important species in transmission of this
ent. Prognosis is poor. (See Chapter 32: Fungal Dis- parasite to other animals and to human beings. Some-
eases.) times feline toxoplasmosis is pulmonary in nature,
Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP), a coronaviral dis- although it also may involve inflammation of the brain
ease, can produce an inflammation of the meninges, and spinal cord. Injury to the CNS can be severe, and
brain, and spinal cord. Although predominantly affea- such cases are generally considered untreatable. (See
ing tissues of the chest and abdominal cavities, FIP Chapter 31 : Internal Parasites. )
can also involve the nervous system, usually with a Larvae of the fly Cuterebra occasionally gain access
fatal outcome. Neurologic signs can include posterior to the brain in cats. Apparently, the larvae burrow in
paresis (partial paralysis of the hindlimbs), tremors, from the nasal cavity and then migrate randomly in
head-tilt, behavioral changes, and seizures. There is the brain. The condition is considered uncommon.
no effective curative treatment for FIP at present. (See Feline ischemic encephalopathy is a syndrome in
Chapter 29: Viral Diseases.) the cat somewhat akin to stroke in man. Onset of the
Rabies is a viral disease that is inevitably fatal once disease is acute and the result of sudden deprivation
the clinical signs are manifest. It may produce neuro- of the blood supply to a portion of the brain. Usually
logic signs in the cat (as well as in many other animal observed in mature cats, it is characterized by depres-
species and in human beings). Rabies in cats can as- sion, circling, incoordination, or seizures. These acute
sume the "furious" form of the disease, similar to that signs often resolve in a few days, leaving a permanent
often seen in dogs. Rabid cats are extremely danger- deficit that may be behavioral, visual, or related to
ous animals for human attendants and owners be- some other neurologic function. Careful studies by
cause of their viciousness and quickness of action Dr. A deLahunta at Cornell University have incrimi-
(rabies is transmitted by the bite of an affected animal, nated larvae of the fly Cuterebra as the cause of this
which introduces rabies-virus-laden saliva into the feline syndrome.
wound). Death follows within ten days of the onset Aberrant heartworms (Dirofilaria immitis) may also
of clinical signs. Rabies in cats can be prevented by reach the brain, with fatal consequences. (See Chapter
vaccination. (See Chapter 29: Viral Diseases, and Appen- 19: External Parasites.)
dix A: Zoonotic Diseases.)
Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection in Nutritional Disorders
cats usually results in secondary bacterial, protozoal,
or fungal infections of the mouth, upper respiratory Central nervous system injury associated with nutri-
traa, skin, and intestine. Rarely, FIV infection can pro- tional disease is rare in cats. Thiamine (vitamin Bj)
duce neurologic disease in cats, which largely takes deficiency may produce a degenerative disease of the
the form of changed behavior, such as unusual de- brain in cats and in other species. Usually, this occurs
pres ion or aggression. when cats are fed a diet rich in fish containing a
A nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis of cats in Eu- thiamine-destroying enzyme (e.g., herring, carp, and
rope has been associated with Borna virus, a pathogen many others). Commercial cat foods generally pro-
of horses, sheep, and canle in Switzerland and Ger- vide adequate quantities of thiamine, and this condi-
many. Apathologically similar CNS infection (enceph- tion is now infrequently encountered. Affected cats
alomyelitis) hasbeen reported in cats from the United may be incoordinated and seizures may occur. Han-
States, but the causative agent has not been estab- dling an affeaed cat will often induce it to tuck its
lished. head down and roll itself up into a ball. Prompt sup-
 THE INTERNAL CAT
236
plementation with thiamine may cure this disorder in with neurologic disease caused by lymphosarcoma is
its early stages. (See Chapter 8: Diseases of Dietary
Origin.)
grave. Miscellaneous
Degenerative Diseases Epilepsy is a recurrent seizure disorder. Seizures
Degenerative disorders of the nervous system are oc- occur from a variety of causes, including infection,
casionally encountered in older cats. The degenera- stroke, tumors, trauma, and toxicities. Hypoglycemia
tion of supportive tissue of the spine may cause (low blood sugar), liver disease, and kidney failure
intervertebral disks (the cartilaginous structures also can produce seizures.
between the venebrae) to shift out of place, putting Feline hyperesthesia syndrome is a ver\' important
pressure on the spinal cord and resulting secondarily observable, treatable neural disorder. It is also known
in inflammation. In severe cases, paralysis may be pro- as rolling-skin syndrome, neurodermatitis, neuritis,
duced. Fortunately, neurological disease resulting psychomotor
from intervenebral disk prolapse is not common in mese cats. epilepsy, and pruritic dermatosis of Sia-
the cat. Degenerative spinal cord disease (myelopa- The signs usually develop between the age of one
thy) has also been observed. and four years. Most cats exhibit moderate signs of
In recent years, a degenerative disorder of the auto- rippling of the skin of the dorsum of the back, biting
nomic nervous system {dysautonomia) has been ob- or licking at the tail, flank, or pelvis, hallucinations,
ser\'ed in domestic cats in England. The disturbance glassy eyes with widely dilated pupils, frantic meow-
to the autonomic system results in dilated pupils, a ing, swishing of the tail, running crazily around the
dry nose and mouth (lack of normal secretions), and house and attacking objects, including the owner,
gastrointestinal disturbances. The cause of this disor- without provocation. The cats may even have general-
der is unknown. Only a few cases of feline dysauto- ized seizures. Signs may last seconds to several min-
nomia have been recorded in North America. utes with no apparent pattern as to when they occur.
Treatment
drugs. is most successful using anticonvulsant
Tumors The most common type of seizure is the grand mal
Meningioma is the most common neurologic tumor Before the onset of a seizure, a cat will become rest-
in cats. It arises from the meninges. Although benign less and may show excessive affection. During the
and well circumscribed, its continued expansion does seizure itself, the cat usually collapses onto its side,
damage by compression of brain tissue. Depression, showing spasmodic leg movements and chewing or
circling, and seizures are some of the neurologic signs twitching contractions of the facial muscles. Urination,
that may be produced by this tumor. Important behav- defecation, vomiting, and pupillary eye changes may
ioral signs may be loss of litter-box training, failure to occur. After the seizure the cat may exhibit conftision
recognize house and family, and restless wandering and fatigue.
and howling. Radiographs of the skull may show the Most seizures in cats presented to the Small Animal
tumor, because of the associated calcification that can Clinic at Cornell University have been traced to or-
occur within it. Computed tomography scans are ganic disease. Therefore, epileptic cats should be
more helpful in diagnosis. Surgical removal, if possi- carefully screened for thiamine deficiency, hypoglyce-
ble, isthe recommended treatment. mia, infectious diseases, and tumors. Epileptic cats are
Lymphosarcoma, which is caused by the feline leu- treated over the long term with anticonvulsant drugs
kemia virus, is another important neurologic tumor to control the seizures (diere is no "cure"). Relatively
in cats. It is a malignant tumor derived from lymphoid little information is available on prognosis and long-
cells (specialized cells of the immune system), and term therapy in cats with nonprogressive seizure dis-
may arise in many different areas of the body. Within orders.
the nervous system, lymphosarcoma may be diffusely Peripheral vestibular dysfunction (PVD) is very
invasive, but it usually occurs as a solitary lesion press- common in the cat, resulting from diseases that inter-
ing on the spinal cord. Clinical signs usually consist of fere with cranial nerve VIII (the vestibulocochlear
posterior paresis (paralysis). The prognosis for cats nerve). The disease is typified by loss of balance (i.e.,
 NERVOUS SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

falling, rolling, stumbling), head-tilt, disorientation,

and rapid eye movements. The onset usually is sud- aThus,
signHorner's
of neurologicsyndromedisorder.
is not aThespecific
classicdisease
signs butof
den, with the earliest signs being vomiting and appar- Horner's syndrome include constriction of the pupil,
ent nausea. There are numerous causes of PVD, protrusion of the third eyelid, sinking in of the eye-
including congenital disorders, fraaure of the bony ball, and drooping of the upper eyelid. Treatment de-
labyrinth (a structure of the ear), tumors of the middle pends on the underlying cause of the disorder and
or inner ear, and chronic middle/inner ear infections on the extent of damage that has been incurred. The
(otitis media-intema). The course of treatment is prognosis is guarded. (See Chapter 18: Sensory Or-
based on the nature of the underlying cause. gans AND Disorders.)
Homer'ssystem
nervous syndrome occurs when
are disrupted neurons
by (usually of the
traumatic) Acknowledgment: The author would like to thank
injury to the upper spinal cord, by tearing of the Jeffrey E. Barlough for his contributions to this
nerves themselves, or by middle ear inflammation. chapter.
 CHAPTER 24

Respiratory System

and Disorders

by Fred W. Scott and James R. Richards

the ofrespira tory system is rolled struaures called conchae and turbinates.
Thecompar ablen toof that
functio a fireplace bellows: These structures provide a greater surface area to aid
botli are designed to provide oxygen to in filtering, warming, and humidifying the inhaled air
maintain combustion. In the case of living before it enters the lungs. The sense of smell origi-
organisms, the combustion is the metabolism of nutri- nates with olfactory nerves located in the turbinates,
ents— their conversion into energy. The inhaled oxy- septum, and sinuses. Cats have a highly developed
gen combines with sense of smell, which
nutrients during me- plays a vital role in
tabolism; then the protection, behavior,
waste product, carbon and appetite. The en-is
dioxid is expelled
e, tire nasal cavity
during exhalation. lined with a layer of
cells with hairlike
COMPONENTS projections, the fil-
iated epithelium.
OF THE The epithelium is sup-
RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM bloodpliedvessels
with numerous
and
nerves. Throughout
The respiratory sys- the nasal cavity, there
tem consists of the are serous glands
upper respiratory (producingmucus) clear that
liq-
tract (nose, sinuses, pharynx, and larynx) and the uid) and mucous glands (producing
lower respiratory tract (trachea, bronchi, and form secretions to maintain moisture levels witliin the
lungs). The interior of the nose (the nasal cavity) is nasal cavity.
enclosed by bone and canilage and is divided in half The sinuses are spaces containing air, in the bones
by a vertical plate called the nasal septum, com- of the face. In the cat, the frontal sinuses, those above
posed ofbone and cartilage with a mucous membrane the eyes, are most fully developed. There are small
cover. Within the nasal cavity there are numerous sinuses in the adjoining bones.
238
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

The pharynx extends from the back of the nasal fense against harmful particles that are inhaled, such
cavity to the lar>'nx. The soft palate (posterior contin- as dust, pollen, and microbes. The larger inhaled par-
uation of the hard palate) divides the pharynx into ticles first become trapped in the mucous secretions
dorsal (upper, or nasopharynx) and ventral of the nasal cavity. The ciliated epithelium moves the
(lower, or oropharynx) parts. particles to the pharynx where the secretions are swal-
lowed and eliminated by the digestive tract. The parti-
of The
the larynx
pharynx (voice is thebox, Adam's toapple)
entrance at the back
the trachea. The cles (especially pollen and dust) may also stimulate
larynx is made up of a group of nine canilages, which the nerve centers and cause sneezing. The smaller
serve as a sphincter to control the opening to the particles trigger a protective reaction within the tra-
trachea and to produce vocal sound. The larynx con- chea and bronchi. The body's immune system sends
tains the vocal cords, with which cats meow, cry, defense cells (macrophages) through the blood ves-
growl, and purr. Changes in the voice and purr of cats sels to the irritated site to engulf the foreign particles.
can be important clues to disease conditions. This triggers an increase in glandular secretions, con-
The trachea is the tube made of cartilage known traction ofbronchial muscles, and dilation of blood
as the windpipe. It passes down the neck just below vessels. The macrophages migrate by ameboid ac-
the esophagus (the tube from the oropharynx to the tion (resembling an ameba in movement, the cell
stomach) and conducts air down the neck from the extends cytoplasm and then the rest follows) up the
larynx. terminal bronchioles with the ingested particles and
Inhaled air passes through the nose, pharynx, and become embedded in the mucous layer. A cough-
larynx into the trachea, which divides at its lower end ing reflex then expels the foreign particles from the
into two main airway passages (the bronchi), leading respiratory system, either by expectoration or swal-
lowing.
to the right and left lungs. The bronchi branch into
smaller passageways (bronchioles). Each bronchiole
terminates in a small air sac (an alveolus). Small
blood vessels (capillaries) surround each alveolus. RESPIRATORY DISEASES
It is within the alveoli that inhaled oxygen passes AND DISORDERS
through cell membranes into the capillaries, where it
attaches to the hemoglobin pigment of the red blood Diseases affecting the respiratory system can be com-
cells. Simultaneously, the carbon dioxide produced plex in nature and sometimes frustrating to treat. In
by metabolism within the body cells is transported via addition, diagnosis may be difficult because signs of
the blood to the alveoli and then is expelled back into sneezing, coughing, and nasal discharge are character-
the atmosphere during exhalation. istic of several respiratory diseases.
Each time air is inhaled, a complex series of mecha-
nisms isset into motion. A vacuum is formed within
the chest cavity to draw the air into the lungs. This is Infectious Respiratory Diseases
accomplished by the interaction of the muscles of the Originally, all infectious feline respiratory diseases
rib cage (intercostal muscles) and the muscle that were thought
separates the abdominal and chest cavities (dia- mydia psittaci. toExtensive
be "pneumonitis
research in" several
caused countries
by Chla-
phragm). The intercostal muscles and the diaphragm has shown that Chlamydia psittaci is not the main
expand the rib cage, creating negative pressure in the cause of infectious respiratory disease of cats, but that
chest cavityin that "pulls expels
" the lungs open.theThen, in fact there are numerous agents that produce clini-
pressure the chest air from lungs,positive
which cal diseases and they may be difficult to distinguish
usually occurs just by passive relaxation of the mus- from one another. Feline viral rhinotracheitis and fe-
cles and elastic tissues. A thin, delicate membrane line calicivirus infection are approximately equal in
called the pleura surrounds the lungs (the visceral incidence and account for the majority of feline respi-
pleura) and lines the inside of the chest cavity (the ratory diseases. It is important to realize that multiple
parietal pleura). The pleurae provide a friction-free infections can occur in the same cat, and an agent
environment in which the lungs, chest muscles, and that normally does not produce clinical disease can
heart may interact. exacerbate an infection caused by another agent of
The nose is also the respiratory system's first de- respiratory disease.
THE INTERNAL CAT

FELINE VIRAL RHINOTRACHEITIS. PVR, feline upper respiratory tract tissues caused by viral agents.
viral rhinotracheitis, is an acute respiratory disease of Chronic bacterial URIs can be extremely frustrating to
cats caused by feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1), a DNA treat, and often cannot be cured.
(deoxyribonucleic acid) virus that is quite labile (un- FELINE INFECTIOUS PERITONITIS. FIP is a
stable or easily deactivated), being sensitive to acid,
heat, and most disinfectants. (See Chapter 29: Viral severe, usually fatal, generalized disease of cats caused
Diseases.) FHV-1 was thought to survive only eighteen by a coronavirus. In the initial infection, the virus may
to twenty-four hours at room temperature. Recent enter through and replicate in the respiratory system.
studies show, however, that it can survive for much Although FIP and feline leukemia are not normally
longer periods of time, at least five days in some in- included in the respiratory disease complex, one
stances. Al isolates of FHV-1 that have been studied should be aware that these viruses may affect the re-
belong to a single serotype (a taxonomic subdivi- spiratory system. (See Chapter 29: Viral Diseases.)
sion).
MYCOPLASMA INFECTION. Mycoplasma (a
FELINE CALICIVIRUS. ^QM infeaion is an acute genus of microorganism) can frequently be isolated
respiratory infection of cats caused by one of a num- from cats with respiratory disease. It is uncertain if the
ber of strains of calicivirus. This virus is an RNA (ribo- organism is capable of causing disease by itself, but it
nucleic acid) virus similar to human cold viruses. (See probably plays an important role as a secondary in-
Chapter 29: Viral Diseases.) The calicivirus is probably vader. These are labile organisms, susceptible to anti-
more resistant than the herpesvirus, surviving for one biotics.
or two weeks at room temperature.
OTHER BACTERIA. Numerous bacteria may be
FELINE CHLAMYDIOSIS. Also called pneumo- involved as secondary invaders in respirator}' dis-
nitis, tli s acute respiratory disease is caused by Chla- eases. The role of bacteria in feline respiratory' dis-
mydia psittaci. This is a labile bacterium, being ease has not been fully determined, but Bordetella
sensitive to heat, most disinfectants, and broad-spec- bronchiseptica appears to cause severe broncho-
trum antibiotics, .\lthough this agent is capable of pneumonia (lung inflammation that begins in bron-
causing both upper and lower respiratory tract dis- chioles) as a concurrent infection with some of the
ease, most commonly it causes conjunctivitis. (See viruses mentioned. In some situations, it may be a
Chapter 18: Sensory Organs and Disorders.) primary invader, especially in young kittens. Haemo-
REOVIRUS INFECTION. The feline reovirus is philus felis also appears to cause chronic lower respi-
ratory tract disease. It is not known whether any of the
similar to reoviruses of many other species. The prefix numerous other bacteria that are common secondary
reo stands for respiratory enteric orphan, indicating invaders can produce respiratory disease without ini-
that this virus replicates in the respiratory and enteric tial infection by a virus.
tracts of various animals, often without producing dis-
ease. The virus is a resistant RNA virus, and more than CAT PLAGUE. A severe respiratory disease (pneu-
one serotype may exist. monic plague) may occur in cats infected with Yer-
sinia pestis acquired from rodents in endemic areas
CHRONIC UPPER RESPIRATORY INFEC- in the western United States. This is a rapidly fatal
TION. Chronic, mild upper respiratory infection disease for the cat, and it is extremely contagious to
(URI) has become a relatively common problem, es- humans, resulting in severe and often fatal disease.
pecial y incatteries. Although some of these infections Outdoor cats with severe respiratory' disease from Yer-
have been shown to be caused by herpesvirus or cali- sinia endemic areas should be handled with great
civirus, the cause of many outbreaks remains un- caution and immediately taken to a veterinarian.
known. Some of these chronic infections may be part
of the feline immunodeficiency syndrome caused by SINUSITIS. Inflammation of the nasal sinuses usu-
the feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). However, in ally develops subsequent to direct injury, allergy, can-
most instances, secondary bacterial invaders are re- cer, or ascending (moving up into the sinuses) fungal,
sponsible, having taken advantage of damage to the or, more commonly, viral and/or bacterial infections.
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

Cats with sinusitis usually have a concurrent rhinitis recovery from PVR, cats continue to shed herpesvirus
(inflammation of the nasal passages) and experience intermittently from the oropharynx (back of the
intermittent bouts of sneezing, with evidence of a mouth) for many months. Cats infected with calicivi-
milky-white or thick, yellowish nasal discharge. Some- rus have been shown to shed virus continuously from
the throat, and occasionally in the feces, for long peri-
appetitetimes,remains
the discharge is streaked
normal, becausewithits sense
blood. ofThesmellcat'sis ods of time. Mother cats that had FVR or FCV infection
unaffeaed. as kittens may pass the virus to their young. Severe
Radiographs (x-rays) are required to confirm a di- stress or another viral or bacterial infection may cause
agnosis ofsinusitis. Treatment is based on identifying those animals carrying the virus to become infectious
the underlying cause. For example, antibiotics are em- to other cats.
ployed for a bacterial infeaion, or antihistamines for
an allergy. However, if medical therapy is unsuccess- Method of Disease Production
ful, surgery to drain and flush the sinus may be the
only alternative. Oral, ocular, or intranasal (within the nose) infec-
tion results in a local infection of the epithelium
FUNGAL RHINITIS. Cryptococcosis neoformam (lining) of these regions, which then spreads to in-
is the most common cause of fungal rhinitis (inflam- volve the remainder of upper respiratory epithelial
mation ofthe nasal cavity) in the cat. (However, Blas- cells; the infection may even spread to the lungs. The
tomyces and Sporothrix have also been reported to infection generally remains superficial but may spread
cause fungal rhinitis on rare occasions. ) Signs include through the blood (viremia) to produce a generalized
sneezing with a thick nasal discharge. Usually the dis- infection. Feline viral rhinotracheitis generally does
charge isfrom only one nostril, unless the condition not produce a viremia (the presence of a virus in the
is chronic. (See Chapter 32: Fungal Diseases.) bloodstream), but in certain instances, viremia may
occur, and infection of the osteoblasts (bone-form-
ing cells) may result. Viremia in pregnant cats may
Spread of Infection result in infection of the fetuses and abonion.
The route of viral infection is either oral or intranasal. Although the clinical disease in feline calicivirus
The acute disease develops after an incubation period (FCV) infections is often milder than in FVR, the
of from one to several days after infection, depending spread of virus is generally greater. Infection occurs
upon the severity of exposure and the virus involved. not only in the respiratory mucosa (mucous mem-
The clinical disease lasts from one to several days or brane) but may also occur in the intestine. Severe
may linger for weeks in some cases, again depending pneumonia may occur in FCV infection, and ul-
upon the severity of the infection and the virus in- cerations ofthe tongue and/or the hard palate are
volved. common.
Infeaed cats excrete viruses or other agents in the In any respiratory viral infection, the disease may
saliva, the nasal and ocular (eye) discharges, the feces be complicated by secondary bacterial or other viral
(of cats with calicivirus and reovirus infeaions), and infections.
the urine (of cats with calicivirus infeaions). Infection
of susceptible cats occurs by direct contact with cages,
food and water dishes, or litter pans that have been Diagnosis
contaminated with viral or other agents, and by aero- Feline respiratory disease is easily diagnosed, but the
sol exposure (moisture droplets drifting in the air) exact cause is extremely difficult to determine clini-
from infected cats. These viruses may be transmitted cally. The diagnosis is made by the veterinarian on the
several feet by aerosol droplets. Hands, clothing, or basis of clinical signs and can be confirmed by special
shoes of persons handling and caring for infected cats laboratory tests.
frequently become contaminated and can serve as a Clinical signs. Several of the agents involved in the
vehicle for transmitting these respiratory-disease-pro- feline respiratory disease complex can produce signs
ducing agents to susceptible cats. that are essentially identical. Sneezing and coughing
An important aspect of the spread of the respiratory are the first clinical signs observed, especially in FVR,
diseases of cats is the presence of a carrier state. After and are followed by the eyes developing a sensitivity
242 THE INTERNAL CAT
to light, becoming red and swollen, and producing a biotics usually result in transient improvement but
watery discharge. Frequently, only one eye is involved not a cure. Eye ointments containing antibiotics are
initially, but involvement of the second eye occurs in indicated for relief of the conjunctivitis. The routine
a few hours. The eye discharge usually becomes use of ointments containing corticosteroids (coni-
thicker and contains pus. Infection of the nose fre- sonelike medications), however, is contraindicated
quently causes a runny nose, and subsequently, in one unless there is specific need. In human herpes infec-
or two days, a thick nasal discharge that may dry and tion, there is definite evidence that corticosteroids
form crusts. These crusts block the nostrils and force may lead to the development of ulcerative keratitis
the cat to breathe through the mouth. Excess saliva- (inflammation with ulcers of the cornea), and there is
tion may occur, especially if tongue ulcers are devel- some indication that a similar problem may exist
oping. The animal is usually depressed and may stop when corticosteroids are used with FVR.
eating. There may be a fever, especially early in the With severe infections, fluids are indicated to over-
infection. come dehydration. Oxygen therapy (placing the cat
There are some generalities that may help in de- in a controlled atmosphere with increased concentra-
termining the agent involved. FVR usually is a severe tion of oxygen) is also indicated if the animal is se-
infection, especially in young kittens. Ulcers of the verely distressed from lack of adequate respiratory
eye may develop, followed only rarely by a severe function. Systemic vitamin injections may be indicated
infection of the entire eye and total blindness. Severe because the cat is not eating. Some clinicians have
sneezing is usually indicative of FVR. indicated that vitamin C is valuable, but others dispute
Calicivirus infections generally are milder than FVR. its value in treatment of respiratory disease. A con-
If pneumonia develops, however, the mortality may trolled study showed that large doses of injectable
be high (30 percent), especially in young kittens in ascorbic acid had no beneficial effects for preventing
colonies or catteries. Ulcers of the tongue and palate or reducing the severity of FVR.
generally can be attributed to calicivirus, and pneu- Good nursing care is extremely important in treat-
monia ismost likely due to calicivirus. ing respiratory diseases of the cat. It is important to
Reovirus infection is mild, with signs usually re- clean the dry, crusted material from the nose to allow
stricted to a mild eye and nose infection. drainage of the nasal passages. Vaporization (using
Laboratory tests. Diagnosis of viral upper respira- a humidifier) may be helpful in decreasing the swell-
tory infections can be confirmed by viral isolation in ing in the membranes and removing the nasal dis-
the laboratory. Pharyngeal (throat), ocular, or nasal charges. Baby foods are often beneficial; cats tend to
swabs may be submitted by the veterinarian to a labo- eat baby foods before regular cat food because they
ratory, where the swabs are placed in cell cultures are more palatable.
for viral isolation. In most cases, the pharyngeal swab There are some specific products that are beneficial
produces the best chance of viral isolation. Conjuncti- in treatment of ocular herpesvirus infection. Other
vitis caused by FHV-1 infection can often be diagnosed antiviral agents are being developed that may, in time,
by performing a fluorescent antibody (FA) test on prove beneficial in treatment of herpesvirus infection
conjunctival cells. In addition to isolating the organ- of the respiratory tract.
ism in culture, conjunctivitis caused by Chlamydia
psittaci can be diagnosed by performing an ELISA Prevention
(enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay) test on mate-
rial from the conjunctiva collected on a swab. Prevention of feline respiratory disease depends upon
identification and restriction of the source of virus
Treatment (infected cats), reduction of the concentration of virus
in the environment, and immunization of cats by vac-
cination.
Treatment for feline respiratory disease is, for the
most pan, symptomatic. Broad-spectrum antibiotics Any means of reducing or preventing direct contact,
are indicated to prevent secondary bacterial infec- the major source of infection, between susceptible
tions. In pneumonitis, broad-spectrum antibiotics are and infected cats will greatly reduce the chance of
specifically indicated, because this agent is susceptible infection. The use of isolation or quarantine areas to
to antibiotics. With chronic URI, broad-spectrum anti- house new cats, cats that are on the show circuit, or
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

cats that have been sent away for mating, is widely live virus (MLV, or attenuated) vaccines for injection;
recognized. These cats should be isolated for a period (2) inactivated
of at least two weeks and observed for signs of illness. (3) MLV vaccinesor for"killed" vaccines
intranasal for injection; and
administration.
Even with this precaution, the animals may be chronic These vaccines provide reasonably good protection
carriers of infection and may introduce infection against severe infection by respiratory viruses. Vacci-
when they enter the cattery or household. nated cats may still become infected, but they usually
Because these viruses are also transmitted by aero- do not show any signs of illness. An occasional vacci-
sol droplets, at least over short distances, it is very nated cat (approximately 10 percent) may have a wa-
important to have proper airflow conditions within tery eye for one or two days after exposure to FHV-1,
catteries. The humidity should be kept at a reasonably and some cats may sneeze a few times. These reac-
low level, and the ventilation should be good. Infected tions are mild compared to the severe disease nor-
cats or cats that are starting to sneeze or cough should mally seen with FVR.
be immediately isolated in a distant corner of the Kittens should be vaccinated against FVR and FCV
room, in a separate room, or, preferably, in a distinct (and chlamydia, if it is a problem in the population)
isolation ward. at eight to ten weeks of age and again three to four
Many queens are carriers and transfer viruses to the weeks later. These vaccinations can be given at the
kittens after the kittens have lost the temporary protec- same time as those for panleukopenia. If problems
tion acquired from kittens
their mother's colostrum. It may(fourbe with infection in younger kittens are encountered in
beneficial to wean at a relatively early age a cattery, kittens should receive their first FHV-l/FCV
to five weeks) when the kittens still have some protec- vaccine at four to five weeks of age, their second vac-
tion from passively derived maternal antibodies. These cine at eight to nine weeks of age, and again three to
kittens can be removed and raised away from the adults four weeks later. In households encountering severe
and thus break the line of transmission. problems in young kittens, vaccination widi special
It is important to be aware of methods to prevent intranasal vaccines at an even earlier age may be bene-
indirect spread of infeaious agents. Dishes and other ficial.
utensils that cats may come in contact with should Cats should receive annual booster vaccinations for
be disinfected between uses. It is preferable to use FHV at least one month prior to breeding, but preg-
disposable dishes. Persons handling or caring for in- nant cats should not be innoculated.
fected cats should wash their hands between cats. If There is, as yet, no need for a vaccine for the re-
rubber gloves are worn, these can be disinfeaed and maining agents in the respiratory disease complex.
washed between cats. The weak link in any control The reovirus has not been shown to be a significant
measure is usually the people involved. Household cause of disease in the cat. The information presently
bleach (sodium hypochlorite [Clorox], diluted 1:32, available indicates that Mycoplasma and bacteria are
or four ounces per gallon of water ) is excellent for secondary invaders and, as such, do not warrant the
disinfection of food and water dishes, litter pans, development of vaccines. A possible exception is Bor-
cages, and floors. (See Chapter 37: Convalescence/ detella bronchiseptica; the role it may play in primary
Home Care.) respiratory tract infections is currently being investi-
The most effective way of preventing infection is gated. (See Appendix B: Vaccinations.)
immunization with vaccines. Extensive research in re-
cent years has resulted in the development and mar- Noninfectious Respiratory Diseases
keting ofseveral vaccines to protect cats against FHV-1
and FCV. These, in addition to the chlamydia vaccine, NASOPHARYNGEAL POLYPS. Polyps are be-
provide considerable protection against the most im- nign, pendulous growths associated with chronic in-
portant respiratory diseases. flammation. Noisy breathing, nasal discharge, and
Numerous respiratory vaccines are available in a occasional sneezing are common signs. Head shaking
variety of combinations. Many are also combined with may also be observed, particularly if the polyps ac-
panleukopenia (infectious enteritis, or distemper) company chronic inflammation of the middle ear (oti-
and chlamydia vaccine. Some also include rabies vac- tis media). Sometimes, cats also have a voice change
cine and/or feline leukemia virus vaccine. The three or difficulty in swallowing. The cause is suspected to
basic types of respiratory vaccines are (1) modified- be chronic inflammation, but VCM has been isolated
244 THE INTERNAL CAT
in some cases. Treatment consists of surgical removal sneezing, wheezing, noisy breathing, and even vom-
of the polyps. iting. Afew individuals experience continuous or pe-
riodic bouts of severe breathing difficulty, or
NASAL CAVITY TUMORS. Cancer of the nasal dyspnea. Often, the signs of disease are exacerbated
cavit>' is uncommon in cats. Tumor types that have been by certainsprays, "trigger"
reponed include adenocarcinoma, squamous cell car- aerosol certainsubstances
kinds of ordust,events: exposure
cigarette smoke,to
cinoma, fibrosarcoma, and lymphosarcoma. Facial de- unusual scents, or even excessive play aaivity can ag-
formity may occur as the tumor mass increases in size. gravate coughing or dyspnea.
Diagnosis and treatment are based on identification of Various terms have been applied to feline broncho-
the tumor type and its extent of spread. pulmonary disease, depending upon the predominant
signs. Even though there is much overlap of the signs
NASAL TRAUMA. Injury to the nose, such as a blow seen, some researchers group feline bronchopulmo-
to the head, will cause a nosebleed (epistaxis) along nary diseases into the following categories: bronchial
with the sneezing of blood. Treatment is based on asthma, acute bronchitis, chronic bronchitis, chronic
severity of the trauma. If the bleeding is persistent or asthmatic bronchitis, and chronic bronchitis with
severe, a blood transfusion may be necessary. Ob- emphysema. Bronchial asthma is characterized by
struction from swollen, inflamed tissues or bone frag- periodic bouts of severe dyspnea, sometimes accom-
ments can result from severe nasal trauma. Usually the panied bycoughing or wheezing; affected cats may
obstruction will resolve when the swelling subsides. appear perfectly normal between the episodes of
breathing difficulty. Cats with acute bronchitis exhibit
REVERSE SNEEZE. This condition, which occurs intermittent coughing, usually present for less than
more commonly in the dog than the cat, is character- several months. Most of the time these cats completely
ized by the rapid inhalation of air, which may sound recover, but the coughing may be recurrent. Cats with
like snorting or gagging. The cause can be a foreign chronic bronchitis experience coughing and dyspnea,
material lodged in the pharynx, nasal polyps, or a with signs persisting for longer than several months,
nasal tumor. Treatment is based on the cause. although the degree of respiratory difficulty may wax
and wane. Cats with chronic bronchitis that experi-
BRACHYCEPHALIC AIRWAY SYNDROME. ence periodic bouts of severe dyspnea due to asthma
Short-nosed cat breeds (such as Persians and Himala- are said to have chronic asthmatic bronchitis. Em-
yans) are predisposed to this syndrome. Their typi- physema (acondition in which there is irreversible
cally short skulls cause distortion of the nasal passages destruction to the alveolar walls) may develop in
and pharynx and, thus, a narrowing of the airway. some cats with chronic bronchitis; this is a particularly
Affected cats must expend more energy to inhale air. severe form of bronchopulmonary disease that is ex-
This subsequently leads to thickening of the mucous tremely difficult to control.
membranes and elongation of the soft palate, eventu- Diagnosis is based on medical history, signs, and
ally causing breathing problems. Noisy, raspy breath- selected diagnostic tests (e.g., radiographs, tracheal
ing usually occurs following increased physical wash). Sometimes, a veterinarian will perform addi-
activity, stress, or excessive heat stress. Treatment may tional tests to rule out other conditions, such as para-
entail surgery for severely affected individuals. sitism (parasitic infection). Unfortunately, a specific
cause of the condition is seldom disclosed, and cure
LARYNGITIS. Inflammation of the mucous mem- is usually not possible.
branes of the larynx is usually associated with an Treatment must be specifically tailored for each in-
upper ment respiratory dividual. First, avoidance of identifiable triggering
isbased on thetractcause.infection or a tumor. Treat-
events or substances is extremely important. Second,
medication that diminishes upper airway inflamma-
BRONCHOPULMONARY DISEASE. Noninfec- tion is a mainstay of long-term management; cortico-
tious bronchopulmonary disease in cats is poorly un- steroids successfully fulfill this role in the majority of
dersto d and likely has a variety of causes The most cases. Third, medications that enhance the dilation
common dilemma facing cats with bronchopulmo- of the bronchioles and bronchi (e.g., theophylline,
nary disease is coughing; other typical signs include terbutaline) are often effeaive.
 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

For cats experiencing severe dyspnea, immediate height) or penetration by a sharp object can result in
veterinary attention is mandatory. Gentle handling, pneumothorax (air in the chest cavity). Blunt blows
oxygen therapy, and judicious use of immediate-act- can cause a tear in the thin visceral pleura, allowing
ing bronchodilators can be life saving. air inhaled into the lungs to leak into the chest cavity.
Since the pleural space then becomes occupied with
ASPIRATION PNEUMONIA. The expression "it air, the lungs have less available space for expansion
went down the wrong tube" describes the cause of during inhalation. This can be a life-threatening emer-
aspiration pneumonia. During the process of swal- gency.
lowing mucous secretions, food, or fluids, the possi- Signs include fast but shallow respirations that
bilitv' exists that the material may accidentally be progress to slow, labored, abdominal breathing, even
rerouted down the trachea rather than the esophagus. while the cat is resting. If severe respiratory distress
In a normal healthy animal, the coughing reflex will occurs, the mouth and tongue will turn a bluish-gray
quickly expel the material before it can do any harm color (cyanosis). As a first-step life-saving action to
in the lungs. However, cenain conditions can predis- remove air, the veterinarian may perform a thora-
pose acat to aspiration pneumonia. These can include centesis (aspiration of the accumulated air or fluid
seizures, unconsciousness, force-feeding, esophageal from the chest). External wounds are surgically
disorders, mechanical obstructions, and persistent closed, if necessary.
vomiting. Treatment is based on the nature and quan-
tity of the aspirated material. PLEURAL EFFUSIONS. Any accumulation of liq-
uid in the chest cavity is referred to broadly as an
PULMONARY EDEMA. Pulmonary' edema (excess effusion until its exact nature is known. A tear in a
fluid in the lungs) is not a disease in itself but rather blood vessel may result in hemothorax. Chylothorax
the manifestation of other disease processes. Diseases is occasionally caused by a traumatic tear in the major
that can precipitate pulmonary edema include heart duct that carries chyle (fat-laden lymph from the in-
failure, asthma, pneumonia, lung tumors, and kidney testine) tothe thoracic vena cava. More often, in the
disease, as well as poisons and thoracic trauma (chest cat, its cause cannot be determined; it is sometimes
injury). These conditions can act in one or more of associated with tumors in the chest, heart disease,
the following ways to cause pulmonary edema. They heartworm infection, or a variety of other conditions
may (1) increase the permeability between the capil- that interfere with lymphatic circulation in the chest.
laries and alveoli; (2) ob-struct the lymphatic drainage A watery, pale yellow, relatively clear fluid is associ-
of the lungs; and (3) alter pressures within the capil- ated with congestive heart failure, severe liver disease,
laries and lung tissues. The lymphatic system (the cancer, and less common conditions such as heart-
network of vessels that transpon clear body fluids) worm disease, or various structural problems within
helps to protect against edema by draining off the the chest.
excess fluid (which it does by increasing the diameter
of the lymph vessels). However, if the lymphatic sys- formInflammatory
of viral felineeffusions infectiousare peritonitis
present inandthein "wet"
pyo-
tem cannot remove the excess fluid, then the connec- thorax (accumulation of pus in the chest cavity).
tive tissue and alveoli fill with fluid. The signs of Fever is common with both. In the former, a charac-
pulmonary edema are labored and rapid breathing, teristic syrupy, amber fluid contains much protein and
wheezing, and open-mouth breathing. moderate numbers of inflammatory cells. In the laner,
Diagnosis is based on patient history, signs, thoracic there is a pus-containing fluid with a variable, usually
radiographs, echocardiography, and other diagnostic mixed, bacterial population. The source of the infec-
tests. The use of oxygen therapy plus diuretics to assist tion in pyothorax may be somewhere in the mouth
in removal of excess fluids are mainstays of short-term or respiratory tract, or a distant bite abscess may be
management. Long-term management is based on responsible. Often no source of infection is evident.
treatment of the underlying cause. Drainage (aspiration) of fluid is temporarily life-
saving and is essential for diagnostic purposes, but the
THORACIC TRAUMA. Injuries to the chest wall long-term outlook for many disorders causing pleural
caused by either a blunt blow (e.g., a fall from great effusions is poor.
 CHAPTER 25

Digestive System and

Disorders

by Roy V. H. Pollock

mouth and ending at the anus. Thought of in this way,

The digesti cult role. veIt must food andintodiffi-
a unique
systembreakhas down nu- it becomes apparent that the lumen (interior) of the
trients and take these into the body, while digestive
at the same time serving as a barrier to the ents must tract
cross istheactually
lining "outside" the animal.
of the intestine beforeNutri-
they
hordes of bacteria and other potentially disease-pro- are truly "inside" and available to the cat. The function
ducing agents that are accidentally swallowed. Consid- of the digestive tract is to break down food into com-
ering the complexity and ponents small enough to be
difficulty of its tasks, it is not transponed across the lining
surprising that the digestive and into the bloodstream,
system is afflicted by a large which then distributes them
number of diseases. Diges- throughout the body. Main-
tive upsets are among the tenance, growth, repair, and
most lecommo n
ms in cats. health prob- reproduction depend on an
Despite this, the digestive adequate supply of these-nu-
trients.
tract of most cats functions
well year in and year out, The Upper
with only minor upsets. AJ- Gastrointestinal Tract
tliough there are a great
number of diseases dis- The digestive tract begins in
cus ed inthis chapter, many the mouth. Here, the teeth
are rare or easily prevented. tear and crush food into
smaller bits. This provides
much more surface area for the digestive enzymes to
FORM AND FUNCTION work on. The cat has four major pairs of salivary
glands. Saliva is produced in these glands and by
All higher animals, including the cat, are essentially smaller glands in and around the oral cavity
tubular. That is, the digestive tract can be thought of (mouth). Saliva is composed of rwo different secre-
as a tube running through the body, beginning at the tions: The serous (watery) secretion contains the en-
246
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

zyme ptyalin, which helps in the digestion of starch. Megaesophagus. The cause of megaesophagus is
The mucous (jellylike) secretion lubricates the food not known for certain. It is believed to result from a
for easier swallowing. congenital defect of the innervation (nerve supply)
There are only two major problems associated with of the esophagus and stomach that interferes with
salivary glands in the cat, and both are rare. The first their proper coordination. The disorder appears to be
is neoplasia of the salivary gland. These tumors inherited. The classic signs of the condition are that a
are usually very aggressive. The second condition is young cat fails to grow properly and is plagued by
the salivary mucocele or cyst, which forms when regurgitation. Regurgitation differs from vomiting
the salivary gland or duct is injured, causing the in that it is a passive process; sometime after eating (a
saliva to collect in the tissues and to develop a saclike few minutes to an hour or more) the cat opens its
Q'St. mouth and the food just falls out, without any of the
strong abdominal contractions associated with vom-
SWALLOWING. The act of swallowing transfers the iting. Regurgitated food is completely undigested,
food from the oral cavity into the esophagus (the lacks the odor of stomach acid, and frequently retains
muscular tube extending from the mouth to the stom- the tubular shape of the esophagus. The distinction
ach) and on into the stomach. Swallowing seems a between vomiting and regurgitation is important be-
deceptively cause they have very different causes and treatments.
however, an simple, extremelyvirtually "unconscious"
complex act. It setis,
and coordinated If the swallowing mechanism is functioning prop-
of muscular actions. First, the food must be moved to erly, food passes into the stomach, where it is mixed
the back of the mouth. Then, the opening to the tra- with strong acid and powerful protein-digesting en-
chea (windpipe) must be closed, while the entrance zymes produced by the stomach lining. The stomach
to the esophagus is opened. Next, the tongue moves itself is a powerful muscular organ that repeatedly
backward like a piston, pushing the food into the contracts to mix the food and enzymes. After a time,
esophagus. Finally, a ring of contraction forms behind the distal (far) end of the stomach, called the pylorus,
the food and, moving like a wave, propels the food opens, and a portion of the food is propelled into the
down into the stomach. (The food doesn't just fall first pan of the small intestine, called the duodenum.
down by gravity, which is why astronauts can swallow Again, there must be precise coordination of the stom-
even when weightless.) ach contractions and the opening of the pylorus. Inco-
Any disease that interferes with this complex, coor- ordination, or failure of the pylorus to open
dinated sequence of events can have serious conse- sufficiently, results in delayed gastric emptying, which
quences, because the path of air entering the lungs can be a cause of chronic vomiting. Swallowed foreign
and the path of food entering the digestive tract actu- objects (such as balls, thimbles, foil, or plastic wrap)
ally cross in the pharynx (back of the mouth). If the can also interfere with gastric emptying and cause cats
first phase of swallowing is not perfealy coordinated, to vomit, off and on, for prolonged periods.
water or food can enter the lungs, resulting in severe,
potentially fatal aspiration pneumonia. (See Chapter The Small Intestine
24: Respiratory System and Disorders.)
The movement of food from the esophagus into Within the duodenum, food is mixed with bile pro-
the stomach is also complex. Normally, the opening duced bythe liver and with pancreatic juice from the
between the esophagus and stomach is kept tightly pancreas. The bile contains bile salts that play an im-
closed to prevent the strong stomach acid from portant role in the digestion and absorption of fats.
splashing up and damaging the lining of the esopha- Fat absorption is vital because fats are the most con-
gus (a condition known as gastric reflux or reflux centrated source of energy in food, and because vita-
esophagitis, which is fairly common and quite dis- mins A, E, D, and K are fat-soluble. Diseases that
tres ing inhumans). During a swallow, the opening interfere with fat absorption usually result in severe
into the stomach must relax momentarily to allow the weight loss and can also lead to deficiencies of these
food to pass. If this does not happen at just the right vitamins.
moment, the food piles up in the lower end of the The pancreatic juice neutralizes the stomach acid
esophagus. The esophagus becomes progressively and contains an assortment of powerful enzymes that
larger, a condition known as megaesophagus. break down complex proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
THE INTERNAL CAT

into their basic units, which are small enough to be ing the cat more susceptible to pathogenic (disease-
transported across the intestinal lining and into the producing) bacteria or fungi.
bloodstream for distribution. A deficiency of pancre- The large intestine also acts as a storage area for
atic enzymes results in severe maldigestion, poor fecal material until voluntary defecation. Like swal-
growth from a lack of nutrients, and weight loss de- lowing, defecation is a complicated act involving coor-
spite a ravenous appetite. This condition, known as dinated muscular action. Cats may lose control of their
exocrine pancreatic insufficiency, is fairly com- bowel movements (fecal incontinence) for a num-
mon in dogs but quite rare in cats. It can be controlled ber of reasons, including diarrhea, automobile injur-
to a certain extent by pretreating tJie food with en- ies to the pelvis, or diseases that affect the nerves
zyme preparations. (See Chapter 26: Liver, Pancreas, supplying the rectum or anus. At the opposite extreme
AND Disorders.) is excessive retention leading to constipation.
The processes of digestion and absorption continue
as the food moves into the main ponion of the small
intestine, the jejunum. This long narrow tube under- DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
goes constant rhythmic contractions. These are of two
t\pes: segmental contractions, which act princi- Many different kinds of insult can result in malfunc-
pal y to mix the food, enzymes, and bile; and propul- tion of the digestive tract. These include pathogenic
sive movements, which are rings of contractions bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and parasites, as well as
that move toward the anus, pushing the intestinal con- mechanical obstructions, tumors, and inherited de-
tents along. fects. Some are preventable, others are not. Most can
As the principal function of the intestinal tract is the be treated successfully. It is helpful to differentiate
absorption of nutrients from foodstuffs, evolution has those diseases that appear suddenly from those that
resulted in a number of modifications that enhance come on more slowly and last for a long time. Because
process. many different diseases can produce similar clinical
intestine First, is eight the tointestinal tractlonger
ten times is very than
long its(thebody).
cat's
signs, a veterinarian will need to make the final deter-
This provides a large surface area across which ab- mination ofthe specific cause. However, careful and
sorption can occur and increases the amount of time accurate observations by the owner, guided by the
available for the process. A second adaptation is that following list, would be vital to prompt diagnosis and
the interior of the intestine is lined with millions of timely therapy.
minuscule fingerlike projections called villi. They
greatly increase the surface area available for absorp- • When did the problem begin?
tion. • Was it sudden in onset or gradual? (Some dis-
eases can be excluded from consideration on this
The Large Intestine question alone.)
• What was the problem like when it started, and
From the small intestine, food moves into the large has it changed over time?
intestine. A substantial amount of water is reabsorbed • Does the cat defecate more frequently, about the
here, as well as certain nutrients. The large intestine same number of times as usual, or less than
supports great concentrations of bacteria, as many as usual? (Diseases of the large bowel tend to in-
100 billion per gram of feces. These bacteria continue crease the number of times the cat defecates,
to break down the remaining food, producing a num- whereas diseases of the small bowel tend to in-
ber of vitamins in the process. The baaeria in the crease the volume more than the number. Ob-
large intestine are not harmful and serve a number of struction and other lesions of the colon may lead
imponant functions, not the least of which is protec- to constipation and reduced defecation.)
tion against disease. Because they occupy virtually all • Is there anything abnormal about the feces? For
of the available environmental niches, the normal bac- example, is there visible blood, excessive mucus,
teria tend to exclude disease-producing bacteria worms, or abnormal coloring?
(pathogens). A disadvantage of some antibiotics is • Does the cat seem to show pain or excessive
tliat they destroy the normal intestinal bacteria, mak- straining when it defecates?
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

• Does the cat show evidence of overall illness cations (poisonings). All acute conditions, especially
(fever, depression, prostration) or is the problem if severe or accompanied by constitutional signs (e.g.,
confined to the digestive traa? (As noted later, depression, fever, prostration), require veterinary at-
some problems are primarily digestive, but oth- tention. This is especially true in kittens; because of
ers are "whole-cat" diseases with digestive signs. their small body mass, they can dehydrate in a matter
The latter have quite different treatments and im- of hours. Severe dehydration is fatal.
plications for recovery; therefore, careful obser-
vation isimponant.) FIRST AID. First aid for vomiting and diarrhea in-
• Is the cat strictly an indoor cat, or does it run cludes taking away all food (eating often makes the
free? (Important in terms of possible exposures.)
• Could the cat possibly have gotten into some- problem worse) and limiting access to water. Other-
thing potentially toxic? (Check houseplants.) wise, the cat may get into a vicious circle of drinking
and vomiting, which only makes the dehydration
HistoryAccuracy
plays aandcritical worse.
are worriedIf you about can't get veterinary provide
dehydration, care rightthe away but
cat with
illness. honestyrolefromin diagnosing a cat's
the owner are the several ice cubes to lick. This should slow the rate of
fastest means of obtaining an accurate picture of the water intake sufficiently to avoid inducing vomiting.
cat's digestive history and problem. Another word of caution: Do not give milk to kit-
tens with diarrhea. The ability to digest milk is one of
Congenital Diseases the first functions lost as a result of many kinds of
A few of the diseases that affect the digestive traa intestinal disease; feeding milk products under these
begin at binh. These include various malformations. conditions can worsen the diarrhea. Sick cats should
Proper function of the digestive traa requires a be provided with a warm, quiet place near the litter
continuous passage from the mouth to the anus. box, and the litter should be changed frequently.
Sometimes, for reasons not completely understood,
there are conditions in which a segment of the intesti- OBSTRUCTIONS. Anything that blocks the free
nal tract is extremely narrow (intestinal stenosis) passage of ingesta through the intestinal tract can re-
or fails to form (aplasia). This is most likely to occur sult in vomiting and diarrhea. The closer the obstruc-
in the distal pan of the large bowel, a condition tion isto the beginning of the intestinal tract, and the
known as atresia coli. A similar condition is imper- more complete it is, the more sudden and severe the
forate anus, in which there is no connection be- disease. Complete obstruction of the pylorus or duo-
tween the rectum and the outside. In either case, denum causes a sudden onset of intractable vomiting.
there is no way for the fecal material to pass out The more the cat tries to eat or drink, the more it will
of the body; it simply backs up in the large bowel. vomit. Such cases are medical emergencies; the cat s
Surprisingly, animals can live for quite a long time condition can deteriorate very rapidly. Such obstruc-
without defecating. Affected kittens may appear com- tions are most likely to result from inadvertently swal-
pletely normal for the first few days or weeks of life. lowed foreign objects (such as a small rubber ball or
They .soon begin to fall behind their littermates and a baby -bottle nipple).
become potbellied from the accumulated fecal mate- Obstructions further along the digestive tract, par-
rial. The key finding, though one that is easily missed, ticularly ithey
f are not complete (so that some ingesta
is that these kittens never defecate. By the time the can pass around or through them), often have a
disease is discovered, the large bowel is usually chronic course spanning several days or even weeks.
stretched beyond repair. The signs may increase and decrease repeatedly. Such
partial obstructions can result from a swallowed ob-
ject; an abnormal kink or twist; or from a tumor or
Intestinal Diseases That Start Suddenly swelling in the intestine or in an adjacent organ that
Many different conditions can result in an acute onset presses on the bowel and partially occludes (closes)
of vomiting and diarrhea. These include mechanical it. One sectiona condition
of the bowel
obstructions, baaerial and viral diseases, and intoxi- into another, known can even "telescope"
as intussusception,
THE INTERNAL CAT

which sometimes occurs as a secondary complication become strangulated (closed or blocked). This is
of severe bowel irritation (enteritis). rare, but when it happens, it is a surgical emergency.
Intestinal obstruction can be diagnosed by radiog- The signs are those of acute bowel obstruction plus
raphy (x-rays). Because the intestines and many kinds evidence of a hernia, or a history of previous abdomi-
of obstruction are approximately the same density as nal trauma.
other abdominal contents, they may not show up The most common hernia in cats is an umbilical
clearly on x-rays, and positive contrast radiogra- hernia, most often seen as a small bulge at the navel.
phy may be necessary' to diagnose the problem. In Most umbilical hernias are small, contain mostly fat,
this procedure, the cat is given a solution of barium and are more disfiguring than dangerous. If the open-
sulfate (by mouth, if an upper intestinal tract obstruc- ing is larger than the end of a finger (press gently on
tion issuspected, or by enema, if lower bowel disease the bulge and palpate its borders), then there is a
is suspected). Because barium is very dense, it stops risk of bowel entrapment, and the hernia should be
most of the x-rays and it shows up clearly on radio- surgically repaired.
graphs ofthe abdomen. By taking radiographs at vari- The other fairly common natural hernia is an in-
ous times after the cat has been given the barium guinal hernia. It appears as a bulge where the inside
mixture, one can follow the progress (or lack of prog- of the thigh joins the abdominal wall. An inguinal
res ) of the barium through the intestine. Obstruc- hernia can contain fat, loops of bowel, one horn of
tions, constrictions, or foreign objects are often clearly the pregnant uterus, or even the urinary bladder, and
outlined. it should be examined by a profe.ssional.
The most infamous, and easily preventable, intesti- Veterinary literature suggests there is an element of
nal obstruction in cats is so-called string enteritis. This heredity in the development of umbilical and inguinal
happens when a cat or kitten finds a string or thread hernias, although the exact means of inheritance is
and needle left within its reach. If, in the course of its not known. It is difficult to give advice on breeding
play, the cat swallows the thread (frequently with the affected animals. As a general rule, a small hernia in a
needle still attached), the end often gets caught cat with no previous family history of the problem is
around the base of the tongue while the rest passes not a sufficient reason to exclude it from the breed-
into the stomach and intestine. The result is an acute ing program. Cats with large congenital hernias or
onset of severe vomiting and diarrhea, rapid dehydra- those with affected siblings or parents should not be
tion, and depression, which result from the intestine bred.
"bunching up" in its attempt to pass the string and Traumatic hernias are all too common in cats.
needle. They result most often from cats being hit by cars, or
The key to the diagnosis is to look underneath the bitten by dogs, but they can be part of the "high-rise
cat's tongue fortemptation the telltaleis tolooptry ofto thread
pull theor thread
string. syndrome,"
The obvious 39: Proceduresa fall for from a high window.
Life-Threatening (See Chapter
Emergencies.) The
back up. Do not pull on the string. As you pull, the most common detect is a tear in the abdominal mus-
thread will straighten out and cut like a knife into the cles, but a rip in the diaphragm can occur, allowing
curving walls of the intestinal tract, producing fatal loops of small intestine to slide into the chest. If this
lacerations. See the veterinarian, who will determine happens, the most obvious sign is likely to be diffi-
whether surgery is needed or whether the loop can culty inbreathing, rather than gastrointestinal disease.
simply be cut, allowing the string to pass through the Often loops of bowel and/or parts of other organs
intestinal tract naturally. can slide freely in and out of the various types of
hernias; tipping the cat upside down or very gently
STRANGULATED HERNIA. Another cause of in- pressinga danger on the that herniathe may
testinal obstruction is a strangulated hernia. A hernia always bowel"reduce"
will get it.trapped
But there
in theis
is the unnatural protrusion of an organ or tissue hernia in such a way that its blood supply will be
through a body opening. The opening can be natural, panially or completely cut off When this happens,
for example, the inguinal ring (through which the that loop of bowel begins to die, and bacteria and
spermatic cord passes), or unnatural, like a tear in the toxins are released into the abdominal cavity. Without
diaphragm or abdominal muscles. If the opening is emergency treatment, the cat rapidly lapses into shock
large enough, loops of bowel can pass through and and dies.
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

For this reason, all hernias should be examined recognized in adult, well-vaccinated cats. Veterinary
by a veterinarian. If they are large enough to cause scientists were at first perplexed, but they now know
problems or be potential sites of strangulation, they that this syndrome is one of the many devastating
should be repaired surgically. Most hernias can be effects of feline leukemia virus (FeLV) infection. It is
successfully corrected, especially if the animal is oth- believed that the vaccines available against FeLV
erwise healthy. If a piece of bowel or other organ should also prevent this enteric disease.
becomes trapped and the animal is dangerously ill, Another group of viruses capable of causing diar-
then the chances for successful repair and recovery rhea in cats is the feline enteric coronavirus group.
are greatly reduced. These are discussed in more detail in the section on
feline infectious peritonitis, because of their close and
VIRAL ENTERITIS. A number of viruses can cause confusing relationship to the infectious peritonitis
acute inflammation of the intestine (enteritis) with its virus. (See Chapter 29: Viral Diseases.) They are wide-
attendant vomiting and diarrhea. (See Chapter 29:
Viral Diseases.) The most serious cause of enteritis rhea andspread, although relatively infrequent, causes of diar-
vomiting.
in cats is feline panleukopenia virus. This is an Rotaviruses have recently come to the attention of
extremely small, hardy virus that occurs throughout medical scientists. In man, they are among the most
the world. Before vaccination became common, vinu- common causes of infant diarrhea. Feline rotavirus
ally every cat became infected in the first year or two was first isolated by researchers at the Cornell Feline
of life. Many died. Excellent vaccines are now avail- Health Center in 1981. Antibodies indicative of infec-
able, and owners of vaccinated cats need not fear the tion are found in most adult cats, indicating that infec-
disease. tion is common. As with feline coronavirus, most
Feline panleukopenia affects cells throughout the cases appear to be mild or inapparent. This may not
body, but its effects are most pronounced on the di- be true in very young cats, and fatal cases have been
gestive tract and the blood cells. The number of white recorded in kittens. Tests are available to detect rotavi-
blood cells of all types is drastically reduced by infec- ruses infecal specimens from infected cats, but there
tion, which explains is no vaccine as yet.
leukopenia (pan, all;theleuko,
disease's
white,scientific
penia, name, pan-
decreased Several other viruses, including one called an
number of cells). The disease is also called feline dis- astrovirus (first reported by the Cornell Feline Health
temper, although this is confusing because it is in no Center), appear able to cause diarrhea and vomiting
way related to canine distemper. in cats, although more research is needed to define
The disease produced by feline panleukopenia their importance and distribution.
virus reflects its peculiar life history. The virus can There are no specific antiviral drugs available to
replicate only in rapidly dividing cells. Two of the treat these diseases because viruses actually take over
most important populations of rapidly dividing cells control of cells within the cat's bodyinstead
and subvert them
are found in the bone marrow and in the intestine to the production of more viruses of products
(both the white cells and the intestinal lining are needed by the cat. Because the viruses are being pro-
constantly being replaced throughout life). Death duced by thethatcat'sharmownthetissues, it is difficult to find
of the cells in the bone marrow leads to the panleuko- compounds virus without also harming
penia; death of the cells in the intestine leads to loss the cat. Virtually all antiviral compounds discovered
of intestinal lining and potentially fatal vomiting and to date are much too toxic for routine use.
diarrhea. The goal of therapy for viral diseases, then, is to
All cats should be vaccinated against panleuko- support the cat until its own defense mechanisms can
penia. Kittens should be vaccinated at eight to ten overcome and eliminate the virus. Supportive care
weeks of age and again at twelve to fourteen weeks. consists of fasting (to rest the gut) and either subcu-
Annual boosters are then recommended. The vaccines taneous (under the skin) or intravenous fluids to
are highly effective and long lasting; although the dis- prevent or correct dehydration and electrolyte de-
ease continues to occur among stray and feral cats, it rangements that can result from severe vomiting and
is virtually unknown in vaccinated animals. (See Ap diarrhea. Drugs may also be used to control the vom-
PENDDC B: VACCINATIONS.) iting and diarrhea if they are especially severe. The
A panleukopenia-like enteritis syndrome has been use of such drugs in mild cases has now generally
THE INTERNAL CAT

fallen into disfavor, and several have been shown to INTOXICATIONS. Cats, in general, have good
do more harm than good. sense about avoiding toxins. Even so, there are a num-
It is generally agreed that antibiotics are inappropri- ber of intoxications (poisonings) to which they fall
ate unless there is a clear indication that secondary prey, many of which begin as acute bouts of vomiting
bacteria have entered the bloodstream or that the cat's and diarrhea. Two of these — acetaminophen and aspi-
immune system is depressed (as in panleukopenia). rin intoxication — are a direct result of humans incor-
In the past, antibiotics were overused in both human rectly treating their cats, and two others — ethylene
and veterinan' medicine. Health care providers felt glycol and phenol intoxication — are attributable to
that although they might not do any good, they human carelessness. All four are readily preventable.
couldn t do an\- harm. Current wisdom is that antibiot- Aspirin is so safe and so widely used by humans
ics can do harm by fostering resistant bacteria and by that it is tempting to assume that it is also safe for
upsetting tiic normal intestinal flora. pets. But aspirin can be very harmful to cats. Cats
metabolize aspirin much more slowly than people. If
BACTERIAL ENTERITIS. Cats appear to be rel- the dose is not carefully regulated, they can easily be
atively resistant to bacterial enteritis. Two diseases, given a fatal overdose. A single five-grain aspirin tablet
salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis, are of con- can produce signs of toxicity, and if given repeatedly,
cern, however, because of their zoonotic potential; can result in death (one five-grain tablet for a five-
that is, both can be transmitted to humans. Both dis- pound cat is the equivalent of thirty tablets for an
eases and their health hazards are discussed in detail average human).
in Chapter 30: Bacterial Diseases. The point to note Signs of aspirin toxicity include depression or hy-
here is: Always use caution and scrupulous hygiene perexcitability, loss of balance, vomiting, and diar-
when handling a cat with diarrhea, cleaning up acci- rhea. Treatment for acute toxicity includes fluids,
dents, or emptying the litter pan from such an infected diuretics, and bicarbonate to help the kidneys excrete
cat. Only a few of the diseases of cats are transmissible the drug. Aspirin can be used effectively in cats, but
to humans, but the possibility always exists. Teach only if the dose is appropriate and carefully moni-
children to avoid contact with cat feces and to wash tored. Itshould never be given without consulting a
their hands after playing with the cat, especially after it veterinarian.
uses its litter pan. (See Appendix A: Zoonotic Diseases.) Many owners, aware of the dangers of aspirin toxic-
In general, intestinal bacterial diseases are self-lim- ity, assume that acetaminophen (e.g., Tylenol) would
iting. That is, the cat will recover on its own with only be a safe substitute. Again, even a single tablet can be
supportive therapy (fasting and fluids, followed by a toxic. The principal effect is on the blood, but liver
bland diet). In the case of salmonellosis, antibiotics damage can lead to gastrointestinal signs.
are usually unnecessary. They may also be counter- Cats are uniquely susceptible to phenols (derived
productive, favoring development of a chronic carrier from coal tar). Intoxication can follow the application
state (allowing a low-level constant infection). In the of phenolized skin preparations or coal-tar products
case of campylobacteriosis, specific antibiotics have such as certain shampoos and disinfectants. A toxic
been shown to hasten recovery and to shorten the dose can be ingested as the cat grooms itself Lysol
period of infectivity. These are areas of active re- (which derives its disinfectant action and characteris-
search; consult your veterinarian. tic odor from phenol) should not be used to disinfect
litter pans, bowls, or bedding.
DIETARY DIARRHEA. Not all acute diarrheas are Signs of toxicity' include salivation, vomiting, and
infectious or even serious. Intestinal upset can be pro- sometimes diarrhea. There may be involuntary mus-
duced by a sudden abrupt diet change, or "dietary cle twitching and loss of balance. Treatment includes
indiscretion," such as when the cat finds a bowl of bathing the cat to remove any phenolic compounds
whipping cream left unan:ended on the kitchen still on its coat, administering intestinal protectants,
counter. Such diarrheas are typically mild and self- and providing good general nursing care.
limiting, and are unaccompanied by other signs of Ediylene glycol is the active ingredient in most
constitutional illness. As a general rule, changes in brands of antifreeze. It apparently tastes good, as both
diet should be introduced by gradually substituting dogs and cats will readily lap up antifreeze that has
one food for the other. been spilled or left about after the radiator fluid has
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

been changed.leadThetobody's attempts toofbreak down that

the chans. This is especially important when different
compound the formation products therapies are being tried. The only way to know for
cause acute renal failure. The clinical signs resemble certain which treatment helps the cat most is to have
drunkenness for approximately twelve hours after in- good records of such details as weight gain or loss,
gestion. Later, as the kidney damage becomes increas- number of bowel movements daily, character of the
ingly severe, affected cats will experience vomiting stool, and the frequency or severity of vomiting. This
and diarrhea, depression, and central nervous system information can be extremely useful to the veterinar-
signs, and finally they lapse into a fatal coma. If caught ian treating a cat with a chronic intestinal disease.
quickly, the renal damage can be halted by large doses
of intravenous alcohol and other measures. Safe stor- PARASITES. Although a number of parasites can be
age and disposal of antifreeze will prevent this fatal important causes of disease in kittens, many adult cats
condition. can harbor most intestinal parasites with little or no
Another common source of intoxication for cats is problem. (See Chapter 31: Internal Parasites.) An im-
the misuse of insecticides in an effon to control fleas. ponant exception to this rule is giardiasis, which is
Only products approved for cats should be used on an intestinal infection by the one-celled parasite of the
cats. Cats are more sensitive to many pesticides than genus Giardia. Cats with giardiasis often have stools
are dogs; certain products safe for dogs can be fatal to that vary from soft to normal. They tend to be unable
cats. Never apply a product intended for household to make proper use of nutrients and have trouble
or yard use to a pet. The results could be tragic. De- gaining or maintaining their weight. The biggest prob-
pending on the specific product involved, the signs of lem with giardiasis is making the diagnosis. Giardia
intoxication vary, but they typically include apprehen- organisms are very small and hard to recognize in
sion, excessive salivation, and digestive system and fecal specimens. The methods usually employed for
nervous system disorders. First aid includes calling identifying parasites in feces distort Giardia beyond
the veterinarian and the National Animal Poison recognition, so special solutions and techniques must
Control Center hotline (1-800-548-2423 or 1-900-680- be used. Worse, the organisms seem to be passed
0000) and bathing the animal to remove as much re- intermittently, so that repeated examinations may be
sidual toxin as possible. needed to nail down the diagnosis.
There are many other potential environmental tox- The stomach worm Ollulanus tricuspis also is a po-
ins to which a cat could fall prey, including insecti- tential cause of chronic gastrointestinal disease in
cides, rodenticides, fertilizers, and certain house- adult cats. Although many cats harbor this parasite
plants, to name only a few. The list grows longer each without any clinical signs, it can be a cause of chronic
year. Many, but not all, of these poisons can produce vomiting. Diagnosis depends on demonstrating larvae
the sudden appearance of gastrointestinal signs. If you in the vomitus; they cannot be detected by fecal exam-
suspect your cat has been poisoned, note carefully the ination. Levamisole has been reponed as a treatment,
circumstances (for example, pesticide spraying by a but efficacy and safety studies are incomplete. There
neighbor), call the veterinarian, collect some of the is no other known treatment at the present time.
suspect material if possible, and check with the Na-
tional Animal Poison Control Center. (See Chapter 39: KIDNEY OR LIVER FAILURE. A healthy gastroin-
Procedures for Life-Threatening Emergencies.) testinal system both contributes to, and depends on,
the health of the entire body. Digestive upsets can
Chronic Intestinal Disease result from disease in other organs, especially in the
kidney or liver.
Cats, like people, are prone to a number of diseases Renal disease is common in older cats. With age
that produce intermittent vomiting and/or diarrhea and accumulated damage from disease, the capacity
lasting for weeks or even years. Such conditions are of the kidneys to clear waste products declines. When
distressing to both owner and pet and can be severely the kidneys can no longer keep up with the rate at
debilitating. They also can be very difficult to diag- which waste products are produced, wastes begin to
nose, so that the owner's role as observer becomes accumulate in the bloodstream, causing adverse ef-
even more important when the disease is chronic. Do fects in many organs, including the gastrointestinal
not rely on memory. Make detailed notes or daily traa. Cats with failing kidneys have poor appetites,
THE INTERNAL CAT

lose weight, are pale, and suffer periodic vomiting the body is under very tight control. Many tissues, like
and diarrhea. Oral ulcers and fetid breath are com- those of the bone marrow, skin, and intestinal lining,
mon. Itis impossible to reverse chronic renal failure, continue to multiply throughout life. But the number
but the cat can be made more comfortable and its and kinds of cells are always kept in balance with the
life extended by treatment. (See Chapter 22: Urinary body's needs. Cancer results when something upsets
System and Disorders.) the mechanisms that regulate cell multiplication and
Liver failure is much less common than kidney fail- replacement. That "something " can be a virus, a toxin,
ure, but no less serious. Among its many functions, radiation, or perhaps the aging process itself The re-
the liver also serves as a blood-filtering and -cleansing sult isthe same, however: one cell or a group of cells
device. Liver disease, which can itself have many begins to divide and grow out of control, without
causes (see Chapter 26: Liver, Pancreas, and Disor- regard for the needs of the body or surrounding tis-
ders), also leads to an accumulation of waste products sues.
in the bloodstream. The most noticeable of these is In the intestinal tract, this can have a number of
bilirubin, tlie yellow breakdown product of recycled untoward consequences. The tumor, simply because
hemoglobin (the oxv'gen-carrying element of red of its size, may cause a partial intestinal blockage, pro-
blood cells). The accumulation of bilirubm gives cats ducing intermittent vomiting and diarrhea that gradu-
(and people) the characteristic yellow discoloration ally worsen as the tumor grows. In the case of
known as jaundice, most noticeable in the whites of alimentary lymphosarcoma, the tumor cells may in-
the eyes. filtrate the intestinal wall, where they interfere with
The most common signs of liver disease are those the absorption of nutrients, producing chronic diar-
of generalized illness — depression, lethargy, loss of rhea and severe weight loss. (See Chapter 29. Viral
appetite, occasional increased thirst and urination, Diseases.) Removal of a small piece of bowel for evalu-
vomiting, and diarrhea. Detailed biochemical tests are ation (biopsy) by a veterinary pathologist is usually
required to firmly establish that the liver is indeed required to accurately diagnose intestinal cancer. A
responsible. Treatment depends on the nature of the biopsy can be obtained during exploratory surgery or
liver disorder, its severity', and its chronicity. In gen- with the use of an endoscope, depending upon the
eral, the liver shows remarkable ability to regenerate situation. For certain types of intestinal cancer, it may
itself Complete recovery, panicularly from acute con- be possible to remove the seaion of affected bowel.
ditions, isoften possible. Unfortunately, most intestinal cancers respond poorly
to chemotherapy or other methods of treaunent.
FELINE IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS. Feline
immunodeficiency virus (FIV), formerly called feline INFLAMMATORY BOWEL DISEASE. Inflam-
T-lymphotropic lentivirus (FTLV), is a virus that is matory bowel disease (IBD) is the name given to a
closely related to the human AIDS virus. FIV causes group of chronic gastrointestinal disorders. IBD is
severe depression of the immune response and re- considered to be one of the most common causes of
sults in a host of secondary infections and complica- chronic vomiting and/or diarrhea. Rather than being
tions. Among these are chronic diarrhea, weight loss, a specific disease, IBD is thought to be the end result
infections of the gums and teeth, conjunctivitis, and of several different types of disorders. The micro-
respiratory' infections. scopic changes seen in the lining of the intestine (mu-
The secondary infections can be treated and the cat cosa) suggest that immunologic factors play an
made more comfortable, but the virus infection itself imponant role. Although cats of any age can be af-
is incurable. Tests are available to help identify in- fected, middle-aged or older cats are more suscepti-
fected cats and limit spread of the virus, but no vac- ble to IBD.
cine isyet available. (See Chapter 29; Viral Diseases.) Microscopically, the disease is characterized by in-
filtration ofinflammatory cells into the mucosa of the
CANCERS. A tumor or neoplasm (from the Greek digestive tract. The most common form of IBD in cats
meaning new growth) can arise in almost any tissue, is called lymphocytic-plasmacytic enterocolitis. In this
including the tissues of the intestinal tract, when the form, lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) and
mechanisms that regulate cell replication are dis- plasma cells (cells that produce antibody) are the
rupted. Normally, the growth of cells and tissues in primary types of inflammatory cells present in the
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

mucosa. Less common forms are eosinophilic, neutro- zole or tylosin, can be helpful when combinations of
philic, and granulomatous, the name determined by dietary management and corticosteroid therapy have
the predominant infiltrating cell present (eosinophils, failed to adequately control the disease. Sulfasalazine
neutrophils, or a combination of other kinds of in- is a medication that is often used if large bowel in-
flam atory cel s, respectively). Enterocolitis refers flam ation isthe predominant problem. If none of
to inflammation of both the large and small intestine. these medications successfully control the signs, more
When the inflammation is restricted to the small intes- potent immunosuppressive drugs may be necessary,
tine, itis called enteritis; if only the large intestine but they necessitate closer monitoring by the veteri-
(colon) is affected, it is called colitis; and if inflam- narian.
mation involves the stomach, tfie term gastritis is
used. Rarely, certain forms of IBD may be confused
with, or progress to, cancer. Constipation
To rule out other causes of gastrointestinal disease, Most of the diseases discussed thus far have been
veterinarians often perform diagnostic tests that may those involving diarrhea and excessively fluid or fre-
include a complete blood cell count, serum biochem- quent stools. But cats are also plagued by the opposite
istries, serum thyroxine levels, tests for FIV and feline problem, constipation: difficulty defecating and
leukemia virus (FeLV), fecal examinations, and ab- hard, dry stools. As with diarrhea, there are many pos-
dominal radiographs and/or ultrasound. However, sible causes. Although constipation initially is less
positive diagnosis of IBD requires microscopic exami- likely to be life-threatening, it should not be ignored
nation ofsmall pieces of the gastrointestinal tract. Tis- because, untreated, it can lead to more serious or
sue samples (biopsies) can be obtained during permanent disorders.
abdominal surgery or during examination with an en-
doscope (aflexible fiberoptic tube passed into the CLINICAL SIGNS. The clinical signs of constipa-
gastrointestinal tract). Either procedure requires gen- tion are well known: crouching and straining for pro-
eral anesthesia; the choice depends upon such factors longed periods with either no feces being passed or
as the availability of equipment, expertise, and the only a small amount of hard, dark, dry stool. Cats
part of the gastrointestinal tract involved. with constipation may also have poor appetites, lose
It is rarely possible to cure IBD, but most cases can weight, and lack energy or enthusiasm. Diarrhea and
be satisfactorily controlled by dietary management constipation can coexist. Long-standing constipation
and medication.
Dietary management. Sensitivity to food antigens can so irritate the lining of the colon that it is stimu-
contributes to IBD in some cats, so a change in diet lated to excrete fluid. The feces already in the colon
often provides symptomatic relief Several balanced may be so hard and dry, however, that they are virtu-
and complete commercial diets have been advocated ally impervious to liquid and remain unsoftened by
in the treatment. Homemade diets are an alternative the additional secretions. When this happens, the cat
for cats that refuse to eat commercial products. A vet- will continue to strain at stool, passing dark watery
fluid and sometimes small hard fecal balls.
erinarian can provide an appropriate recipe. Ideally,
the diet should contain a single source of protein not
normally consumed by the cat. The addition of dietary CAUSES OF CONSTIPATION. As noted earlier,
fiber is beneficial to some cats. It may take several defecation is actually a complex, highly coordinated
weeks or longer for cats to improve after a diet muscular act. Any interference with the correct timing
change, and during this trial feeding period, all other of the various actions (such as relaxing the anal
food sources (like table food, flavored medication, sphincter, colonic contraction, and abdominal press)
and treats) must be eliminated from the diet. can lead to constipation. Dietary composition, psycho-
Medical therapy. Corticosteroids (cortisonelike logical factors, and certain disease processes can also
drugs) are commonly used to treat cats with IBD. lead to fecal retention.
These drugs have potent anti-inflammatory and immu-
nosuppressive properties with relatively few side ef- NEUROLOGIC CAUSES OF CONSTIPATION.
fects in cats. Additionally, corticosteroids may Diseases that affect the nerves supplying the colon
stimulate appetite. Antimicrobials, such as metronida- and anus can result in constipation. The two most
THE INTERNAL CAT

important of these are dysautonomia and idiopathic especially a strongly scented one. A change in the
megacolon. family (a move to a new environment or a new baby
Feline dysautonomia (also known as Key-Gaskell who malcompetes for attention)
syndrome, for the two researchers who first described bowel habits. Cats often canregister
upset their
the cat's nor-
feelings
it) was unknown before 1982. For a number of years, about such changes by inappropriate defecation and
the disease was believed to occur only in Europe, but house soiling (see Chapter 5: Misbehavior), but they
recently cases have been discovered in the United also may refuse to defecate, leading to constipation.
States as well. Little is known about the disease, except In thetocase of litter new
pans,litter
it's best to keepbythesubstituting
pan clean
that it in some way disturbs the autonomic (subcon- and introduce gradually
scious) nervous system. The signs are quite apparent: increasing portions of the new litter mixed with the
widely dilated pupils that do not respond to light, dry- old familiar brand.
mouth and eyes, constipation, and, often, vomiting
and regurgitation with the development of megaeso- MEDICATIONS. A side effect of a number of medi-
phagus. Fortunately, the disease is still very rare; there cations, including preanesthetics, diuretics, antihista-
is neither a means of prevention nor cure. mines, and even barium, is constipation. Tell the
Idiopathic megacolon, as its name implies, is a mas- veterinarian if the cat is, or has been, receiving medi-
sive enlargement of the colon without apparent cause. cation for any reason. Fortunately, drug-induced con-
The primary defect is believed to be improper activa- stipation isseldom severe and usually responds well
tion of smooth muscle within the colon and rectum to mild laxatives and/or changing the dose or type of
that results in ineffective contractions and the inability' medication.
to empty the bowel. As a result, feces pile up in the
colon, which gradually enlarges. A harmful cycle is OBSTRUCTION. Obstruaions to the fiow of intes-
established, because the dilated bowel is even less tinal contents in the upper gastrointestinal tract lead
effective at expelling feces. Depending on the severity to vomiting and diarrhea; obstructions of the colon
of the disease, cats with this condition may manage or rectum can lead to constipation. Causes include
fairly well if medicated with stool softeners and proki- fraaured pelvis (for example, following a car acci-
netic medications (medications that promote contrac- dent), which narrows the pelvic opening, impeding
tions of muscles in the colon). More serious cases the passage of feces. This cause may be complicated
require subtotal colectomy (surgical removal of part by pain, making the cat unwilling to try to defecate.
of the colon). Although a radical procedure, it is one Tumors of the colon itself or adjacent structures can
that can restore a normal or nearly normal life to have the same effect.
some affected cats. Perhaps the most easily cured cause of constipation
has the serious-sounding designation of pseudo-
PAINFUL DEFECATION. Cats can become consti- coprostasis (meaning, false fecal impaction). Pseudo-
pated simply because defecation hurts. An infected or coprostasis is seen when hair around the anus
impacted anal sac or perianal bite abscess could make (usually in longhair breeds) becomes soiled and-mat-
moving the bowels painful. To minimize the fre- ted across the anus, preventing the cat from passing
quency ofthis pain, the cat holds its stool as long as stool. The condition may appear quite serious, with
possible. This, too, initiates a harmful cycle; the longer the animal straining and crying in distress. The solu-
the stool is retained, the harder and drier it becomes tion issimply to clean or clip away the matted mate-
and the more difficult and painful to pass. This leads rial. Hence, it is important to check the hind end of
to more retention, more drying, and more constipa- any otherwise healthy longhair cat who develops a
tion. The solution is to resolve the primary condition sudden onset of painful constipation.
as soon as possible.
ENDOCRINE CAUSES. Several different endo-
PSYCHOLOGICAL CAUSES. Just as physical pain crinopadiies (hormone disturbances) can lead to
can lead to constipation, so can psychological upsets. constipation, including diseases of the thyroid and
Cats may refuse to defecate in a litter pan that has not parathyroid glands. The constipation problem will re-
been cleaned or has a radically different kind of litter. solve once the underlying condition is recognized
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

and treated. Severe, generalized debility from a seri- mild constipation, one or two pediatric suppositories
ous illness or disease in another organ can also lead may be used instead of an enema. Bisacodyl or DDS
to constipation. (dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate) suppositories are
more effective than glycerin suppositories.
TREATMENT FOR CONSTIPATION. The treat- Cats prone to constipation are often aided by the
ment for constipation in cats depends on the cause, use of bulk-forming laxatives. These are natural or
but it is often the same as for people: high-bulk diets, synthetic products that are nondigestible, nonabsorb-
laxatives, and occasionally suppositories or enemas. able, and hydrophilic (water-attracting). They add
A word of caution here: Never use a commercially bulk to the stool and help keep it moist. Many com-
prepared liquid enema on a cat. Many of these ene- mercial products are available, but bran is often just
mas contain high concentrations of phosphate, con- as effective and much less expensive. It can be mixed
centrations that can prove lethal for cats. with canned or moistened food as part of an ongoing
Giving a cat an enema is a job best left to profes- constipation prevention program. Unlike laxative
sionals. Repeated enemas over the course of several medications, which, if overused, can lead to depen-
days, together with mechanical removal of extremely dency, bran can be used indefinitely with no known
hard feces, or colonic massage through the abdominal side effects. Check with your veterinarian for specific
wall, may be necessary in severe cases. In cats with recommendations.
 CHAPTER 26

Liver, Pancreas, and

Disorders

by James R. Richards and Susan A Morrison

THE LIVER
Thebody.liverIt isisdivided the largest
one of into organs in the make up the portal triads at the periphery of each
a number of discrete liver lobule. Blood moves from the periphery of the
sections, or lobes, each of which is com- lobule (from the portal triad) toward the hepatic
posed of thousands of minute structural vein, from which it exits the liver on its return to the
and functional units (lobules). hean.
Among the major functions of the liver are assis- A major anatomical feature of the feline liver, dis-
tance in the digestion of tinct from that of the canine,
food; storage of energy in is the joining of the major
the form of glycogen; re- pancreatic duct (coming
lease of energy by break- from tlie pancreas) to the
down of glycogen; synthesis common bile duct (origi-
of certain proteins' and fats; nating in the liver) before
storage of certain vitamins; emptyingtestine. intoNormally,
the small
production of blood-clotting digestivein-
faaors; the manufacture of enzymes and bile flow
bile, important in the ab- through these passageways
sorption offats; detoxifica- and are deposited within the
tion (reduction of toxic uppermost portion of the
properties of various com- small intestine, the duode-
ture of certain pounds); and hormones.
the manufac- num. Because of this ana-
tomical arrangement in the
The blood supply to the cat, occasional backward
liver is composed of oxygen- flow of enzyme- and bile-
ated blood from the hepatic artery and deoxyge- enriched juices from the intestine may produce in-
nated blood from the portal vein (coming from flam ation inthe liver or pancreas.
the digestive tract). Branches of these two vessels, A unique and important feature of feline liver physi-
plus a bile ductule, nerves, and small lymph vessels, ology is a deficiency in the enzyme glucuronyl
258
 LIVER, PANCREAS, AND DISORDERS

transferase. This enzyme is required for a process HEMATOLOGY. A nonregenerative anemia —

known as glucuronic acid conjugation. Most waste an anemia in which no regeneration of red blood
substances excreted by the liver are excreted in a cells in the bone marrow is evident — is often seen in
water-soluble form. This is done so that, once waste cats with liver disorders. The white blood cell count
products are released from the liver cells, they cannot may be normal, or it may be elevated as a result of
passively diffuse back across the fat-soluble cell mem- stress, liver cell death, or infection. Deficiencies in the
branes. They are "trapped" in the extracellular spaces blood-clotting mechanism may also occur in severe
and excreted. Glucuronic acid conjugation is an im- liver disease. (See Chapter 20: Circulatory System and
portant process, by which fat-soli>ble compounds are Disorders.)
transformed
natural deficiency into water-soluble compounds.
of this metabolic pathway The cat's
explains LIVER ENZYMES. Alanine aminotransferase
the special feline sensitivity to certain drugs, such as (ALT) is an enzyme found within liver cells. The nor-
aspirin and acetaminophen, which, as a result, are mal blood level of this enzyme increases when dam-
only slowly and inefficiently excreted. age to liver cells — whether the result of inflammation,
Another significant feature is the inability of cats to cell death, oxygen deprivation, fatty infiltration, or bile
make arginine. This amino acid is involved in the duct blockage — has occurred. Persistent elevation of
conversion of ammonia (a waste product of protein ALT levels suggests ongoing liver cell injury. Aspartate
metabolism) in the blood to urea for excretion aminotransferase (AST) is a liver cell enzyme that is
through the kidneys. When arginine is not provided in also found in skeletal and cardiac muscle cells, the
sufficient amounts in the diet, muscle tissue is broken brain, and red blood cells. Because of its wider distri-
down to release the trapped arginine within it. Mal- bution inthe body, elevations of AST levels are not as
nourished cats thus may be especially susceptible to specific for liver cell injury as are elevations in ALT,
increases in the level of ammonia in the blood, with but they may be a more sensitive indicator of liver
resultant signs of neurologic dysfunction. disease in some individuals. Another enzyme, serum
alkaline phosphatase (SAP), is produced in many tis-
Diagnosis of Liver Disease sues but is of greatest importance in the liver and
bone. Gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT) is an addi-
CLINICAL SIGNS. Cats with hepatobiliary dis- tional enzyme that often attains increased levels in
ease (disease in the liver and bile system) often are the blood when the liver is diseased. Measurement
not presented to a veterinarian until late in the course of these enzymes is an extremely useful tool for the
of their illness. Cats are expert at hiding the fact that diagnosis of hepatobiliary disease; however, only
they are ill, causing liver dysfunction to go unnoticed rarely does it provide enough information to allow
until significant liver damage has occurred. Many of precise diagnosis of the disease or prognosis for re-
covery.
the clinical signs associated with liver disease may
also be seen in other disease states, so diagnosis usu-
ally requires diagnostic testing. Among the clinical ALBUMIN. Albumin is a major protein component
signs often evident in liver disease are inappetence, of the blood plasma and is important in maintenance
vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, dehydration, seizures, of fluid pressure balance within the blood and tissues.
and, occasionally, increased water consumption Albumin is manufaaured by the liver, and its produc-
(polydipsia) and increased urination (polyuria). tion can be maintained until severe liver failure (80
Hepatomegaly (enlargement of the liver) and jaun- percent loss of functional liver mass) has occurred.
dice (deposition of yellow bile pigment in the skin Decreased levels of albumin in the blood attributable
and mucous membranes) may be observed on physi- to liver dysfunction thus are not seen until end-stage
cal examination. Inflammatory diseases of the eyes disease is at hand.
(chorioretinitis, anterior uveitis; see Chapter 18: Sen-
sory Organs and Disorders) can be seen with systemic AMMONIA. Ammonia is a toxic by-product of pro-
diseases that can affect the liver, such as feline infec- tein metabolism that is detoxified to urea within die
tious peritonitis (FIP) (see Chapter 29: Viral Diseases) liver. Normally, maintenance of proper blood ammo-
and toxoplasmosis (see Chapter 31: Internal Para- nia levels is dependent on functional liver mass, nor-
sites). mal portal blood circulation, and sufficient dietary
THE INTERNAL C\T

protein intake. Ele%-ation of blood ammonia le\els passing a biops\- needle through the skin, guided ei-
after fasting or during ammonia tolerance testing in- ther by feel or by ultrasonic monitoring: (2) laparos-
dicates an abnormalitN' in an>- of these three areas. cope, in which a biops\- needle is guided by sighting
Severely ele\-ated blood ammonia le\ els often accom- through a narrow flexible tube inserted into the abdo-
pany signs of neurologic d>-sfunction. men: and (3) exploraton surgerw to direcd>- retrieve
liver tissue.
BILIRUBIN, Bilirubin is a breakdown produa of The risks inherent in each technique need to be
red blood cells. Unconjugated water-soluble bilirubin weighed against the potential benefits of the informa-
is transponed in the blood to the li\er. v\here it is tion gained
taken up and conjugated (joined with glucuronic
acid) to form \%-ater-soluble bilirubin glucuronide. SEROLOGIC TESTING. Serologic testing for fe-
This conjugated form of bilirubin ma\- then be stored line leukemia lirus {YeL\).feline infectious peritonitis
in li\-er cells or passed out into the bile. In the small (FIP), and toxoplasmosis should also be included in
intestine, bilirubin is degraded to urobilinogen, the the diagnostic work-up because of the association of
majorit\- isof retained which isandexcreted in theinfeces. A smallor these entities vsith some feline liver disorders
amount eliminated the urine
recirculated through the \i\ er. The detection of uro- RADIOGRAPHY AND ULTRASONOGRAPHY.
bilinogen inthe urine thus indicates that the entero- If hepatobilian" disease is suspeaed, abdominal radi-
hepatic circulation — the circulation of bile
compounds between the digestive traa and the liver estimate ogofraphy isnecessan-
liver size and importantdetection
or allows and provides
of a liveran
— is intaa. However, the presence of e\en trace mass. However, abdominal ultrasonography usually
amounts of bilirubin in feline urine is considered ab- proNides more specific information about the liver
normal and an indication of disease invohing the and bile s\-stem. Additionally, if percutaneous li\ er
liver, bile ducts, or excessive destruction of red blood biops\- is to be performed, the biopsy- instrument can
cells. Jaundice usually de\ elops when bilirubin lev els often be guided to the proper site during ultrasonic
in blood serum rise above 1.5 to 2.0 milligrams per examination, thus gaining information that is poten-
one hundred milliliters. tially more useful diagnostically and also helps pre-
vent accidental injury- to the gallbladder and larger
bile ducts.
LIVER FUNCTION TESTS, .\lthough a number of
these procedures (detection of ele\-ated levels of Ii\er
en2\-mes or bilirubin) are useful in the diagnosis of Liver Diseases
liver disease, the\" are only secondan- indicators of the
status of liver function (i.e., they do not measure liver HEPATIC LIPIDOSIS. Hepatic lipidosis is a com-
function directly). Liver function tests have been de- mon li\er disease of cats, in which fets (triglycer-
signed to demonstrate and quantify- the extent of the ides) accumulate 'w-ithin the liver cells. Hepatic
liver s functional capacit\- in health and disease. Li% er lipidosis often presents as a secondary manifestation
function tests are necessan- to confirm a decrease in of an underlying primary abnormality, such as obesity,
functional liver mass and thus justify- more in\-asive diabetes mellitus, hyperthyxoidism, and kidney dis-
diagnostic techniques such as percutaneous needle
biopsy- or exploraton- surgery. For a multimde of rea- not ease. Cases in which
be identified an underly-ing
are diagnosed abnormality(cause
as idiopathic can-
sons, measuring the concentration of serum bile acids unkno^-n) Idiopathic hepatic lipidosis (IHL) is a
is now the preferred method to e\-aluate liver function \en- severe form of Iner disease. The most common
in cats, replacing both ammonia tolerance testing and clinical signs include weight loss, inappetence. dehy-
indoa-anine green or sulfobromophthalein clearance. dration, enlargement of the liver, and jaundice. He-
patic encephalopadiy (neurologic abnormalities
LIVER BIOPSY. In most cases, a liver biopsy is nec- secondan- to li\er failure) and bleeding disorders
es ary toestablish a specific diagnosis so that appro- ha\-e also been reponed. Serum levels of certain liver
priate therap\ nnv he applied. One of three major enzy-mes may be markedly elevated. A definitive diag-
technique.'^ m.u pc ii-cd ( 1) percutaneous needle bi- nosis is based on microscopic examination oi li\er
opsy; in which a sample of li\-er tissue is retrieved by tissue. Initial therapy includes restoration of fluid and
 LIVER, PANCREAS, AND DISORDERS

electroKte balance to correa dehydration. The most enzyme that is elevated; the others may have all been
important aspect of therapy is aggressive nutritional depleted by the chronic inflammatory disease pro-
support, often required for up to one or two months. cess. The prognosis is very poor. Medical manage-
Force-feeding and appetite stimulants have been uti- ment at the final stage is primarily supportive and
lized inthe past, but rarely are these methods capable aims to maintain adequate hydration and nutrition.
of allowing an affeaed cat to meet its nutritional Ideally, the nutrient requirements should be provided
needs. The most successful method of providing ade- by a primarily carbohydrate diet in which the mini-
quate nutrition and fluid is via a tube, often placed mum protein requirement is supplied by protein of
direaly into the stomach through the body wall. With high biologic value (severe protein restriction is not
proper treatment, up to 60 percent of cats suffering recommended, however). A multiple-vitamin supple-
from IHL can be saved. ment should also be included.
CHOLANGITIS/CHOLANGIOHEPATITIS COM- ACUTE HEPATIC NECROSIS. Acute hepatic ne-
PLEX. The term cholangitis/ cbolangiohepatitis com- crosis (liver cell death) may be caused by infectious
plex is used to describe a number of related diseases, toxins from microbial or other sources, or
inflammatory disorders of the liver and biliary traa. oxygen deprivation (hypoxia) secondary to anemia,
These disorders are categorized into at least three shock, or congestive heart failure. Serum ALT and AST
forms, according to the predominant inflammatory levels are markedly increased, and normal or moder-
cell t\pe identified within liver biopsy samples. Al- ately increased levels of SAP and GGT are seen. In cats
though the cause of this complex of diseases is not that survive, serum enzyme levels gradually decline to
known, it is believed by some that each of the three normal during the two to three weeks following the
forms represents a different stage in the progression liver insult. Cats with acute hepatic necrosis may also
of a single disease entitv-. Clinical signs seen are non- have elevated bilirubin levels or blood clotting abnor-
specific and can include intermittent inappetence, malities. Supportive care should include antibiotics,
fever, lethargy', vomiting, soft stools, liver enlargement, fluid therapy, B-complex vitamins, and potassium and
and jaundice. Biochemical testing usually reveals vari- glucose supplementation. Dietary considerations are
able increases in serum bilirubin, ALT, AST, SAP, and similar to those outlined for hepatic lipidosis.
GOT. Definitive diagnosis rests on microscopic exami-
nation and baaerial culture of liver tissue because bac- EXTRAHEPATIC BILE DUCT OBSTRUCTION.
teria often are associated with the disorder. Obstruction of the bile duct external to the liver
Prolonged treatment with specific antimicrobial proper may be caused by inflammation, cancer, or a
medication may be indicated for the suppurative stricture (narrowing) within the duct or its associ-
(pus-forming) form of the disease, in which the neu- ated organs (pancreas, duodenum). Less often, gall-
trophil isthe primary inflammatory cell infiltrating the stones (choleliths) or migration of parasitic worms
liver lesions. The more commonly diagnosed non- may produce obstruction. The presenting clinical
sup urative form, in which lymphocytes and plasma signs can include inappetence, weight loss, fever, in-
cells predominate, requires immunosuppressive drug termittent vomiting, and jaundice. Biochemical testing
therapy with steroids in addition to antimicrobials. usually reveals markedly elevated serum bilirubin and
The aim of therapy is to control the disease; a com- liver enzyme levels. If complete biliary obstruction
plete cure is rarely obtained. With either of these exists, urine urobilinogen decreases to undetectable
forms of the disease, treatment with a type of drug levels, feces become acholic (lightly colored because
called a choleretic appears to be beneficial. Addition- of the absence of bile in the intestine), and bleeding
ally, surgical removal of gallstones or correaion of tendencies develop. Radiographic evaluation of the
bile duct obstruction is necessary in some cases. abdomen or chest may occasionally be helpful in
The biliary cirrhosis form, in which bile duct tis- identifying cancers. Ultrasonography can be used to
sue isreplaced by tough conneaive tissue, is believed determine if obstruction is present and may some-
to be the final stage in the progression of the disease. times enable a cause to be elucidated (e.g., gallstones
It is not observed very often because cats with cbolan- or obstructive masses). Surgical intervention and cor-
giohepatitis rarely survive long enough for it to de- reaion ultimately are necessary in the majority of
velop. Atthis stage, serum GGT may be the only liver cases.
THE INTERNAL CAT

PORTOSYSTEMIC VASCULAR ANOMALIES, body. Hormones produced by islet cells include in-
Cats with congenital abnormalities in the blood vascu- sulin and glucagon, both necessary for proper con-
lature system of the liver may present with signs of trol of blood sugar. The most common disorder of
encephalopathy (disease of the brain, causing sei- the endocrine pancreas is diabetes mellitus. (See
zures, head-pressing, incoordination, coma), behav- Chapter 27: Endocrine System and Disorders.)
ioral abnormalities (mental dullness, staring into The major function of the exocrine pancreas is to
space, or sudden aggression), poor growth rate, inap- manufacture and secrete pancreatic juice, a liquid rich
petence, weight loss, drooling, depression, vomiting, in sodium bicarbonate and digestive enzymes. So-
and diarrhea. Unique copper-colored irises are pres- dium bicarbonate helps to neutralize gastric acid as it
ent in some cats, as is stone formation in the kidneys, passes into the small intestine from the stomach,
ureters, or bladder. Biochemical parameters may be where digestive enzymes assist in the breakdown of
normal or may show only minor alterations. The most proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. Additional constit-
remarkable abnormality' demonstrable is impaired uents of pancreatic juice possess antibacterial proper-
liver function, as measured by bile acid values or ties and play a role in the absorption of vitamin B,,,
other liver function assays. Ultrasonography or special zinc, and other nutrients. Pancreatic juice secreted
radiographic studies are necessary to confirm a diag- from the pancreas is collected into the pancreatic
nosis. Surgical correction of the anomalous vessel(s) duct, where it joins with the bile duct from the liver
is the recommended therapy, but it is not a guarantee prior to entering the duodenum.
of recoven' of normal function. The prognosis is usu- NXlien funaioning normally, the pancreas is able to
ally guarded. protect itself from the digestive enzymes it manufac-
tures, stores, and secretes. Several mechanisms allow
LIVER CANCER. Cancers involving the liver usu- the pancreas to accomplish this feat. First, the en-
ally either originate in some other site and spread
(metastasize) to the liver later in the course of dis- activatedzymes aruntil
e storedtheyin anenterinactive state and
the small don't become
intestine. Second,
ease (e.g., mammary cancer), or they involve multiple they are stored in a compartment of the cell that is
systems (e.g., lymphosarcoma). Primary liver can- sequestered away from other enzymes that could acti-
cer (that is, cancer beginning in the liver) is uncom- vate them. Third, a special kind of enzyme inhibitor
mon in cats. Very rarely are the signs of liver cancer is manufactured, stored, and secreted along with the
unique — usually they are t\pical of most other liver digestive enzymes in order to protect the pancreatic
disorders. Although the changes seen on radiographs cells and duct system.
or ultrasound examination may be suggestive of can-
cer, definitive diagnosis depends on evaluation of a
biopsy. Diseases of the Exocrine Pancreas
Treatment depends upon the type of cancer. For Until recently, it was believed that disease of the exo-
primary liver cancers involving only one or two lobes, crine pancreas was rare in cats. However, newer stud-
surgical removal may be helpful. Although chemo- ies show an incidence that equals or even exceeds
therapy isnot usually effective for primary liver can- that in dogs. Two of the most important diseases of
cers, it may be a useful option for hepatic the exocrine pancreas of cats are pancreatitis and exo-
lymphosarcoma. crine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI).
PANCREATITIS. In most cases, the cause of feline
THE PANCREAS pancreatitis cannot be determined. However, trauma
(e.g., falling from a height, automobile accident),
The pancreas is a pale, lobulated organ located in the various infeaious agents (e.g., feline herpesvirus.
cranial abdomen near the liver, stomach, and duode- Toxoplasma gondii, feline coronavirus, and the liver
num. Itpossesses both endocrine and exocrine func- parasite Amphiments pseudofelineus), poisoning, and
tion. Although it is only about 2 percent of the total various medications, have been shown to be responsi-
mass of the pancreas, the endocrine tissue of the pan- ble in some cases. Pancreatitis sometimes coexists
creas (small clusters of cells called islets of Langer- with cholangitis/cholangiohepatitis. This fact has led
hans) plays an extremely important function in the some researchers to speculate that bacteria and diges-
 LIVER, PANCREAS, AND DISORDERS

tive juices from the small intestine may flow backward EXOCRINE PANCREATIC INSUFFICIENCY.
up the ducts (recall that, in the cat, the common bile The most common cause of EPI in cats is chronic
duct and the major pancreatic duct join together be- pancreatitis. Because both endocrine and exocrine
fore emptying into the small intestine) and cause dis- cells are destroyed in pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus
ease to occur simultaneously in both the liver and often accompanies EPI. Less common causes include
pancreas. obstruction of the pancreatic duct as a result of cancer
of differentAs conditions in other species,
cause it's
or likely that a tonumber
contribute feline or pancreatic parasites, or atrophy of enzyme-produc-
pancreatitis. ing pancreatic cells.
The signs of feline pancreatitis are often vague and Signs seen in cats with EPI include weight loss and
similar to those seen with a host of other disorders, passage of soft, pale, voluminous stools — all a result
thus complicating diagnosis. Contrary to what is seen of impaired digestion and absorption of nutrients.
in other species, fever, increased hean rate, abdomi- Traditional tests of exocrine pancreatic fiinction in
nal pain, and vomiting are not consistently seen. Ra- cats are cumbersome and often unreliable, so accu-
diographs ofthe abdomen may provide supponive rate diagnosis is sometimes difficult. Newer tests, in-
evidence of pancreatitis, but ultrasound examination cluding evaluation of fTLI, serum cobalamin, and
is providing more useful diagnostic information in serum folate, are showing promise and may ultimately
most cases. Measurements of the serum levels of the prove to be reliable indicators of the disorder. Fortu-
pancreatic en2ymes amylase and lipase are reliable nately, most cats with EPI can be satisfaaorily man-
indicators of pancreatitis in dogs and humans, but aged by supplementing each meal with digestive
they are of linle assistance in the diagnosis of the enzymes.
disease in cats. Though not yet widely available, feline
trypsin-like immunoreactivity (fTLI) and trypsinogen PANCREATIC NEOPLASIA. Primary neoplasias,
activation peptide (TAP) may prove to be accurate or tumors of the pancreas, are uncommon. When di-
markers of feline pancreatitis. In the limited number
of studies conducted thus far, serum fTLI has been agnosed they are usually adenomas, adenocarcino-
markedly elevated in cats with pancreatitis compared mas, or islet cell tumors. Secondary neoplasia occurs
to normal cats. In humans and rats with pancreatitis, more commonly as lymphosarcoma associated with
feline leukemia.
serum concentration of TAP is elevated; it is hoped
that measuring serum TAP may be a diagnostically
useful test for cats, also. NODULAR HYPERPLASIA. This is a common
At this time, treatment of cats with acute pancreatitis finding in old cats, at necropsy. It appears as lumps or
is largely supportive in nature and may vary de- thickenings in the tissue of the pancreas. It is not a
pending on the situation. A uniformly successful treat- malignancy and probably has little clinical signifi-
ment plan for all cases has not yet been developed. cance.
 CHAPTER 27

Endocrine System

and Disorders

by John F. Randolph and Mark E. Peterson

THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS

is compos
system es ed of glands region, or cortex, that surrounds a centrally located
Thethatendocri secretene hormon directly into the inner part, or medulla. The adrenal cortex elabo-
bloodstream. These hormones regulate rates glucocorticoid (e.g., Cortisol) and mineralo-
many body processes. The endocrine sys- corticoid (e.g., aldosterone) hormones, whereas the
tem of the cat includes the following glands: thyroid, adrenal medulla produces catecholamine hor-
parathy roids, adrenals, pancreas, gonads (testicles and mones (e.g., adrenaline). The glucocorticoids affect
ovaries), and pituitary. the metabolism of car-
The thyroid in the bohydrates, fat, and
cat is a single gland
with right and left protein; thehelp
conicoids mineralo- regu-
lobes, situated in the late salt and water
neck alongside the up- balance; and the echocat-
per pan of the lamines alter
trachea (windpipe). blood pressure and
The thyroid lobes pro- hean function.
duce two major hor- The pancreas of
mones, thyroxine the cat lies along the
(T4) and triiodothy- upper intestine
small part of near the
ronine (Tj). These
hormones help con- the stomach. The en-
trol the overall metab- docrine activity of the
olism of the body. pancreas resides thatin
Adherent to the thyroid gland are the parathyroid clusters of cells called the islets of Langerhans
glands. These four small glands (two per thyroid are dispersed among the more predominant pancre-
lobe) produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which atic cells that produce digestive enzymes. The pancre-
regulates calcium and phosphorus concentrations in atic islets secrete several hormones including
the body. glucagon, somatostatin, gastrin, and insulin. Insulin
Adjacent to the front of each kidney in the cat is is especially important in regulating the metabolism
an adrenal gland. These glands consist of an outer of glucose (blood sugar) and other fiiels for the body.
264
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

The gonads serve as a source of the sex hormones sional y incats with hyperthyroidism, hyperexcitabil-
that govern reproduction and fertility. In the male cat, ity and increased appetite are replaced by weakness
the testicles produce testosterone; in the female cat, and inappetance.
the ovaries produce progesterone and estrogen. (See Because the clinical signs of hyperthyroidism in cats
Chapter 12: Reproductive Disorders, for further infor- mimic other diseases such as diabetes mellitus, kidney
mation.) failure, heart disease, and gastrointestinal disorders, a
The pituitary gland is located at the base of the thorough evaluation of the cat should include a com-
brain. plete physical exam and screening laboratory tests
nervousJustsystem, as the sobrain is the "nerve
the pituitary glandcenter" for the
is the control (complete blood count, serum biochemical profile,
center for many of the endocrine glands. The pituitary and urinalysis). Results of these tests may show alter-
gland exerts this control by secreting hormones that ations that will aid in the diagnosis of hyperthyroid-
affect particular endocrine glands. For example, ism. Even more important, however, results of such
pituitary-derived adrenocorticotropic hormone routine screening tests may reveal the presence of a
(ACTH) stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce Cor- concurrent disorder not directly related to the hyper-
tisol, whereas pituitary production of thyroid-stimu- thyroid sm, situation
a that should not be surprising
lating hormone (TSH) stimulates the thyroid to considering the old age of most cats widi hyperthy-
make T^ and T,. The pituitary gland also secretes roidism. During the physical examination, the veteri-
growth hormone (GH) which stimulates growth, narian wil carefully feel the neck region of the cat to
and vasopressin (also called antidiuretic hor- determine if the lobes of the thyroid are enlarged and
mone |ADH]) which acts to conserve body water by listen to the heart for any abnormalities. Findings on
reducing urine output. Should the pituitary gland mal- physical examination may prompt the need for further
function, then other endocrine glands under its con- testing, such as electrocardiogram, radiographs, or
trol may also malfunction. echocardiogram. (See Appendix C: Diagnostic Tests.)
Disorders of the endocrine system develop when A definitive diagnosis of hyperthyroidism in cats is
there is an overproduction (hyper-) or underproduc- made when the blood concentrations of T4 and/or T,
tion (hypo- ) of hormones. Certain endocrine disor- are increased. Rarely, cats with hyperthyroidism may
ders such as hyperthyroidism are common diseases have normal concentrations of thyroid hormones. In
in cats, whereas other diseases such as hypoadreno- these instances, repeating the thyroid hormone mea-
cortism are less well recognized. surement orperforming other thyroid function tests
may be necessary.
Thyroid imaging (scanning after administration of
a small tracer dose of a radionuclide) is helpful in
DISEASES OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM determining the extent of thyroid gland involvement
in hyperthyroid cats, especially when no enlargement
Hyperthyroidism of the thyroid gland can be felt, when the enlarged
Hyperthyroidism results from excessive produaion of lliyroid gland has descended into the chest, or in the
the thyroid hormones T4 and T,. In the cat, hyperthy- rare instance when the thyroid tumor is malignant.
roidism ismost commonly caused by a functional be- Hyperthyroidism in cats can be treated in three
nign tumor involving one or both thyroid lobes. ways: surgical removal of the affected thyroid lobe(s),
Hyperthyroidism occurs in middle- to old-aged cats radioactive iodine therapy, or antithyroid drugs. Each
(average age, approximately thirteen years). There is form of treatment has its advantages and disadvan-
no breed or sex predisposition. tages. The treatment of choice for an individual cat
The most common clinical signs of hyperthyroid- depends on several factors, including the presence of
ism in cats are weight loss, ravenous appetite, vom- heart disease or other medical problems (e.g., kidney
iting, excessive drinking and urinating, hyperactivity, failure) and the availability of a nuclear medicine fa-
cility.
and diarrhea. Often the haircoat looks unkempt and
dull. Heart abnormalities including murmurs, rapid Surgical removal of the enlarged thyroid lobe(s) —
heart rate, arrhythmias (variations in the normal thyroidectomy — is a highly effective treatment for
heartbeat), and even secondary cardiomyopathy hyperthyroidism in cats. However, hyperthyroid cats
(disorder of the heart muscle) may develop. Occa- may have increased anesthetic and surgical risks be-
THE INTERNAL CAT

cause of the effect the disease has had on the cat's hormones, but they do not destroy the thyroid tumor.
heart and metabolism. Preparing hyperthyroid cats for If doses of antithyroid drugs are missed, the signs of
surgen' by pretreating them with an antithyroid drug hyperthyroidism will recur. The most commonly used
may minimize the anesthetic and surgical complica- antithyroid drug is methimazole. In cats in which
tions. After antithyroid drugs have maintained normal long-term methimazole treatment is planned, the goal
thyroid hormone blood concentrations for 1 to 3 of treatment is to maintain the blood T4 concentra-
weeks, most systemic complications associated with tions within the low-normal range with the lowest
hyperthyroidism will have improved. In hyperthyroid possible daily dose. Adverse reactions associated with
cats that cannot tolerate antithyroid drug treatment, methimazole include loss of appetite, vomiting, and
alternate preoperative preparation with £-adrenore- lethargy. In most cats, these mild reactions disappear
ceptor-blocking drugs (e.g., propranolol) may he in a few days. However, if these gastrointestinal signs
tried. The beta-blockers do not lower thyroid hor- persist, the drug may need to be discontinued. Other,
mone concentrations but instead block many of the less common side effects of methimazole requiring
effects of excess thyroid hormones on the hean. cessation of the drug include severe scratching of the
The most serious complication of thyroidectomy is head and neck, liver damage, severe thrombocyto-
hypocalcemia (low blood calcium). This occurs penia (low clotting-cell count predisposing to bleed-
when the parathyroid glands are inadvertently injured ing episodes), severe leukopenia (low white blood
or removed during surgery. However, if only one cell count predisposing to infection), immune-medi-
parathyroid gland remains, it can maintain normal cal- ated hemolytic anemia, and lupus-like syndrome.
cium levels. If hypocalcemia does develop, it usually In hyperthyroid cats with compromised kidney
occurs within the first three days of surgery. Signs of function, a trial course of antithyroid drug therapy
hypocalcemia include weakness, muscle tremors, and may be advisable prior to more permanent treatment
convulsions. Hypocalcemia can be remedied by ad- modalities (thyroidectomy or radioiodine). Deteriora-
ministering vitamin D and calcium supplements; usu- tion of kidney function may occur in some cats after
ally within weeks to months these supplements may correction of the hypenhyroid state. If no decompen-
be tapered and eventually discontinued. sation of kidney function develops when normal thy-
If both lobes of the thyroid are removed, thyroid roid levels are achieved by methimazole treatment,
hormone supplementation should be given daily with then more permanent intervention may be attempted.
periodic measurement of blood T4 concentration. If
only one thyroid lobe is removed, the remaining lobe
usually can maintain the proper hormone balance Hypothyroidism
without additional treatment. Naturally occurring hypothyroidism (decreased T^
Radioactive iodine is an optimal treatment for cats and T3 production resulting from a loss of functioning
with hyperthyroidism because it selectively destroys thyroid tissue) is an extremely rare clinical disorder
functioning thyroid tissue while sparing the parathy- in the adult cat. However, hypothyroidism can be cre-
roid glands. Radioactive iodine treatment does not ated in adult cats by complete surgical removal or
require surgery or anesthesia. In most cats with hyper- radioiodine destruction of the thyroid gland in the
thyroid sm,single
a treatment with radioactive iodine treatment of hypenhyroidism. Kittens may develop a
is sufficient to return thyroid hormone concentrations congenital hypothyroidism resulting from defects in
to normal. Cats that remain hyperthyroid can be suc- thyroid hormone synthesis.
cessfully retreated with radioiodine. Cats whose T4 The clinical signs associated with hypothyroidism
levels drop too low can be supplemented with T4. At in the adult cat include lethargy, weight gain, dullness,
present, the major disadvantage of radioactive iodine low body temperature, dry scaly skin, matting of hair,
treatment is the unavailability of nuclear medicine and possibly hair loss. Kittens afflicted with hypothy-
facilities and the period of quarantine for treated cats. roidism may also show retarded growtli (with an en-
Cats receiving radioactive iodine need to be confined larged head and short neck and limbs) and
in a nuclear medicine facility for one to three weeks constipation.
(depending on the dose of radioiodine used and radi- A tentative diagnosis of hypothyroidism can be
ation safety regulations). made on the basis of clinical signs, physical examina-
Antithyroid drugs inhibit the production of thyroid tion, exclusion of nonthyroidal disease, and the find-
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

ing of a low blood T4 concentration. However, low, until the remaining parathyroid glands resume
because many factors can falsely lower blood T4 lev- their function. Temporary vitamin D and calcium sup-
els, adefinitive diagnosis of hypothyroidism usually plementation maybe required during this transition.
requires thyroid function testing (i.e., TSH response
test or thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulation
test). Hypoparathyroidism
Treatment of hypothyroid cats consists of adminis- In the cat, the most common cause of hypopara-
tering athyroid hormone supplement. Dosage of the thyroidism isinadvertent injury or removal of the
supplement is adju.sted based on clinical response and parathyroid glands during thyroidectomy for hyper-
serial blood T4 concentrations. In hypothyroid kittens, thyroidism. Incontrast, naturally occurring hypopara-
dullness, constipation, and growth abnormalities may thyroidism isa rare disorder in tlie cat, affecting
persist despite thyroid hormone supplementation. mainly young to middle-aged cats. The most common
clinical signs of hypoparathyroidism, regardless of
cause, are lethargy, inappetance, and muscle tremors.
Hyperparathyroidism The diagnosis of hypoparathyroidism is based on
The parathyroid glands are sensitive to the balance of history, clinical signs, laboratory evidence of hypocal-
calcium and phosphorus in the blood. If there is a cemia and hyperphosphatemia (high blood-phos-
chronic excess of phosphorus or a deficit of calcium, phorus concentration), and exclusion of other causes
the parathyroid glands will overproduce the parathy- of hypocalcemia (e.g., phosphate enema toxicity, kid-
roid hormone (PTH) resulting in secondary hyper- ney failure, pancreatitis, intestinal malabsorption). If
parathyroidism. This overproduction causes calcium naturally occurring hypoparathyroidism is suspected,
to be removed from the bones to reestablish the the disorder may be confirmed by determination of
proper calcium-to-phosphorus ratio in the blood. Sec- blood PTH concentrations or biopsy of parathyroid
ondary' hyperparathyroidism may develop as a result tissue.
of kidney disease (see Chapter 22: Urinary System and Treatment of hypoparathyroidism, regardless of
Disorders) or feeding all-meat diets (see Chapter 6: cause, includes the use of calcium supplements and
Nutritional Requirements). vitamin D. With naturally occurring hypopara-
In contrast, primary hyperparathyroidism is caused thyroidism, long-term management is necessary; how-
by a tumor of one or more parathyroid glands that ever, with hypoparathyroidism following thyroidec-
results in an overproduction of PTH that is totally un- tomy, calcium and vitamin D therapy usually may be
related to the calcium-to-phosphorus ratio in the tapered off and eventually discontinued based on re-
blood. In fact, the increased PTH in this instance sults ofserial blood-calcium concentrations.
causes hypercalcemia (high blood-calcium concen-
tration). Primary tumors of the parathyroid glands are
rare in the cat. >Xtien they occur, they seem to develop Hyperadrenocorticism
more commonly in older female Siamese cats. The Hyperadrenocorticism (Cushing's syndrome) re-by
most common clinical signs of primary hyperparathy- sults from excessive production of glucocorticoids
roidism incats are lethargy and inappetance. the adrenal glands. The syndrome appears to be quite
Primary hyperparathyroidism may be suspected rare. Most cases of hyperadrenocorticism in the cat
when a cat with appropriate clinical signs is found to are caused by overstimulation of the adrenal glands
be consistently hypercalcemic on screening labora- by a pituitary tumor, or by an overly active pituitary
tory tests. However, other causes of hypercalcemia gland producing excess amounts of ACTH; the re-
(e.g., nonparathyroid tumors, vitamin D toxicity, kid- maining cases result from functional adrenal tumors.
ney disease, hypoadrenocorticism, and spurious fac- Hyperadrenocorticism occurs mainly in middle-aged
tors) must be ruled out. Determination of blood tomales.
older cats, with a slightly greater incidence in fe-
concentrations of PTH and ionized calcium may help
differentiate among these causes of hypercalcemia. The most common clinical signs associated with
Treatment of primary hyperparathyroidism involves hyperadrenocorticism in cats include excessive drink-
surgical removal of the parathyroid tumor. Postopera- ing and urinating, increased appetite, enlarged abdo-
tively, the blood-calcium concentration might fall too men, hair loss, thin skin, and lethargy. A cat afflicted
THE INTERNAL CAT

with adrenoc rtic sm ithe

n cat are lethargy, inappetance,
fragihtyCushing's of the skin syndrome may also
that results exhibit
in skin tearsextreme
during and weight loss. Vomiting and diarrhea are less fre-
routine handling. quently encountered. In some cats, the symptoms may
Cats with hvperadrenocorticism are predisposed to wax and wane. Physical examination may reveal de-
developing diabetes mellitus because of the effects of pression, weakness, dehydration, and low body tem-
chronic glucocorticoid excess on blood sugar metab-
olism. In fact, more than 90 percent of the cats with perature.
Primary hypoadrenocorticism should be suspected
hyperadrenocorticism have concurrent diabetes mel- in a cat with appropriate clinical features and labora-
litus. Interestingly, many of these cats with hyper- tory abnormalities. Classic laboratory findings in a cat
adrenoconicism and secondary diabetes mellitus re- with Addison's disease include low blood sodium and
quire exceptionally high doses of insulin (more than high blood potassium concentrations (resulting from
1 to 2 units per pound of body weight per day), be- the lack of mineralocorticoids), as well as hyperphos-
cause the excess glucocorticoids antagonize the ac- phatemia, azotemia, (excess urea in the blood), and
tions ofthe insulin. mild anemia. However, these laboratory findings also
The ideal diagnostic testing protocol for hyper- can be seen with other diseases. The most accurate
adrenoc rtic sm incats is still unknown, but helpful screening test for hypoadrenocorticism is the ACTH
procedures include adrenal function testing (e.g., dexa- stimulation test, in which rJie response of the adrenal
methasone suppression test), measurement of ACTH glands to a test dose of commercial ACTH is evaluated.
concentrations, and radiographic studies (e.g., ultra- Therapy for the cat with primary hypoadrenocorti-
sound, computed tomography). (See Appendix D: Di- cism consists of lifelong glucocorticoid and mineralo-
agnostic Imaging.) corticoid supplementation, either oral or injectable.
In general, surgical removal of the adrenal gland(s) Initial treatment also may require fluid administration.
— adrenalectomy — appears to be the most successful The dosage of mineralocorticoid replacement is ad-
means of treating cats with hyperadrenocorticism. justed based on the results of serial blood sodium and
Only the affected adrenal gland is removed in cats potassium concentrations.
with a functional adrenal tumor, whereas both adrenal Secondary hypoadrenocorticism develops when
glands are removed in cats with an overstimulating pituitary ACTH secretion is deficient, resulting in in-
pituitary tumor/gland. Permanent replacement ther- adequate stimulation of adrenal glucocorticoid pro-
apy with glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids is duction. Certain drugs containing glucocorticoids or
necessary in cats that have had both adrenal glands progesterone can inhibit pituitary ACTH secretion.
removed. Temporary glucoconicoid supplementation The resultant deficiency in glucocorticoid production
may be required in cats following removal of the adre- may result in clinical signs similar to those observed
nal gland tumor. in primary hypoadrenocorticism, except the electro-
Unformnately, drugs used in dogs with Cushing's lyte (sodium and potassium) disturbances associated
syndrome to destroy the adrenal cortex or block glu- with mineralocorticoid deficient' are absent.
coconicoid synthesis do not seem to be consistently
effective in the cat. Similarly, radiation therapy di- Diabetes mellitus
rected atthe causative pituitary tumor has had variable
results in cats. Diabetes mellitus, a common endocrine disorder in
the cat, is caused by decreased insulin production by
the pancreatic islet cells, or decreased responsiveness
Hypoadrenocorticism ofinsulin
the cat's body orcellsactivity
to theisaction of insulin.
Naturally occurring hypoadrenocorticism (also known quantity decreased, most When
body
as primary hypoadrenocorticism or Addison's tissues cannot use glucose. Hyperglycemia (high
disease) is caused by destruction of the adrenal corti- blood sugar concentration) and subsequent glucosu-
ces. The resultant deficiency of both glucocorticoids ria (sugarto inexcessive
the urine)urination
rapidly and
develop.
and mineralocorticoids causes the clinical signs ob- ria leads thirst. TheBecause
glucosu-
the
served. Primary hypoadrenocorticism is a rare disease body's cells cannot use the available glucose, lethargy
in the cat. and weight loss develop, despite a good appetite. As
The most common clinical signs of primary hypo- the disease progresses, derangements in fat and pro-
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

tein metabolism accelerate, causing inappetance, cose values throughout the day to assess how long
vomiting, weakness, and dehydration. the insulin action lasts and how effectively the insulin
Diabetes mellitus occurs in cats of any age, breed, lowers the blood glucose. The dose of insulin is also
or sex, but typically it is seen in aged (older than ten variable for each cat and may need to be adjusted
years), obese (over fifteen pounds), castrated male based on blood glucose profiles, intermittent blood
cats. A veterinarian's diagnosis of diabetes mellitus is glucose determinations, clinical response, and at-
based on clinical signs, physical examination, labora- home urine glucose monitoring. Obtaining a urine
tor\' tests, and the persistent presence of hyperglyce- sample from a diabetic cat to check urine glucose
mia and glucosuria. Diagnosis usually is not based on may be facilitated by using nonabsorbent Kitty Litter
a single elevated blood sugar test, especially in the cat substitutes, such as plastic beads or aquarium gravel.
with equivocal clinical signs, because stressed cats can One of the most potentially dangerous complica-
have temporary sugar levels that are abnormally high. tions ofinsulin therapy is hypoglycemia (low blood
The presence sugar). Signs of hypoglycemia include weakness, leth-
digestion of itsofown ketones,tissues a toby-product of the body's
produce energy when argy, wobbly gait mimicking a drunken state, convul-
sugar cannot be metabolized, in urine or blood indi- sions, and coma. Should these signs develop, you
cates the disease has progressed. should offer the cat its normal food if it will eat, or
Proper treatment of diabetes mellitus is based on rub a tablespoon of Karo syrup on its gums. Food or
the severity of the disorder. Diabetic cats that are ill fluids should never be forced down the mouth, nor
(i.e., inappetance, vomiting, dehydration) with ke- should fingers be placed inside the mouth of a con-
tones intheir blood and urine require intensive care. vulsing cat. If no response to food or Karo syrup is
Their hospitalized treatment program will probably observed within a few minutes, the cat should be
include lluid therapy to correct dehydration and elec- taken to a veterinarian. Whenever signs of hypoglyce-
trolyte abnormalities, and short-acting insulin (e.g.,
regular insulin given frequently during the day) to and miasubsequent
occur, your cat's dosesveterinarian
of insulin should
should bebe contacted
reduced
lower blood glucose and stop ketone production. until appropriate insulin dosage adjustments can be
Once the ill diabetic cat starts to feel better (i.e., eating made based on the results of serial blood glucose
with no vomiting, normal hydration), then the fluid determinations.
therapy is tapered off and discontinued, and a longer Some diabetic cats lose their need for insulin injec-
acting insulin given once or twice a day is substituted tions. These temporary diabetics may develop hypo-
for the short-acting insulin. glycemia as their insulin requirements gradually
In diabetic cats that are not ill, the longer acting decrease. Once the diabetic state has resolved, these
insulins (NPH insulin, lente insulin, or ultralente insu- cats may go for weeks to years without requiring insu-
lin) given once or twice a day by injection under the lin, although diabetes mellitus may recur.
skin may be staned initially. Alternatively, in diabetic In contrast, other diabetic cats seem to require ex-
cats that are not ill and do not have ketones, an at- cessive doses of insulin (greater than 1 to 2 units of
tempt may be made for management without insulin insulin per pound of body weight per day). These cats
treatment by use of dietary modification and oral hy- may have concurrent diseases (e.g., hyperadreno-
poglycemic drugs. These cats should be monitored corticism, infections, acromegaly) that are blocking
carefully; if they become ill, develop ketones, or re- insulin's action,
main persistently hyperglycemic, then insulin therapy ministrationtechnical problems
(e.g., inadequate mixingwith insulin
of the ad-
insulin,
should be initiated. outdated or denatured insulin), poor absorption of
insulin, too rapid metabolism of insulin, or even over-
INSULIN. In general, home therapy for diabetic
cats involves the injection of ultralente insulin once sort out dosagemost ofinsulin. of these Your cat's veterinarian
conditions can help
by careful you
history,
or twice daily, or NPH or lente insulin twice daily. thorough physical examination, screening laboratory
Selection of the type and dose frequency of insulin tests, and a blood glucose profile.
for an individual diabetic cat should be based on
eighteen- to twenty-four-hour blood glucose profiles DIET. Obese diabetic cats should lose weight to bet-
following insulin administration. These in-hospital ter control their diabetes. The weight loss should be
profiles involve frequent determinations of blood glu- gradual, with no greater a loss than 3 percent of body
THE INTERNAL CAT

weight weekly. High-fiber diets have been recom- Gastrin-secreting pancreatic tumor (gastrinoma)
mended inthe management of diabetic cats, because results in vomiting and weight loss. The increased
they help promote weight loss and may help control gastrin secreted by these tumors causes excessive pro-
the increase in blood glucose after eating. Thin dia- duction ofstomach acid that leads to intestinal ulcers.
betic cats should be fed a high-calorie diet initially Possible treatment includes surgical removal of the
and then be switched to a lower calorie, high-fiber tumor and management of the ulcers with antacids.
diet once their ideal body weight is reached.
Diabetic cats receiving insulin should have their Acromegaly
meals spaced according to their insulin administra-
tion. With once-daily injection of insulin, the cat is fed Acromegaly occurs when there is an excess of growth
one-half of its food at the time of insulin injection and hormone (GH) in an adult cat. Although uncommon,
the remainder at the time of peak insulin activity (about acromegaly in the cat is most often caused by a GH-
eight to twelve hours later). When a cat is receiving in- secreting pituitary tumor. Most of the cats diagnosed
sulin twice daily, feedings should coincide with insulin with
injections. Diabetic cats that are being given oral hypo- male. acromegaly have been middle-aged or old, and
glycemic drugs rather than insulin should be encour- The clinical features of acromegaly are caused by
aged to eat several small meals throughout the day to the excess GH. They include large head and paws,
minimize the increase in blood sugar after eating. forward-jutting lower jaw, weight gain, enlarged abdo-
men, thick skin, and enlargement of many of the or-
ORAL HYPOGLYCEMIC DRUGS. Oral hypogly- gans in the body (e.g., heart, liver, kidneys). The
cemic drugs are not "oral insulins," but rather drugs overgrown heart and kidneys may fail as the disease
that stimulate insulin secretion from the cat's own progresses.
pancreatic islet cells. The oral hypoglycemic drug that Cats with acromegaly are prone to the development
is most commonly used in diabetic cats is glipizide. of diabetes mellitus because of the effect of chronic
Diabetic cats receiving glipizide should have their GH excess on blood sugar metabolism. So far, all the
blood glucose levels monitored weekly by a veterinar- cats diagnosed with acromegaly have had concurrent
ian. The ideal goal of treatment is a normal blood diabetes mellitus. In fact, cats with acromegaly and
glucose, at which time the dose of glipizide may be secondary diabetes mellitus require very large doses
discontinued or tapered. Side effects of glipizide in of insulin (greater than 1 to 2 units per pound of body
cats include vomiting, inappetance, and liver damage. weight daily), because the excess GH antagonizes the
If the diabetic cat receiving glipizide becomes ill, de- aaion of insulin.
velops ketones, or remains persistently hyperglycemic Acromegaly should be suspected in any diabetic cat
after one to two months of treatment, then the glipi- that is persistently hyperglycemic throughout the day
zide should be discontinued and insulin therapy despite daily insulin doses exceeding 20 units, espe-
should be started. cial y ifaccompanied by clinical signs characteristic of
acromegaly (e.g., weight gain, changes in faciaf fea-
Pancreatic islet cell tumors tures and body dimensions). The definitive diagnosis
of acromegaly generally requires finding increased
Pancreatic islet cell tumors (e..g., insulinoma, gas- blood GH concentrations. However, because GH de-
trinoma) are extremely rare in the cat. Insulin-secre- terminations inthe cat are not performed by most
ting islet cell tumor (insulinoma) seems to occur laboratories, a tentative diagnosis is based on charac-
most commonly in older, castrated, male Siamese cats. teristic clinical and laboratory features, normal results
Clinical signs are related to hypoglycemia and include on thyroid and adrenal testing, and demonstration of
weakness and convulsions. Laboratory findings of hy- a pituitary tumor by brain scan. Measurement of so-
poglycemia and increased blood insulin concentra- matomedin C(a substance produced in response to
tion are consistent with the diagnosis of insulinoma. GH) also may be helpful diagnostically.
Treatment has included surgical removal of the insu- Acromegaly can be treated in three ways: surgical
linoma and medical management with frequent feed- removal of the pituitary tumor, radiation of the pitu-
ings and oral glucocorticoids. Unfortunately, most itary tumor, or drugs that inhibit GH secretion. Unfor-
insulinomas in cats seem to be malignant. tunately, atthis time, there does not appear to be a
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

consistently effective treatment for acromegaly in cats. The diagnosis of diabetes insipidus requires that it
Surgical removal of GH-secreting pituitary tumors has be differentiated from other, more common causes of
not been evaluated in cats. Radiation of the pituitary increased drinking and urinating in the cat, such as
tumor is temporarily effective in lowering GH levels kidney failure, diabetes mellitus, and hyperthyroid-
in some cats, yet ineffective in other cats. Long-acting ism. Aveterinarian can help distinguish many of these
somatostatin, a drug that inhibits GH secretion in disorders by evaluating the cat's and
history, performing
people with acromegaly, does not have the same ef- complete physical examination, completing somea
fect in acromegalic cats. laboratory tests (e.g., routine hemogram, serum bio-
chemical profile, analysis of the urine, T^ concentra-
tion). However, definitive diagnosis of diabetes
Diabetes insipidus insipidus requires more extensive testing; these addi-
Diabetes insipidus is caused by deficient pituitary se-
cretion of vasopressin (also called antidiuretic hor- to maketionalmore in-hospital procedures urine
concentrated monitor the cat's
as water ability
is withheld
mone or ADH), or by the kidneys' inability to respond and following an injection of vasopressin.
torespond
the vasopressin hormone.can Thebe kidneys' The treatment of choice for diabetes insipidus is
to vasopressin caused byinability
variousto desmopressin (DDAVP), a synthetic form of vasopres-
drugs andcreased diseases. The reasons for the pituiiary's de- sin. Desmopressin is available as a nose spray for peo-
secretion of vasopressin include pituitary ple that can be converted to an eye drop for cats. The
tumor, pituitary cyst, head trauma, and unknown fac- number of drops is adjusted to control the excessive
tors. The following discussion pertains to deficient drinking and urinating. Adverse side effects of DDAVP
secretion of vasopressin by the pituitary gland. are uncommon but could include excess water reten-
All the cats diagnosed with diabetes insipidus have tion.
been kittens or young adults, and most have been
males. The major clinical signs of this rare condition Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank
are extreme thirst and the elimination of vast quanti- Jeffrey E. Barlough, Leo A Wuori, and June Kirvan-
ties of urine. Tuttle for their contributions to this cheater.
 CHAPTER 28

Immune System

and Disorders

by John S. Parker

all organi sms must defend them- have begun the task of specifically investigating the
To surviveselves, against the perils of their surround- nuances of feline immunology, in large part being
ings. Even the simplest, single-celled driven by the need to understand the effects of feline
creatures have evolved defense mecha- immunodeficiency virus and feline leukemia virus on
nisms and strategies whereby they optimize their the immune system. The more well-accepted aspects
prospects for staying alive. As we examine organisms of the anatomy and physiology of the feline immune
higherweupseethethatevoluti onar>' system will be discussed
scale, more and here, with brief descriptions
more complex mechanisms of some feline diseases
have developed to shield whose origins lie within the
against dangers within the immune system itself (for
environment. Higher, mul- readers with a deeper inter-
ticelled organisms need to est in this topic, there are
defend themselves against now available several excel-
foreign invaders such as par-
asites, bacteria, fungi, and vi- humanlent immunology).
texts in veterinary or
ruses. Itis primarily for this
purpose that the cells and
molecules that make up the THE COMPONENTS
immune system exist. AND MECHANICS OF
Immunology — the study THE IMMUNE
of the immune system — has RESPONSE
advanced greatly in the last
fifteen years as a result of the progress made in molec- There are a number of fundamental properties of the
ular and cellular biology. Most of the contemporary immune response. First, the immune response is spe-
discoveries have been made using the immune system cific and generally long lasting (e.g., a cat that is im-
of mice and, to a lesser extent, that of humans. Luckily mune to feline panleukopenia virus is unlikely to
for cats, this information can be readily applied to the develop that disease again, but it would be susceptible
feline immune system. More recently, veterinarians to other viruses to which it hasn't been exposed).
272
 IMMUNE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

Second, there are two general classes of immune re- mixture of excess tissue fluid, proteins, solutes (sub-
sponses: (1) the production of antibodies (also stances dissolved in a solvent), and lymphocytes.
called the humoial response), and (2) the cell- Lymph nodes are strategically placed at discrete loca-
mediated immune response. Both of these classes tions throughout the body to ensure that any antigen
of immune response are extremely important in com- that gains access to the tissues will be delivered to a
bating pathogens and will be described in more detail lymph node via the lymph. The lymph nodes immu-
later. Third, the immune system has the ability to dis- nological y scre n the lymph for the presence of anti-
tinguish between foreign, nonself molecules and self gen. In an analogous fashion, the spleen screens and
molecules. In general, any molecule that can induce removes foreign particles and damaged or dead cells
an immune response is referred to as an antigen. from the blood. The effect of this incessant filtering
Occasionally, the immune response mistakenly identi- and circulating is a highly desirable system of surveil-
fies the host's own tissues as foreign and attempts to lance, wherein the cells of the immune system are
destroy them. This phenomenon is known as autoim- continually screening the blood and lymph for signs
munity. Some examples of autoimmune diseases are of foreign invaders or abnormal cellular material
listed later in this chapter. (tumor cells, for example) that are targets for immu-
nologic removal.
Anatomy The two principal types of lymphocytes (B cells and
T cells) have different functions. B cells are responsi-
The functions of the immune system are subserved ble for the production of antibodies and, therefore,
by a number of specialized cells and molecules. The the humoral immune response. T cells come in a
principal cell of the immune system is the lympho- number of varieties, which include cytotoxic T lym-
cyte, asmall, rather nondescript white blood cell phocytes (CTLs), whose functions are to detect and
formed in lymphatic tissue, which can be found to a kill cells that harbor foreign antigens or are intrinsi-
greater or lesser extent in all organs and tissues of the cally abnormal (e.g., cancer cells) and to play a major
body. Organs that contain unusually large numbers of role in cell-mediated immunity; and helper T lym-
lymphocytes, called lymphoid organs, have been phocytes, which as their name suggests, function to
divided into two principal groups called primary and assist other lymphocytes (both CTLs and B cells) de-
secondary lymphoid organs. The primary lymphoid velop an immune response.
organs are those in which lymphocytes are produced Although lymphocytes are the principal cell of the
and/or in which they functionally mature. There are immune system, by themselves they are not sufficient
two primary lymphoid organs in cats: the bone mar- for the generation of an immune response to an anti-
row and the thymus in the chest cavity. All lympho- gen. Other cells, called aTitigerz-presenting cells, are
cytes are formed from precursor cells in the bone required. Antigen-presenting cells are able to en-
marrow. These cells then mature either within the gulf antigens and process it into an appropriate form
bone marrow itself to become B lymphocytes (B that can be recognized by lymphocytes.
cells) or in the thymus to become T lymphocytes Other cells important in the overall response to
(T cells) Secondary lymphoid organs are those in invasion by foreign antigens are neutrophils, eosino-
which antigens are trapped and destroyed by immune phils, and mast cells. Neutrophils are general-
system cells. The secondary lymphoid organs are the purpose scavenging cells, which will phagocytose
lymph nodes, the spleen, and aggregates of (from the Greek for cell eating) and destroy foreign
lymphoid cells found in the mucosal linings of the antigens and cell debris. Eosinophils and mast
gut, respiratory tract, and urogenital tract. cells are coated with antibodies and will release toxic
Lymphocytes circulate freely between the lymphoid substances when an antigen binds to the antibody.
organs and the tissues by using the blood vessels of A number of molecules with important immune
the circulatory system (see Chapter 20: Circuiatory functions can be found free within the blood and
System and Disorders) and other vessels called lym- lymph or attached to cells. These molecules function
phatic vessels. The lymphatic vessels form a highly by either relaying signals to other cells of the immune
specialized interconnecting network, which trans- system or by directly destroying or neutralizing anti-
ports afluid called lymph from body tissues back into gen (this includes cells containing antigens). There
the blood via the lymph nodes. Lymph is a clear are many different types of immune signaling mole-
THE INTERNAL CAT

cules, such as cytokines, which generally deliver sig- gies. The last immunoglobulin t>pe, IgD, is found on
nals from one cell to another in close proximity, and the surface of B cells, where it functions as a receptor
chemokines, which act as "molecular scents" for for the detection of antigens as described above (like
other cells to follow. cats).
IgE, this immunoglobulin has not been identified in
Molecules that can destroy or neutralize antigens
include complement and antibodies. Complement is As mentioned previously, signaling molecules are
tlie term given to a specialized group of blood pro- ver>' important in the generation of an immune re-
teins produced by the liver. Complement proteins are sponse. The most important signal of all is the detec-
inactive within the circulation until they become acti- tion of antigen. To accomplish this essential duty,
vated by contact with antigen-antibody complexes, lymphocytes possess specialized molecules on their
bacterial cell walls, and ceaain products of tissue cell surface called antigen receptors, which can
damage. Once activated, complement can destroy sense the presence of antigen. B cells are able to de-
cells or pathogens by perforating their cell mem- tect antigens in a direct manner by means of special
branes. Activated complement also attaches to these antibody molecules attached to the B cell. In contrast,
foreign molecules, and by .so doing, facilitates their T cells recognize only small fragments of protein anti-
removal by the immune cells, macrophages and neu- gens called peptides. The T-cell antigen receptor (T-
trophils. cell receptor) can detect these peptides only when
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, they are present together with another molecule, the
function in a number of ways. As mentioned, antigen- major histocompatibility complex (MHC), on tlie
antibody complexes can activate complement. In addi- surface of another cell. There are two classes of MHC
tion, by attaching to antigens, they label the antigen molecules, class I and class II. The majority of cells
for removal by phagocytic cells. Some antibodies can have MHC class I molecules on their surface, but only
also directly neutralize antigens such as viruses, by macrophages and other onantigen-presenting
blocking the ability of the virus to enter into its target MHC class II molecules their surface. cells have
cell. Several different types or classes of immunoglob-
ulins exist. The most common type, immunoglobu- The Mechanics of the Immune Response
lin G (IgG), is found in the blood and tissue fluids,
and in humans is capable of crossing the placenta and This section outlines the mechanisms involved in gen-
entering the fetal circulation (this does not happen to erating the humoral and cell-mediated immune re-
as great an extent in cats). A second type, IgM, is a sponses. In addition, immunologic memory, an
much larger molecule than IgG and is found almost imponant property of immune responses, is briefly
exclusively in the blood. IgM is the first immunoglob- discussed.
ulin type to be produced in the blood following the
initial exposure to an antigen. A third type, IgA, is THE HUMORAL RESPONSE. The production of
the major immunoglobulin found in the secretions antibodies in response to antigens is initiated by the
bathing the surfaces of the body's mucous mem- B cell. When a B cell comes into contact with a foreign
branes. Such surfaces are frequent sites of contact be- antigen molecule that can bind to its antibody-recep-
tween antigens and the immune system; IgA thus plays tor, itbecomes activated, but it is unable to divide or
an important role in patrolling these surfaces and pre- respond further unless it receives support from a T
venting antigens from gaining access to the body. helper cell. To get this help, the B cell takes some of
(This IgA-mediated surface-monitoring system is also the antigen that is bound to its receptor and breaks it
known as the secretory immune system.) A fourth down into peptides. It tlien transports the peptides
immunoglobulin type, IgE, has not yet been identified onto its surface together with a class II MHC molecule
in cats. In humans, it exists in extremely small quanti- (B cells are a t>pe of antigen-presenting cell). This
ties in the blood, but it is present on the surface of combination of a class II MHC molecule plus a foreign
mast cells and eosinophils. These cells and IgE are peptide is a signal for the T helper cell. The T helper
important in protecting the body against invasion by cell now binds directly to the MHC-peptide molecule
certain parasites. Unfortunately, mast cells and IgE are on the B cell and becomes activated itself. Upon acti-
also responsible for the development of certain aller- vation, the T helper cell gives the B cell the signals it
 IMMUNE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

needs to begin dividing to form a done of cells (a munology isstill young, but there is an ongoing
clone of B cells are all derived from a single cell and "knowledge
they all produce exactly the same antibody). Some of major health explosion"
benefits forthat
bothis humans
very likely
and totheir
lead petto
the newly minted B cells will develop into plasma cats in the future.
cells, which are cells that can produce antibodies in
much greater quantities than B cells themselves; oth-
ers will become memory B cells. Memory B cells
are long lived and respond much faster and more DISORDERS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
effectively to a second exposure to the antigen that
elicited them. In certain instances, mechanisms of the immune re-
sponse may go awry, so that the response becomes
THE CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSE. more harmful to the host than the inciting antigen
The other branch of the immune response is the cell- itself In such cases, it is the inappropriate response
mediated immune response. This differs from the hu- on the pan of the immune system that leads to dis-
moral response in that it can detect antigens, such ease. This section will discuss briefly some of the con-
as viruses, bacteria, or even abnormal host proteins sequences of an improperly functioning immune
response. Some topics are covered in greater detail in
produced
cells and thus by tumor cells, that toare antibodies.
not accessible inside the The
animal's
im- other chapters in this book.
mune cells that are able to recognize infected or ab-
normal cells are cytotoxic T cells. They function by
recognizing MHC class I molecules together with for- Allergy and Anaphylaxis
eign peptides on the surface of target cells. This signal True allergies are the result of an inappropriate re-
activates cytotoxic T cells and they become able to kill sponse on the part of IgE and mast cells to relatively
the infected or tumorous cell. Cytotoxic T cells are innocuous antigens (e.g., house-dust mites, pollen,
first produced when a naive T cell encounters anti- dander). In humans, allergies frequently are mani-
gens together with a class I MHC molecule on the fested bysigns of respiratory disease (reddening and
surface of an antigen-presenting cell such as a macro- tearing of the eyes, scratchiness of the throat, sneez-
phage. Antigen-presenting cells also have class II MHC ing) or skin lesions. In cats, skin lesions seem to pre-
molecules on their surface, which is recognized by T dominate as common manifestations of allergy. Many
helper cells, so a single antigen-presenting cell can of the sensitizing antigens (or allergens) appear to
bring a T helper cell and a naive T cell into close be inhaled. Occasionally, food hypersensitivities also
proximity. The T helper cell, having been activated by may be manifested by skin lesions. Treatment of such
the antigen-presenting cell, produces cytokine signals problems relies on accurate identification of the un-
that help the naive T cell to divide and form a clone. derlying cause of the allergy, followed by avoidance
Some of these cells become cytotoxic T cells and oth- of the allergen, dietary modification, or possibly thera-
ers become memory T cells, in a process similar to peutic intervention by the veterinarian. (For a full dis-
that described for B cells. cus ion ofallergy-related skin diseases in the cat, see
In most infections, both cell-mediated and humoral Chapter 17: Skin and Disorders.)
immune responses are induced. However, in many Anaphylaxis represents an extreme example of an
ca.ses, one or the other will predominate. It is now IgE/mast cell-mediated response. In cases of anaphy-
known that the predominant response is determined laxis, contact with a sensitizing substance results in a
by the different cytokines that are produced very early massive degranulation (release of granules) of IgE-
in the immune response to an antigen. This knowl- coated mast cells lying beneath mucosal surfaces. The
edge ishelping both in our understanding of the im- granules released from these cells possess an armory
mune system and in the development of new of noxious compounds, including histamine, sero-
therapies and vaccination strategies. tonin, and leukotrienes. These substances can pro-
The immune system is thus a complex and incredi- duce a range of deleterious effects, such as
bly capable mechanism for the removal of parasites, constriction of airways and blood vessels within the
microorganisms, and other antigens. The field of im- lungs, and contraction of smooth muscle within the
THE INTERNAL CAT

digestive tract and bladder. Tlie release of histamine is rapid, the cat can present in a collapsed state with a
also causes itchiness about the face and head of a cat rapid hean rate, pale mucous membranes, and a low-
undergoing anaphylaxis. The changes within the lungs red blood cell count. If the onset is gradual, the pa-
(constriction of breathing passages and reduced out- tient can compensate for the slow developing anemia
flow of blood) result in dyspnea (difficuln- in breath- and the clinical signs are not as severe. Amelioration
ing). An affeaed cat also salivates profuseh-, urinates, of immune-mediated hemolytic anemia depends
becomes uncoordinated, ma\- anempt to vomit, and upon identifying and treating the underlying cause
ultimately collapses. Anaphylaxis is a life-threatening (e.g., Hemobartonella felis. ) If a cause cannot be iden-
situation that arises abruptly (within minutes) follow- tified or the anemia is severe, drugs that suppress the
ing contaa with the inciting allergen. The treatment immune response can be used (e.g., corticosteroids
of choice is epinephrine (adrenaline), which must such as prednisone). In some cases, treatment may
be administered immediately. Natural causes of ana- be required for a prolonged period of time (months
phylactic reactions in cats are relatively few in num- to years) to prevent recurrence of the disease.
ber; some "non-natural" causes include protein Neonatal isoerythrolysis is an important cause
components of vaccines, and certain medications of immune-mediated hemolytic anemia in nursing kit-
(such as penicillin). It must be kept in mind that this tens. This disease occurs because of incompatibilities
inappropriate overreaaion is idiosyncratic: not all benveen the blood groups of the queen and the kit-
substances induce anaphylaxis in cats, nor are all cats ten. Antibodies present in the queen's first milk (or
sensitized to the exient that anaphylaxis occurs. colostrum) are absorbed by kittens when the\-
suckle. cells
blood Theseandantibodies cause theirattach to the kitten's
destruction, resultingredin
Immune-Mediated Hematologic Disease severe anemia and sometimes jaundice (yellow mu-
The immune response can become directed against cous membranes) in the kitten. This can result in sud-
the bod\ 's ownandblood cells, including den death or a ver\- sick kitten. The prognosis is poor
neutrophils, platelets. In some redinstances,
blood cells,
the in these kinens and the best course of action is pre-
cause of this is unknown, and the body is truly re- vention ofthis occurrence. This disease occurs rarely,
acting against itself (an autoimmune disease). How- but it is more common in certain specific breeds of
ever, this is fairly uncommon, and usually the reaction cats such as the Himalayan, Persian, Abyssinian, Bir-
againstsure of the
the cat body's man, Devon Rex, Sconish Fold, Somali, and British
to a own
foreigncellsantigen,
is initiated by the
typically a drugexpo-or Shorthair breeds. Blood typing of the queen and tom
a parasite. These antigens interact with the blood cells prior to mating is especially recommended if the
and alter them in such a wa\- that they are no longer queen has previously had kittens that have suffered
recognized as self by the bod\-. and therefore an im- from this condition.
mune response is initiated. A classic example is infec- Immune attack against other blood cells, such as
tion with Hemobartonella felis. This parasite infects neutrophils and platelets, can occur, resulting in neu-
and attaches to the membrane of the cat's red blood tropenia (decrease in number of neutrophils) and
cells. The parasite is recognized as foreign b\- the im- thrombocytopenia (decrease in number of plate-
mune system, which initiates a humoral immune lets), respeaively. Neutrophils are an important line
response (antibody production). The antibodies at- of defense against foreign bacteria, and neutropenia
tach to the red cell containing the parasite and target predisposes the cat to recurrent baaerial infeaions.
it for destruction, primarily by macrophages in the Platelets are an important component of blood clot-
spleen. These macrophages not only remove the para- ting and if they are decreased, the cat may bleed ex-
site, they also destroy the red blood cell containing ces ively. Al these disorders are usually treated i^ith
the parasite. In addition, the antibody also attaches to immunosuppressive drug therapy.
other red cells which do not contain the parasite,
resulting in the destruaion of these innocent by- Pemphigus
stander cel s as well. The result is a decrease in the
number of red blood cells, called anemia (immune- Pemphigus
mediated hemolytic anemia). The anemia causes the ease with aisnumber
an immunologically mediated skin Itdis-is
of related manifestations.
cat to be weak and lethargic. If the onset of the disease discussed ftjUy in Ck-xpter H: Skin.vsd Disorders.
 277
IMMUNE SYSTEM AND DISORDERS

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia is a rare condition

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus in cats, characterized by increased numbers of mature
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a rare, multi- small lymphocytes in the blood. In general, tliis is a
systemic disorder of unknown cause, characterized by chronic condition and cats can sur\'ive for long peri-
a general derangement of the inhibitory controls on ods of time with chemotherapy.
certain key immune response mechanisms. In this dis-
ease, avariety of immune mechanisms begin to attack MULTIPLE MYELOMA. This is a malignant tumor
basic structural components of the body, such as the of the antibody-producing B cells or plasma cells. For
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) w'thin the nucleus of a discussion of this disease, see Chapter 21: Musclilo-
cells. Autoantibodies directed against host-cell com- skeletal System and Disorders.
ponents attach to cells in the blood, kidneys, skin, and
elsewhere, producing an immunologic assault on the EXTRAMEDULLARY PLASMACYTOMAS. These
host.
Signs that can be seen in affected cats include are solid tumors composed of mature plasma cells
kidney failure with loss of protein into the urine, that are usually located in tissues outside the bone
marrow, including the skin, liver, and gastrointestinal
immune-mediated hemolytic anemia, thrombocyto- tract. In general, these tumors behave in a benign
penia, arthritis, and skin lesions involving the face and manner and surgical excision is curative.
borders of the mucous membranes. In most species,
the diagnosis is made on the basis of the history, clini- POLYARTHRITIS. Polyarthritis is inflammation of
cal signs, and results of certain laboratory tests, includ- multiple joints in the body, and the clinical signs are
ing the LE cell test (detection of cells in the blood
that contain ingested cell nuclei) and the antinuclear lameness, joint pain, and joint swelling. There are a
antibody (ANA) test (deteaion of antibodies di- variety of causes of polyarthritis in cats, including viral
rected against cell nuclei). Because of the rarity with diseases. Several of the polyarthritis syndromes that
which SLE is seen in cats, there is relatively little infor- affea cats are immune mediated, including rheuma-
mation available on the diagnostic significance of toid arthritis, deforming chronic progressive poly-
these laboratory tests in feline cases. Treatment fre- arthritis inolder cats and the polyarthritis associated
quently involves the use of immunosuppressive medi- with SLE (see before). Like other immune-mediated
cations such as conicosteroids. The prognosis is diseases, these are treated by drugs that suppress the
always guarded. immune response, especially corticosteroids. In gen-
eral, the prognosis is guarded.
Neoplasia of the Immune System
IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROMES. Impor-
LYMPHOMA. This is the most common tumor of tant immunodeficiency syndromes have been re-
the immune system in cats and is a malignant tumor ported ina number of species. Such syndromes often
of lymphocytes. It is usually caused by infection with represent inherited conditions that are present at
feline leukemia virus. The tumor most often arises in birth but do not manifest until maternally derived im-
solid lymphoid organs such as the spleen, thymus, munity has declined. The most well known of these
and lymph nodes, although it can affect other organs disorders is the combined immunodeficiency
in the body such as the kidney. For fuller discussions, (CID) syndrome seen in Arabian foals. In Persian cats
see Chapter 29: Viral Diseases, and Chapter 33: Cancer. and white tigers, Chediak-Higashi syndrome, a
disorder of blood cells, has been reported. ( See Chap-
LYMPHOID LEUKEMIA. There are two types of ter 20: Circulatory System and Disorders.)
lymphoid leukemia in cats, acute lymphoblastic leuke- Most immunodeficiency syndromes of cats are asso-
mia and chronic lymphocytic leukemia. Acute ciated with specific viral infections, such as feline leu-
lymphoblastic leukemia is a malignant cancer of kemia virus and feline immunodeficiency virus. For
immature lymphocytes that arises in the bone mar- further information on these two infections, see Chap-
row. The prognosis for this condition is very poor. ter 29: Viral Diseases.
 CHAPTER 29

Viral Diseases

by Jeffrey E. Barlough, Margaret Barr,

Fred W. Scott, and James R Richards

A vims, in the words of one eminent scientist, sulting in disease and provoking an assault by the
can be thought of as "a piece of bad news immune response of the host. Sometimes, this re-
sponse goes awry, so that the harmful effects of the
fungi, dviruses
wrappe are ."notUnlike
in protein livingbacteria and
organisms; immune response are actually more serious than
rather, they consist in essence of a length of nucleic those of the viral disease itself. Other viruses provoke
acid — their genetic material — that is surrounded and little, if any, reaction, and some can remain dormant,
protected by a protein coat. or latent, in the host for
(Some viruses have, in addi- years. The vast majority of all
tion to this coat, a soft outer virus infections appear to be
envelope, which confers asymptomatic in nature
some special properties.) that is, the infections are —so
The genetic material of vi- mild and the host response
ruses is composed , of one so effective that clinical signs
type of nucleic acid, which of disease never develop.
may be either ribonucleic Very few viral diseases are
acid (RNA) or deoxyribo- responsive to specific antivi-
nucleic acid (DNA). ral therapy. Instead, the sec-
Viruses carry out no inde- ondary effects of a viral
pendent metabolism: thev infection are addressed in
do not respirate, they do not an effort to protect the host
process nutrients, they do against secondary bacterial
not generate waste products, or fungal infection while the
and they rely on living cells immune response to the
of the host for their reproduction. A virus outside a virus is developing. Most successful attacks against
cell is an inert bit of particulate matter; once inside, viral invasion are carried out by the body itself. The
however, the virus seizes command of the cell's bio- most effective therapy for viral diseases is prevention,
synthetic machinery, convening the cell into a "high- that is, vaccination. Most antibiotics and antifungals
tech" factory for the production of new virus particles. have no effect on viruses; clinically useful drugs with
Many viruses eventually kill their host cells, re- specific antiviral activity are still relatively few in num-
278
 VIRAL DISEASES

ber and restricted almost exclusively to some very kopenia that usually coincides with the production of
specific virus infections. new populations of susceptible kittens. This seasonal
effect may vary according to geographic location. In
the nonheastern United States, most cases of panleu-
kopenia are seen during the summer and early fall.
FELINE VIRAL DISEASES However, outbreaks of panleukopenia may occur at
any time of the year.
Feline Panleukopenia Virus Transmission of FPV occurs most commonly by di-
Feline panleukopenia (also called feline infectious en- rect contact with infected cats or their excretions. Dur-
teritis, dfeline ing the early stages of the infection, virus is shed in
ination) isa"distemper, " and feline
highly contagious viralataxia
diseaseor incoor-
of cats feces, urine, saliva, and vomitus. In addition, fleas may
characterized by its sudden onset, fever, inappe- transmit FPV from infected to susceptible cats during
tence (loss of appetite), dehydration, depression, the acute stage of the disease. The virus may also be
vomiting, decreased numbers of circulating white spread by contact with contaminated objects, such as
blood cells (leukopenia), and often a high mortality food bowls, litter pans, bedding, and cages, or by per-
rate. Intrauterine (within the uterus) infection may sons (on hands or clothing, for example).
result in abortions, stillbirths, early neonatal deaths, The remarkable resistance of FPV to environmental
and cerebellar hypoplasia (underdevelopment of conditions requires thorough cleansing and disinfec-
the cerebellum) manifested by incoordination tion of the premises before the introduction of new
(ataxia) in kittens beginning at two to three weeks cats. Once infection with FPV has occurred on the
of age. All members of the cat family (Felidae) are premises, however, the infectious virus may persist
susceptible to infection with feline panleukopenia for months to years. New cats should be vaccinated
virus (FPV), as are raccoons, coatimundis, and ring- against panleukopenia at least two weeks before their
tails, in the family Procyonidae. Many excellent introduction to infected premises. (See Chapter 37:
vaccines are available to protea cats against panleuko- Convalescence/Home Care.)
penia. Inunvaccinated populations, however, panleu-
kopenia remains the most severe and destructive PATHOGENESIS. The virus usually enters orally,
disease of cats. with infection occurring primarily in the lymphoid
tissues of the oropharynx (tonsillar area) and intes-
THE CAUSE. Feline panleukopenia virus is a very tine. Within twenty-four hours of infection, virus is
small and very stable virus classified in the parvovirus present in the blood, which distributes it throughout
group. The genetic material of the virus is composed the body. Within two days of infection, nearly every
of a single strand of DNA The virus is highly resistant body tissue contains significant amounts of virus. As
to most disinfectants — ether, chloroform, acid, alco- circulating antibodies appear, the amount of virus
hol, and heat (56°C, or 132.8°F, for thirty minutes) — present gradually decreases. Small quantities of virus
but is susceptible to Clorox bleach. Replication (re- may persist for up to one year in certain tissues, but
production) ofthe virus in the host occurs in cells the strong immune response of tlie host usually neu-
that are themselves actively reproducing. tralizes the virus as it is shed, so that most persistently
infected kittens are not infectious.
OCCURRENCE AND TRANSMISSION. Al- The most severely damaged tissues in the infected
though itcan affect cats of all ages, feline panleuko- newborn cat are those undergoing rapid cell division
penia is primarily a disease of kittens. The — the thymus (lymph organ in the chest) and the
charaaeristics of the disease may vary considerably cerebellum (rear of the brain). Cells of the small
from population to population and from outbreak to intestine, which have a slow turnover rate in neo-
outbreak. In susceptible populations, the disease may nates (newborns), are not damaged, although the
affect nearly 100 percent of individuals; in other popu- virus is present within them. In older kittens, the de-
lations, only a few animals may be affected. Panleuko- velopment ofthe disease also depends on the repro-
penia rarely occurs in populations in which ductive activity of the various tissues within the body.
vaccination is routinely practiced. Lymphoid tissues, bone marrow, and the surface cells
There is a seasonality to the occurrence of panleu- of the intestine are the most severely affected.
THE INTERNAL CAT

CLINICAL SIGNS. The severin,- of the clinical signs swaying of the body. If they are coordinated enough
exhibited can varv' tremendi)usl\ from case to case. to obtain food, the kittens will survive; how-ever, the
Many cats undergo a subclinical iiifection and do not ataxia will persist throughout life with little, if any,
show signs at all; the only method of diagnosis would improvement or compensation as they grow older.
be viral isolation or serology (detection of antibody
in the blood). Others ma\- experience a very mild DIAGNOSIS. A presumptive diagnosis of feline
clinical infection, in which a mildly elevated tempera- panleukopenia can be made by the veterinarian on
ture, slight inappetence, and a borderline drop in the the basis of the history, the clinical signs, and the
white blood cell count are observed. In the "typical" presence of leukopenia. The diagnosis can be con-
case of panleukopenia, clinical signs develop sud- firmed bynecropsy (autopsy) examination, virus iso-
denly. The animal may have a rectal temperature of lation (growth of the virus in cells in the laboratory),
104°F or greater and may be severely depressed and identification of the virus in infected tissues, or by
not eating. Vomiting usually occurs, and severe diar- demonstration of an increase in circulating antibodies
rhea may develop in twent\'-four to forty-eight hours. by testing paired (acute and convalescent) serum sam-
If vomiting and diarrhea continue, severe dehydration ples taken several weeks apart (the increase in anti-
and electroKte imbalances occur. bodies indicates recent infection).
Affected
ture with thecatshead oftenbetween
assume thea typical "hunched"
forepaws. pos-
Sometimes TREATMENT. Panleukopenia normally has a high
the head will hang over a water bowl or food dish. mortality rate, but with diligent effon and good nurs-
They often act as though they would like to drink and ing care this can often be reduced. The main objective
may even take a lap or two of milk or water, but is to keep the affected animal alive and in reasonably
they are unable or reluctant to swallow. The hair coat good health until the natural defenses take over (i.e.,
becomes rough and dull and there is a loss of elastic- the appearance of antibodies and an increase in num-
ity- of the skin due to the dehydration. The third eye- ber of circulating white blood cells). Antibodies usu-
lid (the haw in the corner of the eye toward the ally appear about three to four days after the first signs
nose) often appears. The abdomen is painful, and ofin white
illness;blood two tocellthreenumber
days later,
touching it will elicit a pain response. The lymph can betheexpected
sharp "rebound"
to occur.
nodes in the abdomen are enlarged, and the digestive Thus, if the patient can be supported for five to seven
traa contains excessive amounts of gas and liquid. days after onset of the disease, the chances of recovery
Cats that are not going to survive develop a subnormal usually are good. Veterinary^ supportive care is aimed
temperature, with coma and death following in a few- at the vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration, which may
hours. dangerously upset fluid and electrolyte balance, and
The mortality rate in an outbreak of panleukopenia at preventing secondary bacterial infections. Second-
may vary from 25 to 75 percent. Acute deaths may ary viral respiratory- infections are common complica-
occur, with kittens showing no warning signs, often tions of panleukopenia. The FPV infection may act to
causing the owner to suspect poisoning. More com- trigger a latent respiratory virus, such as feline viral
monly, deaths occur within the first five days of illness rhinotracheitis virus or feline calicivirus. Simultane-
in uncomplicated cases, or later in cases subsequently ous FPV and respiratory virus infections usually pro-
complicated by other problems. If a cat survives the duce a more severe illness than if either virus alone
first five days of illness, and secondary- complications had infeaed the animal.
such as bacterial infeaions or dehydration do not de-
velop, then recovery should follow fairly rapidly. It PREVENTION. There are several excellent vac-
usually requires several weeks, however, for the ani- cines available to immunize cats against panleuko-
mal to regain its lost weight and condition. penia. These vaccines are highly effective and produce
Signs in kittens infected in utero or just after birth long-lasting immunity. Because panleukopenia is an
go unnoticed before sudden death, or until the devel- entirely preventable disease, one cannot overempha-
opment of ataxia at about rwo weeks of age when size the importance of proper immunization.
the kittens begin ambulating. The incoordination is Immunization should be initiated by the veterinar-
exemplified by rolling or tumbling as the cat attempts ian when kittens are eight to ten weeks of age. A
to walk, by an involuntary twitching of the head, or by second vaccination should be given four weeks later.
 VIRAL DISEASES 281

In areas where the prevalence of infection is high, and that produced in humans by the human immunodefi-
for maximal protection, a third vaccination may be ciency virus HIV, which causes AIDS.
indicated at sixteen weeks of age. If a kitten is twelve Retroviruses carry with them an enzyme, reverse
weeks of age or older at the time of initial vaccination transcriptase. This enzyme is used to produce a DNA
with a modified live-virus vaccine, a booster vaccina- copy of the retroviral RNA, which is then inserted into
tion need not be given until it is at least one year of the genetic material of the infected cell. This alien
age. Annual booster vaccinations are recommended invader, known as a provirus, then is reproduced
for all cats. whenever the host cell reproduces and can serve as
Immunity acquired from the queen via colostrum the blueprint for the production of new retrovirus
(initial breast milk) must be considered when estab- particles. A cell infected with a retrovirus thus is in-
lishing aroutine vaccination program. Interference by fected for the length of its lifetime, as are all of its
maternally acquired (passive) immunity is the most daughter cells. Because a version of their genetic ma-
common cause of vaccine failure. There exists a direct terial becomes a part of the total genetic information
correlation between the FPV antibody level of the of the cells they infect, retroviruses are among the
queen at the time of birth and the duration of passive most intimate parasites known in nature.
immunity in the kitten. This passive immunity, if of
sufficient strength, will not only protect the kitten THE CAUSE. Individual particles of FeLV consist of
against virulent FPV but will also react with the vaccine two distinct morphologic (structural) components: a
virus and interfere with immunization. Vaccination dense inner core, or nucleoid, and an outer envelope
must be performed after kittens have lost most or all containing an immunologically important protein
of their maternally derived immunity. known as gp70. This protein is the principal antigen
The use of FPV antiserum (clear blood liquid con- (substance against which an immune response can be
taining antibody) to immunize cats passively is indi- mounted) present on the virus surface. Virus-neu-
cated ifan unvaccinated animal has been exposed to tralizing antibody (VNA) directed against gp70 is
the virus or is likely to be exposed before vaccine- an essential component of a successful immunologic
induced immune responses can develop. Antiserum response to FeLV, and its presence in the blood is an
is also indicated for colostrum-deprived or orphaned indication of past FeLV exposure. Most cats with high
kinens. The routine use of antiserum in unexposed levels of VNA are resistant to subsequent FeLV infec-
kittens is not recommended, however; instead, kittens tion. Most persistently viremic cats (cats, many of
should be vaccinated during their first visit to the vet- which are otherwise healthy, in which FeLV circulates
in blood cells for a prolonged period of time, as the
Appendix B: eVaccinations.)
rinarian's of ice, and revaccinated as indicated. (See result of an ineffective immune response) produce
little or no VNA. It should be noted, however, that
Feline Leukemia Virus some cats with high VNA titers (levels) are not pro-
tected against FeLV infection, whereas some cats with
The feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is the causative agent little or no VNA are immune to infection.
of the most important fatal infeaious disease complex A second major antigen of the FeLV particle is the
of American domestic cats today. It is an RNA (ribo- protein p27, which is a structural component of the
nucleic acid) virus belonging to the family Retroviri- inner viral core. This protein can be found in great
dae. Oncogenic (tumor-causing) retroviruses similar abundance in infected blood cells and in soluble form
to FeLV have been identified in a number of animal in plasma and serum of viremic cats. The primary
species: cattle, domestic fowl, certain nonhuman pri- importance of p27 lies in its role as the major FeLV
mates, and rodents. The oncogenic retroviruses are antigen detected by the two FeLV tests — the IFA (im-
commonly referred to as RNA tumor viruses, or on- munofluorescence as ay) test and the ELISA (en-
cornaviruses {oncogenic RNA viruses). zyme-linked immunosorbent assay) test — commonly
Other retroviruses, known as lentiviruses, can pro- used in veterinary clinical practice today.
duce noncancerous diseases in cats, sheep, goats, and Suppression of normal protective immunologic re-
horses. The feline lentivirus, known as feline immu- sponses isone of the most important consequences
nodeficiency virus (FFV) (see in later section), is the of persistent infection with FeLV. The significance of
cause of an immunodeficiency syndrome similar to FeLV-induced immunosuppression is especially ap-
THE UVTERNAL CAT

parent when considering the array of secondary dis- secretions, although the virus may also be present
eases associated with FeLV, A specific FeLV structural in respiratory secretions, feces, and urine. The social
protein, pi 5(E), which is associated with the viral en- grooming habits of cats, licking and biting, sneezing,
velope, has been implicated in the production of and the urban practice of sharing litter boxes and
some of this immunosuppression. The importance of feeding bowls, probably represent the major modes
pl5(E) as an immunosuppressive agent is highly ques- of spread of FeLV among pet cats. In utero transfer of
tionable, however, and incorporation of this protein FeLV across the placenta and excretion of FeLV in
in "inactivated" virus vaccines has not resulted in any colostrum and milk are also known to occur, so that
apparent kittens may become infected either through an in-
nated cats.suppression of immune function in vacci- fected queen or by close contact with other persis-
In nature, FeLV infections appear to be restricted to tently viremic cats. Prolonged close contact (days to
members of the cat family, including domestic breeds weeks) between cats is probably required for effective
and certain small exotic cats — sand cats, European transmission of FeLV. Virus can also be spread in
wildcats,lence of FeLV
jungleinfection
cats, and inpossibly blood transfusions from viremic cats.
domesticleopards.
cats of The preva-
the United Very young kittens are the most susceptible to FeLV
States is estimated to be 2 to 3 percent, with most of infection following exposure to the virus. Susceptibil-
the cases occurring in young adult cats (about 3 years ity to persistent infection decreases rapidly for older
of age). kittens and adult cats. Ultimately, about 60 to 70 per-
cent of adult cats that are exposed to FeLV develop
PATHOGENESIS. After infection of lymphatic tis- immunity and do not become persistently viremic. In
sues surrounding the site of initial virus penetration, some of these cats, however, the virus may remain
a low-grade transient viremia (brief presence of sequestered for a variable period of time somewhere
virus in the blood stream) involving small numbers of in the body as a latent infection. The primary hazard
infected white blood cells occurs within two weeks associated with latent infection is the possibility that
of exposure. In this way, the virus is transported to some latently infected queens may transmit FeLV to
other regions of the body, especially systemic lym- their kittens through the milk. Latently infected cats
phatic tissue, intestinal tissue, and bone marrow. do not transmit FeLV by any other route and are much
These areas contain populations of rapidly dividing less likely to develop any of the FeLV-associated dis-
cells wherein FeLV replication can be enhanced. In- eases, although recent studies indicate that some of
fection of white blood cell and platelet (cells in- these cats may develop immunosuppression. The du-
volved in blood clotting) precursors in the bone ration of these latent infections is variable, but most
marrow, plus the subsequent release of infected cells cats appear to become truly FeLV free within two or
into the circulation, results in a second, more pro- three years after their infection first occurred. Unfor-
found viremia (persistent viremia). In those cats that tunately, there is no readily available test to identify'
resist widespread infection with FeLV, virus contain- latently infected cats. Like a number of otlier similar
ment takes place in the early lymphatic stage of infec- viruses, FeLV is extremely labile (chemically unsta-
tion, after a transient viremia has occurred. In those ble) once outside the cat and is rapidly inactivated by
animals destined to become persistently viremic, in- alcohol and most common household detergents and
fection proceeds to extensive involvement of the bone disinfectants. The infectivity of the virus in saliva left
marrow, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, bladder, respi- to dry at room temperature has been shown to de-
ratory tract, and salivary glands. cline to inconsequential levels within three or four
All persistently viremic FeLV cats excrete infectious hours.
FeLV and probably do so for the rest of their lives.
Consequently, they serve as a source of infection for CLINICAL SIGNS. Persistently viremic FeLV cats
healthy, uninfected, susceptible cats with which they are subject to development of a number of diseases
come into contact. Cats that develop immunity experi- that are either directly or indirectly caused by FeLV.
ence an initial transient viremia lasting from one to Those directly caused by FeLV include lymphosar-
rwo days and for as long as eight weeks, during which coma, anumber of myeloproliferative disorders, sev-
time they too may shed infectious FeLV. eral types of anemia, the panleukopenialike and
Excretion of FeLV occurs primarily in the salivary thymic atrophy syndromes (shrinking or wasting
 VIRAL DISEASES

away of the thymus), at least one form of kidney dis- of solitary tumor masses involving primary sites of
ease, and certain reproductive disorders. Diseases in- origin in nonintestinal, nonlymphatic structures.
directly caused by FeLV include a myriad of conditions These include the kidneys, central nervous system,
that develop secondary to FeLV-induced immunosup- eyes, and, rarely, the skin or bones. Presenting signs
pres ion. The prognosis for survival of persistently vary according to the location of the tumor.
viremic cats is poor; approximately 50 percent die Lymphocytic leukemia is characterized by the pres-
within six months of infection, while over 80 percent ence of circulating cancerous lymphocytes in the
die within three years of infection. blood and bone marrow. Lymphocytic leukemia may
Lymphosarcoma {ISA). Lymphosarcomas are among precede the development of LSA, or it may be associ-
the most common malignancies of American domestic ated secondarily with LSA. Presenting signs usually
cats. (See Chapter 33: Cancer.) These tumors consist consist of nonspecific inappetence, depression, and
primarily of solid masses of proliferating lympho- weight loss. More specific signs that may be seen in-
cytes (atype of white blood cell) and comprise the clude anemia, fever, jaundice, and enlargement of the
majority of the malignancies caused by FeLV. Sev- liver, spleen, and lymph nodes.
eral forms of LSA have been identified; their classi- Myeloproliferative disorders. These primary bone-
fication isbased most commonly on their anatomic marrow disorders are characterized by abnormal pro-
distribution. liferation ofone or more hematopoietic (blood
The alimentary form of LSA is characterized by cell-forming) cell lines. Presenting signs often in-
tumor-cell infiltration of the digestive tract and other clude inappetence, depression, weight loss, relent-
organs (e.g., lymph nodes, liver, kidneys, and spleen). lessly progressive anemia, fever, jaundice, peripheral
Common presenting signs include inappetence, lymph node enlargement, and enlargement of the
weight loss, vomiting, diarrhea, bloody stool, and liver and spleen secondary to massive infiltration by
jaundice. Occlusion (blockage) of the bowel by the abnormally proliferating cells.
proliferating tumor results in constipation or obsti- Nonregenerative anemia. NRA is probably one of
pation (difficult, painful bowel movements or com- the most common manifestations of FeLV infection.
plete blockage). The alimentary form of LSA is This type of anemia, also known as hypoplastic, aplas-
associated with persistent FeLV infection in only about tic, or depression anemia, is characterized by a severe
50 percent of affected cats. reduction in the number of red cell precursors in
The thymic (of thymus gland in the chest) or me- the bone marrow, resulting in failure to produce an
diastinal (ofarea between the lungs) form is charac- adequate number of circulating red cells. Sometimes
terized by the presence of a large tumor mass there may be a pancytopenia, in which red cell, white
infiltrating within the chest, with spread to regional cell, and platelet cell precursors are all affected. NRA
lymphatic tissue and sometimes to other structures. may occur alone, or it may be associated with LSA
Clinical signs are a reflection of pressure effects of the or myeloproliferative disease, or it may precede the
mass and the severe fluid accumulation within the development of an FeLV-induced malignancy. Because
chest that frequently accompanies the tumor. Physical many severely ill cats with NRA are euthanatized, the
examination may reveal difficult respiration, muffled true incidence of subsequent malignancy cannot be
heart sounds, coughing, difficult swallowing, and in- accurately determined. Unfortunately, clinical signs
compressibility of the chest wall. Thymic LSA is usu- are usually not detected until the anemia is well ad-
ally seen in young cats (less than three years of age). vanced. Common signs include inappetence, depres-
The multicentric form of LSA is characterized by sion, weight loss, respiratory difficulty, pallor of the
primary involvement of many lymphatic tissues of the mucous membranes, and increased heart rate. Coin-
body, with additional involvement of other structures, fection with Haemobartonella felis, the parasite caus-
such as the liver, bone marrow, kidneys, spleen, and ing feline infectious anemia, may contribute to the
lungs. Pre,senting signs are variable, depending on the severity of the anemia.
precise anatomic distribution of the tumor, but tliey Panleukopenia-like syndrome. As the name im-
often include painless swelling of peripheral lymph plies, this is a syndrome resembling panleukopenia
nodes and enlargement of the spleen, liver, and, often, (feline "distemper") that has been observed in some
of the intestinal lymph nodes. FeLV-infected cats known to be properly immunized
Atypical forms of LSA also occur and consist usually against panleukopenia. Presenting signs often include
THE INTERNAL CAT

inappetence, depression, dehydration, weight loss, also been associated with chronic mouth and gum
fever, vomiting, diarrhea (which may be bloody), and infections, poorly healing or recurrent abscesses,
a profound reduction in the number of circulating deep skin infections, chronic respiratory infections,
white blood cells. Anemia may also be present. Al- acute colitis (inflammation of the large bowel), se-
though affected cats may respond transiently to sup- vere ear infections, and feline infectious peritonitis.
portive therapy, the disease is progressive and always (It should be kept in mind that all of these problems
fatal. may also be seen in cats not infected with FeLV. ) FeLV-
Kittens born to iiersisieiitlv viremic queens often induced immunosuppression probably contributes
develop a syndrome of lethargy , inappetence, wasting, also to the development of FeLV-induced malignan-
stunted growth, atrophy of the thymus gland and cies.
other lymphoid structures, and enhanced susceptibil-
ity to infection with other disease-causing agents DIAGNOSIS OF FeLV INFECTION. Two types
("fading of FeLV blood tests are in common use: the enzyme-
be severe,kittens"). amountingThe todegree
virtual ofdisappearance
thymic atrophyof can
the linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA, or kit test, which
organ in some cases. These kittens do not gain weight can be performed in the veterinarian's office) and
and ofien do not nurse vigorously. Many die from immunofluorescence assay (IFA, Hardy test, theor
secondary bacterial or viral infections within the first slide test, which must be sent out to a diagnostic labo-
few weeks of life. Those that survive are carriers of raton'). Both tests detect the p27 protein of FeLV as it
FeLV and thus are capable of transmitting the virus to circulates in the bloodstream, either free in the blood
other susceptible cats. The syndrome may also pre- test).
(ElISA test) or within infected white blood cells (IFA
nancy. cede the development of an FeLV-induced malig- FeLV is present in the blood during two different
Glomerulonephritis. This type of kidney disease has stages of the infection. The ELISA test can detect the
been described in cats in association with LSA, primary (or transient) viremia stage, before the bone
lymphocytic leukemia, and granulocytic leukemia marrow has become infected, when the cat's immune
(cancer of granulocytes, a type of white blood cell). system has an opportunity to ward off the virus. Tran-
In addition, glomerular disease in the absence of ma- siently viremic cats characteristically test ELISA-posi-
lignancy has been reported in FeLV-infected cats. In tive and then revert to negative status within about
one study, the leading cause of death in an FeLV-in- eight weeks. It is important that a positive FeLV test be
fected household of 134 cats over a five-and-a-half- repeated in eight to twelve weeks to determine
year period was glomerulonephritis. whether the viremia is transient or persistent. The
Queens infected with FeLV may experience one or ELISA test can also detect the virus in the persistent
more reproductive disorders, including fetal resorp- viremia stage — after the virus, in a certain percentage
tion (biochemical disintegration of the fetus), abor- of cats, invades the bone marrow and establishes a
tion, infertility, endometritis (inflammation of the firm and lifelong foothold. ELISA tests are also avail-
uterine lining), and the birth of fading kittens. Abor- able to detect FeLV in secretions — saliva and fears.
tions characteristically occur late in gestation and are There is some degree of variability in these laner tests,
more frequent in high-density, multiple-cat house- and some positive animals may be missed. At this
holds. Ithas been reponed that nearly 75 percent of time, saliva/tear tests are probably best reserved for
FeLV-infected queens will experience abortions or screening
fetal resorptions. cult to bleed.purposes and for testing cats that are diffi-
The array of secondary disease entities associated The IFA test detects the circulating virus primarily
with FeLV-induced immunosuppression represents during the second stage. If the infection progresses to
one of the most important manifestations of FeLV in- this stage,ofa cats "point of nopositive
return by" isthereached.
fection. Ihas
t been estimated that nearly 50 percent of majority testing IFA testThus the
remain
all cats with severe bacterial infections and infectious positive for life. These cats, as well as most (70 to 100
anemia and 75 percent of cats with toxoplasmosis (a percent) of those that are ELISA positive, are shedding
protozoan disease) have an underlying FeLV infection. FeLV in the saliva and are infectious to other cats.
In addition, FeLV-induced immunosuppression has Occasional discrepancies between the two FeLV tests
 VIRAL DISEASES

have been noted. When such a discrepancy arises, it FeLV-test-and-removal. All cats in the household
is important to remember that the two tests detect should be tested by IFA, regardless of age or condi-
FeLV influid
two versus
different tion. Al cats found positive should be removed and
(blood white"compartments"
blood cells). of the blood the household premises cleaned with a commercial
If a cat is positive by ELISA and negative by IFA at detergent or disinfectant (a solution containing four
the same time, it may mean that the virus is at the ounces of household bleach per gallon of water is
primary viremia stage. However, some healthy cats often recommended, but soap and water will work as
may remain ELISA positive and IFA negative for a pro- well). All litter boxes and food and water bowls
longed period of time. These cats are still carrying should be replaced. Cats that initially tested negative
FeLV but are apparently not shedding it in saliva (and should be retested several times over a period of eight
thus will not transmit it to companion cats), and most to twelve months, in the event that they were infected
appear
of FeLV. to be resistant to the disease-producing effects just before the first test, prior to the onset of detect-
able viremia, or are cycling in their level of detectable
viremia. The time period between exposure and vire-
TREATMENT. The therapeutic goals of the veteri- mia is extremely variable, and an infected cat that
narian in treating many of the FeLV-associated dis- tested negative initially may be positive when tested
eases are to provide palliative relief from clinical signs again later. During the testing period, no new cats
and to prolong life. However, therapy should be advo- should be allowed to enter the household. If any
cated only if there is the possibility of maintaining FeLV-positive cats are found on subsequent testing,
a good quality of life for the prospective patient. In then they should be removed and another period of
addition, ethical questions regarding prolonged treat- quarantine and testing imposed. All cats in the house-
ment of persistently viremic cats shedding an onco- hold should test negative for FeLV on two tests taken
genic (tumor-causing) virus into their environment at least three months apan for the household to be
must also be addressed by both the veterinarian and considered free of infectious FeLV.
cat owner. All new cats entering an FeLV-negative household
A variety of chemotherapeutic regimens have been should be tested prior to entry. Any positive cats
developed for FeLV-induced tumors, and in certain should be excluded from entering the household.
cases these can produce a temporary remission. Cats Ideally, cats testing negative should be quarantined
in remission may continue in a reasonably healthy in separate quarters for three months and retested
state for a period of weeks to several months (some negative one to two times before being allowed to
longer). However, it must be understood that these intermix with the established FeLV-negative house-
are only remissions and, in most cases, not lifelong hold population. New cats should ideally be obtained
cures. The drugs that are used are very potent and only from other FeLV-negative households or catter-
their effects must be monitored carefully so as not to ies. Routine yearly or twice-yearly testing for FeLV is
overdose the patient. suggested for cats in catteries because of the variable
incubation period of infection. Persistently viremic
PREVENTION. Elimination of FeLV from an in- cats should never be used for breeding purposes, in
fected household can be achieved by implementation part because infected queens will transmit the virus
of an FeLV-test-and-removal program using the IFA to their viable offspring.
test. This program has been highly effective in remov- If an FeLV-positive cat is removed from a single-cat
ing FeLV from infected multiple-cat households. In a household, a waiting period (up to thirty days) should
survey of forty-five households from which 159 FeLV- be observed before repopulation with one or more
positive cats were removed, 561 of 564 (99 5 percent) FeLV-negative cats. The litter box and feeding dishes
FeLV-negative cats remained negative on subsequent should be replaced and the premises thoroughly
retesting. Multiple-cat households in which the FeLV- cleansed.
test-and-removal program has not been implemented Certain modifications of the test-and-removal pro-
have experienced infection rates over forty times gram may be made for households in which both
greater than those experienced by households in FeLV-negative and FeLV-positive cats are kept. The
which the program has been successfully introduced. positive cats in these households should be isolated
THE INTERNAL CAT

from contact with all other cats. This will not only
prevent the spread of infectious FeLV to susceptible Feline Immunodeficiency Virus
cats, but it will also decrease exposure of potentially Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), previously
immunosuppressed, viremic cats to other infectious called feline T-lymphotropic lentivirus (FTLV), is a fe-
agents, to which they may have a heightened suscepti- line virus belonging to the family Retroviridae. Al-
bility. No new cats should be introduced at any time, though itis related to feline leukemia virus (FeLV),
and the FeLV-positive cats should not be allowed to FLV does not cause cancer and is not classified with
breed. Separate litter boxes and feeding dishes should FeLV in the oncornavirus subfamily of retroviruses.
be maintained for positive and negative cats. Cleanli- Instead, FIV has been placed in the lentivirus subfam-
ness and personal hygiene should be observed at all ily, along with the viruses causing progressive pneu-
times, and it has been suggested that separate clothing monia insheep, infectious anemia in horses, arthritis-
be kept for contact with FeLV-positive cats to minimize encephalitis in goats, and acquired immunodeficiency
mechanical transmission of the virus. As we have seen, syndrome (AIDS) in human beings.
however, FeLV is relatively labile in the environment,
and although the degree of virus transmission possi- THE CAUSE. The genetic material of FIV, like that
ble under these circumstances is uncertain, it is prob- of other retroviruses, consists of single-stranded RNA.
ably minimal. The production of a double-stranded DNA copy of this
Several vaccines are currently available commer- RNA is an essential step in the replication (reproduc-
cial y for prevention of FeLV infection; however, vacci- tion) of FIV within the host. This step requires a spe-
nation does not confer immunity against persistent cial viral enzyme, reverse transcriptase, which the
FeLV infection in all cats. Vaccination should be con- virus carries with it when it infects a cell. The double-
sidered an additional safeguard rather than a primary stranded copy of the viral genetic material then is
meanssion tofo vaccinate
protectionis made againston FeLV infection. The insened into the DNA of the host cell, where it may
an individual basis deci-
and remain in an inactive state for some time before pro-
should be an important point of discussion with the duction ofnew virus particles is initiated.
veterinarian. There are complex pros and cons to vac- Antibodies to FIV do not bind to FeLV, nor do anti-
cinating against FeLV; the advice and experience of bodies to FeLV bind to FIV, so that the two viruses are
tlie veterinarian are essential in helping owners reach antigenically unrelated. In addition, FIV is not antigen-
a correct decision. ically related to human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV), the lentivirus responsible for AIDS.
PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE. The public
health significance of FeLV, most importantly the OCCURRENCE AND TRANSMISSION. The im-
question of oncogenic potential for human beings, is munodeficiency syndrome associated with FIV, with
still largely unsettled. Surveys designed to determine its array of secondary infections, anemia, and low
the prevalence of circulating FeLV and/or antibody to white blood cell counts, is indistinguishable frorn the
FeLV in human serum have produced conflicting re- noncancerous syndromes associated with FeLV infec-
sults over the years. However, most recent surveys tion. Prior to the first identification of FIV in Califor-
have failed to find evidence of FeLV infection of nia, cats that presented with what seemed to be an
human beings, including many with LSA or other ma- FeLV-associated disease, but that repeatedly tested
lignancies. Until a more complete understanding of negative for FeLV, were nevenheless assumed to be
the public health implications of FeLV can be ob- infected with FeLV. Now that a test for FIV is available,
tained, itis prudent to restrict as much as possible it is apparent that at least 15 percent of such FeLV-
human exposure to persistently viremic cats. Neo- negative sick cats are in reality infected with FIV. The
nates (human infants) and immunosuppressed indi- prevalence of FIV infection in the general, healthy.
viduals (those on immunosuppressive drug therapy, United States cat population, however, is estimated to
or AIDS patients, for example) are of special concern be about 1 to 3 percent.
in this regard. It must be emphasized, however, that In addition to infecting domestic cats, FIV infects
as of this writing there is no conclusive evidence that several species of nondomestic cats, including lions,
any human illness (including cancer) has ever been tigers, snowEachleopards,
caused by FeLV. cheetahs. species pumas, apparently bobcats, Pallas' cats,
is infected withandits
 287
VIRAL DISEASES

own unique type of FIV. The potential for disease These secondary infections are responsible for most
production of the clinical signs associated with FIV infection.
domestic catsassociated is not clearwithat this
FIV time.
infection in the non-
The primary mode of FIV transmission is through CLINICAL SIGNS. The clinical progression of FIV
bite wounds. Casual, nonaggressive contaa among infection can be divided into five stages, using the
cats rarely results in the spread of FIV. Transmission system described for HIV infection in humans: (1)
from an infected queen to her kittens occurs infre- acute infection (the first four to sixteen weeks of infec-
quently, as an in utero event, during the birth process, tion); (2) asymptomatic carrier (this stage may last
or through ingestion of infected colostrum or milk. months to years); (3) persistent generalized lymph-
This type of maternal transmission occurs primarily adenopathy (PGL— this stage is usually very short and
when the queen is exposed to FIV and becomes in- difficult to observe in FIV-infected cats); (4) AIDS-
fected during gestation or lactation. Spread of FFV related complex (ARC — signs of gastrointestinal and
through sexual contact is theoretically possible but respiratory disease are usually apparent); and (5)
does not occur frequently during either experimental acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS — cats
or natural infections. develop opportunistic infections accompanied by
fever and wasting). Cats in the ARC or AIDS stage of
PATHOGENESIS. Following initial infeaion, FIV infection generally live for less than one year.
is carried to regional lymph nodes, where it replicates The clinical signs of the immunodeficiency syn-
in a subpopulation of white blood cells known as T drome are diverse in nature because they involve an
lymphocytes or T cells. These cells are primary target array of secondary infections. General unthriftiness
cells of FIV (culture techniques often require the use (failure to thrive) may be the first outward sign that a
of feline T lymphocytes to grow the virus in the labo- problem
ratory). The virus then spreads to lymph nodes ent in theexists. ARC Fever of 103°Fstages
and AIDS or greater is oftenA pres-
of disease. very
throughout the body, resulting in a generalized common presenting complaint is a loss of appetite or
lymphadenopathy (enlargement of the lymph evidence of pain while eating, caused by infection of
nodes). At this point, much of FFV replication occurs the gums (gingivitis) and mouth (stomatitis). These
in another white blood cell, the macrophage. This conditions can lead to inflammation of the tissue
stage of the disease usually passes unnoticed by an around the teeth (periodontitis), with eventual loss
owner unless the nodes are greatly enlarged. Some of the teeth.
time later — perhaps days but possibly weeks to Chronic, nonresponsive, or recurrent infections of
months — the cat may develop a fever and a drop in the skin, urinary bladder, and upper respiratory tract
the white blood cell count (leukopenia). A low red are often seen. Persistent diarrhea and ocular disease
blood cell count (i.e., anemia) also may develop. The are also frequent problems. Abonion of kittens or
cause of these sometimes precipitous declines in other reproductive failures have been seen in infected
blood cell types is not clear, but it may result from queens. Some infected cats have experienced sei-
suppression or loss of precursor cells in the bone zures, dementia (mental deterioration), sleep disor-
marrow. There then follows a largely enigmatic pe- ders, and other neurologic manifestations. Slow but
riod (sometimes measured in years), during which progressive weight loss also is common, witli severe
the cat appears normal, despite being persistently in- wasting occurring late in the disease process.
fected with FIV. However, during this clinically quies-
cent period, there is a progressive decline in the DIAGNOSIS. Diagnosis is based on the history, the
number of a type of T lymphocyte known as a CD4 -I- clinical signs, and the result of an FIV antibody test.
T helper cell. The CD4 -I- T cell is extremely important Detection of FIV antibody is the diagnostic test of
in maintaining proper immune system function. Even- choice, because the levels of virus in the blood of an
tually, signs of immunodeficiency begin to develop, infected cat are frequently so low as to be undetect-
compromising the viruses,
cat's ability to protect itself against able by conventional means. An ELISA test is available
infection. Bacteria, protozoa, and fungi, which in kit form for use in private veterinary clinics. All
can be found in the cat'sto everyday positive results should be confirmed by a second test,
generally are innocuous a healthy environment and
animal, can cause preferably using a different procedure. Confirmatory
severe illness in an immunocompromised individual. tests, which are performed at certain commercial di-
THE INTERNAL CAT

agnostic laboratories, include IFA assays and a test highly unlikely to contract FIV infeaion. Catteries and
called the Western blot or immunoblot procedure, A multiple-cat households should test all their cats and
positive FrV' antibody test indicates that a cat is in- isolate or remove any positives. Once FIV-negative
fected with FI\' (probably for its lifetime — established status has been achieved, all prospective additions
infections are rarely cleared) and is capable of trans- should be quarantined for eight to twelve weeks, then
mining the virus to other susceptible cats. It should tested prior to introduction to the household.
be noted that eight to twelve weeks (and occasionally
more) may elapse after infection before detectable PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE, Although FIV
antibody levels appear. is similar structurally to HIV and causes a disease in
Because FIV tests depend on the detection of anti- cats similar to AIDS in humans, it is a highly species-
bodies tothe virus rather than the virus itself, kittens specific agent. Only cells of feline origin have been
of FIV-infected (antibody-positive) queens will almost found to support replication of most primary FIV iso-
always test positive for FIV antibodies during the first lates. There is no significant cross-reactivit\' benveen
three to four months of life. In this case, a positive FIV FFV and any of the other lentiviruses. Initial studies
test does not mean that the kitten is actually infected indicate that veterinarians, owners, and researchers
with FFV. Such kittens should be tested for FIV at six who have had close contact with FIV-infected cats
to eight months of age, after the loss of maternally show absolutely no evidence of FIV infection. It ap-
derived antibodies, to determine their true infection pears at this time that FIV infeaions are restricted
status. solely to cats.
Even though the risk of transmission of FIV from
TREATMENT. Therapy of the secondary infections cats to humans is minimal, immunocompromised per-
associated with FIV is based on the clinical signs and sons (such as those undergoing chemotherapy, HIV-
the nature of the infectious agent. Use of antimicro- infected persons, and some pregnant women and
bial (antibacterial or antifungal) drugs to control bac- newborn infants) should not be exposed to cats with
terial and fungal infections has been moderately FIV or FeLV infections. Cats with retrovirus-induced
successful, but must be continued for long periods or immunosuppression are especially susceptible to in-
reinstituted as new infections occur. Supponive care, fection with several parasitic organisms that can cause
including intravenous fluids, blood transfusions, and severe disease in immunosuppressed individuals.
feeding of high-caloric dietary supplements, is fre-
quently required. The use of corticosteroids or other
anti-inflammatory drugs may be indicated in some Feline Infectious Peritonitis
cases to control gingivitis and stomatitis. Anabolic ste- Feline infectious peritonitis (FIP) is an important and
roids (those that promote growth and tissue repair) complex disease of cats caused by a virus belonging
may help to combat weight loss and wasting. It must to the family Coronaviridae. Coronaviruses are a large
be kept in mind that these measures are not directed and widely distributed group of RNA viruses and are
at combating FIV itself. The drug AZT, useful in ther- important causes of disease in birds and mammals.
apy for AIDS patients, may also be of use against FFV, Feline coronavirus (FCoV) infections appear to be
but the drug is expensive and difficult to obtain, and restricted to members of the cat family, including do-
its side effects are apparently greater in cats than in mestic breeds as well as certain exotic species: sand
humans. Drugs designed to enhance or modify the cats, caracals, lynx, cougars, cheetahs, jaguars, leop-
immune system, such as interferons and acemannan, ards, and lions. In addition to FCoV, cats are suscepti-
appear to be useful in treating some FIV-associated ble to infection widi several other viruses in this
diseases; however, such drugs do not eliminate the group, including canine coronavirus (CCV) and the
infection. swine agent, transmissible gastroenteritis virus
PREVENTION. No vaccine is available to prevent (TGEV).
FFV' infections. Owners can protect their cats only by THE CAUSE. Different strains of FCoV possess dif-
preventing them from contacting infected cats. Pets ferent virulences (disease-causing ability). Some
kept indoors and away from free-roaming cats are strains that have been isolated and grown in a labora-
 VIRAL DISEASES

torv' are avirulent or of low virulence (strains com- tain large populations of cenain leukocytes, such as
monly known as feline enteric coronavirus or macrophages, which appear to be primary target cells
FECV), whereas other strains produce FIP (strains for FIPV infection. Blood-borne spread of virus also
commonly known as feline infectious peritonitis virus results in infection of circulating white blood cells
or FIPV). FECV strains typically produce disturbances (monocytes) and, importantly, in localization of
of the digestive tract that affect only a minority of virus and virus-infected cells within the walls of small
infected cats — usually very young kittens. blood vessels. A secondary viremia may occur after
Feline coronavirus infections are extremely com- initial infection of target tissues and result in further
mon in multicat environments. In densely housed spread of virus throughout the body. Deposition of
groups of cats, it is not unusual to find that most cats virus, virus-infected white blood cells, and virus-anti-
— up to 80 to 90 percent in some situations — have body complexes within blood vessel walls produces
been exposed to FCoV. In households with only one an intense, destructive inflammatory response (vas-
or two cats, the risk of FCoV exposure is much lower. culitis), which damages vessels and allows the escape
As a result, FIP is rare in households with few cats, of fluid components of blood into intercellular spaces,
with estimates as low as 1 cat in 5000. However, in eventually
households with high population densities, FIP deaths within body accumulating
cavities. as characteristic 'TIP fluid"
may reach 5 percent or higher. As one way of ex-
plaining the sporadic nature of the disease, some re- CLINICAL SIGNS. Though it is possible that mild
searchers speculate that FIPV may be an in vivo cases of FIP that spontaneously resolve may occasion-
(within the living body) mutation of the more com- ally occur, this is considered a rarity. Virtually all cats
mon FECV. The ability of the individual cat to mount with FIP will die.
an effective immune response is also believed to be a Most cases of FIP occur in cats less than three or
major factor determining FIP development. four years of age. The onset of clinical signs may be
The routes by which FCoV is spread from cat to cat sudden (especially in kittens) or it may be slow and
have not been identified with absolute certainty, but insidious, with the severity of signs gradually increas-
it is most likely that initial infeaion results from inges- ing over a period of weeks. Some of these signs may
tion or inhalation of the virus. Close contact with in- be quite nonspecific: intermittent inappetence, de-
feaed cats or their excreta is usually required for pression, weight loss, fever. In many cases, affected
efficient virus transmission. Transmission across the cats may continue to eat and remain alert and respon-
placenta to the developing fetus is suggested by occa- sive for a considerable period of time; however, fever
sional observations of FIP in stillborn kittens, but the (which may fluctuate at different times of the day) is a
frequency with which this occurs is unknown. constant finding and usually persists until the last few
In common with many other viruses of this type, hours of life.
FCoV is relatively unstable outside the host and is The two major forms of FIP can be distinguished
rapidly inactivated by many common soaps, deter- on the basis of fluid accumulation — the presence of
gents, and disinfeaing agents. Household bleach di- fluid in one or more body cavities in efiRisive ("wet")
luted 1:32 in water has been recommended for FIP, and
decontamination purposes. sive FIP isitstheabsence more infulminant
nonefiiisive ( "dry")andFIP.severe)
(sudden Effu-
form of the disease, with a more rapid onset and
PATHOGENESIS. Studies performed over the past shorter clinical course than the nonefFusive form.
several years have succeeded in identifying some of An accumulation of fluid within the abdominal cav-
the major host-virus interactions of FIPV infection. ity', with progressive, painless enlargement of the
After infection of white blood cells (leukocytes) abdomen, is probably the most common clinical man-
within lymphoid tissue at or near the site of initial ifestation ofeffusive FIP. Respiratory distress may
virus penetration, a primary viremia involving virus develop when abdominal fluid accumulation is exces-
and/or virus-infeaed cells occurs within one week sive or, more commonly, when accumulation of fluid
after exposure. In this way, virus is transported to occurs within the chest cavity, resulting in compres-
other areas of the body, especially to organs such as sion of the lungs. Other signs that may be seen
liver, spleen, and lymph nodes. These structures con- include jaundice (yellowing of the mucous mem-
THE INTERNAL CAT

branes and skin) and a mild anemia (low red blood diagnoses of FIP are presumptive in nature. However,
cell count). This anemia ma\' be exacerbated b\' coin- when the clinical signs and laborator\' data suppon a
fection with feline leukemia virus or Haemobarto- presumptive diagnosis of FIP, then such a diagnosis
nella felts (the organism causing feline infeaious may be made with a ver\' high degree of confidence,
anemia). especially when the typical effusion fluid is present.
Gastrointestinal, ocular, and neurologic signs may Evaluation of effusion fluid remains one of the most
also occur in cases of effusive FIP. The course of effu- useful diagnostic aids for FIP.
sive FIP is quite variable, but the usual survival time Most cats with FIP have moderate to high titers (lev-
after onset of clinical signs is about two or three els) of coronavirus antibody, but this finding must
months. Some young kittens may survive for no not be overinterpreted. The presence of coronavirus
longer than a tew s. whereas some adults may live antibody in any cat, healthy or diseased, is indicative
for six to cighi nu)nths with active clinical disease. of only one thing: previous exposure to FCoV or one
The onset of noneffusive FIP is often insidious, with of the closely related viruses (CCV, TGEV). The anti-
clinical signs reflective of involvement of specific body test does not prove that a cat has FIP. It therefore
organ systems in the FIP inflammatory' process. follows that the diagnosis of FIP must never be made
Weight loss, depression, anemia, and fever are almost simply on the basis of a coronavirus antibody test.
always present, but fluid accumulation is usually mini- The natural reservoir of FCoV appears to be in-
mal. Clinical signs of kidney failure (such as increased feaed cats. The most important source may be clini-
water consumption and urination), liver failure (jaun- cally healthy carrier cats — those that earn- and excrete
dice, neurologic signs), pancreatic disease (vomiting, FCoV but show no ill effects. The problem, that arises
diarrhea, voracious appetite, diabetes mellitus), neu- is that, as of this writing, there are no diagnostic tests
rologic disease (hindlimb incoordination, loss of for identify ing these carriers (i.e., there is no test that
balance, tremors, behavioral changes, paralysis, sei- is equivalent to the Hardy test, or ELISA test for feline
zures), or ocular disease (inflammation of the eye, leukemia virus). Thus a cat with a positive antibody
retinal disease, blindness) may be seen in various test is not necessarily carrying or shedding FCoV. The
combinations in cats with severe organ impairment. polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a powerful
The disease course is usually more chronic than in tool capable of deteaing minute quantities of coro-
effusive FIP. Some cats, especially those with primary navirus RNA in blood, serum, tissue, or feces. It prom-
ocular involvement, may survive for as long as a year ises to further the understanding of FIP and the FCoV
or more. carrier state. Although as yet not diagnostic for FIP,
FIPV was once incriminated as a possible cause of PCR technology may ultimately lead to an accurate test
reproduaive problems in breeding queens — infer- that can identify contagious cats.
tility, fetal resorptions (biochemical disintegration
of the fetus), abortions, stillbirths, birth of weak TREATMENT. No curative therapy for FIP currently
"fading" kittens, congenital malformations, and neo- exists; the disease is vinually always fatal once clinical
natal heart disease (acute congestive cardiomyop- signs have become apparent. Palliative therapy^ com-
athy). There is no conclusive published evidence that bines high levels of corticosteroids, other immu-
the virus plays a role in any of these disease processes. nosuppressive medications, and broad-spectrum
To date, the only disease of neonates known to be antibiotics, in an attempt to slow down the FIP inflam-
caused by FIPV is FIP itself. matory disease process and minimize secondary
baaerial infections. This therapy serves only to modify
DIAGNOSIS. The clinical diagnosis of FIP is made the disease
by evaluation of the history and presenting signs and vide a cure.course and, in treatment
If successful most cases,ofdoes
FIP not
is topro-be
the results of supporting laboratory tests. It must be developed in the future, it will likely involve a combi-
kept in mind that a definitive diagnosis of FIP can be nation ofmedications, including anti-inflammatory or
made only by microscopic examination of tissues — immunosuppressive drugs, immune-modulating med-
either by biopsy or at necropsy. Any diagnosis made ications, and antiviral drugs.
in the absence of such examination must be consid- A number of supposed treatments for FIP have been
ered presumptive; hence, the vast majority of clinical touted in recent years, including experimental medi-
 VIRAL DISEASES

cations and megavitamin supplementation. To date, cats helps prevent infection during this most suscepti-
there is no published scientific evidence that any of ble age. Early weaning of kittens — as early as five to
these potions is of benefit to affected cats. six weeks of age— followed by strict isolation from
other cats has been shown to markedly reduce FCoV
PREVENTION. Research shows that any cat ex- infection of kittens; however, this procedure can suc-
posed toFCoV has the potential to develop FIP. If FIPV ceed only if strict isolation is maintained.
is indeed an in vivo mutation of a less virulent feline A commercially available vaccine has shown efficacy
coronavirus, the most successful control strategies in preventing FIP in both experimentally and naturally
will hinge on reducing FCoV infections in general and infected cats. The vaccine is a temperature-sensitive
promoting healthy immunity in cats at risk. Breeders mutant (it grows only at temperatures slightly lower
should be advised to remove cats persistently infected than core body temperature) of FIPV that is given
with feline leukemia virus or feline immunodefi- intranasally. In laboratorv' trials, the efficacy of the vac-
cienq' virus, reduce cattery crowding, and develop cine varies from zero to approximately 85 percent,
management strategies that minimize fecal contamina- depending on the amount and type of virus used in
tion. Because some studies suggest a genetic predis- challenging (infecting) the cats. In a natural setting,
position for the development of FIP, breeding pairs of if given to cats prior to exposure to FCoV, the vaccine
cats that tend to produce kittens with FIP should be has shown efficacy of up to 75 percent. The usefulness
discouraged. of this vaccine for the control of FIP in cattery situa-
At this time, there is no praaical way to eliminate tions appears to be limited at this time, because the
FCoV infections or prevent FIP from occurring within majority of cats become infeaed prior to sixteen
a group of cats. Although extremely successful in elim- weeks of age, the earliest age that the vaccine has
inating FeLV infections, a test-and-removal program shown any efficacy. However, if infection of kittens
for healthy coronavirus antibody-positive cats cannot can be prevented until they are old enough to vacci-
be recommended on the basis of current knowledge. nate, the vaccine may yet prove beneficial; as of this
There is no available diagnostic test that can specifi- writing, studies evaluating this strategy have not been
cally identify carriers of FCoV, so there is no medical completed.
reason for destroying healthy antibody-positive cats
(i.e., a positive antibody test indicates only past expo- Rabies
sure; itdoes not mean necessarily that a cat is still
carrying the virus). The specter of rabies has been known throughout
It is believed that the major source of feline coro- Asia and Europe since the days of antiquity. Today,
navirus isthe feces of an infected cat, and that other rabies can be found on all continents of the world
cats become infected by ingesting (or inhaling) the except Australia and Antaraica. It is ordinarily a dis-
virus. Therefore, minimizing fecal contamination de- ease ofbats and carnivores, including the domestic dog
creases the transmission of the virus from one cat to and cat and many wild species. Despite the availability
another in multiple-cat households. Fecal contamina- of excellent human and animal rabies vaccines, rabies
tion can be reduced by locating litter boxes in easy-to- remains a special cause of concern among human pop-
clean areas distant from food and water dishes. There ulations, especially in the developing world.
should be at least one litter box for every two cats, In the developed nations, canine rabies vaccination
and the litter should be scooped clean of feces once programs have all but eliminated cases of rabies
daily. The entire litter box should be cleaned and among human beings. Animal rabies, however, still
disinfected at least weekly. occurs with var>'ing frequency. Among domestic spe-
If possible, breeders should consider keeping cats cies in the United States, cats now surpass dogs in the
in stable groups of four cats or less. Devoting a special number of rabies cases reponed each year. Although
area for pregnant queens, and providing individual those numbers remain small, they serve as a reminder
queening boxes separate from other cats during par- of the continual presence of this ancient scourge.
turition and nursing, can reduce transmission of infec-
tious agents to kittens. Maintaining an area where THE CAUSE. Rabies is caused by a bullet-shaped
weaned kittens are strialy isolated from all the other virus belonging to the family Rhabdoviridae. Rhabdo-
THE INTERNAL CAT

viruses are enveloped viruses and hence are relatively may vary widely. Two principal forms of rabies are
easily destroyed by common household soaps and recognized: an excitatory or "furious" form, and a
detergents. paralytic or "dumb" form. In actuality, most forms.
rabid The
ani-
mals exhibit some manifestations of both
OCCURRENCE AND TRANSMISSION. Rabies is paralyiic form of rabies always represents the terminal
maintained in nature by wild and domestic carnivores or end stage; however, some animals may die during
and by certain other wildlife species. In the United the convulsive seizures of the furious stage without
States, skunks play a major role in spreading the dis- exhibiting the final stage. Some will show few or no
ease, especially in the midwestern portion of the signs of excitement, the clinical picture reflecting in-
country, where they are now the primary reservoirs stead the effects of paralysis.
of infection. Raccoons are important in transmission During the furious stage, which lasts variably for
in the southeastern states and have recently begun to one to seven days, affected animals become wild and
spread the disease to northern areas of the Atlantic aggressive. Rabid cats are extremely dangerous ani-
seaboard. Wild foxes are important reservoir hosts in mals because of their viciousness and quickness of
Europe and to a certain extent in North America as action. Rabid animals frequently snap at imaginary ob-
well. In the Caribbean and much of the Americas, bats jects and may attempt to bite any animals or humans
are important reservoirs. In Latin America, vampire that approach them. If restrained, an animal may chew
bats are panicularly notorious for spreading rabies. viciously on metal chains or the bars of its cage. It
The only rodent species of any importance in rabies may break its teeth, lacerate its mouth and gums, and
transmission appears to be the woodchuck, in the drool a ropy saliva tinged with blood.
mid-Atlantic and midwestern United States. Among Within a shon time, these signs give way to those of
domestic species, only dogs and cats are important the final or paralytic stage, which lasts only for a day
carriers of the infeaion. In most developing nations or two. The paralysis usually appears first in the mus-
today, dogs remain the primary reservoir of the dis- cles of the head and neck, the most characteristic sign
ease and the principal source of human exposure. being difficulty in swallowing. Signs of localized paral-
Rabid animals excrete vast numbers of rabies virus ysis are quickly succeeded by more generalized paral-
particles in their saliva — a faa that accounts for the ysis, with death following usually within two to four
primary means of rabies virus transmission, the bite days of onset.
of an infected animal. For both animals and humans, rabies is an inevita-
bly fatal disease once clinical signs have appeared
PATHOGENESIS. The incubation period— the (only three human survivors are documented in the
time between exposure to the rabies virus and the medical literature). Therefore, utmost care must be
development of signs — is quite variable, ranging from taken if one suspects that a pet has been exposed to
one week to one year. Most of this variability appears the rabies virus.
to reflea the length of time the rabies virus spends
within muscle cells at the site of the bite, prior to DIAGNOSIS. A definitive diagnosis of rabies can
gaining access to the nervous system. Once the virus be made only by laboratory examination of brain ma-
has entered nerve endings, however, it advances re- terial from an affeaed animal. Considering the grave
lentles ly upthe ner\'e bodies until it reaches the spi- prognosis for recovery from rabies once clinical signs
nal cord and eventually the brain. From there, it can have appeared, it is imperative that an accurate diag-
spread to other tissues important in transmission of nosis be obtained. Any wild or domestic mammal that
the virus — the salivary glands, respiratory' system, and has bitten a human being and is showing signs sugges-
digestive tract. To date, the actual mechanism by tive of rabies should be humanely destroyed, and the
which the virus produces locomotor and cerebral de- head submitted to a qualified rabies laboratory' for
rangement, with eventual death of the host, remains diagnostic testing. In addition, any bat or wild carni-
unclear. vore, regardless of signs manifested, that has bitten a
human being should be destroyed immediately and
CLINICAL SIGNS. In general, signs of rabies in the brain examined for the presence of the rabies
cats are similar to those observed in other domestic virus (this latter action is necessary because of the
species, but the signs seen in each individual case variable period of salivary virus-shedding that can
 VIRAL DISEASES

occur before clinical signs appear). Any healthy do- five doses, given on days 0, 3, 7, 14, and 28 postexpo-
mestic animal that has bitten a human being should sure.
be confined for at least ten days and observed for the
development of clinical signs of rabies. PREVENTION. In the United States and most other
An unvaccinated domestic animal that has been bit- countries of the world, effective rabies vaccines are
ten by or exposed to a known rabid animal should available for use in domestic animals. Mass immuniza-
either be destroyed or placed in quarantine for six tion of dogs has been employed for many years to
months and vaccinated for rabies one month prior control the spread of rabies by creating an "immuno-
to release. A rabies-vaccinated domestic animal that logical barrier" between Several
wildlife countries,
reservoirs including
of rabies
has been bitten by or exposed to a known rabid ani- and human populations.
mal should be given a rabies booster immunization England, Iceland, Japan, and the Scandinavian nations,
immediately and observed by the owner for ninety have succeeded in eradicating rabies by implement-
days. If signs of rabies appear during the time of ob- ing control programs and very strict quarantine regu-
servation, the animal should be humanely destroyed lations. Itis recommended that all dogs and cats be
and the brain examined to confirm the diagnosis of vaccinated for rabies at three months of age and revac-
rabies. cinated as required by vaccine specifications. At pres-
Currently, three methods are available for the labo- ent, there are no rabies vaccines licensed for use in
ratory diagnosis of rabies: immunofluorescence mi- wild animals; however, genetically engineered rabies
croscopy, the most rapid and accurate method, in vaccines are being tested in selected wildlife popula-
which slides of brain tissue are examined for the pres- tions. (See Appendix A: Zoonotic Diseases, and Appen-
ence of the rabies virus using special antibodies and dix B: Vaccinations.)
a fluorescent microscope; histopathology, in which
sections or smears of brain tissue are examined for PUBLIC HEALTH SIGNIFICANCE. The signs
the presence of Negri bodies, intracellular inclusion and course of rabies in humans are similar to those
bodies seen in many (but not all) cases of rabies; seen in animals. Both excitatory and paralytic symp-
and mouse inoculation, which is frequently used to toms may be manifested. The incubation period, as in
confirm positive results or to investigate further sus- animals, is quite variable — from about two weeks to
pected cases that have proven negative by other as long as one year — but on the whole it averages
methods. between three and six weeks. The course of the dis-
ease isshort — only a few days — and the mortality rate
TREATMENT. Because of the potential risk of is essentially 100 percent. For the safety of humans
exposing susceptible humans to the rabies virus, treat- and their pets, cat and dog owners should see to it
ment of animals suspected of having rabies is strongly that their animals are routinely vaccinated against this
discouraged. Treatment of humans exposed to a rabid most deadly and uncompromising of viral diseases.
animal, however, must be aggressively applied. Treat-
ment of humans consists of thorough flushing and Feline Viral Rhinotracheitis (FVR)
cleansing of the bite wound with soap and water (the
importance of this simple step cannot be overempha- See Chapter 24: Respiratory System and Disorders.
sized); administration of rabies immune globulin (ra-
bies virus antiserum) to exposed individuals who Feline Calicivirtts Infection (FCI)
have never been vaccinated against rabies; and admin-
istration ofthe human diploid-cell rabies vaccine in See Chapter 24: Respiratory System and Disorders.
 CHAPTER 30

Bacterial Diseases

by Patrick L. McDonough and

Corisse N. Vaughan

microbe
elledback s, for whom they often represent a beneficent presence.
Bacteria whose ancestrare minute, y can single-c
be traced to the These baaeria are classified as the normal microbial
very dawn of life on earth. These minute flora of the body. An example of the latter is the bacte-
creatures surround us in our everyday lives rial population of the large intestine, which aids diges-
yet remain invisible to the unaided eye. They are com- tive processes and synthesize certain important
plex, metabolizing, self-reproducing, living organisms vitamins. Occasionally, if given the opportunity, these
— in stark contrast to bacteria may gain ac-
viruses, which are in- ces to deeper tissues
animate, subcellular of the host and pro-
(smaller than cells), duce disease.
chemical entities, in- However, another
capable of reproduc- extremely heteroge-
tion except within neous group, com-
living cells. The ge- prising many different
netic material of bac- types of bacteria,
teria contains both readily invade and
types of nucleic acid:
c acid compromise the well-
ribon uclei being of the host.
(RNA) and deoxy- ribonucleic acid They are classified
(DNA), whereas a as pathogens — pro-
mi-
virus contains only ducecrobesdisease.
able toThese
one or the other. Many bacteria are free-living inhabi- pathogens are the primary microscopic agents of
tants of the environment and through their biochemi- importance to veterinarians, their clients, and their
cal activities are instrumental in maintaining local and patients. In this case, the bacteria are called oppor-
global ecosystems. Other bacteria are found on the tunists.
skin and mucous membranes of higher organisms. Bacterial diseases include a wide range of infections
There, they often exist in harmonious balance with that can occur at different times in the life of a cat.
their hosts, from whom they derive nourishment and Infection may develop during the neonatal period, for
294
 BACTERIAL DISEASES

example, when kittens receive their first exposure to and Staphylococcus intermedius. Some staphylococci
bacteria at a aretimenotwhen all ofactive.
their The
body's are opportunistic agents capable of causing disease
mechanisms yet fully felinedefense
body when conditions are suitable. Others commonly are
can also be invaded during adulthood, when certain associated with infections such as abscesses (walled-
bacterial infections may be promoted, at least in part, off, pus-filled lesions).
by immunosuppressive agents, which depress the Staphylococci often cause infections of the skin,
immune system. Among such agents are steroid drugs eye, nalnose and throat, urethra, vagina,
and feline leukemia virus. In essence, three faaors tract. Such local infections are theandmost
gastrointesti-
common
often interna to produce infection and disease: the of all bacterial infections. Local infections of the skin
host (cat), the causative agent of disease (in this case, often begin with superficial scratches or wounds and
bacteria), and the environment (e.g., stress factors, usually result in the formation of discrete abscesses.
change of diet, parasitism, concurrent disease). This Hair follicles may also become infected, resulting in
chapter on bacterial diseases of cats presents informa- folliculitis. Scratching or trauma can lead to a deeper
tion on the nature of the causative bacteria, clinical local infection and the spread of bacteria to sur-
signs, diagnosis, treatment, and significance for rounding tissues. A boil may result when a hair-follicle
human health (zoonotic potential). infection spreads to deeper tissues and produces a
Fortunately, many baaeria are sensitive to the ac- firm nodule containing pus. A carbuncle is an even
tion of substances known as antibiotics. Antibiotics aa deeper skin infection containing many pockets of pus.
in a number of different ways, either to kill bacteria Of the skin infections described thus far, the carbun-
direaly or to inhibit their multiplication. Some antibi- cle is the most severe and in some cases can lead to
otics target essential metabolic reaaions of bacteria, septicemia (leakage of bacteria in the bloodstream
whereas others interfere with the chemical synthesis of throughout the system).
important constituents of the bacterial cell wall. Antibi- Treatment of simple local infections and small ab-
otics in common use in feline medicine today include scesses usually involves hot-packing the lesions and
penicillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, tetracycline, oxytet- observing the patient for spread of disease and devel-
racycline, erythromycin, kanamycin, and gentamicin. opment of additional signs of illness. Deeper infec-
Unfortunately, resistance to antibiotics has arisen tions may require hospitalization so that antibiotic
among many bacterial species. The survival of the re- therapy may be instituted and monitored. Often le-
sistant species through Darwinian modes of natural sions are hot-packed and surgically drained. (See
selection has been enhanced by the use of antibiotics. Chapter 17; Skin and Disorders.)
A bacterial organism capable of resisting the effects of Severe bacterial infeaions of the chest cavity called
an antibiotic will have a selective reproductive advan- pyothorax (accumulation of pus in the chest cavity,
tage over the bacterial organism that succumbs to the also known as empyema) usually require surgical
antibiotic. The resistant organism may actually thrive drainage and antibiotic therapy. Outer-ear infections
as a consequence, perhaps to the detriment of the (otitis externa) usually respond to topical therapy,
host. Control of antibiotic resistance among bacteria cleaning and flushing, and antibiotic treatment. Mid-
is dependent on the clinical use of appropriate antimi- dle-ear infeaions (otitis media) may require surgical
crobial drugs guided by bacterial culture and suscepti- drainage and antibiotic therapy. (See Chapter 18: Sen-
bility testing. sory Organs and Disorders.)
Staphylococci sometimes are involved in infections
of the uterus in association with other bacteria, such
STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS as Escherichia colt and streptococci, in what are
termed mixed infections. Clinical signs can include
Staphylococci are a diverse group of bacteria causing presence of a vaginal discharge, loss of appetite, leth-
disease in many animal species, including the cat. argy, vomiting, weight loss, and abdominal distention.
Staphylococci are usually associated with the skin, Treatment by the veterinarian consists of uterine
glands of the skin, and mucous membranes (espe- drainage and antibiotic therapy. The prognosis is gen-
cially those of the nose, throat, and anus). The major erally good but is dependent on the degree of damage
species of staphylococci associated with disease in cats sustained
Disorders.)by the uterus. (See Chapter 12: Reproductive
are Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus simulans,
THE INTERNAL CAT

Staphylococci are also known on occasion to cause Pasteurella multocida and the two anaerobes Bacte-
urinary' tract infections in cats (a disease entity- distinct roides and Fusobacterium. Trauma to the mouth and
from feline lower urinary tract disease [FLUTD], which bite wounds inflicted by hostile animals are thought
is of unknown cause). Antibiotic therapy usually is to be primary sources of infections. Infection within
indicated. the oral cavity may extend outward to the skin surface
or may spread deeply to the bony tissue of the skull
(osteomyelitis). A breakdown of the defense mecha-
STREPTOCOCCAL INFECTIONS nisms of the respiratory tract (as by concurrent viral
infection, for example) may allow extension of an oral
Streptococci are frequently involved in mixed bacte- infection to the lungs.
rial infections (see "Actinomycosis" The most common form of actinomycosis seen in
below). Streptococcus canis has andbeen"Nocardiosis,"
associated cats is the skin form, presenting as superficial tissue
with outbreaks of contagious lymphadenitis (swol- abscesses with draining tracts extending from the ab-
len lymph nodes). Affected cats present to the veteri- scesses. Dissemination of the infection to produce sys-
narian with signs of fever, depression, enlarged lymph temic disease is rare; when it does occur, lung and
nodes, inflamed throat, tissue swelling of the jaw. Oc- bone are frequent sites of extension. Systemic actino-
ular infections, limb abscesses, and bacteria in the mycosis may be accompanied by fever, breathing dif-
blood (bacteremia), leading to systemic disease ficulty, exercise intolerance, and weight loss.
(septicemia), can also occur. These outbreaks of Facia! abscesses and draining tracts can originate
streptococcal disease among cats are similar to out- from an infected tooth root or from bone. The pus
breaks of"strep most
throat"streptococci
seen in humans. coming from the draining tracts varies in color from
Fortunately, are susceptible to light red to gray, depending on the number and kinds
penicillin of other baaeria present. The pus usually contains
infections orarepenicillin-t\pe
treated in much antibiotics.
the sameStreptococcal
manner as yellow-colored sulfur granules, as described.
are staphylococcal infections. Actinomycosis must be differentiated from fungal
infections and from other bacterial infections. Diagno-
sis is based on radiography (x-rays), cytology (ex-
ACTINOMYCOSIS amination ofcells in a lesion), and especially on
bacterial culture of pus or affeaed tissue.
Actinomycosis is caused by anaerobic (growing in Actinomycosis cases presenting as simple bite-
the absence of ox>'gen) bacteria of the genus Actino- wound abscesses in the skin usually require only
myces. These bacteria are common inhabitants of the draining and flushing of the abscess with a disinfectant
oral caviry of cats. Trauma and puncture wounds prob- solution. Antibiotics are not required unless a fever is
ably allow these normally harmless organisms to gain present. If there is bone involvement (osteomyelitis),
access to sterile tissues. Traumatized tissue often dies surgery is indicated to remove the affected tissue; pro-
and produces an anaerobic microenvironment suit- longed antibiotic therapy must then follow to prevent
able for the growth oi Actinomyces. A ie^ Actinomyces recurrence. With lung involvement, chest drainage
species are also capable of growing in the presence must be established surgically to drain off pus. Aaino-
of small amounts of ox>'gen. Inflammation and an in- mycosis resulting from tooth root infection requires
flux of inflammatory cells (phagocytic cells from surgical removal of affected tissue (including the
blood and tissue linings that destroy foreign particles) tooth) and treaunent with an antibiotic.
at the site of bacterial penetration result in the forma-
tion of an abscess. Draining tracts frequently extend
from the abscess to the skin surface. Yellow-colored NOCARDIOSIS
sulfur granules (clumps of bacteria mixed with
dead and dying cells) can be seen in the pus draining Nocardiosis is similar in many ways to actinomycosis.
from these lesions. It is common for Actinomyces to Nocardia, in contrast to Actinomyces, is a soil baae-
be recovered along with other oral bacteria in mixed rium encountered through inhalation of dust, by
bacterial infections. These other bacteria can include wound contamination, or by ingestion. Whereas Acti-
 BACTERIAL DISEASES

nomyces is anaerobic, Nocardia is aerobic (only nella exposure. The source of the salmonellae is most
growing in the presence of oxygen). In nocardial in- likely to be either contaminated feed, water, or car-
fection, there is a greater likelihood of lymph node rier animals (whether clinically ill or healthy). Con-
involvement and systemic spread of disease than in tamination can arise from rodent or bird feces, raw or
actinomycosis. The draining tracts produced by No- undercooked contaminated meat and table scraps, or
cardia contain granules of a much smaller size than commercially prepared foods that are contaminated
the actinomycotic sulfur granules. during processing.
Cats with nocardiosis are usually presented to the Cats usually acquire salmonellosis by ingestion.
veterinarian with severe systemic illness — labored Once ingested, the bacteria can cause a spectrum of
respiration, fever, emaciation. Because of the draining clinical signs. Salmonellae that survive the acidity of
tracts in the skin and the debilitating disease picture, the stomach go on to invade the small intestine and
actinomycosis, fungal infections, and tuberculosis all local lymph nodes. From this point, the bacteria either
must be considered as possibilities when making a are
diagnosis. The diagnosis is based on the history, physi- invadecontained
the bloodstream, by the body's
from defenses
which theyor reach
proceedotherto
cal examination, radiography, cytology, bacterial cul- tissues such as the liver and spleen. Because of their
ture, and identification of Nocardia in draining pus fastidious tamgrooming
or in biopsy material. inate their fur andhabits, infected with
environment cats salmonellae.
quickly con-
Depending on the severity of the systemic illness, Clinically ill animals often shed large numbers of bac-
some cats may be successfully treated with long-term teria infeces and sometimes in saliva.
antibiotic therapy. In severely ill patients, the progno- Clinical signs of salmonellosis in cats are seen after
sis must be guarded. Localized lesions can be excised a two- to four-day incubation period and can include,
and drained. Lung involvement requires surgical in the gastrointestinal form, fever, poor appetite, diar-
drainage and antibiotic therapy. rhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. More severely ill
cats may be profoundly depressed and lethargic. Cats
may also exhibit a more systemic form of salmo-
SALMONELLOSIS nellosis charaaerized by persistent fever, anorexia,
and malaise, but without any gastrointestinal signs of
The salmonellae comprise nearly two thousand differ- diarrhea. Diagnosis must be based on the history and
ent serotypes of the genus Salmonella, bacteria found physical examination, bacterial cultures of rectal
throughout the environment, in wild and domestic swabs or fresh feces, blood cultures (when indicated),
animals. Salmonella baaeria are responsible for a cytology (for presence of inflammatory cells in feces),
spectrum of maladies ranging from uncomplicated in- and hematology (CBC). Evidence of some "stress" as
testinal disease and diarrhea, to life-threatening sys- history. above is also usually in tlie patient's recent
outlined
temic illness. Clinical salmonellosis in cats is relatively
uncommon and few references to it exist in the scien- The treatment of salmonellosis is a subject of some
tific literature. Surveys conducted by sampling feces controversy. In cases of uncomplicated salmonella
or rectal swabs of "normal," nondiarrheic cats have enteritis (intestinal inflammation) with diarrhea, but
revealed a salmonella carrier rate ranging from zero without signs of systemic illness, it is best to treat
up to 14 percent (it is likely that these surveys under- symptomatically by replacing fluids and electrolytes
estimate the true numbers of infeaed carrier cats be- lost through vomiting and diarrhea. Antibiotic usage
cause not all cats carr^'ing the organism shed it at the is not encouraged in such cases because of the risk of
time they are tested). Stray cats, shelter cats, and producing antibiotic-resistant salmonellae and be-
hunter cats are more likely to be carriers and to be cause the antibiotic may eliminate normal intestinal
excreting salmonellae in feces than are housebound bacteria that serve to protect the cat from harmful
pet cats. microorganisms. In cases of systemic illness, however,
Cats appear to be highly resistant to salmonella in- when a threat to the life of the patient is perceived,
fection unless they are stressed by overcrowding, di- antibiotic therapy should be instituted.
etary changes, transport, hospitalization, antimicrobial Salmonellosis is of great public health significance
therapy, or concurrent illness at the time of salmo- because salmonellae can infect not only pets but pet
THE INTERNAL CAT

owners as well. Cats — especially if very young, ver\'

old, immunosuppressed, or recently treated with an CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS
antibiotic — should be regarded with some caution
when showing signs of diarrhea, fever, depression, Campylobacter jejuni is commonly found in the intes-
vomiting, and inappetence. Diarrhea may not always tinal tract of many wild and domestic animal species.
be present, but rather the cat may have vague nonspe- Many infected animals are asymptomatic carriers, ex-
cific signs of lethargy and fever. Salmonellosis is trans- creting the bacteria in feces. Some studies have shown
mit ed bythe fecal-oral route; anything that can be that up to 45 percent of normal nondiarrheic cats
done to bre^ik that cycle of infection will help to limit carr\' C. jejuni as a commensal and shed it in their
spread of the bacteria. Hands should be washed often, feces. Actual clinical disease in cats is poorly docu-
especially after handling the ill cat, its toys, food mented. Inhuman beings, however, it is recognized
dishes, or other possibly contaminated materials. All as one of the major bacterial causes of diarrhea.
litter should be bagged and disposed of promptly and Human beings acquire C. jejuni in any of several ways:
properly. Disinfectants, such as diluted chlorine direct contact with a carrier animal; contact with con-
bleach, should be used to clean floors and other sur- taminated feces; contaa with contaminated food,
faces where the cat eats and sleeps and where the water, or inanimate objects; or contact with human
litter box is kept. Food and water bowls should be carriers. Major food sources of human infection in-
cleaned as often as possible. (See Chapter 37: Conva cludeDiseases.)
poultry, milk, and pork. (See Appendix A: Zoo-
LESCENCE/HOME Care.) Young children, older adults, notic
and immunocompromised individuals (e.g., by AIDS Campylobacter is more prevalent in kittens, pound
or immunosuppressive therapy) should be kept away cats, strays, and adult cats kept in close confinement
from the affected cat, especially for the first few weeks with other possible carrier animals including other
postinfection, until the numbers of salmonellae shed cats but is much less prevalent in housebound
by the catperiodically have declined. The veterinarian
cat's feces should pets. Cats probably acquire it by ingestion of raw or
cultured by the to assessbe undercooked poultry or other meat products, inges-
the level of excretion of the bacteria. If a recovered tion of wild rodents, or by contact with other carrier
animal subsequently shows signs of vomiting and cats. Clinical signs of campylobacteriosis vary from
diarrhea, especially after some obvious stress faaor a mild illness (characterized by intermittent or
(e.g., antibiotic treatment, travel, vaccination, diet chronic diarrhea, at most) in older cats to the more
change), the veterinarian should be notified. If anyone serious appearance of watery- diarrhea, loss of appe-
in the family becomes ill with diarrhea, vomiting, se- tite, vomiting, and fever in young kittens. Diagno-
vere abdominal pain, and fever, a physician should be sis of Campylobacter infection is based on the history,
consulted as soon as possible. It should be explained physical examination, and results of supportive
to the physician that a pet in the household has been laboratory' tests (bacterial culture of fecal or rectal
swabs).
diagnosed as a salmonella carrier. The physician
should then contact the attending veterinarian for spe- Most mild cases of campylobacteriosis in cats are
cific details about the case. self-limiting and do not require treatment. Others,
Unfortunately, there are no vaccines available to however, such as those characterized by severe diar-
protect cats against salmonellosis. Because salmonel- rhea and fluid loss, require good nursing care and
lae are ubiquitous in nature, it is very unlikely that oral or intravenous replacement of fluids and electro-
the disease will be eradicated. Most cases of feline htes. Animals with a fever and persistent diarrhea may
salmonellosis can be prevented, however, by main- require antibiotic therapy to avoid further disease
taining high
a level of household hygiene, by not feed- complications.
ing raw or undercooked meat to cats, and by having a Cats, as a reser\'oir of C. jejuni, account for only a
cat checked promptly by a veterinarian if any clinical small proportion of human infections. Young children
signs suggestive of salmonellosis are observed. A ca- are at greater risk of disease than are adults. Cat litter
veat: Cats that hunt are more likely to contact infected should be bagged and properly disposed of, and
prey animals (rodents, birds) than are cats that remain hands should be washed frequently, particularly if a
housebound — an imponant consideration. (See "Sal- cat is acutely ill or has just recovered from recent
monel osini " Appendix A: Zoonotic Diseases.) illness.
 BACTERIAL DISEASES

are minimally transmissible, the pneumonic form is

PLAGUE readily transmissible between mammalian hosts.
Any cat from a plague-enzootic area showing signs
Plague is caused by Yersinia pestis, the agent of the of lymph node enlargement or an abscess should be
infamous Black Death of founeenth century Europe. suspeaed of harboring Y. pestis. Diagnosis is based on
However, in twentieth century America, it is referred the histor\' (hunter cat; travels to or lives in a plague-
to as sylvatic plague, meaning sylvan or of the forest, endemic area; home with heavy flea infestation/or ro-
because it primarily affects wild rodents. In the west- dent populations nearby), physical examination, and
ern United States, Y. pestis is endemic (widespread, bacterial culture of lymph node aspirates (sample
but producing disease in relatively few animals). An drawn through a needle from a node), pus draining
epidemic of disease (attacking many animals and from skin abscesses, or blood. Plague-suspea cats
causing many deaths) can occur when diseased ro- should be treated for fleas whether or not fleas are
dents die and their fleas, which carry Y. pestis, are present, and strict precautions by the veterinarian
forced to seek other animal hosts. Spread of infeaion should be taken to guard against human exposure
is facilitated by the ease with which predators, such as and infection. Such precautions include restriaing the
cats, can capture disease-weakened prey. Plague in number of people caring for the cat, isolating the cat
cats is of special concern because of the potential in a room by itself, and wearing surgical masks,
threat to human health. (See Appendix A: Zoonotic Dis- gowns, and gloves when handling the cat or speci-
eases.) mens from the cat. Treatment involves prompt admin-
Cats in plague-endemic areas are infected primarily istration ofantibiotics to which the plague organisms
through the bite of rodent fleas or through ingestion are susceptible. If antimicrobial treatment is not ad-
of infeaed rodents, ground squirrels, prairie dogs, or ministered early, the prognosis for survival is poor.
rabbits. Y. pestis does not survive for a lengthy period In all suspected cat-plague cases, the state public
outside of the mammalian host. Sensitive to the effects health department must be notified so that surveil-
of dry ing, it can, however, persist for a shon time in lance and control measures may be instituted to pre-
saliva, respirator}- secretions, and pus from abscesses. vent an outbreak. Humans can become infected with
Plague takes three forms: bubonic, pneumonic, Y. pestis through the bite of an infeaed rodent flea,
and septicemic. Bubonic plague, the most common by direct contact with infected tissues (e.g., as when
form seen in cats, cannot be differentiated clinically hunters dress game), or by contact with an infected
from the common bite- wound abscesses caused by cat. Transmission from cats to humans has occurred
bacteria such as Pasteurella, Streptococcus, and Staph- through cat scratches or bites, the bite of rodent fleas
ylococcus. Once a cat has been bitten by an infected carried by an infected cat, or by aerosol from cats
rodent flea, the lymph node draining the region of with pneumonic plague. Because the mortality' rate is
the bite enlarges and becomes inflamed, forming a considerable in the human disease, diagnosis of feline
bubo (hence the name, bubonic). An abscess forms and human infections must be made rapidly. Other
in the bubo, which eventually ruptures and discharges control measures involve limiting pet travel to plague-
thick, creamy pus through a draining tract to the skin's endemic regions; keeping pets on leashes so as to
surface. Affected cats are depressed, inactive, uncoor- limit their exposure to wild rodents and their fleas;
dinated, febrile (feverish), and lose their appetites. periodic flea dusting or spraying of cats and their
Cats are usually bitten by fleas around the head, neck, houses in plague-endemic areas; neutering cats to
and eyes, and the affected lymph nodes are those in limit their hunting behavior and wild rodent expo-
the jaw and head area. sure; and eliminating rodent habitats near buildings
Occasionally, infected cats may develop a more se- (i.e., wood piles, garbage).
vere disease course, the septicemic form of plague,
involving many organs. There are large quantities of
bacteria in the blood with or without initial lymph TULAREMIA
node involvement. (Rabbit Fever, Deerfly Fever)
The pneumonic form of plague is not common in
cats. It is caused by the inhalation of K pestis rather than Francisella tularensis, the cause of tularemia, is en-
by a flea bite. While bubonic and septicemic plague demic in wildlife in North America, especially wild
THE INTERNAL CAT

rabbits, rodents (voles, squirrels, muskrats), and bea- the mucous membranes of cats and possesses viru-
vers. F. tularensis, like Yersinia peslis (the cause of lence (abilit\' to infect tissues or spread disease fac-
plague), is a zoonotic agent; that is, it can be trans- tors), P. multocida can produce disease if host
mit ed to,and produce disease in, humans. Tularemia defense mechanisms are compromised. In certain
in cats appears to be quite rare and is usually associ- cases, infection may extend into the thoracic cavity in
ated with large die-offs in infected rodent populations. die form of pyothorax (fluid pus in the chest), ab-
The disease t>pically occurs in late spring, June sces es, and pneumonia. Cat bites also spread infection.
through August, and in December. Pyothorax usually results from the spread of pneu-
Clinical signs in cats with tularemia may include a monia or abscesses into the chest cavity. P. multocida
sudden onset of inappetence, lethargy, and fever; the (an aerobic bacterium) and anaerobic bacteria are
lymph nodes of the head and neck are markedly en- commonly recovered from the pus. Diagnosis is based
larged; the cat has white patches (or ulcers) in its on the cytology and culture of aspirated pus, chest
mouth and on its tongue; its mucous membranes are radiography, and hematology. Affected cats are usually
yellowish; there is no diarrhea or vomiting present. presented to the veterinarian with signs of dyspnea
Cats usually are tick infested. Prime sources of infec- (difficulty breathing), fever, and fluid in the chest.
tion include contact with or ingestion of the tissues of Treatment consists of drainage of pus from the chest
an infected rodent or rabbit; water; or the bite of an and the administration of appropriate antibiotics,
infected tick, fly, mite, or flea. often for a prolonged period.
Diagnosis is based on history (cats are hunter/out- Cat-bite abscesses This condition is most commonly
door cats; live in endemic areas; are heavily tick in- seen in intaa male cats. A single lesion, or abscess, is
fested), and on recovery ofF. tularensis from draining characteristically found. This occurs when the skin
ulcers, lymph node abscesses, or other infected tis- over a bite wound or scratch heals faster than the
sues bybacterial culture or fluorescent antibody (FA) woundscessbelow it, resulting
detection. Extreme caution should be exercised when beneath the skin. in the formation of an ab-
handling cats or specimens from cats suspected of Because of die elasticity of the cat's skin, die abscess
harboring F. tularensis; a mask and surgical gloves may appear to be at some distance from the bite or
should be worn on such occasions. Tularemia must scratch itself Bite-wound abscesses are common on
be differentiated from plague {Yersinia pestis infec- the face, head, legs, and back of the cat. Affected cats
tion), pseudotuberculosis infection (Yersinia pseudo- may have few clinical signs other than swelling over
tuberculosis), feline virus disease (detected with the abscess. Some cats, however, exhibit fever, inap-
serology and virus isolation), cat bite abscesses due to petence, and depression. The site of the bite wound
Pasteurella and atypical mycobacterial infections of may discharge a foul-smelling pus. The disagreeable
the skin. odor is produced by anaerobic bacteria, which are
Cats apparently succumb very quickly to tularemia, often present along with P. multocida. Diagnosis is
making rapid diagnosis essential to successful treat- based on die history, physical examination, cytology,
ment. Recovery from tularemia, like the disease itself, and bacterial culture of the abscess material. Although
is rare unless the cats are treated with antibiotics abscesses that drain spontaneously often require little
quickly. treatment, deeper lesions may necessitate surgical
drainage and antibiotic therapy.
PASTEURELLOSIS/BITE WOUND
INFECTIONS MYCOBACTERIAL DISEASES
Pasteurellosis in cats is caused by Pasteurella multo- Mycobacteria are a diverse group of bacteria that are
cida (P. multocida). As is the case with Actinomyces, widespread in soil and water. Mycobacterial diseases
P. multocida is a common bacterium found on the are characterized by the formation of granulomas —
mucous membranes of the feline oral cavity and chronic inflammatory nodules containing walled-off
upper respiratory tract. It is not usually considered a bacteria. A granuloma is formed when an animal's
cause of disease in cats unless it is introduced deeper inflammatory cells (phagocytic cells from blood
into body tissues. Because it is a normal inhabitant of and tissue linings that destroy foreign particles) engulf
 BACTERIAL DISEASES

mycobacteria but cannot kill them, resulting in an in- radiography of the abdomen and chest, and laboratory
flux of more inflammatory cells. The body attempts to examination of needle aspirates or biopsies of lymph
repair the damage caused by this chronic infectious nodes, tracheal washes (flushing of material from
process by walling off the infected area, thus produc- the trachea and bronchi ), abdominal and thoracic ef-
ing a granuloma. In some fusions (fluid buildup), skin biopsies, or draining
response can actually damagecases,the thecat cat's
more immune
than it tracts in the skin — all may be helpful at one time
damages the bacteria. or another in diagnosing the disease. Examination of
stained smears of these body tissues for the presence
Tuberculosis of mycobacteria should be attempted. Cultures for the
recovery and identification of the mycobaaeria take
Most cases of tuberculosis occur in either human be- many weeks to produce results, but they will provide
ingsin( whom the causative agent usually is Mycobac- a conclusive diagnosis and are important for de-
terium tuberculosis) or canle (in which the agent termining the source of the infection.
usually is Mycobacterium bovis). Tuberculosis re- Tuberculosis in cats often is in an advanced stage
mains arelatively rare disease in North American cats. by the time of diagnosis, and prolonged treatment,
When it does occur, it is more likely due to M. bovis which will probably not completely eliminate the my-
than M. tuberculosis. The decline in tuberculosis in cobacteria from the host, may be required. Consider-
cats has resulted undoubtedly from the decline of tu- ing also that humans in contact with infected cats are
berculosis incattle and the advent of milk pasteuriza- at risk of infection, it is inadvisable to attempt treat-
tion. However, whenever cats have access to ment ofthese animals. Cats with tuberculosis repre-
unpasteurized milk or uncooked meats, the possibility sent an obvious public health hazard because the
exists of exposure and infection. causative mycobacteria are shed in the stool, saliva,
Cats become infected usually by ingestion of myco- and from open draining lesions. Public health author-
bacteria present in contaminated food or milk, or by ities should be notified at once if tuberculosis is sus-
exposure to contaminated objects that have come in
contact with infeaed cattle. After being ingested, the pected.
bacteria enter the small intestine and localize in the Feline Leprosy
associated intestinal lymph nodes. Infected cats shed
M. bovK in their feces and can remain a source of Feline leprosy is caused by Mycobacterium leprae-
infeaion on a farm even after infected cattle have murium. Exactly how cats acquire this infection is
been culled from the herd. Occasionally, tuberculosis unknown, but it seems likely that a rodent reservoir
in cats disseminates from the local lymph nodes, re- is involved rather than cat-to-cat transmission. Feline
sulting inserious sy.stemic disease. leprosy is usually found in cats less than four years of
Clinical signs of tuberculosis localized to the intesti- age. The disease is manifested as a chronic skin infec-
nal tract can include vomiting, diarrhea, weight loss, tion, with ulcerated nodules or lumps on the head
and enlargement of intestinal lymph nodes. If localiza- and limbs. The nodules begin as small, movable
tion has occurred in the upper or lower respiratory lumps in the skin that rapidly enlarge. Occasionally,
tract, cats may exhibit respiratory difficulty (especially regional lymph node enlargement and systemic
after exercise), fever, cough, difficulty swallowing, and spread of disease are seen. Cats with feline leprosy
tonsillar enlargement. If the disease progresses to in- generally are in good health except for the ulcerated
volve additional body sites, then persistent fever, skin nodules, which are painless and do not provoke
scratching.
weight loss, dehydration, irregular appetite, and en-
largement ofmany lymph nodes throughout the body Unfortunately, no simple test is presently available
may be seen. Ocular infections can result from sys- that will diagnose feline leprosy. Diagnosis is made
temic spread of the disease. Often abscesses and by a combination of procedures, including physical
draining traas in the skin occur in the areas around examination, biopsy of ulcerated nodules, and direct
the eyes. Skin tuberculosis also occurs in cats, pre- smears of the nodules to look for mycobacteria. Treat-
senting assmall nodules or flat, draining ulcers, in the ment consists of surgical excision of the skin nodules.
skin of the head, neck, and legs. A diagnosis of feline Unfortunately, recurrence of nodule growth is com-
tuberculosis may be an elusive one. Clinical signs, mon. No preventive measures are available.
THE INTERNAL CAT

Controversy exists over the relationship between at the site of contact or inoculation. This is followed
M. lepraemurium and the agent of human leprosy, by painful enlargement of the local lymph nodes
Mycobacterium leprae. Although there is no known (lymphadenopathy), which may last for weeks to
public health risk associated with feline leprosy, it is months. Usually, the enlarged nodes eventually return
deemed advisable for immunosuppressed individuals to normal size, but in a few instances, CSD produces
to avoid prolonged close contact with affected cats. a more severe clinical picture, with high fever, skin
(See Chapter 17: Skin and Disorders.) rash, bone lesions, and possibly seizures. Common
symptoms in humans include fatigue, loss of appetite,
fever, and headache. In immunosuppressed patients,
Environmental Mycobacteria disease may manifest itself as persistent or relapsing
The so-called atypical or environmental soil myco- fever, with malaise, anorexia, weight loss, and bacter-
bacteria are gaining importance as agents of feline emia. Most cases of CSD lymphadenopathy occur in
disease. These organisms usually are harmless unless children. Occasionally, cases are clustered in families,
suggesting a common source of infection. The usual
oftheytraumatized
gain accessskin,to the cat's body
puncture — by orcontamination
wounds, surgery sites sites of primary exposure are the hands and forearms,
followed by the legs, neck, and face.
— or unless a cat is immunosuppressed. Once the Most human cases of cat-associated CSD have in-
organisms take up residence, nodules, ulcerated volved anewly acquired kitten or stray, rather than
areas, draining tracts, and chronic abscesses may re- a long-term house pet. The interval between the
sult. cat scratch and the development of lesions varies
Biopsies for both culture and pathology should be from three to fourteen days. Most cats associated with
obtained for diagnosis. Usually, the mycobacteria are CSD in humans have been healthy and have not
resistant to drug treatment and, therefore, surgical ex- reacted with skin-test material used to aid diagnosis
cision ofskin lesions is attempted; unfortunately, the in human patients. B. henselae has been recovered
lesions often recur after surgery. Because uncertainty from blood cultures of a number of asymptomatic
exists regarding the risk of infection for human be- carrier cats.
ings, care should be taken when handling infected
cats and contaminated litter boxes and cages. (See The diagnosis of CSD in humans is based on a his-
Chapter 17: Skin and Disorders.) tory of patient contact with a cat, lymphadenopathy,
and a positive CSD skin test and detection of
B. henselae by culture or PCR. The detection of
B. henselae in the biopsy material is diagnostic for
CAT-SCRATCH DISEASE CSD and will replace the skin test. The skin test in-
volves injection of sterilized CSD lesion material into
Cat-scratch disease (CSD) is of importance, not be- the skin of a patient and observing whether a local
cause of any problems that it causes in cats but be- reaction occurs. Other laboratory tests designed to
cause of the problems it causes in humans. The rule out other causes of disease are usually negative.
disease is associated with humans who come in con- Characteristic microscopic lesions of CSD can be
tact with cats. In most cases, CSD is relatively benign identified in biopsies of affected lymph nodes.
and self-limiting, and until recently it was of unknown Because the disease usually is benign and self-
cause. In 1983, pathologists using special staining limiting, therapy in most cases is not warranted.
techniques identified a bacterium in the tissues of Sometimes the physician will aspirate pus from the
CSD patients; in 1988, the bacterium was finally recov- lymph node to alleviate the pressure and pain caused
ered and grown in the laboratory (it also produces a by nodal enlargement. The aspirated pus should be
CSD-like disease in armadillos). After a series of cultured for Bartonella and other causes of disease
names we now know the cause of CSD as Bartonella and should be submitted for microscopic examina-
henselae. The cat is known to be at least one of the tion. Surgical removal of the .swollen lymph node is
reservoirs of B. henselae. usually not necessary. Antibiotic therapy has not been
Human patients usually have had recent contaa shown either to prevent symptoms from developing
with a cat or experienced a recent cat scratch, bite, or or to shorten the disease course.
lick. A small papule (tiny skin nodule) first develops Knowing that cats are one reservoir of infection, it
 BACTERIAL DISEASES

might be possible to limit spread of the disease by amount of weight, yet remain reasonably bright and
breaking the cycle of transmission from cat to human alert. If the anemia develops quickly, however, a cat
with a few simple measures: will lose little of its weight, but will be markedly de-
pressed and jaundiced (yellowish discoloration of
• Prevent cat bites and scratches (especially in the mucous membranes). Early during the disease
young children) by teaching the children to play process, the rectal temperature will be elevated
gently with pets. (104°F to 105°F).
Identification of the parasite in stained blood
• orPrevent pets wounds.
any open from licking a child's chapped hands smears is the key to diagnosis. However, because of
• If cat bites or scratches do occur, be sure that the cyclic appearance of the parasite in the blood-
the wound is carefully cleaned and that a topical stream, several blood samples taken sequentially over
disinfectant is applied (a physician should be a period of days may be needed to demonstrate the
consulted if the wound becomes infected or if parasite on thearepatient's
any of the symptoms of CSD develop). Antibiotics usuallyredeffeaive
blood cells.
in treating feline
infectious anemia. Oxyietracycline has been the most
widely used and seems to be the most efficacious.
Cats must be treated for at least three weeks — a
HAEMOBARTONELLOSIS shorter period of treatment may result in recurrence
(Feline Infectious Anemia) of disease. In addition, treatment with a glucocorti-
coid such as prednisolone may be prescribed to treat
The rickettsiae are specialized bacteria that live on immune-mediated injury to the red blood cells. Dur-
or within body cells. Feline infeaious anemia (feline ing the disease process, the immune system recog-
haemobartonellosis) is caused by the rickettsial or- nizes the parasite-coated red blood cells as "foreign"
ganism Haemobartonella felis, which attaches to fe- and attempts to remove them, thus worsening the ane-
line red blood cells. This parasite is thought to be mia. In fact, such immune-mediated injury, rather than
responsible for about 10 percent of all feline anemia direct injury by the parasite, represents the major
cases. Sometimes, feline infectious anemia occurs sec- cause of the anemia. No drug appears to eliminate the
ondarily lo an underlying immunosuppressive dis- parasite from infected cats totally and, consequently,
ease, such as feline leukemia virus infection (and recovered animals remain chronically infected but
possibly feline immunodeficiency virus infection as clinically healthy. With proper therapy, most cats re-
well). cover from the acute phase to remain inapparent car-
The disease is seen most often in young male cats riers (carriers may suffer one or more additional
one to three years of age; the risk for males is 2.5 attacks of the disease at some time in the future, or
times that for females. Feline haemobartonellosis they may remain free of the disease for life). A com-
occurs slightly more frequently in the late spring prehensive flea-control program for both the animal
than in other seasons. The precise mode of transmis- and the environment is prudent, because blood-suck-
sion has not been determined, but it is known that ing insects may have a role in the spread of the
blood from an infeaed cat must somehow be trans- Haemobartonella parasite.
fer ed to a healthy cat to produce the disease. Biting
insects, particularly fleas, are considered likely car-
riers of the parasite. The organism has been found in LYME DISEASE
stillborn kittens and in kittens within three hours of
birth, so that in utero transmission also appears to Lyme disease is one of the fastest growing communi-
occur. cable diseases in the country and poses a significant
The most common clinical signs are depression, medical and veterinary health threat. Lyme disease is
weakness, loss of appetite, and pallor of the mucous caused by the spirochete Borrelia burgdorferi. The
membranes. Weight loss, vomiting, and dehydration disease presents as a wide spectrum of clinical signs
may also be seen. Signs are somewhat dependent on associated with the musculoskeletal, cardiac, and ner-
the rapidity with which the anemia develops. If it de- vous systems. The primary carrier of the Lyme disease
velops gradually, a cat may lose a considerable organism is the three-host deer tick, Ixodes dammini.
THE INTERNAL CAT

Studies indicate that the major hosts for these ticks

are the white-footed mouse for larvae and nymphs, CHLAMYDIOSIS
and the white-tailed deer for adults. Lyme disease in
cats is not well documented. Cats could become in- See
fected from the bite of the immature deer tick. The and "Eye,"
ChapterChapter 18: SensorySystem
24: Respiratory Organsand and Disorders,
Disorders, for
disease in cats would be treatable with the drug tetra- details on infections caused by Chlamydia.
cycline. More well-documented cases in cats are Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank
needed to evaluate this potential threat to the feline Dr. Sang J. Shin for his contribution to this chapter.
population.
 CHAPTER 31

Internal Parasites

by Dwight D. Bowman

is an organi sm that lives and finds and locomotion. The protozoan parasites of the cat
A its foode within
parasit or on another living animal, can be divided into two major groups: (1 ) the f\a%e\-
the host. This panicular relationship, para- late protozoa, which are relatively simple protozoa
sitism, benefits the parasite, but it may with locomotory projections, called flagella, which
harm, or occasionally prove fatal to, the host. Parasites are similar to the structure that propels the human
can be one-ceiled organisms, such as protozoa, sperm, and (2) the apicomplexan protozoa, which
or multicellular organisms, are protozoa that undergo
such as insects or worms. both sexual and asexual
This chapter deals with four multiplication and possess a
groups of parasites that live specialized structure for cell
within the body, protozoa, penetration, the apical
nematodes, cestodes, and complex.
trematodes. For informa- Flagellate parasites of the
tion on external parasites cat include Giardia, Tricho-
(e.g, fleas, ticks, mites), monas, Trypanosoma cruzi,
refer to Chapter 19: External and Leishmania. Giardia
Parasites. and Trichomonas live in the
intestinal tract, whereas T.
Protozoa cruzi andmania livespecies of Leish-
in various cells
Protozoa are organisms that within the body of the cat
usually consist of a single These parasites tend to de-
cell. Protozoa differ from velop bythe simple division
bacteria in that they have a nuclear membrane sur- of one cell into two (i.e., through simple asexual divi
rounding their genetic material. Some protozoa are sion). Giardia and Trichomonas are transmitted di
very simple organisms that move by the repeated ex- rectly from one cat to another, but T. cruzi and
tension of the cellular material in the direction in Leishmania are transmitted by the bite of an infected
which the cell wants to travel; other protozoa have insect.
highly specialized structures for movement, feeding. The protozoan of most concern to cat owners be-
305
THE INTERNAL CAT

INTERNAL PARASITES

Lungworm Thread Worm

Capillaria aerophila Stmng^rloides stercoralh
 INTERNAL PARASITES

cause of its potential to cause human disease is taining the larval stage. Depending on the species of
Toxoplasma gondii. T. gondii is an apicomplexan tapeworm involved, the intermediate host (the host
protozoan and is related to other protozoa that para- containing verthe tebrate or a larval tapeworm)
vertebrate animal. may be either an in-
sitize ti e cat, Cryptosporidium, Isospora, Sarcocystis,
and Cytauxzoon. Sexual stages occur in the life cycle At one end of the body of the adult tapeworm is a
of these parasites that results in a stage called the structure called a scolex or holdfast. This structure
oocyst. Within the protective wall of the oocysts, may contain hooks or suckers and is used by the tape-
there is a division of the cellular material that pro- worm to anchor itself to the intestinal mucosa. The
duces infective agents called sporozoites. When spo- other
rozoites enter a new host, they penetrate a host cell of a series ofofa segments,
end tapeworm'seachbodyof iswhich
usuallycontain
composed
both
and form a nest of organisms, called a schizont, male and female reproductive organs. Those seg-
which eventually ruptures and liberates individual or- ments nearest the scolex contain immature reproduc-
ganisms, which then enter other cells and form more tive structures; those funher away contain mature
schizonts. Finally, sexual stages are again formed. organs. The segments that are furthest from the scolex
(Thus, a typical cycle can be considered as pro- are usually packed with eggs. Eggs may be shed by
gressing from sexual stages to oocysts to sporozoites the terminal segments, or the terminal segments may
to schizonts to more schizonts to sexual stages.) Usu- sometimes detach from the remainder of the body. In
ally, the sexual stages occur in the intestines of the the latter case, the detached segments may break
cat, except in Cytauxzoon, where the fusion of the down and release their eggs into the fecal stream, or
sexual stages occurs in the stomach of a tick. the segments may pass from the body with the feces
or actively migrate out of the anus of the host. Those
Nematodes segments that leave the host intact will often migrate,
dispersing eggs into the environment. Usually, an
Nematodes are a group of helminths (worms) called owner becomes aware of a cat's tapeworm infection
roundworms. Those best known to cat owners are when
the large roundworm, Toxocara cati, and the cat stool ortheattached
detachedto hair .segments
aroundaretheseenanuson ortheperineum.
animal's
hookworms. The typical nematode has individuals of
both sexes; after mating, the female produces large Trematodes
numbers of offspring as eggs or larvae. Larvae that
hatch from eggs or that are produced by females ulti- Trematodes are solid-bodied organisms. Their com-
mately develop through four stages before they be- mon names are flukes or flatworms. Usually, both
come adults. The developing larval stages look very male and female sexual organs occur in the same
similar to the adult, but smaller. The nematode sheds animal, but fenilization often occurs between two sep-
a thick external skin, called the cuticle, between de- arate individuals. Eggs produced by the adult fluke
velopmental stages. Knowledge of the life cycle of the pass into the environment, and the stage that hatches
nematodes can help in the control of these parasites from the egg, called a miracidiimi, will not complete
of the cat. its development unless it enters a gastropod, usually
a snail. Within the snail, the miracidium develops and
Cest€)des replicates, producing numerous progeny called cer-
cariae. These cercariae leave the snail and then may
Adult cestodes live in the intestine and are commonly enter intermediate hosts or encyst on vegetation. The
called tapeworms, because some specimens are encysted stage is called a metacercaria. The animal
quite large and ribbon- or tapelike in appearance. that will serve as the host of the adult fluke becomes
Larval cestodes (sometimes called bladderworms, infected by eating the animal or plant bearing the
because they often contain a fluid-filled space) are metacercarial stage. Another means by which animals
found in the tissues or body cavities of their hosts. become infected is by the direct penetration of cercar-
Neither the adult nor the larval tapeworm has a gut iae through the skin. This last form of transmission is
or digestive system. Rather, cestodes absorb nutrients rare but important, because it is the means by which
from their surroundings through the surfaces of their the schistosome, a trematode that infects humans
bodies. Cats become infected by eating an animal con- (and cats in the Far East), enters its host. Many cats,
THE INTERNAL CAT

because of their predacious and carnivorous nature, Fonunately, whether cats become infected by ingest-
become infected by ingesting hosts containing the in- ing raw meat or ooc>'sts, they will only shed oocysts
fective metacercariae. In the United States, there are in their feces for one to two weeks. Long-term immu-
only a few species of trematodes that infect cats, and nity- tothe infection is not 100 percent; if cats become
the occurrence of trematodes in cats is relatively rare. infected a second or a third time, some may still shed
oocysts, although for a shorter time.
Occasionally, the disease spreads from the intestine
GASTROINTESTINAL PARASITES to other areas of the cat s body. In these cases, there
may be fever, diarrhea, and perhaps generalized wast-
Gastrointestinal parasites rob a cat of good nutrition ing, and the outcome is often fatal. Diagnosis in cases
and health. The vomiting, diarrhea, anemia, and dehy- of disseminated disease in the cat has usually been
dration associated with these parasites weaken a cat, based on postmortem examinations, but in some
making it more susceptible to viral and bacterial infec- cases, especially those from zoos or other types of
tions and diseases. One study estimates that 10 per- breeding establishments, thie diagnosis has been
cent of early deaths of kittens are parasite related. based on a recent rise in the Toxoplasma antibody
level. This last form of diagnosis is not worthwhile
Protozoa unless antibody levels are checked at consistent peri-
odic intervals.
TOXOPLASMOSIS. Toxoplasma gondii is possi- A diagnosis of the intestinal, or enteric, form of
bly the parasite of greatest concern to cat owners. T. toxoplasmosis in a cat depends on finding the oocyst
gondii is of concern not because of the severe disease in the feces. Cats shed for only a few weeks; thus, it is
it occasionally induces in cats, but rather because of unlikely that a single fecal examination performed on
the severe disease that can be caused to the human an annual basis will catch the period of aaive shed-
fetus if a mother becomes infected during pregnancy'. ding. Ahigh level of anti-Toxoplasma antibody in the
To understand how to prevent this disease in humans blood of a cat means that a cat was infected previously,
and how it can be controlled, it is necessary to be- and, as stated, these cats might still shed oocysts if
come familiar with some of the nuances and intrica- they are reinfected. Work is under way to develop
cies of the life cycle of this parasite. blood tests that tell if a cat has been recently infected,
Domestic cats, as well as wild felids, are the only but even with these tests, it will not be possible to
animals that shed the environmentally contaminating assure owners that their cats will not shed oocv'Sts into
oocysts of this parasite in their feces. These oocv'Sts the environment. Therefore, at present, the best that
are small (0.01 mm in diameter [ 0004 inch]), and after can be done is to determine at any one point in time
they are passed in the feces, they require one to three that the cat is not shedding oocysts.
days to become infeqtious. When another animal, such People are infeaed with T. gondii in the same ways
as a mouse, sheep, bird, or man, ingests the infectious as the cat (i.e., by the ingestion of infeaious oocysts or
oocysts, organisms multiply within cells of numerous meat containing cysts). Healthy adults seldom develop
body tissues, causing cell death and acute disease. If disease from Toxoplasma infection. In fact, it has been
the animal survives the acute form of the disease, it estimated that toxoplasmosis may exist in its chronic
goes on to develop a chronic, usually symptomless, form in as many as half the people in the United
disease state, with microscopic cysts containing hun- States. A previously uninfeaed healthy adult who ac-
dreds of the small organisms found predominantly in quires an acute infeaion may develop swollen lymph
the muscles and the brain. glands and flulike symptoms. Adults who are immuno-
Although there have been reports of transplacental compromised (e.g., by AIDS or immunosuppressive
transmission occurring, cats usually become infected therapy) will sometimes revert from tlie chronic to an
by ingesting either the ooq'st or raw meat containing acute form of the disease, in which the organisms
cysts. After cats ingest oocysts or cysts, the T. gondii appear to multiply unchecked. In such cases, toxoplas-
organism typically undergoes sexual reproduaion
within the intestinal mucosa, with oocysts beginning menmosis becomes a(Table
t isdifficult life-threatening
311)- condition and treat-
to appear in the cat's feces a few days to weeks later. T. gondii exerts its most devastating effects on the
 INTERNAL PARASITES

TABLE 3 1.1 TOXOPLASMOSIS AND AIDS

• Most complications in AIDS patients caused by toxoplasmosis come from preexisting infections that are reacti-
vated by the HIV infection.
• Determine whether or not the individual with AIDS has a preexisting antibody titer to T. gondii; this is liable to
be a part of routine testing.
• A person with AIDS who is antibody negative to T. gondii should consider being especially cautious around
kittens, should not eat raw meat, and should probably have someone else perform routine maintenance chores
for the cat.
• The general procedures for pregnancy are probably quite appropriate to be followed in this case also.

human fetus. Infeaion of the fetus occurs if the Other children may develop lesions in the retina of
mother acquires her first toxoplasmosis infection dur- the eye, which may be so severe that the eye will
ing pregnancy, and there are a number of such in- have to be removed. Fonunately, these are all rare
stances— 2 to 6 cases per 1000 pregnancies in the occurrences.
United Sutes. In cases of fetal infection, the infection Control of toxoplasmosis is based on practicing
may be severely damaging or fatal to the infant. If a good sanitation. Cat feces should be disposed of prop-
woman has a high anu-Toxoplasma antibody level at erly and frequently, and cats should be prevented
the beginning of pregnancy, there is little to be feared fromlitter defecating in children's play onareas. Feces orandin
from toxoplasmosis during the pregnancy. It would cat boxes should not be used gardens
still be prudent to exercise the control procedures compost. Vulnerable owners, especially those who are
outlined in Table 31.2. pregnant, should avoid cleaning litter boxes. Do not
The effects on prenatally infected infants depend feed raw meat to cats. Similarly, if owners want to
on when during pregnancy the child was infected. avoid infection, they should not ingest raw or un-
The most seriously affected are those that become dercooked meat. Cats that hunt may be a source of
infeaed during the second or third trimesters of preg- oocysts; however, constant reinfection probably
nancy. These infants, at birth or soon thereafter, may serves as a form of natural vaccination that prevents
develop lesions in their retinas, calcified lesions in the cat from shedding oocysts. Work is also under way
their brains, or sometimes hydrocephalus (water to develop a vaccine for cats that will prevent their
within shedding of T. gondii oocysts in their feces.
the brainthewithbrain's cavity,losswhich
resulting causes pressure
of function). Often theseon
lesions are fatal. In other instances, there may be no CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS. Cryptosporidium parrum
signs at birth, and yet central nervous system damage is a minute parasite (the oocyst is 0.005 mm in diame-
appears several years later. ter [0.0002 inch]), whose life cycle takes place entirely
It has also been suggested that toxoplasmosis within the small intestine of its host. It is spread from
causes abortions in humans, but this has not been host to host by small oocysts that are passed in feces.
proven. Children born to mothers with currently inap- C.chapter)
parvum,receive and Giardia
parent infeaions who previously gave birth to a Toxo- a great lamblia (see "Giardiasis,"
deal of attention because they this
plasma-inieaed child will not be at risk of infection are parasites whose transmission stages can be trans-
unless the mother has become immunosuppressed. ported from host to host in water, and both have been
Other forms of toxoplasmosis occur in children incriminated in waterborne outbreaks of disease. The
who become infected later in life. These children may cat's from
role inthatwaterborne diseaseowner
is probably
have a flulike disease followed by a rash. In some ent of the human (i.e., thenocatdiffier-
is at
cases, there may be heart disease or pneumonia. A risk of infection if the water is contaminated).
third form of the disease in these children may in- In the life cycle of C. parvum, the oocyst wall pro-
volve the central nervous system and can be fatal. tects the enclosed sporozoites from environmental
THE INTERNAL CAT

TABLE 31.2. TOXOPLASMOSIS AND PREGNANCY— WHAT TO DO?

• Determine if the mother-to-be has been previously infected with T. gondii This can be done with a blood test
performed
period will bycausethe immunosuppression.
obstetrician. Ask if any of the procedures being performed during the mother's prenatal care
• will
Ask your
not shed again, theto chances
veterinarian determineare your
that itcat'swillantibody
shed fewertiter;oocysts
althoughif reinfected.
an antibody titer does not mean that a cat
• Consider not introducing any kittens into the household during pregnancy; young cats are more likely to serve
as sources of oocysts.
• If possible, get someone else to clean up after your cat and dispose of litter.
• Dispose of litter daily in an appropriate manner to try to minimize the presence of any oocysts that have had
time to develop to the infectious stage.
• Maintain regular veterinary visits to ensure the health of the cat (cats can shed oocysts if they are immunocom-
promised byother infections) and to learn of any new products, such as a vaccine that will prevent oocyst
shedding.

extremes until a new host to infect is found. Once in limiting, because there is currently no specific treat-
a new host, sporozoites hatch out of the oocyst and ment for an infection with this parasite.
infect an intestinal cell. The sporozoites pass just There is reason to believe that the species of Cryp-
under the cell membrane of the host cell and form tosporidium in cats can infea people and other ani-
small nests of organisms that protrude into the intesti- mals. Also, when the oocyst is passed in the feces, it
nal lumen (the space within the intestine). Additional already contains sporozoites and is infective to the
nests of organisms occur and develop, until finally next host. Thus, a cat with diarrhea caused by Cryp-
the sexual stage is formed and oocysts are produced, tosporidium must be considered a source of infection
which are passed in the feces. Infeaions with C. par- to all other animals and people in the household.
vum are usually self-limiting and last only one to two The diagnosis of cryptosporidiosis is made by find-
weeks. Occasionally in healthy individuals, but not ing the oocysts in the feces of the infected animal. The
uncommonly in immunocompromised animals and small size of this organism makes this difficult, but as
people, the infection and associated disease can per- more veterinarians have become aware of its signifi-
sist. C. parvum infeaion is rather uncommon in cance, the chances of a correct diagnosis have im-
healthy cats in the United States and rarely causes proved over past years.
disease unless the cat is immunosuppressed, such as If a cat is diagnosed as having cryptosporidiosis and
by coinfeaion with feline leukemia virus or feline has diarrhea, it should probably be housed in isola-
immunodeficiency virus. tion or at the veterinarian's clinic until the diarrhea
Although only a few sporozoites may gain access to passes or until oocysts are no longer being shed. If
a host, the multiplication that occurs within schizonts the diarrhea persists for more than several weeks,
can produce thousands of organisms from one sporo- there may be reason to believe that there is an under-
zoite. Although the initial sporozoite infects and dam- lying problem with the cat's immune system.
ages only one host cell, more cells become affected
as schizonts form and rupture. Because the Cryp- COCCIDIOSIS. Isospora felis and Isospora rivolta
tosporidium organisms are so small, they do damage are two species of coccidian protozoa that parasitize
by producing numerous small perforations in the the small intestine and the beginning of the large in-
cells that have been infeaed. As more cells become testine ofthe domestic cat and its various wild rela-
affected, problems develop with absorption, which re- tives. The life cycles of these two species of Isospora
sults in a yellowish, watery' diarrhea. It is fonunate are very similar to that of Cryptosporidium, with two
that most infections with Cryptosporidium are self- significant differences. The oocysts are much larger,
 INTERNAL PARASITES

0.02 to 0.05 mm (0.0008 to 0.002 inch) and require the parasite its name Sarcocystis, which means muscle
several days in the soil for the development of infec- cyst. Cats become infected by eating raw meat that
tive sporozoites. It is because the oocysts require de- contains these large schizonts. Thus, cats can be pre-
velopment inthe external environment that routine vented from spreading this disease by feeding them
fecal removal can prevent infection or reinfection. only cooked meat products.
There is very little disease associated with Isospora
infections. The oocysts are often seen in the feces of GIARDIASIS. Giardia lamblia (also referred to as
\ oung cats, but it does not appear that these parasites Giardia intestinalis and, in the case of the cat, Giardia
cause diarrhea. Occasionally, under crowded housing felis) is a protozoan parasite about 0.01 millimeter
conditions with poor sanitation, kittens can develop long (0.0004 inch) that is found within the small intes-
dysentery caused by Isospora, which can actually be tine of cats, humans, and other mammals. There are
fatal. In these cases, the stools contain mucus and are two stages in the life cycle: the trophozoite (feeding)
bloody. Diagnosis is based on finding the oocysts in stage and the cyst (environmentally resistant) stage.
the feces, but in such situations, animals may succumb The stage that lives and feeds in the small intestine
to the disease during the schizont stage of the infec- is the trophozoite. Each trophozoite has rwo nuclei,
tion before oocysts have had time to form. If a diagno- flagella that provide locomotion, and an adhesive disk
sis is made, treatment with sulfonamides (sulfa that attaches to the mucosal surface of the small intes-
drugs) can be undertaken. It may be one week before tine. The trophozoites usually reproduce by dividing.
there is improvement. Adult cats rarely shed oocysts Sometimes, they do not divide but instead are stimu-
in their feces and almost never need be suspected of lated to produce a cyst wall. The trophozoite within
having /.w^ora-induced disease. the cyst divides once, and the mature cyst contains
two trophozoites. Because the cyst, unlike the tropho-
SARCOCYSTOSIS. The protozoan Sarcocystis dif- zoite (which has flagella and a sucking disk for attach-
fers from Cryptosporidium and Isospora in that the ment to the mucosa), has no means of motion or
schizont stages occur in a host other than the cat. All adhering to the mucosa, it is carried away by the pass-
that occurs in the cat is the formation of sexual stages ing fecal stream and leaves the body with the stool.
and oocysts containing sporozoites within the mucosa The cysts in the feces are immediately infective to
of the intestine. (The sporozoites are passed in what another host. The cysts can gain access to a new host
IS called a sporocyst, which can be considered a sub- by direct fecal-oral contamination. Another means is
cyst within the oocyst. The oocyst wall breaks down via contaminated water. If the feces are deposited into
before the sporocysts are passed in the feces.) There a large volume of water or carried into this water by
is almost no disease in cats associated with the intesti- rainfall, the cysts that are freed can get into a new
nal cycle of this parasite. Knowledge of this parasite is host that ingests the contaminated water. The cysts
mainly of interest because cats serve as a source of can remain viable in this water for extended periods
infection for other animals. of time. When a new host is infected, the trophozoites
There are several species of Sarcocystis for which break out of the cyst and establish a new infection.
the cat is a final host. The schizonts occur in various Because the trophozoites can divide, the ingestion of
animals, such as cattle, sheep, swine, rabbits, and one cyst is capable of producing huge numbers of
mice, that have ingested the sporocysts containing organisms within the small intestine.
sporozoites, which have been passed in the feces of a Most animals infected with Giardia never develop
cat. These animals often become ill as the schizonts disease, although they may keep passing cysts for
develop in various tissues of their bodies. If the ani- months or years. In the occasional animal, however,
mals survive the initial acute phase of the infection, massive numbers of trophozoites develop. The large
with the schizonts forming throughout their bodies, number of trophozoites coat the surface of the small
they go on to a more chronic condition, wherein intestine and interfere with the absorption of nutri-
schizonts develop within muscle cells. The schizonts ents and fluids by the intestine. This malabsorption
developing in the muscle cells can become quite large leads to diarrhea. During the diarrhea, the gut be-
and appear as white streaks within the muscles of the comes overactive, the cysts do not form, and some
infeaed animal. It is these large schizonts that give trophozoites are swept out in the fecal stream. Usu-
THE INTERNAL CAT

ally, however, the diarrhea ceases after several days to parasites of the small intestine of the cat; they can
weeks, and the stools become normal again. Often, grow to be three to five inches long.
however, the diarrhea is recurrent. A yellowish, soft The life cycle of Toxocara cati includes several
stool, foamy to frothy in appearance, may be another methods for infeaing its host. The female worms pro-
indication of Giardia. There is seldom blood in the duce eggs that are passed in the feces. It will be sev-
stool. eral weeks before an infeaive larva develops within
A diagnosis is made b\- finding the trophozoites or the egg. These eggs are quite resistant to environmen-
cysts in the feces of the infected animal. Treatment tal extremes and can persist for years in the soil; there-
includes administering a Giardia-?,p(ici^c drug. Clean- fore, large numbers can build up in contaminated
ing and disinfecting cages and litter pans with a dilute areas. Cats can become infeaed by ingesting the eggs
solution of liquid bleach will destroy organisms that or by eating rodents that have eaten eggs and become
have been shed in the environment and help prevent host to lar\'al forms in their tissues. However, the most
reinfection. Pro\ iding clean water and a high-quality- likely method for a cat to become infeaed is by the
diet are equally important in a treatment regimen. transmammary^ transmission of larvae from a queen to
There is evidence that giardiasis may be transmined her kinens. Some of the larvae ingested by adult cats
to humans. Therefore, proper precautions should be migrate to tissues of the body, where they persist for
taken to avoid contraaing the disease from an in- years. Somehow, the larvae become reactivated dur-
feaed animal. Following good hygienic principles,
such as washing your hands after contaa with an in- whereing they
pregnancy are and migrate
carried to thetokinens
the mammary-
in the milk.glands,
The
feaed cat, is recommended. queen may not be shedding eggs in her feces at the
time she is passing larvae to her offspring in her milk.
TRICHOMONIASIS. Trichomonads are flagel- The female T. leonina lives in the small intestine
lated protozoans that live in the large intestine of ani- and produces eggs that, like those of T. cati, are not
mals. They are transmined from animal to animal by infeaive when thiey are passed in the feces. However,
fecal-oral transmission, and there is no cystic stage in the eggs of T. leonina develop more rapidly than
the life q. cle. It is now believed that Pentatrichomo- those of T. cati and may require only several days for
nas felis, from the cat, is the same as Pentatrichomo- the development of the infective stage lan ae. After the
nas hominis, found in people, and it has been shown eggs are infeaive, cats are usually infeaed direaly
to be cross-transmissible from one host to the other. (i.e., by the accidental ingestion of infective eggs). If
However, cross-transmission is probably not a major the infective eggs of T. leonina are ingested by a small
source of infection for either people or cats. rodent, the lan^ae are capable of persisting in the tis-
Trichomonads are sometimes found in the stool sues (much like those of Toxocara canis), and cats
when an animal has diarrhea, and controversy- has can become infeaed by- eating these infeaed animals.
developed as to whether the\- are actually causing the The disease produced by the adults of T. cati and T.
diarrhea when no other obvious pathogen is present. leonina is usually benign. Large numbers of worms
The diarrhea in some cats with trichomoniasis has are capable of intestinal blockage and perhaps hemor-
subsided after treatment, implicating the parasite as rhage, but the presence of a few worms is usually not
the cause. Howe\er. some believe that the diarrhea life threatening. Occasionally, adult worms are found
would have stopped an\w a\-. and thus the controversy- in the vomitus of infeaed cats, but the worms may not
continues. Diagnosis is made by finding the flagellated be the cause of the vomiting.
protozoans during a fecal examination. The control of T. cati and T. leonina infections de-
pends mainly on regular fecal exams, appropriate
Nematodes therapy, and sanitation. Infections can be diagnosed
by finding the charaaeristic eggs in the feces, and
ROUNDWORMS (Ascarids). treatment is relati\ eK easv Because of the resistance
rounds and roundworms are used,'WTien the terms
they usually refer of the eggs to en\ ironniental extremes, it is best to
to Toxocara cati and Toxascaris leonina. Sometimes, prevent the infection from entering an enclosure
both species occur together in the small intestine of a where it is not desired. However, the soil is likely to
cat, but T. cati is the more commonly encountered of be contaminated if infeaed cats have been using it
the two species. Both T. cati and T. leonina adulLs are recently. There are no simple ways to decontaminate
 INTERNAL PARASITES

soil containing eggs. There is also currently no as- has not yet been investigated thoroughly with feline
sured method of preventing the transmammary pas- hookworms. Also in dogs, it has been noted that infec-
sage of the larvae of T. cati in the milk of the queen. tion often reappears after treatment without any addi-
There is a disease in humans called visceral larva tional exposure of the dog to larvae. The dormant
migrans that is most commonly caused by the migra- larvae are continually becoming reactivated and mi-
tion of the larvae of different parasites in the deeper grating from the tissues back to the gut, where they
tissues of the body. (See Appendix A: Zoonotic Dis- continue their development to the adult stage. Similar
eases.) In most instances, the larvae have been identi- work has not been done in cats, but it may help ex-
fied as those of the dog roundworm, T. canis, and plain why some animals seem difficult to successfully
in these cases, the disease is referred to as larval treat.
toxocariasis. On very rare occasions, the larvae have Hookworms cause anemia that results from blood
been identified as those of T. cati. Humans, usually loss. The hookworms cause blood to enter the small
children, probably become infeaed by the accidental bowel from the intestinal wall, and the feces may be-
ingestion of eggs in contaminated soil. The larvae be- come black, and tarry in consistency. In acute infec-
have in the children as they would in an infected tions, such as those that occur in kittens, there will
rodent (i.e., they migrate to various tissues of the often be very black or even bloody stools, and the
!)ody, where they persist as dormant larvae). Although animal may die from blood loss. In chronic cases, the
most of the cases in humans are symptomless, heavy blood is lost at a slower rate, and although the animal
infections may produce severe disease requiring treat- may show no oven signs of infection, it is suffering
ment. Ifcats ingest the eggs of the dog roundworm, from anemia. The animal should recover quite readily
7 canis, the larvae migrate about the body of the cat after treatment with a dewormer.
as they would in a small rodent. The disease produced Hookworms can be transmitted to humans. (See
in an infected cat is similar to that seen in humans "Cutaneous Larva Migrans" in Appendix A: Zoonotic
with visceral larva migrans. Diseases.) The infective-stage larvae in the soil are ca-
pable of penetrating the skin of people and other
HOOKWORMS. There are several species of hook- animals. In humans, these larvae migrate about the
worms that infect cats. The species involved are mem- skin, causing a small, red, itchy trail. Finally, the larvae
bers of two different genera, Ancylostoma and either die or enter the deeper tissues of the body and
Uncinaria. Adult hookworms live in the small intes- become dormant. The trails left by the larvae in the
tine, persisting for six months to a year. The female skin have given this disease the name creeping erup-
worms produce eggs that are carried into the environ- tion. When large numbers of larvae are involved, lung
ment with the feces. If the temperature and humidity disease may develop, resulting in hospitalization. An-
are optimal when an egg is washed out of a stool
into sandy soil, a larval stage develops hatches, and becauseother namein forthethissouthern
disease isUnited
plumber's itch, plumbers
States, so called
matures into an infective-stage larva. Cats can become crawling in the sandy soil under raised houses de-
infected either by ingesting these larvae or by larvae velop the typical creeping-eruption lesion. In these
penetrating the skin. When a cat becomes infected by cases, treatment along with supportive therapy may
mouth, the larvae develop to adults within the mucosa be undertaken. In small mammals such as mice or
and lumen of the small intestine. When larvae pene- rats, the larvae may persist in the tissues, and it is
trate the skin, they migrate through the lungs of the likely that cats can become infected by the ingestion
cat before settling down in the small intestine and of one of these infected rodents.
developing to adult worms.
After larvae enter a cat by ingestion or penetration, OLLULANUS TRICUSPIS. O. tricuspis is a tiny
they do not all develop to adults in the small intestine. worm, less than a sixteenth of an inch long, that lives
Some enter various tissues of the body and become in the stomach of cats. The females of this worm give
dormant. The larvae will remain within these tissues rise to an infective-stage larva, which is passed from
for years, and when the queen becomes pregnant, cat to cat in vomitus. The condition is only rarely
they might possibly migrate to the mammary glands diagnosed in fecal exams because these larvae are not
and then be passed to the kittens via her milk. Al- routinely passed in the feces. Although there is usually
though known to occur with canine hookworms, it no significant pathology associated with these worms,
THE INTERNAL CAT

they do cause inHamniation of the mucosal lining of into the parasitic females. On certain occasions, the
the stomach that might result in a cat with a history of larvae deposited on the soil may undergo a single,
chronic vomiting. Levamisoie, a worming medication, free-living developmental cycle. In this free-living
has been recommended for treatment. cycle, the adult males and females that develop are
morphologically (structurally) different from those
PHYSALOPTERA. Various species of Phy^saloptera that are parasitic. The free-living females lay eggs that
are commonly found in the stomachs of raccoons, ultimately develop into the same infective larvae.
skunks, opossums, and other carnivores, and some These larvae also infect hosts by penetrating the skin,
cats can have large numbers of these parasites. The thus following the usual parasitic cycle.
adult worms are pink to white, about an inch in The disease associated with an S. stercoralis infec-
length; they embed their heads in the lining of the tion isusually minimal. The major sign may be diar-
stomach. The female worm lays eggs that already con- rhea. S.tumefaciens produces nodular lesions in the
tain larvae when the\ are [lassed in the feces. The large bowel and, like S. stercoralis, diarrhea. A diagno-
larvae in the eggs are not infective to another mamma- sis is made by finding the characteristic larva in the
lian host until they have undergone a period of re- feces. There are drugs that have been shown to be
quired development in the body of a beetle or a successful in the treatment of the threadworms.
cockroach. The next host, such as a cat, becomes in- Humans are probably the major source of infection
fected when it eats one of these insects containing for cats with S. stercoralis. Usually, infection is a rather
infective larvae. Cats also might become infected if rare occurrence. However, if one cat in a household
they eat a bird or rodent that has eaten an infected becomes infected, there is a good chance that the
beetle and therefore has larvae in its tissues. others may also be infected from larvae that have de-
Infected cats may show an increased propensity for veloped inthe soil.
vomiting, and often the diagnosis may be based on
finding the worms in the vomitus. The worms may TRICHINOSIS. Tricbinella spiralis is a small nem-
also cause gastric bleeding and slightly blackened atode, les than an eighth of an inch long, that is capa-
stools. A diagnosis is made by finding the eggs in ble of developing in the small intestines of most
the feces. The infection can be treated with worming mammals. The worm in the intestine causes only min-
medication. imal disease. The disease trichinosis is caused by the
larvae that are found within muscle cells.
THREADWORMS {Strongyloides). These very The life cycle of T. spiralis passes directly from one
small worms, one-eighth to one-fifth of an inch in host to the next by the ingestion of tissues; there are
length, occur in the intestine of their host. They differ no stages that occur that are external to a host. A cat
from the other nematodes because there is no para- becomes infected by eating meat that contains the
sitic male as part of 'the life cycle. Strongyloides ster- larvae of Tricbinella. In the small intestine of the cat,
coralis is mainly a parasite of the small intestine of the the larvae that are digested from the meat will thread
human, which occasionally gets into the dog and themselves through the mucosa and rapidly develop
rarely into the cat. Strongyloides tumefaciens is a rare into adults. Adults mate within thirty hours of the in-
parasite of the large intestine of the cat. In parts of gestion of the meat. The females begin to deposit
Southeast Asia, the cat has its own Strongyloides, larvae about six days after infection and continue to
Strong}>loides felis. produce them until the adults pass from the body of
The parasitic female of Strongyloides lives threaded the cat with the feces, four to sixteen weeks later. The
through the lining of the intestine. It lays eggs that larvae that are produced are carried throughout the
develop and hatch within the intestine; the larvae body by the bloodstream, and tliose that enter muscle
leave the host in the feces. If the conditions are cor- tissue will enter muscle cells. In the muscle cells, the
rect when the stool is deposited on the soil, the larvae larvae become encapsulated. The larvae can live for
develop to the infective stage. The infective larvae years before being ingested by another host.
enter new hosts by penetrating the skin. After entering The disease trichinosis occurs in three phases. The
the host, the larvae migrate through the lungs before first phase is a diarrhea that corresponds to the devel-
entering the intestine. In the intestine, the larvae opment ofthe adults in the small intestine. This phase
thread their way into the intestinal wall and develop occurs one to several days after the infected meat has
 INTERNAL PARASITES

been ingested and usually continues for about a week are not usually passed in the feces. Instead, it is more
after infection. This phase is often accompanied by usual to have motile (capable of spontaneous move-
fever and nausea. The second phase of the disease, ment) segments expelled with the stool. These seg-
perhaps the most significant, occurs when the larvae ments are about the size and shape of cucumber
enter the muscle fibers, resulting in the loss of their seeds, and they crawl about the environment after
function. The amount of disease seen in this phase is leaving the body of the cat, disseminating masses of
dependent on the number of larvae the animal origi- eggs. The cat owner is often aware of infections before
nally ingested. The more larvae that enter the intes- the attending veterinarian. It is possible that infections
tine, the more adults there will be in the intestine, may not be diagnosed on the basis of a typical fecal
which means more larvae will enter the muscle fibers. exam because eggs may not be present in the feces.
If enough muscle fibers are affected, the animal will The ubiquity of D caninum stems from the life
undergo a loss of muscle function, which may result cycle of this parasite. The eggs released by the motile
in stiffness of the limbs and perhaps death. The third segments are ingested by the small wormlike larvae
phase is a chronic phase, in which the larvae persist of the flea that are also developing near areas where
in the muscles. This phase is usually asymptomatic, the feces have been deposited. In the flea larvae, tape-
the larvae usually being an incidental finding at nec- worm larvae develop that are infective to the cat.
ropsy (autopsy). The chronic form of the infection is Some of the flea larvae die as a result of the infection,
not uncommon; surveys in the United States have but others go on to develop into adult fleas. Cats be-
shown rates of infeaion in cats from 3 to 22 percent. come infected by ingesting infected fleas while
Only rarely are cats recognized as having infections grooming. Cats begin to shed segments containing
with T. spiralis. Usually, the signs are too mild to war- eggs two to three weeks later, and the cycle continues.
rant the attention of a veterinarian; there might even There is little disease seen in infected cats, but the
be fatal cases that go undiagnosed. Serology (testing motile segments can be quite disconcerting to own-
for antibodies) for trichinosis is not usually employed ers. Infections can be very difficult to remove, how-
in the diagnosis of infeaions in cats, although serolog- ever, because fleas in the environment can serve as
ical tests are used in people and swine. Diagnosis reservoirs for future infections of the cat. Although
will probably continue to be based on the fonuitous deworming medications can be used to remove the
finding of adult worms expelled in diarrheic feces of adults from environment
a cat's intestine,requires
removalcontrol
of the oftapeworms
the infected animal. from the the flea
Cats probably become infeaed during predation, population. Without flea control, cats could be treated
because rodents harbor a background level of infec- monthly with dewormers and still develop infections
tion. There is also the possibility that they become with new populations of adult worms each month.
infected by eating raw or undercooked meat. Smok- Rarely, children can become infected with the
ing, salting, and drying of meat cannot ensure the adults of D. caninum by ingesting infected fleas.
destruction of any larvae that are present. Similarly, Adults, possibly because of age-related immunity, tend
freezing may not kill larvae. Thus, it is best to avoid not to support infections with this parasite. There is
feeding cats raw meat or meat prepared in any of little disease associated with the infection in children
these fashions. or in cats, but again, the motile segments passed in
The treatment of trichinosis is difficult because a the feces can be quite disconcerting to parents.
diagnosis is not usually made until the larvae have
reached the muscle cells. Then the larvae are usually TAENIA TAENIAEFORMIS. This is probably the
resistant to most drugs. However, recent improve- second most common tapeworm seen in cats. Again,
ments inchemotherapy have made it possible to treat infections are often diagnosed by the owner because
the disease more successfully. motile segments are passed with the feces of the cat.
These segments tend to be square and are capable of
Cestodes migrating some distance after leaving the body of the
cat. Also, as with D caninum, the examination of the
DIPYLIDIIJM CANINUM. This is the most com- feces may not reveal eggs even though the owner is
mon tapeworm parasite of the cat. The adults can seeing segments on a regular basis.
grow to two feet in length in infected animals. Eggs Cats become infected with this parasite by eating
THE INTERNAL CAT

rodents containing the lai^'al stage, which is called a killed frog tissues are applied to eye wounds. In the
strobilocercus The rodents become infected by the latter instance, the sparganum leaves the body of
ingestion of the infective eggs passed in the feces. This the freshly killed frog and migrates into the orbit of
parasite is seen in cats that have the oppoaunit>' to the eye to which it has been applied. Although infec-
hunt for prey. There is little disease associated with tions inhumans do occur, there is no direct transmis-
this infection in the cat, and treatments with deworm- sion of infection from cats to their owners.
ers remove the infection. However, to prevent cats
from being reinfected, it is necessary to keep them DIPHYLOBOTHRIUM LATUM. This large tape-
indoors to curb tlieir predatory behavior. worm, aparasite of humans, dogs, bears, and occa-
There have been very rare reports of humans in- sional y cats, is found principally in the northern
fected with the strobilocercus stage of this parasite. In United States and in Canada. The adults of this tape-
these cases, the people probably became infected by worm can be quite large, reaching lengths of thirty
the ingestion of the eggs passed in the feces of the cat. feet or more in humans. The life cycle of this parasite
The tapeworm larvae were found in the livers of the is similar to that of members of the genus Spirometra.
infected individuals. The first larval stages are found in minute aquatic
organisms; the second larval stages are found in fresh-
SPIROMETRA MANSONOIDES. This tapeworm water fish. Cats and other animals become infected
is rvpically seen in cats that hunt in the wild. The with the adults of this parasite when they eat raw fish
natural host is probably the lynx or the bobcat. The containing the larval stage. Again, there is little pathol-
adult worm may be about eight inches long, but infec- ogy seen in infected cats. Infections can be diagnosed
tions often go unnoticed because segments are not by finding eggs in the feces, and the adult worms can
passed in the feces. The characteristic eggs are, how- be successfully removed with deworming medica-
tions.
ever, recovered by fecal examinations.
The life cycle typically involves two or more hosts
other than the cat. When an egg that is passed in the MESOCESTOIDES Several species of Mesoces-
feces lands in fresh water, a free-swimming larval toides occur in wild carnivores in the United States.
stage hatches, which will continue its development The life cycle is still inadequately known. The first
only if ingested by a small aquatic organism, such intermediate host has not been identified, but the sec-
as the crustacean Cyclops. The cycle ends unless the ond intermediate host is a small rodent or similar
infected crustacean is eaten by an amphibian, reptile, animal. Cats, like other carnivores, become infected
or small rodent. If the cycle continues, a larval stage by the ingestion of one of these infected animals.
called a sparganum develops in the tissues of these The adults of this group of worms may be several
animals. The cycle is completed when a cat ingests feet in length and are known to multiply by asexual
one of the animals .containing a sparganum. division within the intestine of infected dogs. This is
There is little pathology associated with the infec- important to know when the disease is treated, be-
tion of cats with the adults of Spirometra. The most cause unless all portions of the adult tapeworms are
significant effect is on the sensibilities of the owner removed by the treatment, the worms can recolonize
when a large number of mature segments are passed the infected animal.
in the feces. This can be prevented by having fecal
examinations performed to look for eggs in the stools ECHINOCOCCUS MULTILOCULARIS This small
of cats that hunt. When eggs are found, treatment to tapeworm (about one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch
remove the adult tapeworms can be performed. in length) is usually found in foxes, coyotes, and other
On rare occasions, larval stages oi Spirometra have canines. It has been reponed from the central portion
been found in humans. The infection in humans is of the northern United States, Canada, and Alaska. In
named after the larval stage and is called spar- recent years, it has been expanding its range in the
ganosis. Humans presumably become infected by United States, but this may result from an increased
one of three methods: ingestion of infected aquatic awareness by observers. Similarly, more and more
organisms in drinking water; the eating of raw or inad- cats are being diagnosed as infected, but this again
equately cooked intermediate hosts, such as frogs; or may result from increased awareness by diagnosti-
the method seen in Southeast Asia, wherein freshly cians. Adiagnosis is made by finding eggs in the feces
 INTERNAL PARASITES

of the host, but currently the eggs of Echinococcus of their hosts. Cats become infected by ingesting raw
cannot be differentiated from those of Taenia. A cat fish containing the metacercarial (resting or matur-
shedding segments of Taenia could also be infected ing) stage of the parasite. The natural hosts are wild,
with Echinococcus, and in areas where both parasites fish-eating mammals and birds. There is apparently
are endemic, there would be no way to be certain no serious pathology associated with these parasites.
which parasite was involved on the basis of a fecal Reports of infections with these parasites are rare, so
examination. little is known about their treatment.
E miiltilocularis uses small rodents as intermediate
hosts. These rodents become infected by the ingestion ALARIA AMERICANA. This is a small trematode,
of the eggs of this parasite, which are passed in the which lives within the small intestine of its host. Cats
feces of an animal harboring the adult tapeworms. In become infected by eating frogs and small rodents
these rodents, a larval stage develops in the liver, that contain the metacercarial stage. The natural hosts
called a multilocular hydatid cyst. The cysts tend of this parasite are the raccoon and other wild carni-
to progressively invade the liver of the intermediate vores. Cats can probably support large numbers of
host, and up to 90 percent of this organ may become flukes without showing any signs. Reports of this in-
involved. When a cat or other host becomes infected fection have been rare, and there has been little work
bv ingesting one of these infected rodents, it may de- done on treating it.
velop an infection of a very large number of adult
worms from the numerous larval cestodes that are
present. The cat begins to pass eggs in its feces about
a month after it has eaten the infected rodent. BLOOD PARASITES
There is little disease in cats harboring the adult Protozoa
tapeworms of this species. It is important that they
be treated, however, because this parasite can be a Certain parasites (Cytauxzoon and Babesia) live
significant cause of disease in infected humans. If cats within the blood cells. Because these parasites destroy
are diagnosed as being infeaed, they should be hospi- the red blood cells, anemia occurs. Biting and blood-
talized orconfined until fecal examinations show they sucking insects (i.e., ticks, fleas) have been implicated
are no longer shedding eggs into the environment. as the vectors for blood parasites as well as intestinal
Humans who accidentally ingest the eggs of E. mul-
tilocularis develop larval tapeworms in a manner sim- parasites.
ilar to that seen in the rodent intermediate hosts. In CYTAUXZOONOSIS. Cytauxzoon felis is a para-
humans, the cysts progressively invade the liver tissue. site of the bloodstream. The life cycle of Cytauxzoon
This produces a slow-growing liver disease that is can be summarized as follows: Sporozoites in the sali-
quite similar in appearance to a carcinoma of the liver. vary glands of the tick are injected into an animal
Also, like a carcinoma, the parasite may spread to along with the saliva during a bite. Nests of living
other organs such as the brain or lungs. The infection organisms then develop within the cells lining the
can often be fatal. Although rather rare in the United smaller blood vessels. Later, these nests occur in red
States, cases have been reponed, and if the range of blood cells, and finally sexual stages are found in the
this parasite is truly expanding, more cases are to be red blood cells. When a tick feeds, it ingests sexual
expected. The disease is serious enough to warrant stages from the animal and mating occurs in the gut of
attention, and cats may serve as a possible source of the tick. Then, within the tick, an oocystlike structure
infection for people. Regular fecal exams in endemic develops that contains sporozoites, which will eventu-
areas should allow cats with predatory' habits to be ally migrate to the salivary glands. Wlien the infected
kept free of infections. along.bites another animal, the infection is passed
tick
Trematodes In the United States, it appears that wild felids, such
as bobcats, are the usual hosts for Cytauxzoon. In
CRYPTOCOTYLE LINGUA AND SPECIES OF these animals, it appears that the infection is widiout
AP OP H ALIUS. These flukes, which are one-fourth signs. However, when domestic cats become infected,
of an inch or less in length, live in the small intestine the disease has a rapidly fatal course. Observed signs
THE INTERNAL CAT

have included loss of appetite, labored breathing, is found in muscle cells, especially muscles of the
lethargy, dehydration, depression, pale mucous mem- heart. In the chronic disease, there is destruction of
branes, and a high fever. Cats usually succumb to the the heart muscles with the obvious consequence of
disease within a week after signs appear. cardiac problems. There is treatment for the animal
The disease is rare; it has been reported only from during the acute form of the disease, but once the
the southern United States, and there is no successful damage is done to the muscle cells, little can be done
treatment regimen. to restore the muscle's function.
BABESIOSIS. Babesiosis is a disease of cats, found
outside of the United States, which is similar to cytaux-
zoonosis. Organisms of the genus Babesia live in LUNG AND HEART PARASITES
blood cells and are transmitted from cat to cat by ticks. Nematodes
In Africa, Asia, and South America, species of Babesia
have been found that use wild and domestic cats as a LUNGWORMS. Aelurostrongylus abstrusus is a
primary host. Animals infected with one of these fe- nematode that lives in the lungs of infected cats. The
line species of Babesia may develop anemia, weak- adult nematodes are threaded through the lung tissue,
ness, dehydration, and lethargy. Fortunately, a species and the female worm lays eggs that develop and hatch
of Babesia specific to cats has never been found in in the lung. The resulting larvae move up the trachea
North America. and enter the digestive tract via the esophagus. These
On the islands that lie along the southern coast of larvae do not take up residence in the gut, but are
New England, there is another species, Babesia mi- passed to thelarvaeexternal
croti, which is a parasite of small wild rodents. The Unless the that areenvironment
passed in thein the
fecescat'sare stools.
eaten
disease is transmitted from rodent to rodent by the by a snail or a slug, they will never develop to the
bite of an infected tick. Occasionally, people have also stage infeaive to the cat. However, if they are eaten
been bitten by infected ticks, have become infected by a snail,
with this parasite, and have developed a malarialike tissues and the larvae thewilldevelopment
undergo migrate to the that snail's
is requiredbody
disease. Cats have never been found infected with this to become infeaive. If a small rodent eats the infected
parasite. snail or slug, the larvae will encyst in the tissues of the
rodent. A cat becomes infected by eating a snail or a
TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI. Trypanosomes are pro- small rodent that has infective larvae in its tissues. The
tozoans that inhabit the bloodstream. One species, T. cat begins to shed larvae in its feces about a month
cruzi, infects cats in South and Central America, but it and a half after eating the infected snail or rodent.
has not been reponed in cats in the United States. The disease produced by A abstrusus is usually a
This parasite is present in wild animals, such as opos- very mild respiratory distress, which is often unno-
sums and raccoons, throughout the southern and ticed. In severe cases, the respiratory signs become
southeastern United States, with rare cases of infection more pronounced, and the cat's breathing could be-
occurring in humans and dogs. The number of cases come compromised enough to cause death. The dis-
of infection in humans and domestic animals in the ease is diagnosed by finding the larval stage in the
United States has probably remained low because the feces. Infected cats are easily treated with worming
triatomid bugs that transmit this disease have not be- medications.
come used to living in human dwellings, as they have
in South and Central America. In the United States, HEARTWORM. Dirofilaria immitis is a nematode
the triatomid bugs that are present appear to live in mainly considered to be a parasite of the dog. How-
the wild. ever, cats do become infected and may develop dis-
There are rwo forms of disease caused by T. cruzi. ease. The adults of this parasite are five- to ten-inch-
The acute form is a possibly fatal disease in which long, thin, white worms, which live in the heart and
numerous organisms can be found in the blood of the pulmonary aneries of their host. The cat is not a good
infected animal. A second form of the disease, the host
chronic form, is caused by a form of this parasite that does because
not occurusuallyin the thecat. parasite's complete life cycle
 INTERNAL PARASITES

Cats, unlike dogs, rarely have microfilariae (a small then migrate to the lungs of the cat, where they
larval stage) in the blood for extended periods of develop to adult flukes. About six weeks after a cat
time; in the dog, a microfilaremia may persist for ingests an infected crayfish, it begins to shed eggs of
years. Without microfilariae it is difficult to determine P. kellicotti in its feces.
if an animal is infected. When present in the blood, Light infections with P. kellicotti are asymptomatic.
they are relatively easy to identify. If they are not pres- When large numbers of flukes are present, there are
ent, the diagnostician must rely on clinical signs, sero- signs of pulmonary disease. A diagnosis is made by
logic tests (for antigens or antibodies), radiographic finding the eggs in the feces. Treatment can remove
or ultrasonic findings, or electrocardiograms. For this these parasites from the cat's lungs.
reason, the disease is less commonly diagnosed in the
cat.
The disease in cats is similar to that seen in dogs. LIVER PARASITES
There is a thickening and folding of the internal walls
of the hean and pulmonary blood vessels, which LIVER FLUKES. Platynosomum concinnum is a
might lead to obstruction of the blood vessels. Dead
worms are carried to the lungs by the bloodstream, thin fluke, about a quarter-inch long, that lives in the
where they cause breathing problems. In some in- bile ducts of its cat host. The infection is mainly re-
stricted tothe southern United States, Hawaii, Puerto
stances, these can be life-threatening situations, but Rico, and oflier tropical areas. Cats become infected
often the disease in cats goes unnoticed until the ani- by ingesting a lizard containing a larval stage. The
mal isnecropsied for some other reason. prevalence of infection may be quite high among cats
Cats can be proteaed from infection by preventing in southern Florida and the tropics, where, in some
their being bitten by mosquitos. There is preventative instances, up to 75 percent of the examined animals
medication approved for dogs that is sometimes used have been found to be infected. Usually, the infections
for cats living in areas of high prevalence, such as the remain asymptomatic, but if large numbers of worms
southeastern United States. The use of such medica- are present, disease of the liver because of blocked
tions should be left to the discretion of the local veter- bile ducts can develop. Diseased cats may show signs
inarian. Ifcats do become infected, they can be of lethargy and loss of appetite, or perhaps vomiting
treated. However, treatment for heartworms is a seri- and abdominal distension. A diagnosis is made by
ous undertaking. It often requires the hospitalization finding the eggs, which are carried from the bile ducts
of the animal for observation, because once the
worms are killed, they are carried to the lungs. After to the intestine and then passed in the feces. Treat-
treatment, there is a short period of time when the ment is possible, and is quite efficient in removing
animals must be watched very closely for pulmonary these parasites.
disease. These signs can be kept under sufficient con- Four other liver flukes, Amphimerus pseudo-
trol to proteCT the life of the cat if the animal is hospi- felineus, Metorchis albidus, Metorchis conjunctus, and
talized. Parametorchis complexus, have on rare occasions
been reported from cats in the United States. Cats
Trematodes acquire their infections by eating raw, freshwater
fishes containing metacercariae; the natural hosts are
LUNG FLUKE. Paragonimus kellicotti is a stout- various wild, fish-eating mammals. These parasites are
bodied fluke, about one-fourth of an inch in length, capable of causing hepatitis in their hosts, but the
which lives within cysts in the lungs of its host. Usu- rarity of their occurrence has allowed very little work
to be done on the treatment of tiiese infections.
ally, there are two or more flukes in each cyst. The
natural hosts of this parasite are mink and other wild
carnivores, and it has been reported throughout the
central and eastern United States and Canada. Infec- MISCELLANEOUS PARASITES
tions, however, are sporadic among cats because the
cat must ingest an infeaed intermediate host, a cray- CAPILLARIDS. There are four capillarid nema-
fish, to become infected. The stages in the crayfish todes that affect cats. Until recently, they have all been
THE INTERNAL CAT

considered members of the genus Capillaria, but it necropsy, but drugs have been used in humans that
appears that there may be some vahdity to using dif- are also effective in cats.
ferent names. The four species in the cat are Eucoleus
aerophilus, which is found in the mucosa of the tra- VISCERAL AND CUTANEOUS LEISHMANIA-
chea and bronchi; Aonchotbeca putorii, which is SIS. The genus Leishmania is composed of a group
found in the mucosa of the stomach and small intes- of flagellated protozoans that are transmitted from
tine; Pearsonema plica, which is found in the mucosa host to host by the bites of very small mosquito-like
of the urinary bladder; and Capillaria hepatica, which flies called phlebotomines. The disease caused in
is found in the liver. the animal that is bitten is partially dependent on the
The life cycles of the parasites are direct. The eggs species of Leishmania involved. With some species,
of E. aerophilus and A. putorii leave the host in the the organs affected by the parasite are liver and
feces of the infected animal. The eggs of P. plica are spleen, whereas with other species, the lesions may
found in the urine of the infected cat, and in the case be restricted to the skin. Hence, the first-mentioned
of C. hepatica, the animal must die to release the eggs form is termed visceral leishmaniasis and the sec-
into the environment so they may enter the soil where ond form is cutaneous leishmaniasis.
they embryonate. Earthworms may serve as hosts to Both cutaneous and visceral leishmaniasis are rare
larvae, but they are probably not a major source of in the United States. Visceral disease has been seen in
infection for cats. Cats probably become infected by cats that have been brought back to the United States
the ingestion of eggs either during grooming or by from South America or areas surrounding the Medi-
eating soil-contaminated foodstuffs. ter anean Sea. The cutaneous form of the disease has
The disease seen depends on the species of worm been seen in rare instances in cats in the south-central
involved. E. aerophilus parasitizes the airways of the United States. Treatment of both forms of the disease
lung, and the signs that are seen are related to the is possible, although sometimes difficult.
involvement of this organ. Although infections are
usually symptomless, there may be a harsh, dry, non- EURYTREMA PROCYONIS. E. procyonis is a para-
productive cough. P plica of the urinary bladder also site of the ducts of the pancreas, and the raccoon
is u.sually asymptomatic, but again, in some cats there is probably the common host of this parasite. Cats
is an inflammation of the bladder wall that will re- probably become infected by eating grasshoppers
spond to treatment. A putorii is apparently asymptom- containing the larval stage. Infected cats show signs of
atic, as is C. hepatica. Treatments have been described inflammatory pancreatic disease, which include inter-
for the species occurring in the lungs, intestine, and mittent vomiting and weight loss. The disease is rela-
urinary bladder that are effective. C. hepatica of the tively rare in the United States, and little work has
liver is usually diagnosed as an incidental finding at been done on its treatment.
 CHAPTER 32

Fungal Diseases
by Jeffrey E. Barlough

termsmsfungus includes yeasts and molds, disease results because of some underlying defect in
Theorgani that live primarily in the envi- the immunological defenses of the host (e.g., inher-
ronment, where they degrade dead organic ited absence of immune system components, or ac-
material enzymatically by using enzymes quired defects produced by immunosuppressive virus
to accelerate chemical reactions. Among the more infection or administration of immunosuppressive
common, recognizable fungi medications). In other cases,
are mushrooms, bread molds, such as ringworm, infection
and baker's occurs commonly in the nor-
great importyeast. ance Fungi ecologiare callyof malsienthost,in duration:
but usuallyonceis tran-
because their digestive pro- the
cesses help to release nutri- immune system has been
ents trapped in organic alerted, the fungus is gradu-
debris, back into the bio- ally eliminated. Fungal dis-
sphere. eases inthe latter category can
A yeast is a unicellular, be managed fairly easily;
budding fungus, forming bud- those in the former category
shaped spores. A mold is a may be resistant to treatment
filamentous( threadlike) fun- and life threatening to the
gus. Some disease-producing host. (See Chapter 17: Skin and
Disorders.)
fungi, such as those causing
the systemic mycoses and spo-
rotrichosis, are dimorphic,
which means they are capable
of existing in two different FUNGAL DISEASES
forms: they are molds at
cooler atmospheric temperatures and yeasts at Ringworm
warmer temperatures within the body of a host. Ringworm (Dermatophytosis) is the most common
Some fungi, if given the opportunity, can produce fungal disease of cats. The highly contagious ring-
disease in animals and in human beings. Often, fungal worm fungi (dermatophytes) invade the most su-

321
THE INTERNAL CAT

perficial outer layers of the skin, nails, and hair, sub- produce aflatoxins (poisons that can cause serious
sisting on keratin (the protein component of these illness if ingested).
tissues) from shed skin cells. Ringworm is often a self- In cats, aspergillosis presents most often with signs
limiting disease in cats from single-cat households, of respiratory or digestive tract involvement, often
with spontaneous remission occurring within one to secondary to panleukopenia virus infection. Chronic
three months of onset. However, dermatophyiosis in sinusitis, pneumonia, and inflammation of the esopha-
multiple-cat households will not resolve on its own; gus have been described, although diagnosis is .some-
elimination of infections can be extremely difficult times impossible before death. Surgery and antifungal
and time consuming. (See Chafit.r 17: Skin and Disor- medications have been used to treat the disease. The
ders.) prognosis is variable, depending on the immune com-
petence ofthe cat and the location and extent of the
infection.
Cryptococcosis
Cryptococcus neoformam is a yeast with a predilec- The Systemic Mycoses: Blastomycosis,
tion for infection of tlie central nen'ous system in Histoplasmosis, Coccidioidomycosis
most host species. Cryptococcus is surrounded by a
large capsule, which is in part responsible for the The systemic mycoses are a group of rare fungal dis-
eases in which inhalation (usually) of the causative
organism's
bird droppings, abilityparticularly
to producethosedisease. It is found
of pigeons, and lessin organism is followed by widespread dissemination of
the fungus to internal organs. These fungi, including
commonly in the soil. Most cases result from inhala- the three to be discussed here, Blastomyces, His-
tion of the organism. toplasma, and Coccidioides, each exploit specialized
In cats, cryptococcosis presents most often as a re- environmental habitats, and their distribution is geo-
spiratory illness, characterized by sneezing, snuffling, graphically restricted. In the vast majority of cases,
raspy breathing, and production of a thick nasal dis- exposure to these organisms results in the production
charge. Itmay also present as a hard, nodular skin of immunity in the host, rather than disease. In a small
swelling on the head, most often over the bridge of percentage of infections, however, the fungi are not
the nose. Neurologic abnormalities and eye disease checked by the immune response, proceeding instead
may result. to engineer a serious (often fatal) illness. It appears
Diagnosis is based on identification of the organism
by India ink stain, in smears of nasal discharge, skin that inherited or acquired defects of the immune re-
lesions, or cerebrospmal fluid. Samples should also sponse of the host often underlie susceptibility to
be sent out to a laboratory for culture to confirm the these ftjngal disease agents.
An important feature of the fungi causing systemic
diagnosis. A special blood test that detects the organ- mycoses is their dimorphic nature. In the envi-
ism isalso available. , ronment, they exist as filamentous fungi (molds).
Response to treatment in cats with generalized dis- However, upon inhalation or inoculation of the fila-
ease isusually poor. Surger>' (when appropriate) and mentous form, they convert into a yeast form that
administration of antifungal drugs are the current
mainstays of therapy. Cats with cryptococcosis may grows in the tissues of the host. One significant conse-
have an underlying immune defect, such as infection quence isthat, in general, affected animals or human
with feline leukemia virus or feline immunodefi- beings are not directly contagious to others. Rather, it
ciency virus, making treatment a difficult endeavor. is the filamentous environmental form of these organ-
isms that is infectious and thus dangerous.
Blastomycosis is caused by Blastomyces dermati-
Aspergillosis tidis, a presumed soil fungus that is found in the mid-
Atlantic, north-central, and Ohio-Mississippi river
Aspergillus comprises a large group of fungi that are valley areas. Blastomycosis is extremely rare in cats.
often found in the air, soil, and in animal feeds. They Following inhalation or inoculation, the organism
are opportunistic invaders with a predilection for the can produce respiratory disease, skin lesions, ocular
respiratory tract. Some species residing in moldy feed disease, or central nervous system abnormalities.
 FUNGAL DISEASES

Presumptive diagnosis is made by identification of cation, serious local or systemic infections may be
thick-walled, budding Blastomyces yeast forms in bi- produced. (See Chapter 17: Skin and Disorders.)
opsy or lesion material. Definitive diagnosis is made
by culture and identification of the organism. Treat-
ment consists of systemic antifungal medication. The Sporotrichosis
prognosis is guarded except in the case of superficial Sporotrichosis is an uncommon pus-forming disease
skin infections, which may respond well to therapy. caused by Sporothrix schenckii. This fungus is found
Histoplasmosis is caused by Histoplasma capsula- in decaying vegetation, on rosebushes, sphagnum
tum, a soil fungus found in the midwestern and east- moss, wood splinters, and other environmental
ern states. The organism is particularly fond of bird sources. Infection usually occurs by implantation fol-
and bat droppings, in which it can be found in large lowing apenetrating wound. (See Chapter 17: Skin and
Disorders.)
quantities. Histoplasma is especially common in soil
on which chickens are raised. Histoplasmosis is very
rare in cats. Following inhalation, respiratory disease
(coughing, nasal discharge, difficult breathing) results Phaeohyphomycosis
most commonly. Diarrhea and neurologic abnormali- Phaeohyphomycosis is an uncommon chronic skin in-
ties may also occur. Presumptive diagnosis is made by fection caused by dark, pigmented fijngi. These fungi
identification of the small, intracellular Histoplasma live in soil and vegetation and gain access to tissues
yeast forms in biopsy or lesion material. Definitive usually by means of a penetrating wound. (See Chap-
diagnosis is made by culture and identification of the ter 17: Skin and Disorders.)
organism. Treatment consists of systemic antifungal
medication. The prognosis, unfonunately, is poor.
Coccidioidomycosis, the most severe of the sys- Phycomycosis (Mucormycosis, Zygotnycosis)
temic mycoses, is caused by Coccidioides immitis, Phycomycosis is a general term describing disease
which resides in soil of the dry cactus country of the caused by a number of specific fungi, especially Rhizo-
southwestern United States. The organism is aided in pus, Absidia, and Mucor. These are classic molds —
its spread through the soil by burrowing rodents. Rhizopus frequently coats the surface of old, moist
Wind and du.st .storms whipping up the dry soil can bread — and only occasionally do they produce dis-
.spread the filamentous fungal forms over great dis- ease in animals, usually as opportunists ( invading if
tances. The disease is uncommon in cats. Skin, bone, host defenses are compromised).
and eye lesions have been observed most often. Pre- Phycomycosis is rare in cats. Skin and intestinal dis-
sumptive diagnosis is made by identification of the ease have been observed most often. Certain predis-
large spherule form (parasitic stage wherein endo- posing factors, such as prolonged antibiotic therapy,
spores develop) of the organism in biopsy or lesion feline leukemia virus infection, and diabetes mellitus,
material. Definitive diagnosis requires culture of the are probably necessary for permitting these fungi to
organism in the laboratory. Treatment consists of sys- grow within the host. Treatment method and progno-
temic antifungal medication. The prognosis is sis are dependent upon the nature and extent of the
guarded, except in the case of superficial skin infec- disease process produced.
tions, which may respond to therapy.
Candidiasis Mycetoma
Mycetoma is a general term for fungus-induced, tu-
Candidiasis is an extremely rare yeast infection of the morlike skin lesions found most commonly on the
skin and mucous membranes. Candida yeasts are extremities. The causative fungi are found within the
considered to be part of the normal microbial popu- lesions in the form of granules (small, beadlike
lation of the intestinal and reproductive tracts. With masses). Mycetomas are rare in cats, but when they
lowered host resistance caused by prolonged do occur, they are localized most often to the extremi-
maceration (softening of tissue by soaking) of skin, ties or head. Treatment method and prognosis are
antibiotic therapy, or immunosuppressive drug medi- dependent upon the nature and extent of the lesions.
THE INTERNAL CAT

Prototbecosis plants, because they are responsible for producing

most of the oxygen present in the atmosphere. Proto-
Protothecosis is a rare disease caused by a colorless theca lesions have been reported on the extremities
alga, Prototheca. (By convention, Prototbeca is usually and head of cats. Because some of these lesions are
included in discussions of fungal diseases.) Algae, highly invasive, surgical removal is sometimes not
such as seaweed, are among the most important of
possible.
 CHAPTER 33

Cancer

by Jeffrey E. Barlough

, progressive amenable to curative surgical excision. Malignant

Neoplaprolif sia cellsrolled
eratioisntheofuncont under conditions tumors, on the other hand, grow more rapidly, are
that normally should be restrictive of cell highly invasive and metastasize (spread to other
growth. The accumulating cell mass, areas of the body) readily, and are much less amena-
referred to as a neoplasm or tumor, is composed ble to curative surgical excision.
of abnormal cells that have become unresponsive Malignant tumors are subdivided further into two
to normal regulatory general nomastypes, carci-
signals. This unre- and sarcomas,
sponsivenes may re- depending on their
suit from genetic tissue of origin. Car-
damage induced by cinomas originate
physical or chemical within epithelial tis-
agents, from usurpa- sue cells (those lin-
tion of the genetic ma- ing the internal and
chinery bya virus, or external surfaces of
from unknown causes. the body), whereas
In many cases, a ge- sarcomas arise from
netic predisposition connective tissue
exists that may ad- cells (those cells
vance the likelihood of within an organ or
tumor development structure that bind it
— in other words, an together and support
individual's genetic makeup may in pan determine the it). Malignant tumors are more likely to result in death
outcome of an encounter between that individual's of the host because of their potential for uncontrolled
cells and an oncogenic (tumor-inducing) stimulus. spread, and they are a more dangerous type of neo-
Tumors may be classified broadly into two groups, plasm than most benign tumors.
benign and malignant. In general, benign tumors In this chapter, general principles of oncogenesis
proliferate slowly, do not invade neighboring tissue (tumor causation), and diagnosis and treatment of tu-
or spread to other regions of the body, and often are mors will be discussed. Further information regarding
325
THE INTERNAL CAT

specific tumor types can be found in other chapters OTHER DETERMINANTS OF NEOPLASIA. A
covering specific organ systems or infeaious disease number of other factors, exclusive of defined carcino-
agents. gens, also influence the complex interplay of events
leading to the development of neoplasia. Included
among these are variables such as age and diet. Some
Causes of Neoplasia tumors arise more commonly in older animals, while
Most tumors that arise in humans and animals are of others develop more often in younger animals. Such
unknown cause. This situation exists not because of a variation is probably related to differences in the ori-
lack of medical investigation; research into the origins gins of different types of tumors and the inherent
of neoplasia has been intensively pursued for de- susceptibility of animals to neoplasia at different
cades, especially since the discovery of tumor viruses stages of the life cycle. In cats, for example, newborn
and cancer-causing chemicals. The fact that the cause and very young kittens are more susceptible to infec-
of most neoplasms remains undiscovered is a conse- tion and tumor development mediated by FeLV than
quence ofthe innate complexity of neoplastic disease are adolescent and adult animals. Duration of expo-
processes, the frequently prolonged incubation pe- sure to an oncogenic agent is also of imponance, as is
riod between exposure to a carcinogen (tumor- seen with sunlight-induced squamous cell carcinoma
inducing agent) and actual tumor development, and on the ears of white cats.
the probably frequent involvement of more than a There is increasing evidence that diet may also be
single factor in the development of many neoplasms an important contributing factor in the development
(i.e., neoplasia in many cases is a multistep process). of neoplasia. Although dietary constituents themselves
Nevertheless, despite these formidable obstacles, a may not necessarily cause cancer, there may be sec-
number of carcinogens have been identified; among ondary effects modified by diet that influence cancer
them are agents causing tumors in domestic cats. progression; for example, there are recent indications
that foods such as bran, which decrease transit time
PHYSICALAGENTS. The most important physical through the digestive tract, may be of help in pre-
agent known to cause tumors in humans and animals venting cancer of the colon, whereas soft foods that
is radiation. Implicated sources include ultraviolet remain in the tract for longer periods of time increase
radiation (sunlight) and ionizing radiation (x-rays the likelihood of colon cancer.
and radioactive isotopes of the elements radon, stron-
tium, and cesium). Excessive exposure to sunlight is
associated with the development of squamous cell Mechanisms of Tumor Induction
carcinoma of the ears in white cats. (See Chapter 17: The precise biochemical mechanisms by which nor-
Skin and Disorders.) mal, healthy cells are transformed into abnormal cells
unresponsive to cellular control mechanisms are not
CHEMICAL AGENTS. Many chemical agents, in- yet clear. However, studies in recent years using onco-
cluding asbestos, cigarette smoke, arsenic, and vinyl genic retroviruses (viruses of the family Retroviri-
chloride, are recognized carcinogens in humans. To dae) from a number of animal species have begun to
date, however, relatively few chemicals have been raise the curtain of darkness, yielding dim but hopeftjl
proved to be carcinogenic for cats. glimpses of the complex molecular machinery re-
sponsible forthe production of tumors. The following
VIRUSES. In cats, the feline leukemia virus (FeLV) is a discussion of some of the events involved in some
is the recognized cause of several types of cancers, retrovirus-induced neoplasms.
including lymphosarcoma (cancer of lymphoid tis- It has been known for some time that the incuba-
sue) and myeloproliferative disorders (bone mar- tion period may be quite prolonged for some retrovi-
row cancers). (See Chapter 29; Viral Diseases.) In ruses, such as FeLV, but may be quite short for others,
addition, a mutant form of FeLV known as the feline such as FeSV. The vast majority of retroviruses with
sarcoma virus (FeSV) causes multiple fibrosarco- short incubation periods are replication defective;
mas (cancers of connective tissue) in young cats and that is, they cannot reproduce fliemselves within host
is responsible also for some cases of malignant mel- cells unless those cells are coinfected with a "helper"
anoma (cancer of pigmented skin cells). virus that provides the replication-defective viruses
 CANCER

with materials they lack. Most of the defective retrovi- duaion of certain tumors. There is also evidence for
ruses that have been closely examined share at least the existence of anti-oncogenes — genes whose
one common feature: the possession of genes coding presence represses neoplasia and in whose absence
for the production of a protein unnecessary for repli- (e.g., by a hereditary abnormality), certain specific
cation, but essential for tumor development. These kinds of tumors may develop. In the case of multistep
genes, generally referred to as v-onc genes, appear cancers, other, as yet undefined, factors may be re-
to be closely related to normal genes (c-onc genes) vidquuailrecdelfo.r neoplasia to be fully expressed in an indi-
found in the cells that the virus has infected. It appears
that genetic exchange (recombination) between a
nondefective retrovirus (such as FeLV) and the host
cell's genetic material (the c-onc) is responsible for Diagnosis of Neopktsia
the production of defective retroviruses containing Definitive diagnosis of neoplasia relies on the identi-
v-onc genes (i.e., the FeLV has mutated to form FeSV, fication oftumor cells by microscopic examination.
as a result of the acquisition of an one gene. In the Although the history, clinical signs, and results of ra-
process, genes essential for viral replication are lost, diographic (x-ray) studies may strongly suggest a di-
so that the resulting mutant virus is defective). agnosis oftumor, only microscopic evaluation of the
The functions of c-onc genes are not totally clear, actual cells themselves — by biopsy or necropsy (au-
but it is believed that most of them are intimately topsy)— will confirm the diagnosis.
involved in normal cellular growth processes and in Complete physical and biochemical evaluations of
the control of cellular differentiation (the process the patient, together with identification of the tumor
by which cells "mature" into fully functioning units). type and the extent of tumor spread, allow the clini-
Acquisition of c-onc genes by retroviruses during re- cian to clinically stage the tumor (i.e., to determine
combination (which probably occurs as an error dur- the present state of progression of the neoplasm).
ing the normal viral replication q'cle) confers on the This is critical not only for determining the progno-
new, defective reu-oviruses the ability to disrupt nor- sis (outlook for improvement) of the case, but also
mal cellular proliferation and differentiation — a rec- for developing an appropriate strategy for therapy.
ognized characteristic of the disorders referred to as Clinical staging of tumors also allows comparison of
neoplasia. Tumors induced by defective retroviruses the efficacy of different methods of treatment. By iden-
have shon incubation periods because the causative tifying stages of development of individual tumor
viruses carry one genes with them and thus can initi- types, clinicians are able to compare treatments of
ate the cascade of events leading to neoplasia soon patients in equivalent stages of tumor progression,
after they infect a cell. and thus determine the true efficacy of a given ther-
apy.
The mechanisms by which nondefective retrovi-
ruses with prolonged incubation periods induce neo- The clinical manifestations of neoplasia are seen in
plasia are less clear, but it may be that the location in many forms. Superficial tumors may arise as classic
the host-cell chromosome at which these retroviruses "lumps" within tissue without involvement of the
insert their proviral DNA (a copy of their own ge- overlying skin, or they may break through to the out-
netic material, which they insert into the chromosome side, leaving an eroded or ulcerated skin surface.
of the infected cell; see Chapter 29: Viral Diseases) is Deeper tumors may produce no outward physical ab-
critical. Thus insertion of proviral DNA near a c-onc normalities; instead, functional aberrations of affected
gene may inappropriately activate that gene in some organs (the lungs or liver, for example) may give rise
way, leading to neoplastic transformation of the cell. to clinical signs that are noted by an owner. The ef-
This may explain the lengthy incubation periods, be- fects of a tumor frequently are caused by a "crowding
cause itmay require months to years of random provi- out" tiofon of normal
normal cellular cells by architecture
the tumor cells.
ral insenions in many cells before activation of a that The
results,destruc-
soon
critical c-onc gene occurs. produces a disruption of normal function, with the
It now appears that some chemical carcinogens also development of corresponding clinical signs.
aa by turning on or modifying c-onc genes. More- Tumor cells, unresponsive to normal growth-inhib-
over, inherited genetic abnormalities in these genes itory signals, literally invade and replace normal tis-
or their regulatory components may result in the pro- sues of the body. In many cases, large masses of
 THE INTERNAL CAT
328
neoplastic cells are tolerated by the immune system ders are known to be caused by feline leukemia virus
and not recognized as being abnormal. This failure of (FeLV). (See Chapter 29; Viral Diseases.) In many cases,
the immune system to halt the spreading menace may a diagnosis of either of these two malignancies relies
result from the fact that many tumor cells, having on determination of the FeLV status of the patient (i.e.,
arisen from normal body cells, are not recognized by whether the cat is persistently infected with FeLV). It
the immune system as "foreign," and hence are not must be kept in mind, however, that final diagnosis of
destroyed. Thereon also may exist the tumor type (as is the case for other neoplasms)
cover up sites the tumor cells"blocking
that mightfactors" that
otherwise must rest on microscopic examination of the tumor
act as targets for the immune response. cells themselves.
With many neoplasms, the tumor cells themselves
are readily accessible to the veterinarian. Samples of Treatment of Neoplasia
tumors located in skin or the underlying tissue can be
obtained by fine-needle aspiration (insertion of a A number of treatment modalities are available for
needle into the tumor and withdrawal of cells into a tumors occurring in domestic animals. Among these
syringe), or by impression smears on surface tumors, are the more established therapies of surgery, chemo-
and then examined under a microscope. Similarly, therapy, and radiation therapy. Among the newer
certain tumors of the liver, kidney, and lung may be available methods of treatment are cryosurgery, hy-
amenable to biopsy by passing a special biopsy needle perthermia, phototherapy, and immunotherapy. Some
or other instrument through the body wall. Swollen of these treatment methods are readily available in
lymph nodes may be seen in many tumor cases; fine- private veterinary clinics, some in a handful of highly
needle aspiration of these nodes often will reveal the specialized facilities, and others only at university or
presence of tumor cells interspersed among the nor- other research centers. In some cases, the anending
mal nodal cells. Tumors of the bone marrow (myelo- veterinarian may refer a patient for specialized ther-
proliferative disorders, leukemias) may be apy at a university veterinary teaching hospital be-
identified by aspiration of bone marrow tissue and cause ofthe unavailability of the necessary equipment
sometimes by the presence of tumor cells circulating or expertise in the private seaor.
in the bloodstream (in which case the abnormal cells
may be observed on routine blood examination pro- SURGERY. Surgery remains the most successful
cedures, such as a complete blood count [CBC]). treatment modality for neoplasia in veterinary medi-
Some tumors of the bladder shed tumor cells in the cine today. It is the most effective treatment for solid
urine, which then can be identified by normal urinaly- cancers and a cornerstone of many combination-treat-
sis procedures. ment protocols. In many cases, surgical removal of a
A thorough physical examination of the patient and tumor may be curative in itself Well-delineated malig-
an evaluation of the appropriate diagnostic test results nant tumors that have not spread widely, as well as
are essential for reaching a definitive diagnosis of neo- most benign tumors, often are amenable to surgical
plasia in cats. Full cooperation of the owner with the excision. Many solid tumors that cannot be surgically
veterinarian is then required to decide on an appro- removed, or at least partially reduced in size, are un-
priate course of therapy, if the tumor is amenable to treatable by most of the other available treatment
treatment. Therapy should be advocated only if there methods.
is a possibility of maintaining a good quality of life for The growth characteristics and extent of spread (if
the patient. The prognosis for neoplasia in cats in spread has occurred) of a tumor must be determined
many cases is quite good, especially if the tumor is for a reasonable prognosis to be made. In many cases
discovered early and is not extensively invasive in na- of localized neoplasia, diagnosis of the tumor t\pe
ture. The longer the duration of tumor progression, and surgical excision of the tumor are a combined
the less likely the chance that the tumor can be suc- procedure (i.e., the tumor is removed and a sample
cessfully removed. Highly malignant tumors, such as of it is submitted for biopsy evaluation). In other
cancer of the mammary glands in cats, offer a poor cases, cells are aspirated from the mass before surgery
prognosis, even with the sophisticated diagnostic and and a smear is examined microscopically. Certain
therapeutic measures available to veterinarians today. types of cancer, for example, lymphosarcoma and
Lymphosarcoma and the myeloproliferative disor- mast cell neoplasia (a connective-tissue tumor).
 CANCER

may be identified quite easily using this technique. for metastatic tumors — those that have spread beyond
Knowledge of the tumor type, and subsequent evalua- the site of the primary tumor. Surgery to remove the
tion ofnation
the andtumor's primary tumor thus may be accompanied by chemo-
radiologicextent of spreadwillbyhelp
diagnosis, physical exami-
in deciding therapy (and/or another treatment method) aimed at
whether surgery' is a reasonable therapeutic option. destroying the metastatic lesions.
With malignant neoplasms, the most important Chemotherapy involves the administration by the
prognostic indicator is the extent of spread. Many ma- veterinarian of cytotoxic (cell-poisoning) drugs that
lignant tumors have a tendency' to spread to certain act to destroy tumor cells. Many such anticancer drugs
distant sites, such as the liver or lungs. Often, removal have side effects because their actions are not directed
of such a tumor is performed by first excising the specifically toward the tumor. Many of them are effec-
primary tumor mass and then applying one or more tive against rapidly dividing cells, which make up a
other methods of therapy (e.g., radiation or chemo- significant proportion of the cells of many tumors,
therapy). The intent is to prevent local recurrence of but they have secondary effects on normal rapidly
the tumor at the surgical site and to reduce in size dividing cell populations, such as those in the bone
and eventually eliminate metastatic lesions in other marrow or digestive tract. The severity of some side
organs. Use of surgery prior to other modes of ther- effects seen in humans undergoing cancer chemo-
apy is advantageous in that it greatly reduces the therapy may make continued treatment intolerable.
tumor load and thereby increases chances for a cure. Side effects seen in veterinary patients, however, are
Owners must also be aware of the limitations of usually much less severe and more readily manage-
surgical intervention in their pets' diseases. Some tu- able. In fact, many anticancer drugs commonly used
mors, for example, feline fibrosarcoma, a connective- in veterinary medicine are tolerated surprisingly well
tissue cancer, and mammary carcinoma, are notorious by patients. Nevertheless, patients undergoing chemo-
for their resistance to complete excision and their therapy must be carefully monitored during the
frequently rapid recurrence after surgery. Certain course of therapy. Common parameters that the veter-
bone tumors (osteogenic sarcoma, fibrosarcoma) may inarian wil follow include clinical appearance of the
require radical surgical excision (for example, am- patient and status of tumor regression, CBC (looking
putation ofa limb) to assure a reasonable chance of for dangerous decreases in red and white blood cells
patient survival. and platelets, which may result from toxic effects of
Taken together, these considerations underscore a the anticancer
common theme of modern cancer treatment; that is, and tests that drugs
kidneys. monitoron functioning
the patient'sofbone
the marrow),
liver and
that no one treatment method can be considered
complete in itself. Modern cancer therapy involves Some of the more common anticancer agents used
instead a combination of approaches, implemented in veterinary chemotherapy today are delineated
either sequentially or simultaneously, which together below. Many of these drugs are particularly useful
may be effective in controlling and even eliminating against hemolymphatic tumors (tumors of blood
an individual tumor. Combination therapy is no and lymphatic cells).
stranger to the medical armamentarium; after all, the Alkylating agents. These substances act by breaking
same principle has been applied to the treatment of and cross-linking DNA, thereby interfering with cell
other diseases, such as tuberculosis, for many years. division. Examples include chlorambucil (Leukeran),
Thus, owners must be aware that treatment of their ran).
cyclophosphamide (Cytoxan), and melphalan (Alke-
pets' neoplasticniques, al of which diseases
have maythe involve
commona variety
aim of ofhalting
tech- Antimetabolites. These substances are structurally
the disease process. Unfonunately, no one "magic similar to normal molecules required for DNA synthe-
bullet " for cancer yet exists. sis, but they become functionally disruptive once in-
corporated into the DNA. Examples include cytosine
CHEMOTHERAPY. Tumors that are not amenable arabinoside (Cytosar) and methotrexate (MTX).
to complete surgical removal must be approached by Vinca alkaloids. These are natural products of
some other means. One of the most common and plants that bind to microtubules within the cytoplasm
established methods is chemotherapy. In general, of cells and inhibit cell division. Examples include
chemotherapy is the most effective treatment available vinblastine CVelban) and vincristine (Oncovin).
 THE INTERNAL C\T
330
Glucocorticoid Lx)miones. These substances aa — which, of course, is quite exposed in most radiother-
b\- mechanisms that are still not full\- understood — by apy procedures useful in domestic animals. Despite
inhibiting cell di\ision. and also b\- directly destro\ing popular opinion to the contrary, tumor cells are not
tumor cells. Examples include prednisone, predniso- necessarily more radiosensitive than their normal cell
lone, and dexamethasone (Azium). counterparts.
Antitumor antibiotics. These antibiotics are pro- Radiation therapy is one of the most widely used
duced byfungi and apparenth- exen their anticancer therapies for neoplasia in human beings, and there
effea b\- binding to DNA and interfering with cell are many benefits in this treatment modality for \ eteri-
di\-ision. Examples include bleomycin (Blenoxane) nary patients as well. The principal ach antage of radia-
and doxorubicin (Adriamycin). tion therapy is its ability to reach tumor masses
Other agents. These include L-asparaginase. a baae- difficult to remove surgically because of size or ana-
rial enz\Tne that kills cancer cells by depleting their tomic location. Radiation therapy is also useful in com-
supph-urea,ofwhichtheinterferes
amino acid bination with chemotherapy, because it can greatly
with L-asparagine, and ofhydroxy
the metabolism RNA a- reduce the size of the target tumor-cell population.
nucleic acid imfxjrtant in normal cell funaioning.
The technique of choice in chemotherapy- is the CRYOSURGERY. Cryosurgery is a technique
seleaion of several drugs for use in combination. This whereby local application of intense cold (freezing)
allow-5 the clinician to attack the tumor with drugs that is used to damage and destroy neoplastic tLssue. with
aa in different wa\-s, thus decreasing the chance that the goal also of presening normal tissue adjacent to
resistance will arise. Unfortunately, development of the tumor site. Because cryosurgery must be applied
resistance by tumor cells is one of the more common locally to an affeaed site, tumors amenable to cryosur-
complications of chemotherapy. gical techniques must be relatively accessible (tumors
Chemotherapy iLself ma>- be only one of two or invoking the skin and mucous membranes, for exam-
three treatment methods used in treating a cancer ple) to avoid freezing too many normal cells. The
patient. The goal always is to attack the cancer from ach-antages of this type of procedure include minimal
se\ eral different angles in order to kill as many abnor- damage to surrounding tissue, absence of systemic
mal cells as possible and minimize the chances of side effects, ready \isual access to and control of the
developing resistance. procedure, and effecti\ eness in the face of failure of
other more conventional treatment methods. This last
R.ADIATIOX THER.\PY. Radiation therapy (ra- statement is especially important, because cry osur-
diotiier^y) is the paradoxical therapy within the gery at this time must be considered as an adjima
anticancer arsenal, in that radiation is known not only or ancillary procedure, not intended to replace other
to cause cancer but to help cure it as well. The exaa tested curati%'e techniques, such as local surgical exci-
mechanism by which radiation kills cells is not sion.
known, but the apparent result is damage to the cellu- During cryosurgery, a cryogen (substance that
lar DNA and interference with cell division. CeU types produces cold), such as liquid nitrogen, is applied
with a low rate of di\ision, such as ners e and muscle directly to the tumor. Within the tumor, and within a
cells, are relath ely resistant to the effects of ionizing small area just outside the tumor, an area of freezing
radiation — hence, they are referred to as being ra- ( - 50°C to - 60°C) des-elops. known as an ice ball
dioresistant Tumors invoking these cell types thus Temperature probes are insened into the ice ball to
would not be expeaed to be responsive to radiation determine the extent of cooling and the margins of
therapy. the ice ball: that is. the size of the tissue area that has
Tissues containing populations of rapidly di%iding been frozen. Among the tumors most amenable to
cells — the bone marrow, skin, and digestive traa. for cryosurgery include those invoking the skin, oral can-
example — are considered to be more radiosensi- ity, ears, and eyelids.
tive. Tumors involving these tissues thus would be Disad%-antages of the cryosurgical technique are
expeaed to respond to radiation therapy. The disad- sloughing of dead tissue during the first several weeks
\-antage of this radiosensiti%ity is that sensitive tissues after the procedure, length of time for healing of le-
unin\olved in the disease process may suffer exces- sions, and postoperative scarring. However, cryosur-
sive damage during treatment — especially the skin. gery isan extremely useflil procedure and should be
 CANCER

considered among the treatment options whenever tumors. Phototherapy is based on the observation that
removal of a surface-oriented tumor is considered. HpD preferentially accumulates or is retained within
Anesthesia is required to restrain movement and cancer tissue to a greater extent than in normal tissue.
control pain during the cryosurgical process. The Following accumulation, exposure of the tumor site
level of anesthesia required depends primarily on the to red light of a specified wavelength causes the accu-
location of the tissue to be frozen. Local anesthesia of mulated HpD within the tumor to reaa with oxygen
the tumor site, combined with mild tranquilization of to produce singlet oxygen (the free oxygen radical),
the patient, may be all that is required in many cases. a highly toxic substance damaging to cells. From this,
it is clear that the tumor cells, with their higher levels
HYPERTHERMIA. Hyperthermia, or heat ther- of HpD, 'W ill be more severely aflfeaed than normal
apy-, is in many ways the opposite of cryosurgery, in cells in the vicinity. Herein lies the specificity of pho-
that it relies on the local application of heat to destroy totherapy for mmor tissue, strongly contrasting with
neoplastic cells, either by direct cyiotoxic effects or by- the broader killing effects of radiation, chemotherapy,
damage to the local microvasculature (small blood cryosurgery, and hyperthermia. The most effeaive
vessels) supplying the tumor. As with cryosurgery, light delivery system consists of a laser or series of
most tumors amenable to treatment by hyperthermia lasers producing a continuous beam of red light deliv-
are in relatively accessible locations. Difficulties arise ered to the site by glass fiberoptic technology.
when trying to standardize heating (41°C to 43°C) of Application of phototherapy in veterinary medicine
tumor lesions while at the same time minimizing the remains investigational and limited to a small number
deleterious effects of heat on the normal surrounding of private practitioners and research institutions.
tissue. These difficulties are concentrated in t^o pri- However, promising results in dogs and cats have
mary areas: the design of effeaive applicator probes been reponed. Side effects appear to be minimal.
for applying heat, and temperature changes mediated
by blood circulation within the target site. Because of IMMUNOTHERAPY. Immunotherapy involves a
nonuniform heating, the killing effeaiveness of hyper- boosting of immune responses to assist in the destruc-
thermia wil vary at different sites within the target tion oftumor tissue. Like several other newer methods
area itself. As with cryosurgery, implant thermometers of therapy,effectiveimmunotherapy appearsmethod
to be ofrelatively
are needed to monitor temperature fluctuations when used as the sole treatment.in-
within the target tissue. In combination with other methods, however, such as
Despite much investigation over the past decade, surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy — all of
hyperthermia remains a relatively ineffective method which are used to reduce dramatically the size of the
of treaunent when used alone. Often, howe\er, sig- tumor mass — significant benefits may be achieved in
nificant benefits may be achieved when hyperthermia many cases. Tumors amenable to immunotherapeutic
is used in conjunction with another treatment techniques usually are small and localized in nature.
method, such as radiation therapy or chemotherapy. A variety of substances with immune-boosting capa-
Whole-body hyperthermia, a procedure in which the bilities (immunopotentiators) have been in\esti-
core body temperature of the patient is raised, is a gated over the past eighty years. Among the more
systemic procedure that has recently been investi- nonspecific of these immunopotentiators are:
gated in several treatment trials in veterinary medi-
cine. Its greatest potential may be the treatment of • Biological products such as bacillus Calmette-
deep metastases that are relatively inaccessible to Guerin (BCG) (a live baaerial preparation use-
local application of heating. To date, this treatment ful in immunization against tuberculosis) and
method remains investigational, and like local hyper- Corynebacterium parvum (a killed baaerial
thermia, iappears
t to represent an ancillary treatment product), both of which nonspecifically enhance
to be used in conjunaion with other therapies. immune responses to many microbial agents and
also to many tumor cell types.
PHOTOTHERAPY. Phototherapy (also known as • Chemical or synthetic products such as levami-
photodynamic therapy) involves the use of a spe- sole and thymosin (which help restore normal
cial compound, hematoporphyrin derivative (HpD), function to a number of important cells of the
in combination with light, for the treatment of solid immune system).
THE INTERNAL CAT

More specific therapy involves the use of substances • Monoclonal antibody therapy, in which
related to the target tumor cells themselves: for exam- highly purified antibodies specific for a given
ple, tumor ceil vaccines containing viable, modified, tumor are chemically linked to a toxic compound
or killed lumor cells, or important fragments from the and injected into the patient. The antibodies then
cells. "home" to the tumor target and deliver their
Other, newer immunotlierapeutic approaches in- toxic cargo with pinpoint accuracy.
clude:
• Interferons (natural substances that can inhibit Immunization Against Neoplasia
virus replication and also the growth of tumor Several vaccines are available for the prevention of
cells). certain virus-induced tumors in animals. These tu-
• Other important lymphokines (immune-regu- mors include lymphomas and leukemias in cats,
latorv- substances) such as interleukin-2 . caused by feline leukemia virus; papillomas (warts)
• Extracorporeal immunosorption (also in cattle caused by bovine papillomaviruses; and
known as plasmapheresis) in which "blocking lymphoma (Marek's disease) in poultry caused by
factors" interfering with the immune response to Marek's disease virus, a herpesvirus. Unfortunately,
tumors are removed from the patient's blood- these represent only a small fraction of the tumors
stream. that arise in domestic animals.
PART IX

Geriatrics

There was an old man from Peru

Who dreamed he was eating his shoe.
He woke in a fright
In the middle of the night
And found it was perfectly true.
— Anonymous

So, we'll go no more a-roving

So late into the night,
Though the hean be still as loving,
And the moon be still as bright.
— George Gordon Noel,
Lord Byron,
"So, we'll go no more a-roving"
 CHAPTER 34

Aging Cats and

Disorders

by June KirvanTuttle, Jeffrey E. Bar lough,

Mordecai Siegal, and Leo A Wuori

, experience old age in and hips, joint stiffness or lameness, graying of the
Cats, their likeown people
individual ways. Advances in vet- muzzle, atrophy of the muscles, and hearing loss. Be-
erinary medicine and health care have haviorally, the older cat is less tolerant of environmen-
tal changes, sleeps more and is less active, and seems
span. It is not unusual forextend
helpe d to yearsl and
twentynorma
cats tothelive cat's life more irritable.
longer, although the average life span is between ten After eight or nine years of age, a cat becomes more
and en years. longevity depends on good susceptible to the diseases associated with old age —
healthfourtecare throughA cat's all
chronic kidney disease, den-
stages of life. tal disease, tumors, and liver
Aging is a natural process. disease. The importance of
It develops with a gradual the veterinarian's yearly
decline in the metabolism checkup increases because
rate, which causes de- the earlier a disease is diag-
creased drug tolerance, in-
ability to regulate body chance nosed,
of therecovery
better theor cat's lon-
temperature, decreased ca- gevity. Keeping vaccinations
loric needs, and decreased current helps to protect
immunity to diseases. Pro- against panleukopenia, re-
gressive degeneration of spiratory diseases, feline
organs results in various as- leukemia, and rabies.
sociated diseases. The abili-
ties to taste, smell, see, and
hear also diminish with SPECIAL CARE FOR
age. THE ELDERLY CAT
Feeding
Physical and behavioral signs may reflect these
bodily changes. Physical signs may include a cloudy
appearance of the eyes, thinning hair coat, decreased In general, high-quality commercial cat foods should
tolerance of the cold, flabby skin, prominent spine be the staple food. Small amounts (less than 10 percent
335
GERIATRICS

of the diet) of cheese, cooked eggs, cooked fish, and a pet owner must be alert for signs that might indicate
other high-quality protein foods may be added as fla- tiring.
heart disease, panicularly labored breathing or rapid
voring agents if the cat is reluctant to eat. Food with a
strong aroma may entice the older, more finicky cat to It may be necessary to relocate food dishes and
eat. A change in diet may be necessarv^ if the cat has de- litter boxes for cats who are severely restriaed by
veloped diabetes, heart disease, or kidney disease, arthritis and muscle atrophy.
which often require special dietary treatment.
If the cat is voluntarily eating a balanced diet, vitamin Grooming
and mineral supplements are not necessary', and could
even be counterproductive by destroying the nutritive Daily grooming offers a good opportunity to examine
balance of the diet. Because older cats are less aaive the cat for unusual lumps, skin lesions, or external
and have a reduced metabolic rate, many tend to be- parasites. Unusual lumps or lesions should be exam-
come overweight. The quantity of food must be ad- ined bya veterinarian for appropriate treatment. (For
justed to meet their decreasing activity level. A safe and control of external parasites, refer to Chapter 19: Elx-
effective weight-reduction or obesity-prevention pro- TERNAL Parasites.)
gram designed with the assistance of a veterinarian can Daily brushing or combing removes loose and dead
prevent any number of obesiu -related disorders. hairs before they can be ingested by the cat during
Progressive weight loss also can be a very serious self-grooming and form hairballs. Hairballs cause
problem in older cats; it may signal kidney failure, pres- more problems for an older cat, because the gastroin-
ence of a tumor, diabetes mellitus, liver disease, or testinal tra is less motile and impactions occur more
other conditions. It is important to monitor a cat's frequently. Brushing also stimulates blood circulation
weight ever\' three months and keep a record of any and sebaceous gland secretions in the skin, creating
changes. healthier skin and hair coat.
Older cats may not use scratching posts as fre-
Exercise quently to remove the outer sheaths of their claws.
Therefore, nails should be checked weekly and
An older cat is less agile as arthritis develops and trimmed if necessary.
muscles begin to atrophy. Accordingly, the cat will Daily removal of plaque is a prime factor in pre-
limit its physical activity. However, engaging a cat in venting and controlling dental disease. There is docu-
moderate play can promote muscle tone and sup- mented evidence that daily cleaning reduces tartar
pleness, increa.se blood circulation, and improve gas- formation by 95 percent, or 76 percent for weekly
trointestinal motility (movement). During exercise. cleanings. If a cat has never had its teeth professionally
cleaned or there is a buildup of tartar, professional
dental cleaning by a veterinarian is essential.
Ideally, home dentistry should begin when cats are
young.
tomed Byto learning at an early
the procedure and age, cats become
benefit from yearsaccus'-of
good preventive dental care. Home dentistry can
beginyour
with by gentlyfinger orrubbing
a piece your cat's The
of gauze. teethveterinarian
and gums
can provide a feline toothpaste or liquid preparation.
(Do not use human toothpastes — they cause exces-
sive salivation and if swallowed may result in gastroin-
testinal upsets.) Gently rub the teeth and make sure
toregularly
include scheduled the gums. time,If the itcat'sbecomes
teeth area habit
cleanedthatat isa
more easily performed by both participants. Eventu-
al y, soft-bristle,
a specially designed feline toothbrush
can be substituted with some cats. However, others
may never tolerate the brush.
 AGING CATS AND DISORDERS

until about are70 related

lost. They percent toof electrolyte
the kidney'simbalances
functions and
are
the buildup in the blood of toxic wastes that are nor-
mally removed by the kidneys. If unchecked, the con-
dition wil prove fatal.
The effects of kidney failure can be diminished,
although not cured, through medication and a special
reduced-protein diet, which produces fewer waste
products for the kidneys to clear. Special dietary foods
can be obtained through a veterinarian or, with the
veterinarian's assistance, a diet may be formulated that
will meet more
but even the cat's
so inspecific
the case requirements. As always,
of kidney disease, clean,
fresh water should be available at all times. (See Chap-
ter 22: Urinary System and Disorders.)
Reducing Environmental Stress
Older cats are usually less adaptable to changes in Tumors
their environment. Therefore, special attention
should be given if the cat must be boarded during A cat's chances of developing cancer increase with
vacation time. Sometimes, having a familiar object old age. An accumulation of carcinogens (cancer-
prevents the cat from becoming too emotionally dis- causing products) in the body, or an impaired im-
mune system have been implicated, at least in part, in
traught ina strange environment. A better alternative, this increased incidence of cancer in older cats. Sev-
if possible, is to have the older cat cared for by neigh- eral of the more common tumors that affect older cats
bors, friends, or relatives in its own home. are discussed below.
Other stressful experiences for the older cat in- Tumors associated with feline leukemia virus
clude the introduaion of a new pet and moving to a (FeLV) infection are among the most threatening and
new home. common forms of cancer in cats. Disease manifesta-
cally changedIn orbothaltered,
cases, thereby
the cat's causing
territoryemotional
is drasti-
tions are varied; they include anemia, fever, poor ap-
stress. Such stress can be alleviated, somewhat, by petite, weight loss, vomiting, diarrhea or constipation,
giving the cat more affection and attention. depression, and labored breathing. Commonly called
lymphosarcomas, these tumors typically occur in
the lymph nodes, kidneys, and intestines of older cats.
DISEASES OF OLDER CATS Lymphosarcomas may or may not be apparent to the
touch, but often they can be revealed by blood tests,
In addition to a decreasingly effective immune system, radiographs,
which leaves older cats more susceptible to certain ■Viral Diseases.)and tissue samples. (See Chapter 29:
diseases, there are other diseases caused by tissue Meningioma is the most common primary tumor
degeneration that are more prevalent in the older cat. of the central nervous system of cats. At least 66 percent
of the affected cats are older than ten years of age. The
tumor arises from the meninges (membranous tissue
Kidney Failure covering the brain). The tumor is usually benign; how-
Chronic interstitial nephritis (long-term, low-grade ever, neurological problems (seizures, paralysis, per-
inflammation of tissue within the kidney), marked by sonality changes) may become evident when the tumor
a shriveling and scarring of the kidneys, is the most begins to compress the underlying brain tissue.
common cause of chronic kidney damage and death Ceruminous gland tumors originate from the
in the older cat. Weight loss, increased urination, in- ceruminous glands that produce wax in the external
creased thirst, poor appetite, bad breath, mouth ul- ear. Signs associated with these tumors include head
cers, and occasional vomiting are indicative of kidney shaking, ear scratching, and a discharge from the ear.
disease. However, these signs typically do not occur These tumors may be benign or malignant.
 GERL\TR1CS
338
Intaa queens or females spa>ed late in life are stomatitis ( inllammation of the mouth ). These prob-
more prone to the de\ elopment of mamman- tumors. lems seem to be more pre\-alent in cats fed primarily
Unfortunately, approximateh 85 percent of these tu- soft diets and human foods. Signs of oral problems
mors are malignant, \vith early metastasis to hinph are bad breath, excessive sali\-ation. brownish-yellow
nodes, liver, and lungs. These flat. hard, nodular can- tartar deposits, and difficult\ in eating or refusal to
cers are easily hidden by fur until ihe\- are far ad- eat. In ad\-anced cases, the gums are red. swollen, and
\-anced- The best precaution against breast cancer in ven- painful, tooth sockets ooze pus. and teeth be-
the cat is spacing before the first heat come loose and fall out. \eterinary examination is
Radiation therap> . chemotherapy, or surgical re- necessan-. (See CaAPTER 18; Sensors Organs .vnt) Dis
ORDERS.)
mo\-al can be effecm-e on some nimors. although the
risks of associated trauma are greater for the aged cat
(.See Ca\PTER 33: Cvncer^ Skin Problems
Skin irritations and r ounds are slower to heal be-
Digestive System cause in pan, the older cat has a depressed immune
The digestive traa remains relativek free of the ra\ - s>-stem.
ages of old age and is usually the last s>-stem to show older cats,Also, whichnutritional deficiencies
can influence may of occur
the health the skinin
signs of deterioration. It is thought that the rapid cell and hair coat (See Chapter 1~: Skts anx) Disorders.)
tumoN^er in the gastrointestinal traa pro\ides a degree
of protection against the degenerative effects of aging. Musculoskeletal Problems
Constipation is one of the more common problems
of older cats. For some cats, occasional feeding of The older cat experiences chrome degeneration of
milk can help produce a softer stool. Bulk-forming muscles and joints. .-^rThritis is common, \\ith topical
agents such as wheat bran or a mild laxative can mini- signs such as lameness and siiflBness. Currenth". there
mize hairballs that would otherwise accumulate in the is no wa>- to pre\eni or cure this disease. Howe\er.
stomach or intestine; ven- rarely, hairball obstruction there are medicines
and discomfon that ma>"joints.
of inflamed help aile\iaie the pain
ma\- require surgical remoN^al. Regular use of hairbaU
medications and feeding of moist. bulk\- foods can Bones become more brittie as changes occur in
help control constipation. Neither laxati\ es nor hair- metabolism and in the absorption of calcium and
ball medications should be used more than once a phosphorus by the digesti\ e s>-stem. thereby making
week unless recommended by a veterinarian, because the older cat more susceptible to bone fractures.
the>" can interfere \^ith absorption of \itamins and
minerals.
Diarrhea is not as common as constipation in the Hypertijyroidism
older caL If it persists in spite of medication and di- This disease predominately affects older cats (ten
etary- changes, it may be a sign of disease and require years of age and more) and is one of the most com-
a veterinar;. examination. (See Chapter 25: Digesti\'e mon feline endocrine disorders. H\peractMt\". sud-
S'i-STEVJ AND Disorders ^ den weight loss, increased appetite and stool volume,
increased fluid intake, and increased urination are
Oral Problems t>pical signs. Fommareh-. the disease is treatable. (.See
CRAPTER 2~. ENTXXjIIN"E S-i5TEM ANT) DISORDERS.)
Cats are not prone to tooth decay, but the>- do dev elop
painful. ca\it\iike lesions called odontodastic le- Heart and Circulatory Disorders
sions or cervical line lesions. These erosi\ e. pitlike
areas usually can become so so-ere that the tooth is Some cats bom %\ith hean defects may show no signs
ultimately lost. until later in life, vstien there is increased demand on
The teeth of cats are susceptible to tartar buildup, the hean and circulator.- s>-siem. Hean disease in cars
with resultant oral diseases such as gingivitis (.in- usually occurs in middle age i^sLx to eight years).
flam ation ofthe gums ». periodontitis (.inflamma- The most commonly acquired hean disease is car-
tion of supporting tissues around the teeth), and diomyopatfay. or failure of tfie hean muscle. Onh-
 AGING CATS AND DISORDERS

h\perthyroidism and chronic kidney disease are more

common than h\penrophic cardiomyopathy in older BEREAVEMENT
cats. An additional complication of both chronic kid-
ney disease and h\perthyroidism is systemic hyper- A pet's life span under the best circumstances is a
tension. (See CR'Mter 20: Circli.\tory System and fraction of its human caretaker's. An average cat lives
Disorders.) ten to founeen years. A fifteen- to eighteen-year-old
Unfortunately, some of the signs of heart disease cat is considered ancient. There are even a few fortu-
(lack of energ\- and appetite, decreased aaivirs'. long nate cats and their humans who spend t^-enty or more
rest periods) can be easily confused with the normal years together. But the sadness of losing a pet and the
signs of old age and overlooked until the disease is ensuing grief is inevitable. It is an experience that may
too far advanced for treatment. Other signs to watch occur several times in a lifetime.
for are a cat that often lies flat on its breastbone and The human companion-animal relationship has be-
is reluctant to move from this position, panting (due come the subjea of great interest, considerable dis-
to fluid accumulation in the chest or lungs and resul- cus ion, and investigation by those in the field of
tant breathing difficult) ), and, in severe cases, a blu- mental health. Psy chologists, psychotherapists, and an-
ish-gray- tongue (due to inadequate oxygen supply). imal behaviorists recognize its importance.
.-Anemia is a malady- of older cats that can be caused In 1969. Dr. Elisabeth Kubler-Ross. in her ground-
by a multitude of different chronic diseases or parasite breaking work On Death arid Dying, offered five
infestation. Anemia is easily- deteaed by a veterinarian; classic stages of the dy ing experience: denial and iso-
success of treatment depends on the cause. lation, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
Since then, others writing on bereavement have de-
Diabetes Mellitus fined similar stages for those who mourn or grie\'e
the death of a loved one. In recent times, some psy-
Degeneration of the islet of Langerhans cells of the chologists, therapists, and mental health workers have
pancreas, resulting in decreased insulin produaion, focused attention on helping patients cope with their
Ls one of the causes of diabetes mellitus. The disease ovenv helming grief after suffering the death of a pet.
is charaaerized by an unquenchable thirst, ravenous Several excellent books on the subjea have been writ-
appetite, and increased urination. Fortunately, the dis- ten and many animal clinics have a bereavement
ease can be controlled by dietary alteration and /or by counselor on staff or maintain a referral list.
administering insulin, which aids in the metabolism A major difference bet^-een human loss and pet
of carbohydrates. (See Chapter 27: Endocrlxe System loss is the suppon system available to the respeaive
AND Disorders.) mourners. ^Tien a human dies, the bereaved survivor
turns to family, friends, and neighbors for sympathy,
Liver Disease kindness, understanding, and help. When a pet dies,
the owner's family or social group may not be sensi-
The liver of the older cat is susceptible to tissue degen-
eration. There is also a diminishing of bile secretions their tivelives
to thatwith person'sa pet grief Thoseunable
are often who todounderstand
not share
and a tendency- for scar tissue formation. Signs indica- the closenessor ofthea relationship
an animal emotional berw,-een a human when
stress involved and
tive of severe liver disease include vomiting, lethargy,
anorexia, neurologic dysfunction, and watery diarrhea. death brings it to an end. The veterinarian and his or
(See Chapter 26: La-er, Pancreas, an-d Disorders.) her staff may be the only source of sympathy the griev-
ing pet ov^Tier has. Pet-loss therapy and counseling
Senility are, therefore, a positive medical option when trying
to cope with overw helming feelings of grief
A number of aging changes take place in the brain of The death of a pet has special implications for chil-
geriatric cats that make them prone to senility. Inanen- dren and the elderly. A much cherished cat may- rep-
tion to food or surroundings, changes in the sleep/ resent special memories for an older person that are
wake q cle, loss of litter training, and an inability to conneaed with departed loved ones or a happier time
recognize familiar faces or places, are expeaed senile of life. Older pet owners living alone face special
changes in old cats. problems when a companion animal passes away. The
GERIATRICS

idea of acquiring another pet seems unthinkable, de-

spite the fact that it could be of great benefit. Resis- EUTHANASIA
tance to another pet often is based on the fear of
not outliving it and wornin^ .ihoui un miimx.iI. The All too often, the owner must face the dilemma of
thought of coping witli a kiitcn that is bursting with euthanasia. When a pet is medically evaluated by a
energ)' is also likely to make an older person appre- veterinarian,
hensive about starting over with a new pet. The an- mine whetheritoris not
the toowner's
provideresponsibility to deter-
treatment. Euthanasia
swer could lie witli the acquisition of a mature cat, may circumstances.
relieve or stressIn the
one that understands life in a human setting, including the manycat'scases,
owner, depending
the cat on
is critically
the use of a litter pan and scratch post. Another type ill with no chance for recovery. Euthanasia may be
of pet altogether is a viable option. There is much suggested as a compassionate alternative to a linger-
pleasure to be had with goldfish or caged birds, which ing death encumbered with pain and suffering. The
are less demanding and easier to care for. Although a burden of the decision can be overwhelming and
new animal cannot replace one that has held a special fraught with feelings of desperation, denial, anger,
place in the heait and mind, it can be of great benefit. and guilt. What is needed at that time is a rational
Studies have shown that pets can help people live basis for a decision. Some diseases (even cancer) can
longer, healthier lives. be treated, offering a measure of life extension. In
Children also experience grief when a family pet such instances, euthanasia is not the only alternative.
dies. Other conditions, such as renal failure, congestive
have How a lasting parents relate toThetheirneedchild's
influence. feelings and
for support can heart failure, or some forms of metabolic disease, may
acknowledgment of the death and the emotions it pro- offer no hope at all. Euthanasia then becomes the only
duces are vital for mental health and well-being. Pro- humane consideration.
voking discussion and the free expression of feelings Pets offer companionship, emotional intimacy, and
ononlyanycreate and aallgreater aspectsunderstanding
of the pet's lifeof and feelings of well-being to their human caretakers.
deathdeath
and can
the Hopefully, humans create happy, pleasurable lives for
value of life. Allowing a child to go through the their pets. When well-being turns to suffering, alterna-
mourning process helps to create the psychological tives should be considered. As long as an ailing animal
defenses necessary for future losses of greater magni- is enjoying life without pain, there is justification for
tude. Ifquestions are raised by a grieving child, try to its continued presence. The quality of life, not life that
answer them truthfully and without contrivance. Paren- is merely existence, can help the owner determine a
tal suppon helps children sort out facts from fiction, cat's reason for living.
thus neutralizing many fears associated with death. Unlike humans, animals seem to have no concept
When a pet dies, a child may experience the loss as of death. There cannot be apprehension, traumatic
much as any adult. After a respectful interval of time, a fear, or panic when the inevitable occurs. There is
new pet may be the right prescription for such a child. simply unending, peaceful sleep.
 PART X

The Sick Cat

I don't know as there is anything of continental or international interest to communicate about

those cats. They had no history. They did not distinguish themselves in any way. They died early
— on account of being overweighted with their names, it was thought, — Sour Mash, ApoUinaris,
Zoroaster, Blatherskite, — names given them, not in an unfriendly spirit, but merely to practise
the children in large and difficult styles of pronunciation. It was a very happy idea — I mean,
for the children.
— Mark Twain, from a letter to Saint Nicholas magazine
 CHAPTER 35

Clinical Signs of Disease

by Leo A Wuori and John E. Saidla

RECOGNIZING DISEASE
Cats are solitary creatures, which makes it These authoritative findings underscore the respon-
difficult for even the most concerned sibility of the cat owner. To determine when profes-
owner to detect signs of illness. Feline sional help is needed, the owner must know the cat
health care is increasingly important now thoroughly,
that cats are the nation's number one pet.
The American Veterinary Medical Association Coun-
cil on Public Relations re- NORMALS
cently reported these
findings. In addition to not- The most useful cues to pos-
sible problems in a healthy
the ingcouncil
the cat's foundstoic demeanor,
that: cat are deviations from what
• There is critical need are considered the "nor-
for improved feline health mals."People
selves well knowenoughthem-to
care in the United States. recognize changes in their
Many cat owners are un- bodies and do something
aware of the necessity for about them if they so choose.
regular veterinary care and Cats, however, do not have
are unable to recognize that freedom to choose so-
signs of illness in their cats phisticated therapy over the
themselves. self-help they are capable of.
• Although there has Sometimes they drink more
been a general upward when thirsty, they do not eat
trend in the percentage of cat-owning households and if sick, they are listless when injured, and so forth. Be-
the number of cats owned, almost 30 percent of these yond that, the good judgment of the owner is needed to
households
for their cats.currently Of those don't
that seek
do, 38veterinary attention
percent seek care provide even beadequate
One must alert to health
changescare.in the normals for a
less than once per year, because many cat owners particular cat. To know what is normal, the cat must
do not perceive the need for regular feline health be observed from the time it is a healthy kitten. Writ-
checkups, ten notes on the cat's usual behavior and activities are
343
THE SICK CAT

helpful,Jis,lx\,ius(.' and bladder blockage. Concern for feline infectious

tojiKs ussril Ik.111i cowner's memorv'
can provide may fail. forThea
a framework peritonitis (FIP) was followed by kidney disease, then
clian .Such elaia mcrea«<e one's awareness and serve the nonfatal problems of fleas and nutrition.
as imponant baseline information for die veterinarian The leading cause of death was feline leukemia
in ca.se of illness. Questions can be answered more virus (FeLV). Next was kidney failure, with cancer
easily, supplying necessary clues to the diagnosis and third. Old age was fourth in line, followed by feline
treatment. A reliable written record of a cat s lifestyle infectious peritonitis (FIP) and heart failure.
allows tfie veterinarian to know almost as much about Familiarity with the signs of these major diseases
the animal as its owner, .so he or she can recognize enables the owner to recognize early indicators that
possible problems and alleviate them. might suggest further examination is necessary. The
In general, a normal, healthy cat is alert, curious absence of these signs offers the owner peace of mind.
about its environment and all that it encounters, and
has a good appetite but rarely overeats unless food is
always SIGNS
clear; theavailable.
coat is Acleanhealthyand cat's
well eyes are bright
groomed (cats and
are
ver)' conscious of hygiene); the stools are well A routine for observation can be developed using a
formed; and the urine is blood free, a clear amber knowledge of the more important diseases and what
color, and not overly frequent. The cat sleeps soundly is normal for a panicular cat.
and frequently, napping often in the daytime as well
as at night, changing positions almost imperceptibly. Behavior
In addition to any daytime activity, it can also be active
in the middleon ofits theindividual night when feeling it"kittenish. A cat is, by nature, a solitary animal with a desire to
Depending personality, will seek " take care of its problems itself, and it can compensate
and dispense affection on various .schedules and be quite well for minor discomforts. It may just want to
aloof otlier times. Persistent seclusion for more than be left alone for a while. Being alone is normal unless
twent\'-four hours is a sign of possible problems and it lasts more than twenty-four hours, at which point
warrants investigation. human intervention is warranted. Changes in habits,
In judging its health .status, each cat must be re- personality, and behavior, subtle as they may seem,
garded as an individual, different and independent, to should alert the owner just as the appearance of swell-
determine when human intervention is needed. ing, blood, or an impaired leg would.
There is a secondary benefit to studying a healthy
cat. In addition to observing it and noting its various Pain
habits and behavior, the owner needs to handle and
examine the cat almost daily to know what normal is. Pain as a sign is often difficult to discern. The cat may
Gently done, this human contact has the appearance just want to be left alone and not handled. More se-
of petting, a sign of affection, which is pleasing. This vere pain often causes panting. A normally placid ani-
conditioning makes the cat a more tractable patient mal may growl if approached and even scratch or bite
for the professional to treat when that need arises, in self-defense. Hiding can also indicate pain or some
especially in the initial visits. medical problem. Visible signs of pain are reason
enough to seek immediate medical help instead of
waiting the customary twenty-four hours.
LEADING FELINE HEALTH CONCERNS
The Morris Animal Foundation conducts an animal General Signs
health survey every few years to learn what animal After a change in attitude, behavior, or personality has
owners feel are the leading health concerns for their been seen as an initial sign, attention should be given
pets and what are the leading causes of death. to any physical changes from what has been deter-
For cat owners, feline leukemia virus (FeLV) infec- mined to be normal for that particular cat. Attitude
tion was the leading health concern; feline lower uri- changes may not be apparent at first; therefore, physi-
nary tract disease (FLUTD) was next, including cystitis cal signs are important.
 CLINICAL SIGNS OF DISEASE

All the human senses should be used, not just sight. cated bya pale color of the gums and the mucous
Hearing, touch, and smell are equally important to membrane lining of the eye.
gather • Distressed breathing indicates an emergenq' re-
is amiss data. A "sixth"
without tangiblesense, to knowcanthatbe developed
evidence, something quiring immediate professional care. Coughing
over a period of time. This is when a written checklist or sneezing with no other signs does not repre-
of physical findings proves invaluable. sent an emergency situation. Collapse warrants
immediate professional attention.
• Increased body temperature (over 102.5°F) can
Physical Signs be caused by external factors: hot environmental
The owner should look for the following signs: temperature, excessive activity, frightened agita-
tion; or by internal factors: infection, abscesses,
systemic bacterial or viral diseases, unknown
• Changes in appetite, bowel movements, water causes.
drinking (too little/too much), urinating (exces-
sive/straining), vomiting. Table 35.1 is a detailed list of areas to examine and
• Distentions, swellings, changes in the appearance signs to look for. It is not intended to make the cat
of the hair coat, skeletal distortions, bilateral owner a veterinary diagnostician. It is a guide to know
symmetry (are the left and right the same?). Start when corrective measures are necessary and when to
at the tip of the nose; examine the top, bottom, and seek veterinary help.
both sides of the body, to the end of the tail. Finding bad odor, blood, pus, discharge, or breaks
• Changes in activity, gait, balance, sight, hearing, in the skin in any anatomical area should be consid-
touch response, awareness, head position. ered abnormal and will not be listed repeatedly in the
• Bleeding from external wounds, abscesses, tu- chan. The following is a guide for routine anatomical
mors, fractures. Hidden internal bleeding is indi- examination, area by area.

TABLE 35.1. OWNER'S EXAMINATION

AREA OR SYSTEM LOOK FOR: AREA OR SYSTEM LOOK FOR:
Excessively tearing eyes
Twitching Pale or blue gums or tongue
Salivation (excessive)
Hair loss Growths
Distortion of features Ulcers
Swellings Misaligned teeth
Lumps Swelling
Difficulty swallowing or eating
Redness
Pimples on chin Halitosis
Position of head Open-mouth breathing
Paleness
Lumps Drooping eyelid
Eyes Excessive tears
Sneezing (persistent) Redness of white of eye
Nasal discharge (bloodshot)
Swelling of lids
Cloudy surface
Pupils: constantly
different sizes wide, or of
THE SICK CAT

AREA OR SYSTEM LOOK FOR: AREA OR SYSTEM LOOK FOR:

Eyes Rapid, rhnhmic eye Persistant estnis in unspayed
movement female
Yellow color to white of eye Fetid vaginal discharge
Discomfort (persistent Abonion
pawing) Difficult queening
Crusts or infection Urinary Lumpy or swollen breasts
Swelling of flaps Excessive thirst and urination
Futile straining
Pepper>' dirtat inside
Scratching ears ear Notmale)
using litter pan (except
Stifihess spraying by uncastrated
Awkward position Paralysis (dragging)
Pain on movement Tail and tail head
Loss of feeling
Hard lumps Tender swelling
Tender swellings Legs
Crackling paperlike feel under Abnormal
Lack of useposition
Limping
skin
Lungs Coughing
Panting Pain
Rapid breathing (closed Hair
Hair loss
matting
mouth) at rest Hair dull and dry
Shallow breathing
Noisy breathing (except Crusts
Scabs
purring)
Distressed breathing (panicky ) Wounds
Itching
Pain
Painless lumps, particularly in
females Yellow color
Enlargement and swelling
Discoloration (bluish-purple) Feverish
Discomfort and tenderness Feels eating
Not cold
Severe pain with extreme Excessive eating
restlessness
Protrusion or bleeding from Weakness
rectum Lack of alertness
Not eating Confusion
Digestion Circling or falling
Vomiting
hairball)(except occasional Convulsions
Diarrhea Change in behavior
Straining on stool
Change in character of stool
Not using litter pan
Weight
Obesity loss
 CLINICAL SIGNS OF DISEASE

countered inan everyday relationship with a cat. Many

INDEX OF COMMON SIGNS are generalized signs of various diseases or pathologi-
cal conditions, requiring further differentiation by a
Table 35.2 is a listing of common signs and the possi- veterinarian for specific diagnosis. Thus, this listing is
ble condition or illness causing them; it is not in- to be used merely as an aid in narrowing down the
tended to be all inclusive or all exclusive. This possible causes responsible for that sign in each par-
information was selectively taken from a computer- ticular case, providing the owner with guidelines to
ized database called Consultant, developed at Cornell determine when to seek veterinary care. When a
by Maurice E. White, D.V.M., for computer-assisted di- choice is to be made regarding when to call the veteri-
agnosis and information management of all possible narian, always err on the side of "too soon" rather
feline diseases, including diseases from all parts of the than "too late." This will allow the veterinarian to use
world. his or her time judgment, especially regarding after-
Signs were selected that might commonly be en- hours emergency calls.

TABLE 35.2 COMMON SIGNS

This list will give some indication of what may be causing a clinical sign. Most of them are serious and
indicate a need for prompt veterinary attention.
POSSIBLE ILLNESS, POSSIBLE ILLNESS,
SIGNS CAUSE, OR CONDITION SIGNS CAUSE, OR CONDITION
Abdominal pain Abscess Abnormal behavior, Poisoning (lead,) phenol,
insecticides
Chronic bladder infection
Fight wounds aggression
(continued) Uremia
Intestinal obstruction
Kidney infection Abortion (uninduced) Early embryonic death
Pancreatitis Fetal resorption
Trauma Feline infectious peritonitis
Habitual feline abortion
Abdominal swelling Abdominal neoplasia Infections (viral, bacterial,
Bladder distention protozoal )
Feline infectious
Overeating peritonitis Cataracts
Pregnancy Degeneration of retina
Severe constipation Feline infectious peritonitis
Feline leukemia
Abnormal behavior, Congenital abnormalities Head trauma
aggression Encephalitis (rabies virus, Retinal detachment
ftingal. Toxoplasma Taurine deficiency
gondii) Wounds to the eye
Feline infectious peritonitis
Feline ischemic Breath, foul odor Abscess in mouth
encephalopathy Inflammation of mouth
Head trauma Kidney failure
Hyperthyroidism Neoplasias in the mouth,
Kidney failure pharynx, or tongue
Liver disease Oral foreign bodies
Neoplasia Periodontal disease
Tooth abscess
THE SICK C\T

POSSIBLE ILLNESS. POSSIBLE ILI_NESS,

SIGNS CA.L SE. OR CONT)mON SIGNS C\USE. OR CONDITION
Coughing
Breadiing. abnormal Bronchopulmonarv disease Bronchopulmonary disease
CJiest abdominal trauma Foreign bodies in trachea or
Feline infectious peritonitis bronchusin lungs
Parasites
Feline rhinotracheitis
Head trauma Pulmonary edema
Heart failure F*ulmonary neoplasia
Neoplasia Tonsillitis
Pleural eflFusions
Thoracic neoplasia Congenital
y*-hite catsdeafiiess
)
Circling (as a specific Brain trauma (e^>ecially blue-ey ed
betunor change) Encephalitis Ear canal fxjiyps and
Feline ischemic
encephalopathy Earneoplasias
infections
Inner ear infections Earchrotiic)
mites (severe and
Liver disease
Neoplasia
Poisoning Senile deafiiess
Thiamine dencienq." Depression .\nemia
N estibular s>-ndrome Dehydration
Feline infectious p>eritonitis
Consiipation Congenita] abnormalities Feline lower urinary tract
Debilitating diseases
Dehydration Fever
Feline infectious peritonitis Kidney failure
Foreign objects Malnutrition
Fractures of the pehis >Iiscellaneous disorders
Intestinal neoplasia
Megacolon CoUtis
Perineal hernia Exocrine pancreatic
Convulsions Brain trauma
Congenital abnormalities Foodinsufficiency-
sensitiyity-bowel disease
Inflammatory
Encephalitis
Epileps> Intestinal infection
Intestinal parasites
Feline ischemic Kidney failure
encephalopathy Liver failure
Heatstroke Neoplasia
Hypocalcemia Organophosphate toxicity
Hypoglycemia
Kidney failure
Liver failure
Neoplasia
Poisoning
 CLINICAL SIGNS OF DISEASE

POSSIBLE ILLNESS, POSSIBLE ILLNESS,

SIGNS CAUSE, OR CONDITION SIGNS CAUSE, OR CONDITION
Ear discharge Abscesses from fight wounds Hair, loss of Abscesses from fight wounds
Ear canal polyps and Any itchy skin condition
allergy)
(including insect
Earneoplasias
infections infestation, flea allerg>'
Ear mites dermatitis, atopy, food
Wounds and lacerations
Dermatophytosis
Any chronic illness Diabetes mellitus
Feline infectious peritonitis Eosinophilic granuloma
Kidney failure complex
Liver failure External parasites
Malnutrition Hyperadrenocorticism
Neoplasia Immune-mediated disorders
Infectious skin disease
Falling, incoordination Brain trauma Neoplasia
Chemical poisoning Psychogenic alopecia
Ear infections
Severe generalized trauma Chronic disease
Pelvis fracture Failure to groom
Spinal trauma Metabolic disorders
Vestibular syndrome Neglected longhair cats
Immune-mediated disorders Head swelling Abscesses from fight wounds
Infections (viral, bacterial, Acetaminophen toxicity
fungal, protozoal ) Allergic
Bee stingsreaction
Neoplasia
Poisoning Subcutaneous air from skull
fractures or wounds
General paralysis Brain trauma Tight
Chemical poisoning Traumacollars
and hemorrhage
Drug overdose from injuries
Encephalitis ( including
rabies induced)
Injury Brain neoplasia
Ear infections
Malnutrition Ear mites
Myasthenia gravis Encephalitis
Neoplasia Trauma to the head
Shock Vestibular syndrome
Snakebite Wounds to the pinna and ear
Spinal trauma Hemorrhage
Hair, duU Allergic dermatitis Fight wounds
Hereditary' defect
Lack of grooming by cat Immune-mediated disorders
Malnutrition Injury to tiie tongue
Metabolic disorders Neoplasia poisoning
Neglect Rodenticide
Parasitismby owner Trauma
THE SICK CAT

POSSIBLE ILLNESS, POSSIBLE ILLNESS,

SIGNS CAUSE, OR CONDITION SIGNS CAUSE, OR CONDITION
Hypothermia Anemia Mouth, pale mucousAnemia from blood loss
Antifreeze toxicity membranes Anemia from chronic
Brain trauma infection or neoplasia
Cold stress (exposure to Blood parasites
cold temperatures) Feline leukemia
Kidney failure Flea infestation (heavy)
Shock Shock
Trauma
Jaundice Bile duct obstruction
Blood destruction disease or Mouth, red mucous Chemical irritants
conditions membranes Gingivitis
Gallbladder inflammation Inflammation of the mouth
Liver disease Oral foreign body or abscess
Jaw, paralysis Abscess Mouth, swelling Abscess or infection
Facial nerve damage Fractures of mandible or
Foreign body in the tongue maxilla
Fractured mandible Inflammation of the mouth
Trauma Neoplasia of mouth, pharynx,
and tongue
Abscess Oral foreign body
Arthritis Trauma to tongue
Miscellaneous injuries
Neoplasia Mouth, tongue swelling Chemical irritant
Strains/sprains Foreign body in the tongue
Thromboembolism Injury or trauma to tongue
Neoplasia of tongue or
Loss of appetite Abscess/Fever mouth
Anemia
Dehydration Neck pain Abscess from wounds
Injury/trauma Fracture of vertebra
Intestinal obstruction Foreign body (i.e., needle or
Multiple miscellaneous splinter in neck)
disorders Injury or trauma
Neoplasia Neoplasia to injection given
Reaction
Mouth, excessive Chemical irritants in neck
salivation, frothing Foreign
at the mouth tonguebody in mouth or Nose bleeding Excessive sneezing
Inflammation of the mouth Immune-mediated disorders
Periodontal disease Inherited coagulation
Reactions to noxious disorder
substance Injury foreign
Nasal to nose body
(head trauma)
Nasal neoplasia
Rodenticide
Sinus injury poisoning
 CLINICAL SIGNS OF DISEASE

POSSIBLE ILLNESS, POSSIBLE ILLNESS,

SIGNS CAUSE, OR CONDITION SIGNS CAUSE, OR CONDITION
Paralysis, leg (front Abscess Swallowing, difficult Fightor head
wound abscess of neck
or rear) Blood clot in vessels to legs
Fight wounds Foreign
mouth body or neoplasia in
or esophagus
Fracture of bones in the leg
Injury to the leg Fracture of mandible,
Nerve damage from trauma maxilla, or hyoid
Rabies Swallowed irritants
Spinal injury or tumors Tonsillitis
Skin, emphysema Chest injury Thirst, excessive Chronic kidney failure
(subcutaneous air) Perforated trachea from Diabetes mellitus
wounds Glomerulonephritis
Skulldamage
fracture with sinus
Hyperthyroidism
P\ometra
Skin, itching Allergies Underweight or Any chronic illness
Contact dermatitis chronic weight loss Diarrhea
Eosinophilic granuloma Feline infectious peritonitis
complex Hyperthyroidism
Flea or other external Kidney failure
parasite infestations Liver failure
Hyperesthesia syndrome Malnutrition
Immune-mediated disorders Persistent fever
Infectious skin disease Severe stomatitis
(bacterial, fungal)
Neoplasia Urine, excessive Chronic kidney failure
amounts
Skin, painful Abscess Diabetes mellitus
Cystitis
Allergic dermatitis Glomerulonephritis
Bums body
Flea allergy dermatitis Hyperthyroidism
Miscellaneous injuries Vomiting Pyometra
Gastric or intestinal foreign
Skin, pimples and Ant bites
pustules Bite wounds from kittens Hairballs
Chin acne
External parasites Hyperthyroidism
Inflammatory- bowel disease
Immune-mediated disorders Intestinal parasites
Infectious skin disease Overeating
Neoplasia
Sneezing Dental disease
Nasal foreign body
Nasal neoplasia
Rhinitis/sinusitis
Upper respiratory infection
 CHAPTER 36

Surgery and

Postoperative Care
by Leo A Wuori

SURGERY
of many cats and sophisticated surgical procedures are routinely in use
Surghas er\' greatly improvethed lives
has saved the quality of life for in many private practices, although some are available
hundreds of thousands of others. Thus, there only at teaching veterinary institutions.
should be no apprehension in the minds of The purpose of this chapter is not to detail every
owners when surger>' is suggested by a veterinarian step in some common surgical procedures that a pet
as a way to solve a cat health problem that cannot cat may need; rather, the intent is to help allay appre-
be solved in any other hension, familiarize
way. There are many the owner with mod-
cases in which the . em surgical princi-
owner will be thank- J|4 pies, and show that
ful and most apprecia- j^jitik every surgery is not a
tive that the expertise \^ ^ crisis situation but a
of feline surgery has safe means to alleviate
progressed so their some
beloved pet can be lems. health prob-
saved and returned to Advances in science
a happy life. and technology have
Surgical neutering beenfit theadapted
allows many cats to be cat. Some,to bene-
such
accepted in thousands as those in virology,
of homes in which the have even originated
mating and estrous cy- with the cat. However,
cles would be otherwise too offensive and malodor- the medical community, veterinary and human, ac-
ous, in addition to resulting in unwanted litters of knowledges and teaches that there is no surgery with-
kittens. At the other end of the surgical spectrum, a out risk. In the past the greatest risk was anesthesia.
heart pacemaker has been successfully implanted in a This is no longer the case. It may help the owner to
cat to correct its cardiac arrhythmia. Many other such think of anesthesia as one step beyond restful sleep.

352
 SURGERY AND POSTOPERATIVE CARE

Prospective surgery can be faced with the assurance Kinds of Surgery

that all aspects of medical science will be available to
produce a favorable result. Surgery is divided into several groups:
When contemplating surgery for a cat, weighing all 1. Elective surgery is that in which the owner and
the advantages and disadvantages helps to organize veterinarian have a choice not necessarily based on
the choices into groups or categories. the health of the animal. Elective surgery would
Surgery can be considered for the following: include spaying the female to eliminate estrus and
1. The removal of a natural organ or tissue, such as reproduction; castrating the male to eliminate
ovaries or testes, for a preventive purpose. The spraying, offensive urine odor, and fighting; and
benefits derived must be considered in the deci- declawing to prevent destructive behavior. Benefit
sion to excise or not. versus risk must be weighed.
2. The removal of diseased tissue, unwanted new 2. Necessary surger}' is that which needs to be done for
growth (tumors), or altered anatomic structures the benefit of the cat's welfare, health, and good life,
that interfere with normal function. but without urgency and within a reasonable period
3- The correaion of faults in the anatomical structures of time. Fractures, lacerations, abscesses, bladder
caused by trauma, accident, or other outside influ- stones, and other disorders that are not immediately
ence, such as fractures, abscesses, lacerations, rup- life threatening are included in this group.
tured internal organs, hernias, or intestinal foreign 3. Emergency surgery is that which needs to be done
bodies. immediatelyand toexternal),
save a cat's life. Massive breathing,
bleeding
4. The correction of physiological dysfunction, as in (internal compromised
urinary obstruction, heart disease, thyroid disease, wounds permitting protrusion of internal organs,
adrenal disease. large tears in skin with displacement of tissue, and
5. A modification of anatomical structures necessary severe head injuries are conditions that present a
to return the body as far as possible toward normal threat to life and produce extreme pain, requiring
function and good health. immediate attention and surgery.
THE SICK CAT

need for transfusions and the presence or degree of

Surgical Steps infeaion involved. Combined witli blood chemistries,
Preparation for surger>- is as imponant as the anesthe- it can give an indication of the health status of the
sia, the recoven- period, or even the surger\- itself. whole animal.
Fonunately, elective and necessary- surger\- provide Urine analysis not only determines the status of the
sufficient tinif to e\aluate the patient regarding the urinan- system, but points out other systems that need
risks iii\ol\cd There is time to decide whether to either stabilizing before surgery, or monitoring and
operate nr not i, urrcnt techniques, such as x-rays, further evaluation.
blood -iikI mlici iluiil icsts. and various diagnostic
procedures. i cl1ui.c risk lo a minimum. .\lso, there is to Quite
decide often what these
kind ofpreoperative testsmedication
anesthesia and are necessar\'
will
time to properly prepare the patient h\ \\ ithholding be safest for that particular patient.
food and water, giving preoperati\c mediations, and The owner must withhold food overnight (eight
stabilizing conditions for successful surger\'. hours or more) before taking the cat for surgen,-. and
In emergency- surgen-, the same procedures are fol- allow no water for several hours. This is necessar\- to
lowed but within the time a\-ailable to save life. Abbre- prevent vomiting during the procedures or recover^-,
viated methods may be used to keep the patient alive and subsequent inhaling of food or liquid to cause
for surger\'. suffocation or inhalation pneumonia.
Many times, x-rays are necessan- to give the surgeon Evaluation of the patient for an elective procedure
essential information that he cannot learn by seeing in a young, vigorous, and healthy-appearing cat can
or feeling, such as w^hat bones are fraaured and what often be limited to a complete physical examination
internal organs are involved or enlarged. and determination of vaccination status. Obvioush-,
A complete bkx:)d count (CBC) may determine the mature or aged cats with complicated medical prob-
lems may need complete diagnostic work-ups. and it
may take a day or two before decisions can be made.
When emergenq- surgen- is required to save the
life of the patient, the time spent in evaluation must
necessarily be shortened. All vital functions, such as
blood circulation and breathing, must be maintained,
and shock must be prevented, until surgen' can be
performed.
Anestitesia
Anesthesia involves the use of drugs and various
agents (anesthetics ) for the purposes of blocking the
sensations of touch, pressure, or pain. Because the-cat
cannot be taught to hold still and because of his innate
nature to resent being held, general anesthesia is most
often used, although occasionally in simple proce-
dures, tranquilizers or sedatives w-ith local anesthetics
can be effeaive. There is a great variet\- of general
anesthetics: injection for shon-term procedures; inha-
lation for longer ones; or a combination of both that
will a\'oid pain, safely keep the animal still, relax the
muscles, and erase the memory- of what happened so
the animal is not left with the memor\- of trauma or,
perhaps, a fear of people. Safet\- and uneventful recov-
en,- are the prime factors in choice of anesthetics.
Before anesthesia for a surgical procedure is
staned, preinduction procedures are carried out. Sed-
 SURGERY AND POSTOPERATIVE CARE

disease or compromised circulation. Thus, planning

the kind of anesthetic for each individual is very im-
portant tothe success of the surgery.
Gas anesthesia is administered by a plastic nibe
(endotracheal tube) inserted into the trachea after
the cat is anesthetized with the intravenous drug used
in the preinduction period. The tube is connected to
an anesthesia machine, which administers oxygen and
the gaseous anesthetic of choice.
Monitoring
The inhalant gas anesthetic gradually replaces the in-
travenous one as the latter wears off. This transition
is carefully monitored by checking vital signs with
atives and tranquilizers can be given by injection to observation and monitoring equipment. The monitor-
relax the cat so it will be tractable and easily handled ing continues throughout die anesthesia stage and
for the rest of the surgical preparation. These preanes- early recovery period.
thetics also reduce the amount of general anesthetic Pulse rate and strength, respirations, and mucous
needed during surgery, again with the objective of membrane color are important evaluations that are
increased safety. Anticholinergic drugs, such as atro-
pine, are sometimes given to decrease salivation, to
slow intestinal activity, and to prevent reflex abnormal
slowing of the heart rate when certain internal organs
are manipulated during surgery.
Simple procedures such as catheterizations and
applying casts may be done with just the preanesthetic
medications. Supplementing with local anesthetics
allows the patient to tolerate suturing of minor
wounds, opening abscesses, and simple operations in
which pain is minimal and of very short duration.
When indicated, intravenous catheters are placed
for intravenous (IV) medication or anesthetics, and
vital-sign monitoring equipment is positioned during
this preinduction period. If possible, the hair is
clipped from a large area around the surgical site
before the general anesthetic is started, to shorten the
time it is needed.
The surgery to be performed and the evaluation of
the patient dictate the kind of general anesthetic to
be used. Intravenous general anesthetics are available
with a great variety of characteristics that can be cho-
sen for specific circumstances. Some are ultrashort-
acting barbiturates, some differ in recovery time and
other qualities. Others have various effects on various
organs and physiological systems.
The same principles apply to the inhalation gas an-
esthetics that are commonly used. Some gas anesthe-
tics should be avoided in the presence of liver disease;
others should not be used on patients with cardiac
THE SICK CAT

with supplemental heat by placing the cat on a pad

that circulates warm water. A metal table can dissipate
body heat very quickly.
Recovery
After the surgery is completed, the incision and
stitches, if used, are often protected by sealing them
with an antiseptic spray bandage, because cats do not
care for regular bandages and make efforts to remove
them. Regular bandages and casts are applied only
when the type of surgery requires their use, and then
special shields or collars may be needed to keep them
in place and protected.
The anesthesia is discontinued and the intravenous
catheters removed if fluids are no longer necessar\'.
made during any surgery. Some cases require that The patient is taken to a warm, quiet, and protected
blood pressure, urine output, central nervous system recovery cage for observation until fully conscious
or reflex reaction depression, and other physiological and able to navigate without injuring itself This may
functions be included in the monitoring. take just a few minutes or a few hours, depending
Besides making the depth of anesthesia easy to reg- on the kindtheofextent anesthesia used, and
the patient's general
ulate, the routine use of the anesthesia machine has condition, of surgery, otlier factors.
other advantages for the patient. The cat can be al- A specially construaed incubator is used when re-
lowed to breathe independently by its own stimula- covery isprolonged or for critically ill patients. It has
tion or breathing can be controlled by the anesthetist. a thermostatically regulated heat source (circulating
Forced respiration — manual or with the mechanical water pad), oxygen inlet, and equipment to continue
respirator — is necessary during diaphragmatic hernia intravenous therapy and monitor urine output or
repair and other open-chest surger\'. It is also life other vital functions when intensive care is required.
saving if breathing should stop or be excessively de-
pressed. Hospitalization
The use of narcotic drugs is helpful in alleviating ex-
cessive pain during or following surgen,'. Narcotics are The length of time a cat spends in the hospital after
panicularly suited because their effects can be quickly surgery varies according to the particular circum-
reversed by a specific antagonist if the need arises. stances. Inmany simple, uncomplicated cases, the pa-
tient may go home as soon as it is conscious. Some
routine major surgeries in which a body cavity Jias
Surgical Preparation been opened, such as a spay, might be ready the next
After the evaluation is completed, catheters are in day. More complex life-saving operations will require
place for intravenous fluids, and anesthesia has been much longer monitoring and hospital treatment to
staned, the surgical site is shaved and cleaned. The allow proper healing and return of normal function.
area involved is meticulously scrubbed with a special Orthopedic surger>' also requires close observation
surgical disinfectant to ensure a sterile field for sur- for longer periods of time.
gery. To avoid contamination, sterile drapes cover the Theless ofpatient's
patient, the table, and the instrument trays. The sur- the lengthstatusor atcomplexity
the time ofof surgery', regard-
the procedure,
geon and assistant wear sterile caps, gowns, masks, influences the length of stay in the hospital. Age is
and gloves, just as in human surgery. The operating taken into consideration, as well as the effect of the
room is used only for surgerv' to keep it as clean as problem on the general condition of the patient at
possible. It is equipped with special operating lights, the time of examination, the cat's temperament for
anesthesia machines, and vital-sign monitors. Care is confinement, and its prior health history. The poten-
taken to maintain the patient's normal temperature tial for complications arising at home, coupled with
 SURGERY AND POSTOPERATIVE CARE

the owner s ability to give proper convalescent care, 3. Extra vigilance is necessary until recovery is com-
are additional considerations. plete. The incision and sutures should be checked
daily for swelling, discharge, and irritation.
4. Follow-up appointments are an extremely im-
POSTOPERATIVE CARE portant part of surgery and should be kept as
scheduled.
This vital part of successful recovery is owner depen- 5. If any uncertainty arises, a call for advice is easy to
dent. Convalescent time at home to completion of make and welcomed by the veterinarian; this will
healing is affected by the same factors that determined aven problems and ease the owner's mind.
hospital stay (i.e., age, status, physical condition, kind
of surgery). Over 75 percent of soft-tissue healing oc-
curs by the fourteenth day, whereas bone fractures
require four to eight weeks or longer to produce a COMMON ELECTIVE SURGERY
good union and return of function. Castration
Specific instructions for each individual case must
be followed, but some general surgical aftercare pro- This most common elective surgery of the male cat is
cedures are consistent: universally accepted by knowledgeable owners to
1. Rest and confinement are necessary until recovery stop objectionable behavior in order to have an ac-
is complete. ceptable household pet. The surgery removes the tes-
tes, the source of sperm, as a birth control measure.
2. Empathy mistakenly can lead to giving extra treats It eliminates production of the hormones that cause
or overfeeding. In the absence of special diet in- an uncastrated male to roam; to be markedly aggres-
structions, the previous normal feeding routine sive toward other cats, leading to persistent fighting;
should be followed. and to spray malodorous urine for marking territory
outside and even in the house.
This surgery is for the convenience of the owner
and is often done at seven to ten months of age, when
sexual development is about complete but the unde-
sirable habits have not been established. Neutering
at an earlier age has been investigated recently, and
appears to be quite safe. Studies conducted to date
have found no physical or behavioral problems asso-
ciated with neutering kittens when less than four
months of age. Proponents of early-age neutering re-
gard itto be a safe and effective means of helping to
control the feline population. Regardless of the age
when performed, usually it is one-day surgery, with
little home care required. Confinement indoors for a
few days will provide tlie cat rest and the owner the
opportunity to watch for excessive licking of the scro-
tum or swelling. Sometimes shredded paper towel or
newspaper is substituted for earthen or commercial
liner in the pan to help keep the scrotal area clean
until healed.
The operation itself is brief, with short-term anes-
thesia normally used. The scrotum is shaved and sur-
gically scrubbed for sterility. A single incision is made
in the scrotum or over each testicle, depending on the
surgeon's
which preferred
is divided technique.
between The spermatic
the spermatic duct andcord,
the
THE SICK CAT

blood vessel, becomes a natural suture that is used as dure may be performed at a much earlier age. Unlike
a self-tie to prevent bleeding from the vessel. Some castration, this procedure is considered major surgery
prefer to clamp and tie the cord with man-made su- because the abdomen is invaded, and therefore it re-
ture material. No stitches are placed in the scrotum. quires ahospital stay of twenty-four hours or more,
Occasionally a conscience-stricken owner will ask depending on the practice of the veterinarian.
about merely doing a vasectomy as a method of birth Usually, an inhalation general anesthesia is used.
control. The veterinarian must explain that the male A large area of abdomen is shaved, scrubbed, and
cat will be sterile but the remaining testicles will con- prepared for sterile surgery. The abdomen is incised
tinue producing male hormones, which cause the un- and opened, the ovaries and uterus are located and
desirable habits that tlie surgery of castration is withdrawn outside, and blood vessels are closed with
usually intended to correct. sutures placed beyond the ovaries and at the uterine
stump that will be left. Both ovaries, both uterine
horns, and the body of the uterus are removed. Care
Ovariohysterectomy is taken to remove all ovarian tissue, because even a
This procedure, commonly known as spaying, is done very small amount can produce signs of estrus. The
as a population control measure and for the conve- muscles and abdominal wall are stitched closed with
nience ofthe owner to eliminate the annoying actions material that will remain and be absorbed after heal-
of a female cat "in heat" or estrus, which can occur ing. Skin closure can be done with the same material.
repeatedly, intermittently, or sometimes continuously, However, many surgeons prefer to use nonabsorb-
until the cat is mated or artificially stimulated to ovu- able sutures, which are removed in ten days to two
late. The increasing amount of daylight in the spring weeks.
influences the onset of heat, which continues until Home becarelimited is notuntil
complicated. The patient's activity
daylight decreases in September or October. Twelve should the skin sutures are removed,
to fourteen hours per day of continuous artificial light to avoid strain on the healing muscle and skin. If the
may cause continuous polyestrus with no anestrus cat licks the incision excessively, or if there is swell-
period noted in the fall and winter. (See Chapter 9: ing, or the skin opens near it, the veterinarian should
Reproductive Physiology.) be called. Most cats ignore satisfactory surgery and
If the female in heat is an outdoor cat, she will pay very little attention to trouble-free incisions.
attract uncastrated males that will fight, destroy gar- Occasionally, owners ask if the ligation (tying off)
dens and other property, and be a nuisance. Indoors, of the fallopian tubes, a method sometimes used in
the cat in heat will seek constant attention and af- humans, would be a simpler substitute. Veterinarians
feaion, vocalizing almost continuously, rolling on the are universally opposed to this procedure and rarely
floor agree to use it. It does prevent unwanted pregnancy,
nervousor and rubbingeasilyagainst
agitated.people's legs. She becomes but it does not satisfy the other reasons for complete
There are several valuable health applications in- removal of the ovaries and reproductive tract. Without
volved inspaying. Removing the uterus eliminates the ovariohystereaomy, the estrous cycles continue, and
possibility of a severe uterine infection known as pyo- the reproduaive organs continue to be subject to life-
metra, which is frequently seen in the unspayed cat. threatening tumors, infections, and other diseases of
This disease is very debilitating and can be fatal if this system.
unnoticed and untreated. (See Chapter 12: Reproduc-
tive Disorders.) Spaying a cat before its first heat may Declawing
help to reduce the incidence of mammary cancer,
although it does not totally eliminate the possibility. The humane implications of this procedure are the
Mammary cancer in the cat is much less common subject of much emotional discussion and debate. De-
than in the dog; however, when a mammary tumor clawing is elective surgery that is not necessary for
does appear in a cat, it is much more likely to be ma- health reasons. The only benefit derived is to the
lignant. owner, by preventing destruction of household fur-
Spaying is often performed at approximately six nishings and property if a particular cat cannot be
months of age. Like castration of male cats, the proce- trained to stop ruinous scratching. (Perhaps an
 SURGERY AND POSTOPERATIVE CARE

oblique benefit to such a cat is that declawing will havior as a result of declawing. Routinely, the hind
save him his home if all else fails.) feet are not declawed; thus cats can still hunt success-
Rather than to advise, we will attempt to present fiilly, climb small-diameter trees, and defend them-
what is known and to describe the surgery, leaving selves.
the pondering and decision making to the owner.
General anesthesia is used to avoid pain. There is no Perineal Urethrostomy
evidence of postoperative discomfort beyond that of
any other surgery. A tourniquet is placed and the feet This surgery cannot be classified as elective. It is in-
are scrubbed surgically without clipping the hair (ex- cluded here because of the high incidence of feline
cept in longhair cats), and then they are soaked in lower urinary tract disease (FLUTD), with associated
antiseptic. The nail is not pulled, instead, the end urethral obstruction, resulting in the occasional ne-
bone of the digit holding the claw is amputated at ces ity ofperineal urethrostomies.
the joint, leaving a smooth surface covered with skin, Female cats rarely suffer from obstruction of the
which is sometimes sutured with absorbable material. urethra resulting from crystal formation. This is be-
The feet are bandaged, and several days of hospitaliza- cause the diameter of the female urethra is large
tion are recommended by some veterinarians. enough to allow expulsion of most of these small
After the bandages are removed, the cat is sent crystals. But the male cat's urethra at the level of the
home with instructions for indoor confinement for a penis becomes much narrower than that of the fe-
week to avoid digging in the dirt. Shredded paper male, and it is in this area that urethral obstruction
may be substituted for litter in the pan. usually occurs. Urine backs up within the bladder as
Adverse psychological effects of declawing have not a result of urethral obstruction, and eventually kidney
been demonstrated. In fact, research indicates that function is impaired. The resulting accumulation of
there is neither an increase in the risk of developing various waste products within thecancat's
a behavior problem nor a decrease in desirable be- and an imbalance of electrolytes, causebloodstream
death.
THE SICK CAT

The surgical answer to the male cat's dilemma is to caused by urethral obstruction, and the longer heal-
remove the penis and its small-diameter urethra and ing process involved in this more complicated sur-
make a new opening for the remaining ponion of the gery, dictate closer monitoring of the entire animal
urethra below the anus. The remaining portion of the and the operative site. Sometimes a catheter is left in
male urethra is similar in diameter to that of the fe- place for a period of time or until the sutures are re-
male, and obstructive material can be passed more moved.
easily. It is important to note that the urethrostomy Postoperative home care requires close attention
does not alter the production of this material; it only from the owner, with important specific instructions
changes the route of their expulsion. from the veterinarian to be followed penaining to
Longer hospitalization is required than with the each individual case. Rest and confinement are
other common surgeries described. The preceding needed.
in the pan.Again, shredded paper is substituted for litter
decline in the general condition of the patient that is
 CHAPTER 37

Convalescence/

Home Care

by Leo A Wuori

Theand skill of the toowner in giving home care edge can often be the first help that is given in an
the extent which he or she is willing emergency. Also, cat owners should purchase, before
to give treatment are prime factors in the the need arises, items to include in a medicine kit or
success of any medical treatment program. cabinet used exclusively for pets.
Hospitalization can be avoided in some cases, or Good home care for a convalescing cat will be
shonened in others, if the owner develops more than made easier and more effective if a few general princi-
the usual layman's ex- ples are followed:
pertise. The informa-
tion in Part X, The 1. The procedure
Sick Cat, and in Part should be thought out
XI, Medical Emergen- and planned in ad-
cies, provides an ex-
cellent basis for vance according
structions thattohavein-
learning how to care been given by the vet-
for a convalescing cat. erinarian.
Home care will lessen 2. Appropriate equip-
the anxiety ment, supplies, and
caused cat's
by separat ion, drugs
and it also results in availableneed and toready be
lower medical costs. for use. One room
Although many cats should be prepared
do well in hospital sit- where the cat can be
uations, the unique nature of the cat and its great confined, so it cannot hide in some undiscovered cor-
attachment to its habitat mean that sick cats usually ner of the house.
do better at home. Hospitalization is best kept to a 3. Adequate assistance should be available.
minimum. 4. A sense of calmness should prevail, along with a
Early studv is advisable because the owner's knowl- confident attitude that all will be accomplished.

361
THE SICK CAT

5. Nursing care should be performed after the pa- inch and leave for one to two minutes if a glass rectal
tient s quiet period rather than after eating, activity, thermometer is used.
or playtime. If it is not possible to get a rectal temperature, a
6. The patient's temperature should be taken first if it less accurate estimate can be taken by holding the
is pan of the prescribed care, before the cat be- thermometer in the armpit (under foreleg) or in the
comes excited and elevates the temperature. groin between the hind legs, which are held together
7. Wrinen records should be kept, with the date and for two or three minutes. Absolute disaster will result
time of each cntn Notes should be kept on; inci- if the thermometer is placed between the lips and
sion, inwhk h [\\c < )\\ iKT should look for discharge, teeth or anywhere in the mouth. Cats bite down on
swelling, cxciptiuiuil redness, pain, and odor (un- anything placed in their mouths, including a finger.
less expected); bandages/casts, to observe whether The response is a defense mechanism to destroy a
there is dryness, swelling, odor, cleanliness, exces- possible threat.
sive cold or warmth, mutilation, comfort, and func- A normal temperature in tlie cat should range be-
tion capability^; and physical signs, such as unusual tween 100.4°F and 102 5°F, with 105°F being a danger
appetite, eliminations, drinking, or activity. sign. Temperatures over I08°F can be immediately
life threatening if caused by heatstroke or heat ex-
haustion (which requires cooling in a cold-water
Taking a Cat's Temperature bath). The cat is not as susceptible to brain damage as
Abefore
cat's temperature the human from extremely high fevers from other
a veterinarianis isimportant
called, andinformation
taking it tomayhavebe causes.
part of the prescribed home treatment and convales- The thermometer should be wiped clean before
cence. Taking the temperature reading of a cat may reading, and the results recorded on paper, not left to
seem a formidable task to the uninitiated, but if done memory'. With the glass thermometer, it is customary
calmly, gently, and with confidence, it can become to report temperatures to the closest tenth of a de-
routine. Use a human rectal thermometer (never a
thin-walled oral one). Shake it down to at least 96°F
and lubricate it with K-Y jelly or petroleum gel. An gree. Restraint
electronic digital t>pe is easier to read.
A second person can hold the cat gently on a Minimal restraint. The best restraint is the least re-
counter, allowing it to grasp the edge with its front striction. Always begin with petting and gentle hold-
paws, which decreases the opportunity for injury as ing. Just enough restraint to accomplish the objective
well as giving die animal a sense of security. The assis- should be used, because cats resent forceful eff'orts.
Force will cause panic, as will rough, sudden move-
hand tantandcan hold
the frontthe legs
cat's athead comfortably
the elbows (never with one
the feet) ments and loud
with the other. A soft voice in calm conversation with environment shouldangrybe calm
voicesandandpeaceful.
noises. The cat's
the cat is soothing. Simple distraction, by holding the cat up with gen-
If there is no assistant, stand the cat on a counter tle shaking or petting, can be sufficient restraint for
and, holding the tail upright with one hand and gently giving injections or other simple procedures.
gripping the withcat's the
bodyotherwithhand.
that elbow, insert the Two-person restraint. An assistant can restrain a cat
thermometer by stretching it out on a table or bench with the scruff
If the cat resists, it may be necessary to roll-wrap it of the neck in one hand and the hind legs (above the
in a towel. Use a towel large enough to cover all four hocks, never the feet) in the other. Holding firmly, the
feet and wrap completely around the cat more than assistant can pull the hind legs back. When possible,
once. Leave the head and the anus exposed. the cat can be allowed to grasp the edge of the table
Place the thermometer with slow and gentle but with its front paws to stabilize itself
steady pressure against tlie anus. At first, there will be One-person restraint. When there is only one per-
firm resistance from the rectal muscles, which will son, the area of examination must be determined first.
relax with continued gentle pressure. Patience and Stand the cat on a counter and grasp the area or limb
time are necessary in this maneuver. Insert about one with one hand, while gently gripping the cat's body
 CONVALESCENCE/HOME CARE
363

with that elbow motions and usually begin swallowing. If the head is
perature). Inall(asattempts,
describedkeep
for taking the cat's
the claws tem-
pointing turned loose, the cat is apt to shake its head and expel
down toward the table, remain calm and firm, and try the paste. The paste can be pressed against the teeth
to work quickly. Restraint with one person is often as well.
difficult. It may be necessary to use roll-wrapping or ■When liquid foods are administered, the head is
a cat bag. held in the same manner. A plastic syringe (without
Roll-wrapping. If the cat is extremely agitated, roll- needle) or a small kitchen basting syringe is used. The
wrapping is the best solution. Use a towel that is large tip of the syringe is insened into a pouch formed
enough to envelop all four paws and wrap around the where the upper and lower lips meet, between the
cat more than once. Leaving the area of examination side of the cheek and the teeth. The liquid must be
exposed, completely wrap the towel around the ani- administered slowly and patiently, allowing adequate
mal firmly but gently. Many animals relax and calm time for swallowing. Stroking the throat will some
down once they are incapacitated. times stimulate swallowing. Once swallowing has
Cat bags. These are made of canvas with hooks, started, continue squeezing liquid slowly into the
snaps, or zippers. The cat is placed in the open bag, pouch until the patient decides it's time to rest. Allow
which is then zipped and closed around the cat. sufficient rest time, using constant praising and strok-
Force-Feeding cess.ing to regain the cat's confidence, and repeat the pro-
"Water is administered in the same way. Flavoring
Smell
can smell the food isto more
is important a cat'sinclined
eating tohabits.eat, soA cat that
it helps the
mightwater makewithit more just a acceptable.
little of tlie Some
cat's favorite
cats are treat
not
to clean a clogged nose of any nasal discharge by frequent water drinkers. If force-feeding must be
gently using warm water and soft cotton until the nose done alone, wrapping the cat in a towel, leaving just
is clear. Addition of pungent fish foods will sometimes the head out, is almost mandatory. Force-feeding re-
stir a finick>' appetite. If not, high-calorie nutrient quires assistance, time, and great patience, but it is
pastes are available that can be force-fed as is or essential for recovery' if the patient will not eat on its
mixed with other food and liquids to make a mixture own.
that may be easier to administer.
The oncat'sthehead
finger side isridges
held from
of the thefacetopthatwithare thumb and
just below Administering Medicines
the eyes. The head is tipped up, the mouth partially Medicating a cat is a difficult task. The personality of
opened with a finger, and a strip of paste squeezed the cat is the most important matter to remember
into the mouth or placed on the roof of the mouth. when giving medications. A cat is an independent ani-
With the head held tipped, the cat will make licking mal, unwilling to accept things that are done for it

^. , ill.
THE SICK CAT

or to it. Mentally establishing an aura of confidence,

calmness, kindness, patience, and persistence will
make the chore bearable and successful to both the
cat and owner. The cat bag is often an important aid.
EXTERNAL (SKIN) MEDICINES. Cleanliness is
a fetish with cats. A cat's constant desire to lick itself
clean requires patience and time with skin medica-
tions. Ointments or liquids should be rubbed in thor-
oughly. Hold the cat and play with it for ten or fifteen
minutes, until the medication can be absorbed or
dries. Some medicines may be sufficiently bitter to
prevent licking. Discuss this with the veterinarian.
Medicated baths are to be carefully given, following
prescribed directions. As in any bathing, the ear canals
are plugged with cotton and a drop or two of mineral
oil is placed in each eye for protection from bath
solutions or soap. Care should be exercised to avoid
getting tlie bath solutions into the mouth, and, if so
instructed, the cat may have to be held and dried-to
avoid licking. Always remember to remove the cotton
plugs from the ears.
INJECTIONS. Some conditions, such as diabetes,
require hypodermic injections. Ask the veterinarian
for a demonstration before attempting to give an in-
jection. There are many variables with the different
injectables (e.g., storage, shaking the vial, warming,
disinfectants to use, injection locations). To cover
tJiem in the text would be impractical and could lead
to errors if misinterpreted.
ORAL MEDICATIONS. Pastes. There are several
medications available in paste form, such as vitamin-
 CONVALESCENCE/HOME CARE

mineral mixtures, hairball treatments, and nutritional/ having its food tampered with. This will upset the
caloric supplements. Because they are made for oral dosage
use in cats, the manufaaurers have taken pains to ment. schedule, greatly reducing the efficacy of treat-
make them palatable, so they are usually accepted by Tablets/ capsules. Medication for cats is put up in
the cat. If they are not, see and follow the instructions tablet or capsule form because it may work best or
for tablets and capsules. might only be effective in this form. For example, one
Liquids. Palatability is an important consideration in medication might have a protective coating to avoid
the preparation of liquid medication to be given orally being destroyed by stomach acids before it reaches
to cats. Mix particularly distasteful liquids in small the intestines. Granules and powders may be put in
amounts with one of the pastes described above or capsules to avoid extremely bitter and unsavory tastes.
the cat's thatfavorite treat on isa compatible
trial basis (ifwiththewhatlabelis One should always ask for approval from the veteri-
indicates the medicine narian before the tablet or capsule is crushed and
used). Strong fish tastes are worth trying. combined with something else.
The proper dose then should be mixed and given A little butter may help in swallowing, as long as
as prescribed at the proper time. Do not mix the en- the tablet does not become too slippery to handle.
tire dose in the regular meal. The cat may decide not Hold the cat's head from the top with thumb and
to eat, may roam for a time, or just may not appreciate finger on the side ridges of the face that are just be-
THE SICK CAT

antiseptics, and sanitizers are used to reduce or elimi-

nate disease-causing microbial organisms.
The effectiveness of these preparations against sev-
eral common feline viruses (feline herpesvirus I
[which causes rhinotracheitis], feline calicivirus, and
feline panleukopenia virus) has been investigated at
tlie Cornell Feline Health Center, as a component part
of the Antiviral Substances Program of the Infectious
Disease Branch of the National Institutes of Health.
The antiviral activities of thirty-five commonly used
products were evaluated. Of the products tested, so-
dium h\pochlorite appeared to be the best overall
antiviral product for routine disinfection or decontami-
nation ofcages, floors, and food dishes in animal facili-
ties. Itis effective, inexpensive, and readily available.
The most common form is ordinary household bleach
(house-brand chlorine bleach or Clorox, 5.6 percent
sodium hypochlorite, at a recommended dilution of
1 :32 in water — one cup Clorox to two gallons of water).
To increase detergent activity, Clorox can be com-
bined with several products without loss of its antiviral
activity. Caution is advised with these combinations,
because no attempt was made to critically evaluate
potential biohazard effects from long-term exposure
low the eyes; tip the head up. Hold the pill between to such combinations. For example, sodium hypo-
chlorite mixed with ammonia compounds releases
the thumb and forefinger of the other hand, using the ammonia gas, which is toxic in excessive quantities;
third finger to gently prop open the mouth. Drop the therefore, any space being disinfected with a combi-
pill as far back in the throat as possible, on the mid- nation of Clorox and any ammonium compound
line. Continue to hold the head back and stroke the should be well ventilated to prevent humans and ani-
throat until swallowing occurs. After the pill is mals from inhaling strong concentrations of ammonia
dropped, a quick short poke with the forefinger, the gas. However, Clorox has been used routinely in com-
eraser end of a pencil, or a cotton-tipped applicator bination with A-33 (Airkem), a quaternary ammo-
may move the pill over the base of the tongue. This nium detergent (a class of chemical compounds)
maneuver must be done quickly but with great cau- with a pleasant odor, for several months in the animal
bitten.tion sAsk
o as not
for atodemonstration
damage the cat's
beforethroat or become
attempting this facilities and clinic wards (1:32 Clorox and 1:64 A-33)
with no apparent ill effects.
technique. Commercial "pill guns" are also available The occurrence of fatal hemorrhagic diarrhea in
that may make administration of pills easier, at least dogs, caused by canine parvovirus, is an excellent ex-
for some individuals. ample of the need for effective antiviral disinfectants
Remember to give sincere praise, attention, and even to decontaminate wards and adoption shelters. The
a little treat when the pill is swallowed. This show of use of effective decontamination measures in adop-
empathy will prepare the cat for the next encounter. tion shelters and pet shops will greatly reduce the
occurrence of viral diseases in dogs and cats passing
through these facilities.
Disinfection Decontamination eliminates or decreases the quan-
This topic rightfully deserves a place in convalescence tity of virus exposure and increases the average length
and home-care management. It is especially important of time between entrv' of the animal and infection. In
in multiple-cat households to help reduce infectious most cases, this allows sufficient time for immuniza-
diseases within the feline population. Disinfectants, tion to provide solid protection.
 PART XI

Medical

Emergencies

A little cat played on a silver flute.

And a big cat sat and listened;
The little cat's strains gave the
big cat pains,
And a tear on his eyelids glistened.
— Anhur Macy, "The Boston Cats"
 CHAPTER 38

First Aid

by Robert W. Kirk and

Mordecai Siegal

he actions taken immediately after a cat has when attempting to determine what is wrong with a
had an accident or suffered from a sudden cat that is in pain or unconscious.
illness can save its life. Sometimes, illness The key objectives of first aid are the following:
T: has been present for a while but it is discov-
ered at the sudden onset of signs that constitute an 1. To preserve life.
emergency. 2. To alleviate suffering.
Cats, of course, cannot explain verbally what hap- 3- To promote recovery'.
pened to them or 4. To prevent aggra-
what they feel, but vation ofthe injury or
certain signs reveal illness until veterinary-
vital information to assistance can be ob-
help determine a tained.
course of action. Is
the cat breathing? Is
its heart beating? Is it CHECK FOR
bleeding? Is its tem- Br . ML
perature normal? Is it NORMAL VITAL
behaving abnormally? SIGNS
Cats in pain are It is essential to know
frightened and often the normal tem-
try to run away and perature, pulse, and
hide. To administer breathing rate of your
help, the owner must cat to accurately judge
forcibly restrain the animal with blankets or bags to the severity of illness or injury. Cats vary, as people
avoid being bitten or scratched. Speaking softly to the do, but these are general guidelines:
cat, using its name, and handling it with a firm but
gentle grip will often calm a panicked cat enough to Temperature 100.4°F-102.5°F
allow treatment.
An understanding of the normal structures and Pulse 160-240 per minute
functions of a cat's body is needed for comparison Respirations 20-30 per minute
369
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

WHAT TO DO IN THE EVENT OF AN EMERGENCY

1 . Remove the cause of the injury if possible. and protect the injured area to prevent further dam-
2. Clear airways so the cat can breathe. Remove any age and pain. Use blankets, rugs, and boards or
collar or harness boxes to support an animal being transported.
and throat of anyfrom the cat's
foreign body.blood,
material, Clear orthe fluids.
nose 9. Treat for shock. If the cat is unconscious, place its
Place the animal in the position that makes breathing head slightly lower than the rest of its body to treat
as easy as possible. shock and to prevent the patient from inhaling flu-
3. Give artificial respiration (see "Artificial Respira- ids or materials in the mouth. Do not give anything
tion," page 372 ) if the patient is not breathing. by mouth, not even water or medicines. If the cat
4. Treat cardiac arrest with CPR immediately (see "Car- is conscious and not seriously injured, give small
diopulmonar)' Resuscitation," page just
373).behind
Oftenthea amounts of drinking water.
sharp blow on the side of the chest, 10. Promptly transport the cat to a veterinary facility
shoulder, wiU suffice. Continue CPR until the cat's for professional care.
heart is pumping on its own and the cat is breathing. 11. If possible, have someone phone the veterinary
5. Stop or control bleeding as soon as possible. Use hospital or surgery, while you are on the way, to
pressure bandages, pressure points, or tourniquets as alert the staflf of your need for emergency care. The
needed. person who calls should give a brief description of
6. Cover any wounds with clean, dry dressings. the injuries, so the hospital personnel can make
7. Keep the patient warm with blankets, box, or in a preparations for your arrival.
warm car, et cetera. 12. Don't speed on the way! A patient that won t sur-
8. Do not move or manipulate the patient unnecessar-
ily. An injured animal will usually assume the least roughvive afew
ride minutes probably may
to the hospital can't aggravate
be saved, injuries.
and the
painful position, with the injured part uppermost. Risking an additional accident — to yourself or your
UTien it is necessary to move the patient, support pet — is not justified by any emergency.

For a reference point, you should determine these breathing can indicate shock or lack of oxygen. La-
rates for your cat when it is healthy, and keep a record bored breathing may be a clue that there is an obstruc-
in your first-aid kit. Excitement or exercise will in- tion or severe chest injury. Shallow breathing is a sign
crease the normal rates, as in humans, so your most of weakness or chest pain. Irregular breathing is a very
valid measurements will be obtained when the cat is serious sign, calling for an immediate veterinary' exami-
at rest. A good time to measure normal pulse and nation. Among the many problems it could indicate are
respiration is when you and your pet are relaxing fractured ribs and punctured or collapsed lung.
together in the course of a normal day. Unless your cat is unusually docile, you will need a
To find the pulse, press your first two fingers helper to hold it while you take its temperature. Do not
against the inside of the upper hind leg, where the attempt to take the temperature of a cat with breathing
large femoral artery is found. Count the pulse for at difficulty. (See Chapter 37: Con\'alescence/Home Care.)
least sixty seconds. You can also see or feel the hean-
beat on the chest wall directly behind the cat's
"elbow." In an emergency situation, the heartbeat or CREATE A FIRST-AID KIT
pulse should be taken and reported to the veterinar-
ian. An extremely fast pulse may indicate a state of The following list does not include common house-
shock. A weak pulse indicates a dire situation, which hold items, which are assumed to be already available,
should receive immediate veterinary attention. such as scissors, pliers, blankets, soap, bicarbonate of
To determine the breathing rate or respiration, soda, and mineral oil. Towels or large cloths or blan-
watch the cat's chest movement. Count either inhala- kets should be available to restrain the cat if it is hys-
tions or exhalations (not both) for one minute. Rapid terical. The numbers in parentheses indicate quantity.
 FIRST AID

the source of that pain. Their natural instincts are to

CONTENTS FOR A CAT FIRST-AID KIT escape and hide; if they cannot, they will strike out at
anyone who approaches, to avoid a repetition of the
incident that caused the pain.
MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT Veterinarians can use medicine (tranquilizers, seda-
tives, and anesthetics) to alleviate the suffering of a
Gauze bandages, 1" and 2" rolls ( 1 each) cat. First aid is the process necessary to get the cat to
Gauze dressing pads, 3" x 3 " (8) the veterinarian.
Adhesive tape, wool
Roll of cotton 1" roll( 1()1 ) In general, the cat is a very independent creature.
Triangular bandage ( 1 ) Its personality necessitates
finement to an area where itforcible
thinks itrestraint,
is free butoris con-
not.
Rectal thermometer ( 1 ) An injured cat may wound anyone offering medical
Cotton balls (6)
Tweezers ( 1 ) assistance by biting, or by scratching with any of its
four feet. It is almost impossible to muzzle a cat, so
MEDICATIONS one must avoid the mouth area. Restraint of the feet
is imponant.
3% hydrogen peroxide (2 oz)
Milk of magnesia tablets, 5 gm ( 10) twoTofront
humanely legs together, "disarm"justtheabovecat'stheclaws,
feet, bysecure the
winding
Activated charcoal tablets ( 20 ) adhesive tape around them two or three times. Then
Kaolin mixture (2 oz) fasten the rear legs together in a similar manner. Hold
Antibacterial ointment the head firmly. The cat can now be examined and
For eye, Vs oz tube ( 1 ) treated carefully and effectively.
For skin, '/a oz tube ( 1 ) Actually, the cat is usually a bluffer and will respond
Always replace materials and medications after they well to confident but firm handling. It is also forgetful
have been used. and forgiving. If a cat becomes angry at forced treat-
ment, release it. Soon it will once again be docile and
approachable.
Picking Up or Carrying a Cat
HOW TO RESTRAIN AN II^URED CAT 1. Reassure the cat. Talk to it quietly, gently stroke its
head and ears, and run your hand down its back.
Injured cats often do not recognize their owners, 2. With the cat's tail toward your elbow and its head
whom they normally trust. Nor do they understand facing toward your hand, move your hand under
the concern and help that people are trying to give its chest (sternum)
them. Cats in pain are afraid and do not understand body resting on your and lift, with
forearm the cat's against
and snuggled lower

PRINCIPLES OF RESTRAINT

1. Approach the patient with a firm but kind and 4. Protect yourself from injury that may be inflicted
quiet manner. Use its name if you know it and
allow the animal to sniflF the back of your closed 5. upon
Place you
the bycat thein patient.
a situation different from its usual
fist. secure environment (on the top of a table instead of
2. Do nothing to further injure the patient. on the floor, for example). The newness will create
3 Restrain the patient in a way that will not allow it to uncertainty but not pain, and the patient will be
injure itself. more cooperative and easier to treat.
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

your body. The other hand can either grasp the

scruff of the cat's neck or cradle its chin.
3. Transport a cat in a basket, cat carrier, or cloth bag,
such as a pillowcase or burlap bag, tied closed. The
cat cannot see out and will feel snug and secure. If
the head is to be examined, or oral medication is
to be given, loosen the bag and expose only the
head; this effectively restrains the rest of the patient
in the bag.

Restraining Unruly or Aggressive Cats

1. In most instances, an unruly or biting cat can be
controlled with a folded blanket or thick towel.
Drop the blanket over the cat in its box or cage and
pick up the animal inside the blanket. With the cat
rolled in the blanket and only a foot or the head
protruding, you can apply medication or bandages
without danger to either the patient or the handler.
2. Use thick leather or canvas work gloves when han- COPING WITH BREATHING
dling an aggressive cat. When cats scratch and bite, DIFFICULTIES
the wounds are severe. Cats almost always attack
the handler's face orbaghands. Any foreign object in the nasal passages, throat, tra-
patient in a strong or catPlace
box the
and obstreperous
take it to the chea, or bronchi can physically prevent the flow of air
veterinarian, where drugs can be used for restraint. into the lungs. Penetrating chest wounds can result in
This is safer, wiser, and more humane. collapsed lungs. Any tearing of the diaphragm, which
normally acts to expand the lungs, can also interfere
with effeaive breathing.
WHAT TO DO ABOUT CHOKING Look for these signs to determine if the cat is in
respiratory distress:
Warning: Choking is one of the signs of rabies. If a 1. Mucous membranes (gums and lining of the eye-
strange cat appears to be choking but has no obvious lids) may be pale or blue in color (cyanotic), indi-
injury, rabies is a possibility. The same is true of any cating poor circulation or inadequate oxygenation
cat that has not been vaccinated. If you do not know of the blood.
the cat, stay away from it and call the nearest animal 2. Labored respiration may occur: gasping, open-
control center. mouthed breathing, or slow, shallow breathing. A
If the cat is one you know and you believe that an cat in sudden respiratory distress, as from choking,
object, such as a bone, might be in its throat and
obstruaing the cat's breathing, may cat paw mayat itsbe face.
fingers or tweezers and try to reach
removein with
it. Ifyour
the 3. The unconscious, with dilated pupils.
blockage is further down, lay the cat on its side, place If the respiratory problem is caused by something
the heel of your hand just behind the last rib, angling other than simple obstruction, you must resort to arti-
slightly upward, and push firmly, but not so firmly as ficial respiration.
to break the ribs. Four quick thrusts should dislodge
the obstruction; if not, try again. If unsuccessful, take
the cat to a veterinarian. Artificial Respiration
tongue forward socollar,
Remove the cat's that open
it doesthenotmouth,
blockandthepull the
throat.
Pull the head and neck forward, then put your hands
on the ribs, push down suddenly, and release. This
 FIRST AID

sponsive tostimuli, such as pinching and shaking. Do

not perform CPR on an animal that has a heartbeat.
Do not perform artificial breathing on an animal
that is already breathing unless the breathing is very
shallow. These techniques could injure the animal if
it is breathing normally or has a heartbeat.
Breathing can be determined visually as the chest
rises and falls during inhalation and exhalation. Feel
the heartbeat by placing your fingers on the left side
of the chest wall, above the point of the elbow. Visual
signs of an absence of heartbeat include fully dilated
eyes and cool, grayish-blue gums. Feel the heart-
beat on a healthy cat to become familiar with the sen-
sation.
Artificial breathing. If the animal is not breathing
drives the stale air out of the lungs, and an elastic but has a heartbeat, then only artificial breathing is
recoil mechanism will allow them to refill. Repeat needed. (See "Anificial Respiration, " this chapter.)
about once every five seconds. Heart contractiom. If there is no heartbeat or respi-
If the chest cavit\' has been punctured, the elastic ration, cardiopulmonary arrest has occurred and CPR
recoil mechanism will not be working, and you will must be administered. It consists of compressing the
have heart while administering artificial breathing. Both
mouthto andactually blow airputintoyour
lips closed, the mouth
lungs. Hold the nose,
over its cat's
therapies are applied, one immediately following the
and blow firmly into the nostrils for about three sec- other. A rhvthm must develop between continual
onds. Watch the chest carefully. Blowing too hard can heart compressions and artificial breathing technique.
cause lung damage. After a two-second rest, repeat.
Keep this up for thirty minutes or more, or until the 1. With
animal has begun breathing on its own, or until it has at the onepointhand, placeelbow
of the the thumb
and youron fingers
the cat'sonchest
the
opposite side of the chest cavity for compression.
been pronounced
progress dead by bya veterinarian.
can be monitored checking the The
colorcat'sof 2. Squeeze gently, but firmly, at a rate of one com-
its gums. If it begins to fight the procedure, breathing pres ion persecond.
is improving. 3. After five cardiac compressions, follow with artifi-
cial breathing, without breaking the rhythm of the
cardiac compressions.
WHEN BREATHING AND Another variation is to place the animal on its right
HEARTBEAT STOP side on a firm surface. Place one hand under the body
and the other hand above it, so the entire upper chest
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR) area is enclosed. Use both hands to compress. Com-
CPR is an imponant lifesaving technique that has be- press the chest five times, then move one hand to the
come widely accepted for humans through classes of- nose and mouth and administer respiration once;
fered bythe Red Cross and other groups. These same then repeat.
techniques Continue CPR for a few minutes, while observing
lifeless pet. may "breathe" life back into a seemingly the animal for signs of life, such as spontaneous respi-
CPR provides short-term, artificial breathing and ratory efforts or a heartbeat. If breathing and heart
heart contractions for an unconscious animal whose rate are not restored, continue CPR up to fifteen min-
breathing and heartbeat have stopped. CPR sustains utes. After fifteen minutes, revival is unlikely. If at all
the animal until it can perform these functions again possible, have someone drive you to the veterinarian
on its own. An animal can suffer respiratory and hean while you continue giving CPR.
failure from a traumatic experience, such as being hit Caution: Severe cardiopulmonary complications
by a car, ingesting a toxic material, or from shock. may result if you attempt CPR on a conscious, breath-
An animal is considered unconscious if it is unre- ing animal
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

Closed or internal wounds are harder to detect and

HOW TO CONTROL BLEEDING therefore harder to treat. They may appear as contu-
sions (bruises) or hematomas (swollen areas filled
Injuries to the soft tissue include cuts, lacerations, with blood). Internal wounds may be suspected if the
abrasions, and abscesses. To control bleeding, first try cat is bleeding from the mouth or anus, if it vomits or
the direct-pressure technique. Place a clean, prefera- defecates blood, or if it is in a coma or state of shock
bly sterile, gauze pad directly over the wound and with no signs of external injury. Emergency treatment
apply firm, even pressure. If blood soaks through consists of keeping an airway open, treating for shock,
the gauze, do not remove it, or you may disrupt any immobilizing fractures, and seeing a veterinarian as
clot that has begun to form. Just place another pad soon as possible.
on top and continue to apply pressure. If a limb is
injured, it may help to elevate it, but do this with
care to avoid causing further damage to possible
fractures. SOFT-TISSUE USURIES
If direct pressure does not stop the bleeding, try Less serious wounds can be treated as follows. Wash
indirect pressure on the aneries supplying the area. hands thoroughly and restrain the cat. First smear a
The useful pressure points on a cat are inside the bit of ointment or petroleum jelly around the wound
upper surface of the forelimb and hindlimb, and at area {not in the loound itself), so the hair will stick
the underside of the base of the tail. Very firm pres- together and not fall into the wound as you clip the
sure to these areas will reduce the amount of bleeding fur away with scissors. Next, clean the wound carefully
from those respective extremities. with clean or sterile water. Wet a cotton swab or gauze
If neither t\pe of manual pressure controls the pad and clean the wound by washing gently from the
bleeding from a leg or tail wound, you may apply center of the injured area, working outward. When
a tourniquet as a last resort. Avoid this step unless the cotton swab becomes soiled, throw it away and
absolutely necessary, for gangrene (death and decay
of tissue) may result if a tourniquet is left on too use a fresh one to prevent contaminating the antisep-
tic with din from the wound.
long. Nei>er apply a tourniquet around the neck. Safe antiseptics for cats include hydrogen peroxide,
The procedure for applying a tourniquet is the fol- Bactine, and dilute Betadine. After cleaning, blot away
lowing:
any excess water gently with a sterile gauze pad and
1. Use a one-inch-wide gauze bandage roll; wrap apply a suitable antibiotic, such as Neosporin or baci-
twice around the limb or tail, between the wound tracin. Cover the ointment with a sterile gauze pad
and the body, about two inches from the wound. and bandage. Be sure the dressing is taped carefully
Do not use a narrower bandage or a string. It will in place so the cat cannot easily reach the loose ends
cut into the underlying skin. and untie it. Keep the bandage clean and dry, chang-
2. Tie a half hitch (one tie of the line) in the bandage, ing itdaily so that you can monitor the healing pro-
put a pencil or stick on top, and tie a square knot cess. See a veterinarian as soon as possible. The
above. sooner the veterinarian sees the wound, the better
3. Twist slowly until the bleeding slows to a trickle. the chances for a surgical closure if stitches are re-
Fasten the stick in place by tying or taping gently.
The tourniquet should be released briefly every quired.
ten to fifteen minutes.
4. Cover the wound lightly with sterile gauze. Abscesses
Once a tourniquet is in place, take the cat to a Wounds, especially bite or puncture wounds, are very
veterinarian without delay. If the tourniquet must re- prone to infection and formation of abscesses. Often,
main in place over fifteen minutes, release it for one the first evidence that a cat has been in a fight is the
minute for every fifteen minutes it is in place, then hard, hot, painfijl swelling of an abscess appearing
retighten. Watch for shock. (See "Shock," this chap-
ter.) some time after the faa; the initial bite may have
caused a small undetected hole.
 FIRST AID

Clip the fur around an abscess and clean the skin as utes as often as possible, the ideal being every two
described above. "Hot-pack" the area with a clean hours. Reheat the solution each time. The abscess may
towel soaked in a solution made from a pint of hot open, and pus should drain from the area within a
water with two teaspoons of salt added. The water day or two. When it does, rinse the wound with the
should be as warm as possible without being uncom- salt solution, apply an antibiotic, and bandage the area
fortable. Hold the compress on for ten to fifteen min- loosely so as not to prevent drainage. It is always wise
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES
ute)
to i.ikf .in\ CM with an abscess to the veterinarian; the 4. Feeble and rapid pulse (greater than 240 per min-
al>s, iss in.i\ have to be opened surgically and
dfcimcd, and systemic antibiotics may be prescribed 5. minute)
Shallow but rapid breathing (greater than 40 per
to prevent significant loss of tissue.
6. always)
Inability to stand (sometimes, but not always)
7. Involuntary passage of urine and/or feces (not
Deep Puncture Wounds
Deep puncture wounds to the chest are extremely
hazardous. The great danger is that air or blood will Prompt supportive therapy must begin immediately
enter the chest cavity through the wound, replacing if the cat is to recover from this collapse of the circula-
the normal vacuum with a positive pressure that will tory system. First stop the bleeding and give artificial
collapse the lungs and cause the cat to suffocate within respiration if breathing has stopped. Provide a warm,
minutes. Try to cover this type of wound with an air- quiet environment and use cardiopulmonary resu.sci-
tight seal, such as plastic or gauze. Do not try to re- tation if needed. (See "Cardiopulmonary Resuscita-
move the penetrating object (such as a garden stake), its side,tion,"with
this chapter.) Make than
head lower sure the
the cat
rest isofpositioned
the body, onso
or you nuty allow more air to enter. Leave the objea
in place and treat for shock until you can get the cat that gravity can assist blood flow to the brain. If the
to \'our veterinarian. Prompt attention is mandatory. heart seems to be working on its own, massage the
leg and trunk muscles to encourage blood return
from these areas.
Eyes A cat in shock is frequently thirsty, but giving it
Eyes are ver>' delicate organs. Any injury to them water could be dangerous. In severe shock, the diges-
should receive veterinary attention. The most im- tive traa does not efficiently absorb water. A semicon-
portant things you can do are the following: scious cat may accidentally inhale rather than swallow
water. The most effective way of treating circulatory
1. Stop any bleeding. Use direct pressure with a gauze shock is by intravenous fluid administration and other
pad placed over the eye. intravenous medications, which must be administered
2. Keep the surface of the eye moist with contact lens by a veterinarian. Shock is a medical emergency that
solution, or anificial tears. requires prompt veterinary attention.
3. Cover the eye lightly with sterile gauze.
4. Take the cat immediately to the veterinarian.
USURIES TO BONES
SHOCK Fractures and dislocations usually are not life threat-
Shock is often difficult to recognize because it may ening, unless they cause severe bleeding, interfere
not appear until after an accident, as much as eight to with breathing (as broken ribs may do), or crush a
ten hours later, when the cat is no longer being vital part of the spinal cord or brain. However, prompt
watched closely. In shock, the volume of circulating immobilization of a fracture is important to prevent a
blood is decreased or the blood vessels collapse, and simple break from turning into a compound fracture
the heart loses much of its ability to pump blood. This (one that breaks through the skin) and to reduce dam-
decreases the oxygen supply to the tissues. The body age to the surrounding soft tissue. A severe fracture
tries to compensate by speeding up the blood flow, also may cause shock, and the complication of infec-
and by reducing or shutting off blood flow to nonvital tion can lead to blood poisoning.
organs. The signs of shock, listed below, reflect these Recognizing a broken bone can be difficult. A cat
changes: with a broken leg will show pain and inability to use
the leg. There may be swelling around the fracture
1. Decrease in or loss of consciousness site, or the cat might hold its leg at an unusual angle
2. Pale mucous membranes (e.g., gums, rims of the or show an unusual range of motion in the middle of
eyes) a leg rather than at a joint. A sensation called crepitus,
3. Body feels cold to touch a suggestion of grating or scraping, can be felt when
 FIRST AID

the leg is moved gently. With spinal injuries, the cat and immobilizes the Joints above and below the in-
will often be unable to use its legs. It is crucial to jury. Tape the support in place, taking care not to
avoid aggravating the damage with movement or ma- make it so tight that it cuts off the circulation.
nipulation. Iaf break is suspected, do not try to verify Fractures of the vertebral column and skull are seri-
it by physical manipulation. Immobilize the affected ous, but these areas cannot be splinted. Place the cat
area, if possible, and quickly, gently, transport the cat in a padded box to avoid any unnecessary movement
to a veterinarian. of the cat's body and head and take it to a veterinarian
The most direct method of immobilizing a frac- promptly.
tured leg is to apply a splint. Almost any long, stiff Additional care is needed to prevent bacteria from
object can be used in an emergency. A simple cylinder entering the wound of a compound fracture. Do not
of newspaper or a towel wrapped around the leg may push the broken edges of bone back together. Just
suffice. When using sticks, there must be two, one on cover the injury with a sterile cloth and apply the
the inside and one on the outside of the leg. Any hard splint as previously described. Your veterinarian will
object used should be padded so that it does not chafe dohas astabilized.
more thorough cleanup once the cat's condition
the leg. A splint will be effective only if it extends past
 CHAPTER 39

Procedures for

Life-Threatening

Emergencies
by Robert W. Kirk and Mordecai Siegal

read this chapter is before When plant poisoning does occur, it may be a life-
Thean emerge ncy toarises.
best time The first step to take threatening emergency, requiring quick action if the
when a cat is involved in a life-threatening cat is to survive.
situation is to dial the veterinarian's office, The list of plants potentially dangerous to cats is
home, answering service, or an emergency clinic. Get long. Some of the more common plants, the signs of
help calmly and quickly. poisoning, and suggested treatment are summarized
in Table 39.1. In addition
to the specific treatments
PLANT POISONING given, a few general princi-
plesbered.should
First andbe foremost,
remem-
Japanese yew, mountain lau-
rel, lily of the valley, philo- get the poisonous material
dendron, dieffenbachia — out of the cat. Take the plant
what do all of these orna- away if the cat is caught in
mental plants have in com- the act. In most cases, try to
mon? Though all are induce vomiting to get the
beautiful, they all are poten- offending plant material out
tially toxic when ingested, of the stomach. Some easy
and cats are particularly sus- ways to induce vomiting are
the following:
ceptible. Fortunately, poi-
soning of cats by plants is
relatively uncommon. Most 1. Give 1 to 2 teaspoons of
outdoor cats have enough
activity to keep them occupied, but bored house cats peated once in twenty minutes ifof needed).
syrup ipecac (may be re-
are somewhat more likely to chew on available plants. 2. Give 1 to 2 teaspoons of a 1:1 mix of hydrogen
 PROCEDURES FOR LIFE-THREATENING EMERGENCIES

peroxide and water (repeat a few times at twenty- ing, or the presence of secondary complications, or to
minute intervals if needed). administer specific antidotes.
Prevention. Undoubtedly the best treatment for
If the source of poison is unknown, take the cat and plant poisoning is prevention. Keep poisonous plants
a sample of the vomttus to the veterinarian immedi-
ately. ishanging
off-limitsout toof animals.
a cat's reach,
In theor warm
in a separate
months, room that
outdoor
Do not induce vomiting in the following cases: plants can carry chemical poisons. Highly toxic herbi-
cides and organophosphate pesticides on grass clip-
• Plants that cause throat irritation, such as Dumb pings can be deadly. (See "Chemical Poisoning," this
Cane (dieffenbachia) or philodendron, will burn chapter.)
just as much coming back up as they did going
down, so it is safer to leave them in the stomach.
• Two hours after eating, most of the poison has CHEMICAL POISONING
probably entered the intestines or passed into
the bloodstream, so making the animal vomit at Fortunately, chemical poisoning is not a common oc-
that point does not help. currence among cats, possibly because of their finicky
• If the cat is unconscious or semiconscious, eating habits, which often prevent them from ingest-
chances are very good that it will inhale the vomit ing substances that are harmful. However, two other
and suffocate. qualities get them into trouble with poisonous agents.
Cats are curious and fastidious animals. Curiosity can
Once the cat has vomited, try to inactivate any poi- lead them into situations that are better left alone,
son that may be left in its system. A crushed activated such as walking across a wet, freshly disinfected or
charcoal tablet fed to the cat will adsorb (bind) to the waxed floor to look out the window, or scampering
toxins, so they can pass out of the body before being across a lawn that has recently been sprayed with
absorbed in the intestinal tract. This can be repeated weed killer to chase a leaf. Fastidiousness can cause
several times at thirty-minute intervals. A less conve- them to lick off the disinfectant, wax, or weed killer,
nient but more effective way to orally administer acti- no matter how unpleasant the taste. This indirect in-
vated charcoal is as a slurry. This can be quite messy, gestion can be responsible for chemical poisoning.
so make sure to administer in a bathtub or other easily Cats also can be indirectly affected either by catch-
cleaned area. Mix one gram of activated charcoal (ei- ing and eating rats or mice that have eaten poisoned
ther powdered form or crushed tablets) in each tea- bait or by walking through tracking powders that then
spo n of water. Then slowly give about one teaspoon are ingested during grooming. Most of the rodenti-
of this mixture per pound body weight. Do not con- cides marketed today use anticoagulant chemicals
fuse activated charcoal tablets (purchased from the rather than the more hazardous compounds of strych-
drugstore) with charcoal dog biscuits marketed for nine or fluoracetate. Earlier-generation anticoagulant
mouth odor or charcoal briquets for a barbecue. Do rodenticides required ingestion of sufficient amounts
not give activated charcoal in addition to syrup of over an extended period of time before poisoning
ipecac, even if the cat has vomited; the two bind to- would occur. This is not the case with newer products;
gether and inactivate each other. Induce the conscious a single ingestion is sufficient to cause hemorrhage
cat to drink as much lukewarm milk or water as possi- and death. Usually it takes two to five days before
ble. This will help dilute the toxins in the gastrointesti- signs become apparent, but in very young, very old,
nal tract. Milk has a soothing, coating effect on the or ill animals, it may take no more than twenty-four
intestines. If necessary', feed liquids carefully with an hours. If ingestion of a rodenticide is suspected, it is
eyedropper. critical that a veterinarian be contacted, even if signs
of poisoning are not yet obvious.
intoEvaluate
shock? theIs itcat'shaving general appearance.
trouble breathing?Is itKeep
slipping
the Tracking powders are more commonly used by
animal comfortable and warm. Give artificial respira- professional exterminators. The tracking powders are
tion ifnecessary. (See Chapter 38: First Aid.) more of a direct threat to cats, especially if the pow-
In all cases, an immediate visit to the veterinarian ders are placed in an area that is frequented by
is necessary to determine the severity of the poison- cats. The powders adhere to the feet and fur of botli
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

rodents and cats, and the poisons are then involun- First Aid for Ingested Poisons
tarily ingested when the animal grooms itself. If you
obserse your cat ingesting rodenticide tracking If a cat has been poisoned, someone mast call imme-
powders, follow the instructions for inducing vom- diately toalert the veterinarian that an emergency case
iting outlined later in this chapter. Then the cat should is coming, while first-aid procedures are begun. Tell
be bathed to remove any residual poison on its body. the veterinarian what type of poison is involved (if
Your veterinarian should be contacted as soon as pos- you know performed, it), the cat's and
signs,when
what thefirst-aid
sible. are being cat willmeasures
arrive.
Sadly, cats may be inadvertently poisoned by own- Note: If the cat is convulsing or is uncoascious, first
ers who administer medications without first checking aid is inadequate. Wrap the animal in a blanket and
with their veterinarians. Severe reactions can he rush to the veterinarian without delay for expert atten-
caused by giving an over-the-counter drug to a cat. tion. In most cases, if the cat is conscious and is not
Inhalation accounts for another method of chemical convulsing, induce vomiting. Note. Do not induce
poisoning. This usually occurs when a cat is unable to vomiting if the cat has swallowed an acid, an alkali, or
escape and has no choice but to breathe automobile kerosene. See the special seaion on these agents that
exhaust fumes, sprayed pesticides, smoke, gas escap- follows.
ing from a heater or stove, or other toxic fumes. The goal when inducing vomiting is to remove poi-
son from the stomach before it can pass to the intes-
tines and be absorbed into the bloodstream. Open
Signs of Poisoning the cat's mouth without tipping its head way back and
Reactions to chemical poisoning are varied, de- slowly pour in one of the following;
pending on the kind of substance, the amount in- 1. Give 1 to 2 teaspoons of syrup of ipecac (may be
gested or inhaled, and the previous condition of the repeated once in rwenty minutes if needed).
cat. At one extreme, a cat may show intense excite- 2. Give 1 to 2 teaspoons of a 1:1 mix of hydrogen
ment or convulsions; at the other extreme, there may
be lethargv', even coma. Danger signs include exces- peroxide and water (repeat a few times at twenty-
minute intervals if needed).
sive drooling, difficult}' in breathing or swallowing,
muscle spasms, trembling, vomiting, and diarrhea. A
cat with carbon monoxide poisoning may have tell- tenRepeat
minutesor until alternate
the catthese measures
vomits. Save theeven-vomitfiveandor
tale bright red lips and tongue, and it will appear especially the chemical container, if available. Bring
weak and dizzy. Obviously, any strange odor on the these to the veterinarian to help identify- die poison
breath or body bears investigation, and a spilled con- and choose specific treatment. To save time, one per-
tainer ofchemicals or medicine may point to a toxic son may drive while another attempts to induce vom-
encounter. iting. Ifthere is no way to see a veterinarian, try to
A given amount of a toxic substance will generally determine if there is a specific antidote to the poison
have the strongest effect on kittens, old cats, and weak — something that will neutralize or detoxify the poi-
or sick cats. Ever>' poison does not have a specific son that has already entered the bloodstream. Check
antidote, but certain emergency procedures can be the label on the container, if available, or call tlie
successful if administered quickly. nearest Poison Control Center, if the poison is known.
The signs associated with anticoagulant poisoning The National Animal Poison Control Center (NAPCC)
include weakness, easy bruising of the skin, pale mu- is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, by calling
cous membranes, difficulty in breathing, nosebleeds, 1-900-680-0000 or 1-800-548-2423. There is a charge
and blood in vomitus and stools. However, it can take for these services.
as long as five days before these signs are apparent. If If no specific antidote is available, give water or
you observe any of the aforementioned signs, sched- milk, force-feeding if necessary, to dilute the poison
ule an appointment with a veterinarian. If possible, already in the cat's system. If activated charcoal (the
take samples of any bloody stools or vomit for analy- kind purchased in a pharmacy', not charcoal briquets)
sis. The veterinarian may perform certain blood tests is available, mix several teaspoons into the liquid. The
to determine the extent of the poisoning. charcoal will adsorb (bind to) poison in the intestine,
 PROCEDURES FOR LIFE-THREATENING EMERGENCIES

SO that it is passed out of the body without entering regardless of the weather. Artificial respiration may be
the bloodstream. Do not use the charcoal if the cat required. (See Chapter 38: First Aid.) A veterinarian
has been given syrup of ipecac, for they will bind will be able to administer oxygen and respiratory
together and inactivate each other. Try coating the stimulants, if needed. Recovery generally occurs
intestines to slow absorption. Feed the cat one to within a few hours; however, temporary blindness or
three tablespoons of egg whites. One to two tea- deafness has been known to occur and then disappear
spo ns ofmineral oil may help to prevent some poi- spontaneously within a matter of days or weeks.
system,sons but from passing
this must from the slowly
be given intestineandintocarefully
the cat'sto
Prevention
prevent aspiration.
If the cat is severely depressed, it may become nec- Keep toxic substances out of a pet's reach. (See Table
es ary to give artificial respiration. (See Chapter 38: 39.2.) If the label says "Keep out of the reach of chil-
First Aid.) While traveling to the veterinary hospital, dren," then keep it out of the reach of cats, too. Never
keep the cat warm and lower its head to allow liquids give your cat medication that has not been approved
to drain out of the mouth. by a veterinarian. If the cat is on a prescription drug,
Signs of anticoagulant rodent poison develop over ask the veterinarian about possible toxic reactions be-
a period of four to five days. These include depres- fore administering any additional medicines.
sion, skin discoloration, labored breathing, and pros- Keep the cat in the house until lawns that are freshly
tration. The treatment consists of a blood transfusion sprayed with insecticide or fertilizer have dried. How-
and doses of vitamin K. Do not anempt to diagnose ever, rain will dilute the poison sufficiently to remove
this condition and initiate vitamin therapy on your danger, allowing the animal to go out afterward. Some
own. pesticides are toxic to humans and animals. No one
if the Chances
condition ofisthetreated cat's early.
full recovery are very good should remain in the vicinity where they are being
sprayed.
Open the garage door when warming a car engine.
Acids, Alkalis, and Kerosene Animals could be napping or even trapped inside.
Acids, drain cleaners (alkalis), and kerosene will Noxious fumes can be deadly for both animals and
burn the mouth and throat both going down and com- humans. Maintain good ventilation in any area when
ing up. Do not compound damage to the body by working with chemicals that give off fumes, and be
inducing vomiting. Instead, give the following general certain stoves and furnaces have no gas leaks. Com-
antidotes: mon sense goes a long way toward keeping a cat
sound and healthy.
For acids: give antacids, e.g., baking soda
solution or a single dose of one
teaspoon milk of magnesia per HEATSTROKE
five pounds of body weight.
For alkalis: give one to five teaspoons of a What is moderately hot for a human being can be
mixture of vinegar (or lemon
juice) diluted with an equal part deadly for a cat. Unfortunately, cats are intolerant of
of water. high environmental temperatures that their owners
easily withstand. Human body temperature is reduced
Acids, alkalis, and kerosene can be diluted in the by releasing
system, and the intestines can be coated, by giving only defensessweat
against at thehighsurface of the skin.are A rapid
temperatures cat's
oral doses of milk, mineral oil (caution — administer breathing and licking its fur. If a cat is exposed to a
slowly), or egg whites. situation in which the air is warmer than its internal
temperature (anything over 102.Feline
perthermia) isinevitable. 2°F), heatstroke
deathtraps (hy- are
First Aid for Inhaled Poisons poorly ventilated cars parked in the sun, restriction to
The first remedy for a cat that has inhaled deadly concrete runs without shade, or confinement to cat
fumes is fresh air. Put the cat outside in the open air, carriers in hot weather. Short-nosed cats (such as Per-
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

TABLE 39.1. REFERENCE GUIDE: FIRST AID FOR PLANT POISONING

COMMON
TYPE OF ILLNESS PLANTS PLANT TOXINS TREATMENT
A. UPPER
GASTROINTESTINAL
1 Oral and esophageal Dieffenbachia Oxalate DO NOT induce vomiting.
irritation: ulcers, Philodendron crystals Give milk or water to wash
swelling, and irritation in Caladium and /or out
mouth and throat; Skunk cabbage histamines throat;the ananimal's mouth isand
eyedropper
excessive salivation. Jack-in-the-pulpit good for this, but make sure
Swelling in throat may that youthedon't forceUsually
liquid
sometimes interfere with down trachea.
breathing. this type of poisoning is not
fatal, but if the animal seems
to be having difficulty in
breathing, take it to the
veterinarian.
B. LOWER
GASTROINTESTINAL
2. Gastric irritation; violent Amaryllis
Tulip Gastric irritants: Induce vomiting. Give
vomiting and nausea DaffodU possibly alkaloids activated charcoal to adsorb
immediately after eating (bind)
the plant. May see Wisteria Give lotstheofrest
waterof the
withtoxins.
an
central ner\'ous system Note: especially bulbs eyedropper, then give 1-3
excitement followed by of all the above tbsp. of milk to coat the
depression, coma, or intestines. Take the cat to the
death in severe cases. veterinarian.
3. Intestinal irritation; English ivy Saponic glycosides Same as above. Induce
nausea and vomiting, Alfalfa Coumarin glycosides vomiting, andgivelotsactivated
abdominal pain, and Beech charcoal of water,
diarrhea immediately Daphne
Iris then milk.
after eating.
4. Nausea, vomiting, Bird of paradise Other gastrointestinal Same as above. Induce
abdominal pain, and Box irritants vomiting, give activated
diarrhea immediately Crown of thorns charcoal and lots of water,
after eating. English ivy then milk.
Euonymus
Honeysuckle
5. Vomiting, bloody Castor bean Induce vomiting. Give lots of
diarrhea, abdominal pain Precatory bean (rosary fluid by mouth to help
after a latent period of overcome dehydration. Get
up to 18-24 hours after pea)locust
Black cat to the veterinarian as
eating. May see soon as possible; these plants
depression, fever, low are EXTREMELY toxic, and
blood pressure, coma or only one bean or pea may be
convulsions, even death. fatal.
 PROCEDURES FOR LIFE-THREATENING EMERGENCIES

COMMON
TYPE OF ILLNESS PLANTS PLANT TOXINS TREATMENT
6. Vomiting, abdominal Nightshades Solanine glycosides Induce vomiting if possible,
pain, bloody diarrhea, Jerusalem cherry but exercise caution: the
dry mouth, all after a Potato
and eyes)(green parts gastrointestinal tract may
latent period of 18-24 already have suffered
hours after plant was extensive damage that
eaten. May proceed to vomiting would exacerbate.
nervous system Get the cat to your
stimulation followed by veterinarian promptly so that
depression, i.e., hetherapy.
or she can provide the
trembling, salivation, and necessary supportive
paralysis. May lead to
cardiac arrest.
C. CARDIOVASCULAR
7. Slow, irregular heartbeat; Foxglove Digitalis glycosides Get the cat to the
intense vomiting, Lily of the valley Alkaloids veterinarian at once. The
abdominal pain also seen Oleander digitalis glycosides have a
a few hours after Monkshood severe depressant effect on
ingestion. Signs may Larkspur the heart. Thisemergency.
is a life-
progress to include threatening
excitement, followed by
coma and death.
8. Labored breathing, Cherry pits Cyanogenetic Take the cat to the
collapse. May suffer Peach pits veterinarian immediately.
muscle tics, terminal Apricot pits glycosides Cyanide poisoning interferes
convulsions, and death. Almond nuts with the ability of the blood
Apple seeds to release oxygen into the
Hydrangea tissues, so the cat effectively
suffocates while its blood is
full of oxygen. Your
veterinarian will have the
necessary chemical antidotes
for this poison.
D. NERVOUS SYSTEM
9. Trembling, pupil Yews, e.g., Taxine (alkaloid) Induce vomiting and get the
dilation, heartbeat Japanese yew cat to the veterinarian
irregularities. Sudden English yew immediately. Yew is so
death may occur with no Western yew poisonous that the most
prior signs. The signs American yew common finding is sudden
will vary with the death. Owners often do not
amount eaten. If only a even realize that the yew has
small amount is ingested, been nibbled.
you may see nausea,
vomiting, and abdominal
pain along with mild
neurologic signs.
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

COMMON
TYPE OF ILLNESS PLANTS PLANT TOXINS TREATMENT
Rapid heartbeat, Indian tobacco Nicotinic stimulants Get the cat to the
salivation, shaking, Golden chain veterinarian immediately-
t^^•itchi^g, staggering, Mescal bean Specific chemical injections
then diflicuh breathing Poison hemlock are required to counteract
and collapse within a Tobacco the effects of nicotine
few minutes to hours of poisoning.
eating plant.
Staggering, convulsions, stem) (leaves, upper
Rhubarb Soluble oxalates Induce vomiting, then take
salivation, vomiting, the cat to a veterinarian. The
abdominal pain. oxalates are absorbed into
the bloodstream, interfering
with body calcium (leading
to convulsions) and may be
deposited as crystals in the
kidneys, causing extensive
damage there.
Thirst, dr>' mucous Belladonna Atropinelike agents Get the cat to the
membranes, dilated Henbane veterinarian immediately.
pupils, gastrointestinal Jimsonweed Chemical antidotes and
upset, fast, weak heart, Jessamine supportive care that only a
delirium, conx-ulsions, Datura veterinarian can provide are
coma, death. necessary to save the
animal's life.
Alterations in behavior, Periwinkle Other assorted Induce vomiting and get the
violent convulsions and Chinaberry neuroactive cat to the veterinarian.
tremors. Coriaria compounds Specific antidotes and
Moonseed supportive care (oxygen,
Water hemlock fluid therapy, tranquilizers)
Marijuana glory
Morning may be necessary.

sians), asthmatic cats, and overweight cats are espe- oxygen to prevent brain damage, fluid therapy to cor-
cially susceptible to heatstroke. rea dehydration, various treatments to reduce the
On a hot summer day, a cat may be on the verge body Intemperature belowblood103°F,mayandflowotherfromsupportive
of heatstroke if it suddenly begins rapid breathing, care. severe cases, the cat s
panting, salivating, or vomiting. These signs should be nostrils. This may be indicative of disseminated intra-
considered a serious warning. vascular coagulopathy (DIG), a bleeding disorder
precipitated by prolonged excess body heat. If the cat
Treatment reaches this stage, response to therapy is poor.
A mild case of heatstroke can be treated by immersing Prevention
the cat in cool water or wrapping it in cool, wet towels
to reduce its body temperature. However, if the cat Always provide adequate ventilation for a cat when
shows signs of weakness or overheating, it should be traveling in a car. When parking a vehicle, locate it in
taken to a veterinarian for treatment. It may be given a heavily shaded area and keep the windows open,
 PROCEDURES FOR LIFE-THREATENING EMERGENCIES

TABLE 39.2. COMMON HOUSEHOLD POISONS

Acetaminophen (Tylenol) Drain cleaner Lye Rat poison

Antifreeze, coolants Dye Matches Rubbing alcohol
Aspirin Fungicides Metal polish Shoe polish
Bleach Furniture polish Mineral spirits Sleeping pills
Boric acid Gasoline Mothballs Snail or slug bait
Brake fluid Hair coloring Nail Soaps and detergents
Carbon monoxide Herbicides Paint polish and remover Suntan lotion
Carburetor cleaner Insecticides Paint remover Tar
Cleaning fluid Kerosene Permanent wave lotion Turpentine
Deodorants, deodorizers Laxatives Phenol Windshield washer fluid
Diet pills Lead Photographic developers Wood preservatives
Disinfectants

but preferably do not leave cats, or any animal, in a Thermal Bums

parked vehicle. Always provide plenty of fresh drink-
ing water. Long-haired cats with matted coats will dis- Thermal burns are injuries caused by contact with
sipate body heat better if they are clipped for the flames, hot objects, or hot liquids. Chemical or electri-
summer months. Humans tolerate heat better than cal burns are classified separately. Household acci-
cats. If the weather is hot for humans, it is worse for dents are the most common causes of thermal burns,
cats. a large portion of which occur in the kitchen. A cat
may be spattered by hot grease from a frying pan or
scalded by boiling water, or the footpads may be
BURNS AND FROSTBITE burned by walking across a hot stove. These accidents
are often the result of carelessness by the owner and
There are many causes of burns: contact with flame could be avoided if dangerous items were kept out of
or direct heat, flying cinders and sparks, steam, hot theWhen
pet's the reach.skin is burned, the small blood vessels
liquids, spattered cooking oil, hot tar, and caustic
chemicals. Burns are classified as either major or dilate, allowing fluid to escape and accumulate in tine
minor, superficial or deep. Major burns cover more surrounding tissues, causing localized swelling. Some
than 5 percent of the body surface. A superficial burn fluid comes to the surface, making the burned area
affects only the surface skin. A deep burn damages or moist and red. If the burns are massive and the protec-
destroys the deeper layers of skin and possibly the tive layer of skin is completely absent, the rapid loss
underlying tissues. A deep burn may destroy the hair of fluid may cause severe shock. The way feline skin
follicles, so that scar tissue will form and the fur will responds to burns is different from the way human
be permanently gone. Secondary effects of burns can skin responds; as a result, it is easy for owners to
be destructive, even fatal. These include shock, infec- underestimate the severity of a burn. If in any doubt
tion because of exposure of the wound to bacterial as to the sei'erity of the injury, always seek veterinary
invasion, and toxemia from the absorption of poisons attention as quickly as possible.
produced by the damaged cells or bacteria. Intensive, When a cat has been scalded by hot liquid or steam,
prolonged care is necessary for a cat that has been the hair and skin are still in place. In this instance,
deeply burned. Recovery from deep burns is possible, the size of the burn can be determined by the red
with proper therapy, if 15 percent or less of the body appearance and by the fact that it will feel hot to the
surface is affected. touch. Fluid released by the blood vessels after a
scalding may mat the hair over the wound, hiding
the damage. This can give harmful bacteria time to
MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

multiply. An infection and accumulation of pus may made by adding one teaspoon of salt to one pint of
be hidden for some time. Later, the cat shows signs of boiled water and allowing it to become lukewarm.
illness. An injured cat characteristically becomes very Sterile distilled water can take the place of the boiled
defensive and may resist attempts to help it, because water. If the injury is dirty or greasy, first cleanse it
of fear and pain. An owner must be prepared to re- gently with soap and warm water, then with the saline
solution.
be to strrelieve
ain the cat topain,treat prevent
the burn. orOne's
treatpriorities should
shock, prevent
infection, and stimulate healing. Electrical Bums
Treatment of superficial bums. To relieve the pain
of a superficial burn, apply ice packs or immerse the Electrical burns are perhaps the most dangerous kind
affected area in cold water. Dry gently. If possible, and are often fatal. They are usually caused by chew-
remove the hair from around the wound to minimize ing through a plugged-in appliance cord, by lightning,
chances of infection. Do not apply butter or any oil- or by coming into contact with an improperly insu-
based ointment; these may intensify the burning sen- lated appliance. Electrical burns most often happen at
sation. Also, do not apply human medications; these the corners of the mouth or on the tip of the tongue,
may be toxic if licked by the cat. appearing as red, sometimes blistered flesh, which is
Instead, apply a thin film of an antibiotic such as painful to the touch for the cat. The burn itself is not
a topical ophthalmic (eye) ointment or one of the nearly as life threatening as the electric shock that
following home remedies: some "jelly" from the in- accompanies it. Cats may be jolted into cardiac arrest
side of the leaf of an aloe vera ("burn") and death.
wet dressing of Burroughs solution made plant; or a
with water A slower developing, equally treacherous complica-
and Domeboro tablets or powder, available at most tion ispulmonary edema. It is a buildup of excessive
pharmacies. Either of these home remedies will re- fluid in the lungs, which can appear an hour after the
duce pain and inflammation when applied repeatedly electrical shock occurs, and, if untreated, can be fatal.
to keep the injured area moist. Any animal that has suffered an electrical bum
Cover the area with a clean dressing, held in place should be taken directly to the veterinarian, even if
with a bandage. Take the cat to a veterinarian for fur- there are no apparent complications. An electrical
ther examination and treatment if the burn is serious. burn is a life-threatening emergency. Brain or nerve
Otherwise, check the bandage daily. If the burn be- damage is a strong possibility, and, in most cases, the
cat does not survive without immediate veterinary at-
days, it comes is timeinfected toor seedoesn't begin to heal within several
the veterinarian. tention.
Treatment of deep bums. Extensive or deep burns Do not attempt to treat the bum at home. The other
need immediate veterinary attention. Call ahead to complications are far more serious, so the cat should
make sure a veterinarian will be ready and able to be seen by a veterinarian as soon as possible. The first
treat the cat as soon as it arrives; this will save precious priority is to treat the animal for shock. It is highly
time. Meanwhile, soak a clean cloth in cold water and possible that the cat will need cardiopulmonary resus-
apply it very gently to the burned area. Keep the pa- citation. (Se Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation, Chapter
tient warm and monitor for signs of shock as you 38: First Aid.) Have another person alert the veterinar-
transpon it to the veterinarian. Protect the wet dress- ian that the cat is on its way.
ing with thick, clean, dry bandages or towels and keep Signs of shock may include respiratory' distress, a
the cat calm during the journey. pale or blue color to the lips, gums, and lining of the
In cases of severe burns, the victim loses a great eyelids, stiffness in the limbs, a glassy stare, and per-
amount of fluid. The veterinarian may choose to estab- haps total collapse. As the cat goes into shock, its tem-
lish an intravenous route of fluid therapy to counter- perature drops rapidly. It is imperative to keep the cat
act this loss. warm, using a hot-water bottle or warm blanket.
If for some reason it is impossible to obtain imme- Prevention. Decrease the possibility of electrical
diate veterinary treatment, clean the visible debris or shocks by unplugging all appliances that are not in
foreign matter out of the wound with simple contact use. Young animals (up to about eighteen months of
lens solution or a sterile salt solution. This can be age) can be expected to gnaw on electrical cords and
 PROCEDURES FOR LIFE-THREATENING EMERGENCIES

Other items. Especially during these early months, causing major damage. The affected area may first turn
they should not be left unattended near potential very pale, then, after thawing, become red and scaly.
sources of electrical shock. Frostbite causes severe pain; therefore, handle an af-
fected cat with extreme care.
Chemical Bums First, move the cat to a warm place. Use moist,
warm packs or a warm blow-dryer to bring the tem-
There are several types of chemicals that cause burns: perature ofthe affected area rapidly back to normal.
acids (e.g., toilet bowl cleaners), alkalis (e.g., lye, drain Do not use excessive heat and do not rub the frozen
cleaners, caustic soda), and primary irritants (e.g., tur- areas. This may came further damage or loss of tissue.
pentine). Astrange odor may be one of the first tell- Apply an antiseptic such as eye ointment to the af-
tale signs that a cat has come in contact with one of fected area. Call a veterinarian; he or she may pre-
these agents. Any of these chemicals will cause painful scribe oral antibiotics to prevent or fight infection,
redness of the skin and may even eat away the skin if and sedatives for pain.
left on for an extended period of time. The cat may It may take five to ten days before new tissue can
further injure itself by licking at the noxious sub- be seen replacing the dead, frozen tissue. If healing is
stance. Itis important to wash the chemical from the not evident, there is a danger of gangrene, and some
skin quickly, soothe and protect the injury, and obtain amputation may be necessary.
veterinary care. In the case of serious freezing, the entire body tem-
Wear rubber gloves to cleanse the corrosive sub- perature wil be dangerously low and the cat may be
stance from the animal. Wash away acids with an alka- comatose and near death. Quickly reverse this decline
line solution, consisting of one teaspoon bicarbonate by immersing the cat in warm, not hot, water (102°F
of soda dissolved in one pint of warm water. Wash to 105°F, 39°C to 4rC). Dry very gently and thor-
away alkalis with an acidic solution, consisting of oughly with a warm blow-dryer, then wrap the cat
equal parts of vinegar and warm water. These oppos- snugly for warmth. Treat signs of shock and take the
ing types of solutions will neutralize the chemical animal quickly to a veterinarian. If you are snow-
causing the burn. If the nature of the chemical is un- bound and cannot get out, try to feed a conscious cat
known, wash the area with plain water. frequent small amounts of warm broth or other warm
Check the chemical container, if available, to see if liquid.
a specific antidote is listed, and if so, apply it to the Frostbite and freezing can be prevented by keeping
burned area. If this is not possible, apply one of the the cat indoors in times of extreme cold or by ensur-
home remedies mentioned for thermal burns (see ing access to a sheltered dry area in a barn, garage,
"Thermal Burns," this chapter) to soothe pain. or porch. Once affected, animals are more prone to
When the cat's face and eyes are burned, restrain frostbite in the future, so recovered animals should
its body in a thick blanket, if possible. A second per- be carefully protected during future cold weather.
son may be necessary to help with treatment. Hold
the eyelids open and gently flush them with copious
amounts of lukewarm water. A bulb syringe will help INSECT STINGS
guide the water directly into the eyes. Eyes are ex-
tremely fragile and must be treated as quickly and Insect stings, particularly those of wasps and bees, are
gently as possible. As soon as the caustic substance has a hazard. Cats are fascinated by movement and will
been removed, take the cat to a veterinary' hospital. jump and snap at wasps or bees, often getting stung
in the process. Resultant swelling can be severe and
Frostbite dangerous, especially in the mouth or throat. Swelling
within the mouth or throat, or pressure caused by
Frostbite and freezing cause tissue damage that is sim- swelling in the neck, can block the air passages and
ilar to burn damage. They occur when an animal is threaten suffocation. Swelling of mucous membranes
exposed for a long period to extreme cold and high in the mouth leads to excessive salivation and diffi-
winds. Circulation becomes impaired in the extremi- culty in eating. Ice packs will help to reduce swelling,
ties (ears, tail, feet) and ice crystals form in the tissues. but persistent swelling indicates a systemic, possibly
 MEDICAL EMERGENCIES
388

allergic reaaion, which should be treated immedi-

ately bya veterinarian. DROWNING
For a simple bee sting, the first course of action is
to remove the stinger. If it is a wasp or bee sting in This is a seldom reported cause of accidental death in
the mouth, wash the mouth with a mixture of one cats. Most cases occur in young animals that fall into a
teaspoon baking soda to one pint of water. If the sting water bowl, a deep pool of rainwater, backyard swim-
is on the skin, gently swab the painful area with rub- ming pools, streams, or rivers. If they cannot find the
bing alcohol. Immediately apply a paste of baking steps, as in a pool, or otherwise cannot climb to safety
soda and water to help relieve the itching. Use this until rescued, then they will drown. Rescue and first-
treatment for all types of insect bites that cause a mild, aid measures should be tried and are aimed at getting
local reaction. the water out of, and air back into, the lungs. Holding
Ticks are prevalent in wooded areas in the summer. the cat up by the hind legs will get rid of most of the
These parasites fasten onto the cat's body, embed water. Begin CPR by gentle chest compression and
their heads into the skin and suck blood, eventually moulh-to-nose resuscitation. (See "CPR " and "Artifi-
swelling up to resemble a coffee bean. To remove a cial Respiration," Chapter 38: First Aid.) If the water is
tick, cover it with an alcohol-soaked piece of cotton; cold, then warming the cat in warm water or with
never try to burn it with a match or cigarette. After a blankets may help; then take the cat to the veterinarian
few minutes it should begin to back out of the cat's as fast and safely as possible.
skin. Lift it off with tweezers, taking care to keep the
head intact. Fragments of the head that remain in the
skin can cause infection. Place the tick in a jar of alco-
hol to kill it, then flush it down the toilet. Swab the
affected area of skin with alcohol and let it dry.
 PROCEDURES FOR LIFE-THREATENING EMERGENCIES

HIGH-RISE SYNDROME
Cats fall from heights so frequently in big cities, espe-
cial y in warm climates, that a new feline trauma syn-
drome has been identified: high-rise syndrome (HRS).
There is an increase in cases seen during the summer
and fall. In air-conditioned buildings, incidents of HRS
have been related to a window or screen being left
open or an air-conditioning unit being replaced or
cleaned. Most owners doubt, at first, that their pets
have actually fallen. Instead, they report that the cat
has run out an open door into the street where it was
the victim of a traffic accident. In cases where owners
have seen their pets fall, some report that the cat was
sleeping in the sun one minute, and then rolled off
the railing, or fell as it leaped for a bird and missed.
Cats can fall from great heights and survive. Some
of the stories recorded at the Henry Bergh Memorial
Hospital of the ASPCA in New York City reveal that
cats have survived falls from as high as eighteen sto-
ries onto such surfaces as concrete, asphalt, dirt, and
car roofs. One cat fell twenty stories onto shrubbery;
another fell rwenty-eight stories onto an awning.
These are not exaggerations. It is quite possible that
other cats, elsewhere, have survived longer, higher,
more spectacular falls. Cats have an efficient balancing physical exam with primary emphasis on diagnosing
mechanism and usually fall in an upright position with and treating pneumothorax. If such a condition is
their legs extended and head down, landing on their found, the veterinarian can place a tube into the chest
feet. A triad of injuries has been observed that are to remove the trapped air and allow the lungs to ex-
symptomatic of the manner in which cats fall and land. pand more fully. The tube can be left in place so air
The three main injuries are epistaxis (bleeding from can be drawn off periodically if needed. This trau-
the nose), a split in the hard palate (the roof of the matic pneumothorax usually resolves itself in time, as
mouth), and pneumothorax (air in the chest, out- the cat stabilizes and the tears in its lung tissues heal.
side the lungs). When a cat hits the ground, its legs Once the cat is breathing more easily, a more detailed
break the fall, but the lower jaw impacts on the upper exam can be given to evaluate any fractures. These
jaw, splitting the hard palate, with resultant bleeding are repaired in a routine manner. It is important for
from the nose. Broken canine teeth also result from veterinarians to check the hard palate in HRS cases,
the chin hitting the ground, and the lower jaw may be because fractures in this region may go undetected.
fractured, too. The force of impact on the legs can Once found, they can generally be repaired without
cause fractures of one or both rear legs, or of smaller complications.
bones in the front legs. The chest often hits the High-rise syndrome is an urban problem, one that
ground, forcing free air out of the lungs and into the is more difficult to prevent than it would seem. One
chest, which makes breathing difficult. Since HRS has must be cautious when leaving an animal on a patio
been recognized and its major associated injuries or near an open window. Providing a short, protective
have been identified, cats that suffer long falls have barrier along outside railings or ledges, or screens
an increased chance of survival, because veterinarians wedged in front of child window guards, might pre-
know what problems to look for and how to treat vsureent afall. There windows
is no moreandeffective
them. The first step should be a quick, nonstressful than closed doors. preventive mea-
 APPENDIX A

Zoonotic Diseases:

From Cats to Humans

by Dorothy F. Holmes

Socievident ety is from the role of pets. This is

reevaluathetingincreasi that pet ownership or interaction not be denied to
ng prevalence of them. Immunocompromised individuals (AIDS pa-
signs excluding animals from public places tients, transplant recipients receiving immunosupres-
and by public outcry over the esthetics and sive drugs, and cancer patients) are at increased risk
health aspects of animal excrement in parks and of acquiring opponunistic infections (some of which
streets. New concerns about pet involvement in may be transmitted from a pet). The health risk of
human disease have arisen such transmission can be re-
from well-publicized find- duced to an extremely low
ings that cats are a definitive level if the immunocom-
host for the parasite causing promised person is willing
toxoplasmosis. Concerns to be more vigilant of the
have also arisen from un- pet's health than other pet
proven assertions, such as owners are expected to be
that feline leukemia virus is and will seek veterinary care
involved in human cancer, early in the clinical course
or that ownership of small of illness in the pet.
dogs is related to the devel- A review of the current
opment of multiple sclero- knowledge of pet-associated
sis. There is a significant human diseases will provide
portion of the population a basis for scientifically ac-
that does not enjoy the com- ceptable pet management.
panionship ofdogs and cats Some generalizations are
and may be all too ready to appropriate to introduce the
implicate them as the cause topic. diseases from other
of real or imagined human ills. People contract most infectious
On the other hand, emerging evidence pointing to people. However, they can acquire some diseases
the positive effect of the human-animal bond on the from pets, and sometimes these have tragic outcomes.
physical and mental health of people in general, but There are over 200 zoonoses (animal diseases trans-
especially the elderly and those suffering from mis ible toman). Of these, only a few are associated
chronic and degenerative disease, makes it imperative with pets. The magnitude of the problem is largely

391
APPENDIX A

unappreciated because only the tip of the zoonotic- unfonunate state of affairs, since cats, especially young
disease iceberg is visible and because most pet-borne males during their nighttime prowling aaivities, are
zoonoses are dead-end situations with linle subse- frequently expxDsed to rabid wildlife (especially
quent person-to-person spread. In addition, many pet- skunks and bats). Reports of documented animal ra-
borne diseases have nondescript and subtle signs that bies more than doubled in the four years between
make an accurate diagnosis difficult. Unless animal 1990 and 1994. Vaccination of pets and livestock is the
association is obvious, the case is unusually severe, or most effeaive control measure in preventing disease
a unique clustering of cases results in an investigation, and subsequent human exposure.
pet-associated diseases are usually underreponed. There are a number of highly effective rabies vac-
cines available for use in cats. Care must be exercised
to use only a produa that is licensed for use in cats.
Kittens should be vaccinated at three months of age
VIRAL DISEASES and revaccinated one year later at fifteen months, after
Rabies which they should receive annual or triennial boost-
ers, depending on the t\pe of vaccine used.
Rabies is probably the most feared of the zoonotic
diseases, in spite of the low numbers of human cases
reported in the United States over the past few years. Cowpox in Man
Although rabies is prevalent in the wildlife population Cowpox m man is characterized by a skin eruption
of the countn- (foxes, skunks, raccoons, and bats are that progresses from papules, to vesicles, and then to
the priman- wildlife reservoirs in the United States), pustules that break and scab over and eventually heal
man is at a greater risk of acquiring rabies from pet after a three- to eight-week period. Cats show- similar
animals because of his closer association with them. lesions and are thought to acquire the disease from a
When a rabid animal bites a viaim, rabies virus is rodent reservoir, probably as a result of bite wounds.
introduced into the wound. It first grows locally in the The virus is shed in the vesicles and pustules, where
muscle cells at the site, and after a variable period of it serves as a source of infeaion for people who come
time it invades the peripheral nerve(s) supplying the in contaa with infeaed cats. The virus is a verv- resis-
area. The virus travels along the nerve until it reaches tant one and can persist for long periods in the dried
the central nerv ous system, where its presence causes scabs. Coupox is not known to exist in the United
the clinical signs associated with rabies. From the cen- States.
tral nervous system, the virus, again traveling along
nerves, extends to certain peripheral tissues such as Hantavirus
the salivarv' glands, where it is shed in the saliva and
can introduce the disease into a new host. An episode of severe respiratory disease developed
In most animals, rabies is charaaerized by behav- during 1993-1994, primarily in the southwestern
ioral changes (agitation, restlessness, and excitability, United States, but with cases appearing sporadically
progressing to aggression) and unexplained paralysis. throughout the country. The disease is charaaerized
Sometimes only paralysis is seen. Cats are highly sus- initially by body aches and chills, then coughing, vom-
ceptible torabies, and about 75 percent of rabid cats iting, and diarrhea and the onset of acute respirator,-
show a pronounced furious phase before progressive distress with pulmonary' edema and pneumonia. The
paralysis sets in. This makes them particularly danger- fatality rates are high. Even with intensive supponive
ous transmitters of rabies, as their attacks may be ex- care, over 50 percent of infected patients die, and
ceptionally vicious, inflicting deep punaure wounds. many of these are young, previously healthy adults.
In 1994, cats continued to be the domestic animal Investigation revealed that the disease was caused by
most frequently reported rabid in the United States. A infection with a strain of virus from the genus Hanta-
previous investigation of sixt\ -four rabid cats in Iowa irirus. Rodents are the principal reservoir for Hanta-
revealed that none had a history' of rabies vaccination. virus strains found throughout the world and have
Only dogs been shown to shed the virus in feces, urine, and
health codesareto required be vaccinated by many state andThiscounts-
for rabies. is an saliva. People acquire the infeaion most often by in-
 APPENDIX A

haling aerosolized rodent excreta. No illness occurs neaomized patients. Signs in these individuals are
in the infeaed rodents. severe and include fever, increased white blood cell
The role of pets in human Hantavirus infeaion is counts, intravascular coagulation, and fulminant sep-
not thought to be significant, but studies in Great Brit- sis.
ain indicated that cats occasionally develop antibodies Other diseases, less common, but still occasionally
to Hantavirus. A Korean study of a strain related to the associated with bites, include tetanus, staphylococcal
United States virus revealed that cat ownership was infeaion, tularemia (a plaguelike disease), erysipe-
statistically associated with human infeaion, but loid (askin infeaion), and bubonic plague. Remem-
homes with heavy rodent infestations were more ber to consult with your physician regarding your
likely to have cats to control the rodents. Hantavirus tetanus immunization status if you sustain a bite
or a related agent has reportedly been isolated from wound.
three cats in China, but as yet there is no definite
evidence that cats serve as a significant source of infec-
tion for people. However, pets could have a role in Campylobacter Enteritis
human infeaion if they bring infected rodents into a The baaerial organism Campylobacter jejuni has
household and humans have contaa with them. been increasingly recognized as an important cause
of enteric (small intestine) disease in humans. Pa-
tients have symptoms of fever, headache, abdominal
pain, and other body aches, followed by severe diar-
BACTERIAL DISEASES rhea which becomes watery and often bloody. The
Animal Bites illness is reported to last from a few days to three
weeks.
Animal bites are the most common pet-associated Information is still emerging on the sources of in-
human health problem in the United States. Approxi- feaion for man. Canle and domestic poultn,-, as well
mately 1of ever\' 170 people in the country is bitten as many species of wild birds, have been shown to be
each year. Children are the most frequent victims be- carriers of the organism, and contact with infeaed
cause oftheir small size and their greater tendency to household pets is an additional source of infeaion for
engage in bite-provoking activities. While rarely fatal, man. Isolation rates from domestic cats have varied
animal bites are painful, expensive, and a cause of from 2 to 45 percent depending on the age and loca-
much anxiety. tion of the population studied. Isolation rates are
Pasteurella wound infeaion is a frequent conse- higher in kittens, especially those with diarrhea and
quence ofbite wounds. Caused by a bacterium that is housed in caneries. There are many reports of human
normally found in the mouths of cats and dogs, the disease following contaa with kittens with diarrhea,
infection causes swelling, inflammation, and intense and occasional cases related to exposure to the feces
pain within a few hours after the bite, and there is of asymptomatic adult cats.
often swelling of the lymph nodes draining the in- Campylobaaer enteritis is one of the most common
fected site. Pasteurella of feline origin has also been infections acquired from cats in immunocompro-
implicated as the cause of pneumonia in an AIDS pa- mised patients, and such individuals should exercise
tient. The man was thought to have been infeaed via special care in handling animals likely to be infected.
the respiratorv' traa after contact with a rug soiled
with hairballs from the cat. In an unusual variation of
a bite wound, a patient undergoing peritoneal dialysis Cat-Scratch Disease
in his home developed a Pasteurella induced perito- The cause of cat-scratch disease (CSD) has been a
nitis when his cat bit into the dialysis tubing. subjea of controversy for many years. Although a
Capnocy'tophagia canimorsus (also referred to as number of agents, including bacteria, chlamydia, and
DF-2 ) is a bacterium that has been isolated from 8 to viruses, have been considered the cause of CSD, it is
10 percent of cat mouths. It is an organism of low only recently that scientists have been able to defini-
virulence, usually causing illness only in people with tively associate any organism with the disease. In the
impaired immune mechanisms, such as AIDS or sple- late 1980s, a gram-negative baaerium dubbed Afipia
APPENDIX A

felis was isolated from the lymph nodes of several

CSD patients, but a growing body of serologic evi- Lyme Disease
dence, aswell as more refined isolation techniques, Lyme disease is a serious health hazard for humans
indicates that CSD is more commonly caused by Bar- and their pets, as well as for many wild and domestic
tonella henselae. This same agent, a small curved bac- animals. It has been reported in over forty states, with
terium, is now known to cause several other cat- most cases being found in the Northeast, Wisconsin,
associated disease syndromes in people. Minnesota, and northern California. This tick-borne
Bacillary angiomatosis is a newly recognized dis- disease is rarely fatal but causes serious medical harm
ease syndrome that has been diagnosed primarily when it is not diagnosed and treated in its early stages.
among immunocompromised persons. Disease signs House cats that are allowed to roam freely outdoors
among tliese patients are varied and include undiag- can be exposed to infected ticks and inadvertently
nosed febrile illness, serious skin lesions, and life- carry them home to humans.
threatening systemic disease. B. henselae has been iso- Lyme disease was first identified in Lyme, Connecti-
lated from the lesions found in these conditions as cut. The condition is caused by a bacterium, the spiro-
well as immunocompetent people with CSD. Domes- chete Borrelia burgdorfei, which is carried by the
tic cats appear to be a common reservoir for B. deer tick (Ixodes scapularis) in the northeastern and
henselae. In one study of pet, pound, and stray cats central United States, and the California black-legged
that were showing no signs of clinical disease, the tick {Ixodes pacificus) in the western United States.
organism was isolated from 41 percent and was also The lone star tick {Amblyomma americanum) has
found in the tleas of some of the same cats, suggesting been identified as an additional carrier in New Jersey
an additional mode of transmission. B. henselae has and further south. The spread of Lyme disease has
been shown to persist in the blood of apparently been attributed to migrating birds that may be trans-
healthy cats for periods of at least eighteen months. fer ing the infected ticks.
In an additional study, B. henselae was isolated from Symptoms of the disease are varied and extensive.
the blood of nineteen of twenty-one cats belonging Three stages are usual in humans, often beginning
to fourteen CSD patients. Researchers emphasize that with a red rash around the skin where the tick was
much more work needs to be done to clarify the epi- attached. The rash appears as a large circle swollen in
demiology and transmission mechanisms of this com- the center. Other symptoms of the first stage may in-
plex group of diseases. clude weakness, fatigue, headache, chills, fever, pains
In a typical CSD case occurring in an immunocom- in the joints, and stiff neck.
petent human, a primary inoculation lesion develops When left untreated, the symptoms may disappear
one to two weeks after a cat scratch. Seven to twenty- only to recur several months later in a second stage
one days after the injury, the local lymph nodes swell, with greater intensity plus dizziness, irregular heart-
become painful, and may abscess. Many patients have beat, and painful discomfort throughout the musculo-
mild fever, loss of appetite, generalized pains, and skeletal system. The third stage may appear months
other systemic signs. The enlargement of the lymph or even years after the initial episode, with possible
nodes may last from a few weeks to several months, skin ailments, paralysis, disorders of the nervous sys-
and they may be confused with other diseases such tem, eye and ear problems, and most notably arthritis
as infectious mononucleosis or lymphosarcoma. Most of the large joints.
patients recover with no complications, but occasional The white-footed mouse serves as an asymptomatic
sequellae can include encephalopathy, conjunctivitis, reservoir for B. burgdorfei. A tick in its larval stage
arthritis, and pneumonia. five days after hatching, attaches itself to the mouse
and ingests the bacterium as it obtains its first blood
meal. Larvae molt into nymphs by the spring of the
Chlamydiosis following year and seek small mammals as hosts for
Feline chlamydiosis causes sneezing and nasal and their second blood meal. This nymphal stage is proba-
ocular discharges in infected kittens and cats. Direct bly the most important one in the transmission of the
contact with these infected animals has been shown disease to pets and humans.
to cause coniunctivitis (inflammation of the tissues The nymphal ticks molt into adults and the females
of the eye) in humans. seek their final blood meal from larger mammalian
 APPENDIX A

hosts (primarily deer), after which they lay their eggs ers. The cats subsequently developed so-called song-
and complete the cycle. It has been shown that the bird fever. The affected cats were depressed, off their
host is not invaded by the disease agent immediately. feed, and had high fevers, with vomiting and diarrhea
Infection may not occur for hours after the tick has (often bloody) reported in some cases. Salmonellosis
attached,ventivesovalue.prompt removal of ticks may be of pre- can spread to humans and is of considerable public
health significance. It is another of the most common
Treatment for Lyme disease consists of antibiotic infections acquired from cats in immunosuppressed
therapy and is most effective in the first stage of the patients. The organism may be shed orally, conjuncti-
disease. Early detection and prevention are the most vally, and in the feces.
important factors for dealing with this widespread dis-
ease. Avoid tick-infested areas. Stay alert for tick bites. Plague
Consult a doctor and follow all medical instructions
when early symptoms appear following a possible tick We usually think of plague in association with out-
bite. breaks ofblack death in medieval cities, but the dis-
ease also exists in the wild rodent population in the
western United States, where sporadic cases of
Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever bubonic plague in man are associated with rabbits,
Rocky Mountain spotted fever is an infectious disease rodents, and their fleas. Cats can also acquire plague
caused by the microorganism Rickettsia rickettsii. It is under natural circumstances, through contact with in-
transmitted to humans and other vertebrates by the fected rodents and their fleas, and they have transmit-
ted the disease to man on a number of occasions.
wood tick, Dermacentor andersoni, by the dog tick, Infected cats can appear acutely ill, manifesting signs
Dermacentor variabilis, by the lone star tick, Am- such as a loss of appetite, lethargy, and fever, and
hlyomma americantim, and by the rabbit tick,
Haemaphysalis leporispalustris. Although cats can oc- frequently a draining abscess or lymph node; a pneu-
casionally transport these ticks (and thereby bring monia may also be present. Cats can be involved in
them in closer proximity to humans), they do not spreading the disease to man in a number of ways.
contract the disease. It was first reported in the Rocky They may transport infected rodent fleas into their
Mountain states, hence its name. Cases have been re- owner's
the wild. home, If the catanditself
maybecomes
bring infected
infected,rodents from
it can infect
ported throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, man by direct contact. Case reports indicate people
and Central and South America.
The first symptoms occur several days after the bite can become infected either following a bite wound
of an infected tick. They begin with chills, fever, mus- from an infected cat, or from nonbite (aerosol) con-
cle pain, weakness, and headache. Three to five days tact wifli cats having plague pneumonia. This latter
later, a spotted rash appears on parts of the hands and route of infection is particularly dangerous, as it leads
feet, progressing to the back and eventually to the to the rapid development of life-threatening plague
entire body. The rash is said to be similar to that seen pneumonia in the infected person. Both humans and
in measles, and it may bleed, causing profijse reddish cats respond to treatment with broad-spectrum antibi-
eruptions. Antibiotic treatment is effective if started otics, ifthey are initiated early in the course of the
early; untreated cases may be fatal. disease. Although the number of plague infections
transmitted from cats to people is not large, owners
and veterinarians should keep plague in mind when
Salmonellosis handling cats from areas where the disease exists in
rodents. Any case of plague must be reported to the
Salmonellosis is an intestinal disease caused by bac- public health department.
teria of the Salmonella genus. The most common
route of infection is oral ingestion of feces-contami-
nated water or food. Birds and rodents serve as im-
portant sources of exposure. An outbreak in the Q fever (Q for query)Q isFever
a zoonosis caused by the
northeastern United States occurred in cats that had rickettsial agent Coxiella burnetii that is endemic in
either eaten sick birds or had been around bird feed- many parts of flie world. Cattle, sheep, and goats are
APPENDIX A

the primar\' animal reservoirs of the infection. In Nova ism that is widely distributed throughout the world in
Scotia, Q fever has been endemic in rural areas, soil, plants, and decaying vegetation. Cases have been
where it causes up to 20 percent of communiry- recorded in dogs, cats, rodents, cattle, swine, horses,
acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization. The camels, and birds, as well as in man. Cats usually are
infection appeared to be associated with exposure infected via a wound, which is apt to be on the head
to membranes and fluid during feline parturition. or legs. Males seem to be affected more frequently.
Human exposure is by inhalation of the organism, After a variable incubation period, a nodule (small
which may then cause pneumonia. In a recent Japa- lump) develops at the wound site. Organisms from
nese study, 16 percent of the cats in an urban area this initial lesion may travel via the lymphatics and
were antibody positive for Q fever. Cases of the dis- produce secondary nodules along the path of the
ease werehadpresent in the area's human Thepopulation lymph vessels. The nodules ulcerate and discharge a
who had no exposure to livestock. authors serous to hemorrhagic exudate containing large num-
of the study believe the cat to be a significant reser- bers of organisms. When infection in man is cat-
voir of the organism that affects humans in urban related, it is the result of bites or scratches from the
areas. affected animal or contact with the exudate. The dis-
ease picture in people is similar to that seen in the
cat. Human patients seldom show generalized signs
of disease. People are probably more likely to become
FUNGAL DISEASES infected through contact with contaminated soil dur-
ing outdoor activities than they are by cat contact.
Ringworm
Ringworm is a superficial infection of the keratinized
areas of the body (hair, skin, and nails) caused by
se\'eral varieties of fungi. The two most important spe- PARASITES
cies affecting the dog and the cat are Trichophyton
mentagrophy'tes and Microsporum canis. Both species Toxoplasmosis
can infect man. M. canis is very well adapted to cats, Almost all carnivorous species can become infected
and in approximately 90 percent of infected cats, no with Toxoplasma gondii by eating raw or under-
evident lesions can be seen. When lesions do occur, cooked meat containing infective forms of this proto-
they are most often on the face and the claws. zoan parasite. Cats are unusual in that they are the
The disease is transmitted to man by direct contaa only animal in which the organism can complete its
with infected animals, or indirectly by spores and complex life cycle and be excreted in the feces. De-
scales shed from such animals. Ringworm acquired pending on the environmental conditions, the form
from cats commonly affects the scalp or the body. On of the organism shed in the cat feces becomes infec-
the scalp it begins with a papule (small bump), the tive in the soil in one to four days and is a potential
hair becomes brittle, and the infeaion spreads in a source of infeaion for carnivores, noncarnivores, and
wider circle, leaving scaly bald patches. On the body, man.
there are similar lesions, with a tendency to form In the cat, signs of T. gondii infection vary from
rings with reddish borders. being inapparent to such clinical manifestations as
Because infected cats are so frequently without any weight loss, fever, diarrhea, pneumonia, encephalitis,
clinical signs, this can be a difficult disease to avoid. and ocular disease. The infection may be fatal in
Cats that appear to be healthy can be examined with young kittens. Older cats usually survive.
an ultraviolet light, which gives a brilliant greenish- In man. Toxoplasma infection is usually inappar-
blue fluorescence from hairs infected with Micro- ent. Sometimes primary infection is associated with
sporum. fever, lethargy, and lymph node enlargement. Infec-
tion of the eye, with subsequent loss of sight, may
Sporotrichosis occur. The most severe consequence of human toxo-
plasmosis isfetal infection, acquired transplacen-
Sporotrichosis is a disease common to man and ani- tally (through the placenta) when a pregnant woman
mals caused by Sporothrix schmckii, a fungal organ- undergoes a primary infection. Following transplacen-
 APPENDIX A

tal infection, babies can be normal and healthy at with the contaminated soil. The larva produces a local
birth. Sometimes, however, fetal death or abortion papule (small bump) at its entry site and later mi-
occurs. In addition, children can be born at term with grates though the skin, producing tunnels over which
ocular disorders, mental retardation, or neurological vesicles (blisters) form at the surface. The tissue reac-
defects, or they may not show any signs of illness until tion to this migration causes intense itching in the
the third or fourth decade of life. patient and frequent secondary infection that results
Discovery that the cat is the natural host of toxoplas- from scratching.
mosis aroused concern about cats being a hazard to The larvae can remain alive and travel in the skin
human health. For a time, controversial and confusing for several months. Healing is spontaneous, but it can
recommendations were forthcoming, but further re- be hastened by the administration of an anthelmin-
search has put the role of cats as an immediate source tic (medication destructive to worms).
of Toxoplasma infection for man in a much less Frequent worming of dogs and cats and banning
alarming prospective. In controlling transmission to them from areas where children play with sand are
man, the first concern should be the most probable useful control methods.
source of the infection, which is ingestion of incom-
pletely cooked meat. The second concern is hand- Visceral Larva Migrans
washing after handling raw meat. Cat feces cannot be
disregarded as a hazard, however. If they contain Eggs of the dog roundworm (Toxocara canis), and
Toxoplasma oocysts and have incubated under appro- less frequently the cat roundworm (Toxocara cati),
priate conditions for one to four days, they can be reach the soil in the feces of infected animals. After an
infeaive for man and remain so for more than a year. appropriate incubation period, they become infective
Areas known to be contaminated with cat feces should for both animals and humans and remain so for a
be avoided. Sandboxes should be covered when not prolonged period. Children may ingest the eggs while
in use. Pregnant women and those who are immuno- eating soil or playing in feces-soiled areas. In humans,
suppressed must be particularly cautious; they should the eggs may be rejected or hatch in the intestine
not clean litter pans or sandboxes and should wear and migrate to various parts of the body (liver, lung,
gloves when gardening. Since the Toxoplasma oo- muscle, eye, or central nervous system) via the lym-
cysts require one to four days to become infeaive phatic vessels. Depending on the site of migration, the
after fecal shed, daily emptying of litter pans and symptoms include pneumonitis (inflammation of
propertrol measure.
disposal of their contents is an excellent con- the lungs), swollen liver with abdominal pain, muscle
and joint aches, cough, and rashes and skin nodules.
Toxoplasmosis may cause devastating disease in im- Convulsions may occur, and if larvae reach the eye,
munosuppressed patients. Signs of encephalitis are visual deficiencies may result. Each year in the United
the predominant feature of toxoplasmosis in AIDS pa- States, approximately 10,000 children are infected
tients. Itis estimated that 3 to 10 percent of all patients with ascarids from dogs and cats, and it is estimated
with AIDS die of toxoplasmosis. Although the majority that about 750 lose their vision as a result.
of cases in AIDS patients are the result of reactivation It is crucial to keep children from areas likely to be
of a previously acquired infection, these individuals contaminated with animal feces. Worming of puppies
are extremely vulnerable to a primary cat-associated and kittens also contributes to the control of visceral
exposure and should exercise extreme caution in larva migrans. In this regard, the American Association
handling pets, as well as ensuring they eat only fully of Veterinary Parasitologists recently released a posi-
cooked meat. tion paper stating that worming should begin at two
weeks of age, before eggs can be detected in the feces,
and that worming should be repeated every two
Cutaneous Larva Migrans weeks until the pets are at least twelve weeks old.
Eggs of several species of hookworms affecting dogs
and cats are passed in the feces of these animals;
under favorable conditions (wet, sandy soils and Tapeworms
warm temperatures), they develop into infeaive lar- Dip}>lidium caninum is a tapeworm whose defini-
vae that can punaure the skin of people in contact tive hosts (the hosts in which the adult worm are
APPENDIX A

found in the intestinal tract) are the dog and the Summary
cat. Motile, egg-containing segments detach from the
adult worm and pass to the exterior by themselves
or with the feces. The segments disintegrate in tlie People are more likely to contract transmissible dis-
environment, releasing the eggs, which in turn are eases from each other than they are from their pets.
ingested by flea larvae. The eggs hatch and develop Nevertheless, there are some diseases that are trans-
into an infectious form within the flea as the flea con- mitted directly or indirectly by pets. This transmission
tinues its own maturation. Wtien a dog or cat or is usually complex and generally requires close con-
human ingests an infected flea, the immature tape- tact between susceptible people and animals or their
worm can mature to adulthood in the intestine of excretions. Such contact often involves lack of com-
the new host. Human infestation is seen mainly in mon sense and gross violations of sound hygienic
infants and young children who have close contact practice.
with family pets. Symptoms include diarrhea, abdomi- zoonoses Thus it is most common to see pet-borne
in children.
nal pain and distention, irritability, and abnormal ap- Responsible pet owners can participate in control-
petite. Because the segments shed from the infected ling zoonotic diseases by vaccinating their pets for
child are motile they are promptly recognized by par- rabies; maintaining an adequate worming program;
ents. Humans are thought to be highly resistant to limiting excessive contact of pregnant women, chil-
infection since it is rarely seen even though the poten- dren, and immunosuppressed persons with pets;
tial for exposure is high. Control measures include seeing to it that pet feces and urine are handled in a
eliminating fleas from pets and premises and adminis- hygienic manner; providing pets food and water from
tration of taeniacides (tapeworm-killing drugs) to uncontaminated sources; and supponing efforts to
the infected individual. (See Chapter 31: Internal Para- avoid the unrestricted presence of pets in parks,
sites.) swimming areas, beaches, sandboxes, and gardens.
 N

Vaccinations

by Fred W. Scott

Thecatsinciden many d infectious diseaseh s in

ce ofreduce VACCINATION VERSUS IMMUNIZATION
has been greatly throug the
use of vaccines. Although no vaccine is 100 The terms vaccination and immunization are often
percent effective, the proper use of vac- used interchangeably, but they are not synonymous.
cines allows kittens the best opponunity to grow up as Vaccination refers to the process of giving the vaccine.
healthy, robust cats. Vaccination is not a trivial medical Immunization refers to the process whereby the im-
procedure. Rather, it mune system recog-
is a simple procedure nizes the various
that initiates a compli- foreign proteins or
cated biological pro- antigens present in
cess, resulting in the the vaccine and pro-
immunization or pro- duces antibodies and/
teaion of the cat or other aspects of the
against the infectious immune response
agent or volved. agents There arein- against those antigens.
This immune re-
many factors that must sponse
be taken into consid- tection provides
for the pro-cat
eration before vacci- against thefectious
specific
nation occurs, and agent. Thein-
there are many com- aim is that, in all cases,
plications that occa- vaccination will result
sionally occur after vaccination. Because some in immunization, but in reality, no vaccine or vaccina-
problems can be life threatening, vaccination of cats tion is 100 percent effective. Therefore, a small per-
should be done only by a veterinarian or under the centage ofcats vaccinated against a particular disease
supervision of a veterinarian. will not be immunized against that disease.
399
APPENDIX B

more effective by the IM route, but they can be given

Nature of the Vaccine SC. Vaccines licensed for IM or SC vaccination must
Several t\pes of vaccines are available for vaccination not be given by the IN route.
of cats. First, inactivated vaccines are ones in The IN respiratory vaccines are administered by
which the infectious agent involved in the vaccine has allowing the cat to inhale drops of vaccine into the
been treated in some way (usually by chemicals), so nostrils. One or two drops are also placed in each eye
tliat it no longer can infect and replicate within the (into the conjunctival sac). These vaccines produce
host. These vaccines are considered to be safe, but rapid local, as well as systemic, immunity. Owners
they require more time to produce an immune re- should be aware that vaccinated cats may sneeze and
sponse and they tend to produce a shorter period of develop mild ocular and/or nasal discharge four to
immunity. seven days after IN vaccination. Occasionally, ulcers
A second type of vaccine is the modified live- may develop on the tongue after vaccination. Vacci-
virus (MLV) vaccine (also referred to as an attenu- nated cats shed vaccine viruses for long periods after
ated vaccine), which contains viruses that have been IN vaccination.
altered by various techniques, so that they no longer
produce clinical disease. Viruses in these vaccines can
replicate within the host and stimulate a rapid and Precautions for Vaccination
excellent immune response. In some cases, vaccine Although vaccination may appear to be a simple, in-
virus may be shed from the vaccinated cat to infect nocuous procedure, there are several potential ad-
other cats that may come in contact with the vacci- verse effects and several precautions concerning
nated cat. MLV vaccines should not be administered vaccination of cats that must be kept in mind. There-
to pregnant cats. fore, itis recommended that vaccines be administered
A third type of vaccine is the subunit vaccine. In only by licensed veterinarians, by licensed animal
this type of vaccine, a portion of the infectious agent health technicians, or by animal owners under the
is separated from the rest of the agent and serves to supervision of a licensed veterinarian. Although se-
stimulate the immune system of the cat to develop vere reaaions to vaccination are not common, life-
antibodies against the whole virus or agent. Because threatening reactions on occasion do occur. A trained
there is no living virus or agent present, subunit vac- professional must be available to administer life-sav-
cines are considered to be safe. ing medications if such a reaction does occur.
Genetically engineered vaccines are a fourth A vaccine is only as good as the quality maintained
type of vaccine. There are a number of researchers during produaion. Therefore, only vaccines obtained
working on genetically engineered vaccines, espe- from reputable companies, where adequate quality
cially recombinant (involving genetic exchange) control is maintained, should be used.
vaccines. In the future, we will probably see a number The following are specific precautions or possible
of unique recombinant vaccines for various infectious adverse effects that might be encountered when vacci-
diseases of the cat. nating cats.
PRODUCTION OF DISEASE FROM VAC-
Route of Vaccination CINE. If the vaccine virus is not modified suffi-
The route by which the vaccine is administered may ciently, clinical disease can result from the
affect the speed and degree of protection provided. vaccination. Examples are mild respiratory disease
In all cases, vaccines should only be administered ac- after intranasal vaccination, and clinical rabies follow-
cording to the directions from the manufacturer or ing vaccination with a living vaccine not licensed for
the veterinarian. Feline panleukopenia (FP) vaccine use in the cat. Improperly prepared vaccines may con-
can be given intramuscularly (IM) or subcutaneously tain the virulent virus. Also, the stress of vaccination
(SC) with equal effect. Certain MLV-FP vaccines can may trigger a latent infection into becoming a clinical
also be given by the intranasal (IN) route, but they disease.
will not result in immunization if administered orally.
Most rabies vaccines must be given by the IM route. EFFECT ON FETUSES. Developing fetuses are
The MLV respiratory vaccines appear to be slightly much more susceptible to damage by vaccine viruses
 APPENDIX B

than are kittens or adult cats. Fetal death, abortions, through the first milk, or colostrum. Thus, kittens
resorptions, or congenital birth defects can be the born to immune queens are solidly protected for a
result of vaccination of a pregnant cat with certain few weeks, but these kittens eventually become sus-
vaccines. ceptible after the passive immunity wanes. The
level and duration of passive immunity following
ALLERGIC REACTIONS. Occasionally severe and nursing are determined by the antibody titer (con-
even fatal allergic or anaphylactic reactions can occur centration ofantibody in serum) of the queen at par-
after vaccination. With appropriate knowledge and turition. Although the majority of kittens can be
medication, these reactions can be counteracted. immunized successfully at eight to ten weeks of age,
occasional kittens may not be susceptible to immuni-
VACCINE-ASSOCIATED SARCOMAS. Recently, zation until twelve weeks of age or older. Therefore,
it has been noted that various types of sarcomas (cer- if FP vaccines are given at ages less than twelve weeks,
tain types of cancer) may develop at the site of vacci- they valsshould
until the becat repeated is at least attwelve
three- weeks
to four-week
old. inter-
nation, particularly with inactivated vaccines (e.g.,
feline leukemia virus vaccines and rabies virus vac- The same principles of colostral transfer, antibody
cines). The occurrence of tumors is apparently quite half-life, and vaccine virus neutralization apply to the
low — estimated to be from one to four per 10,000 respiratory viruses, feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1 ),
vaccinates — but it is a potentially very severe conse- and feline calicivirus (FCV). There will be interference
quence. Many researchers are actively investigating with respiratory vaccines if the maternally derived ti-
this problem. In the vast majority of cases, the risk of ters are high enough. Generally, the FHV-1 and FCV
a cat's contracting the infectious disease if not vacci- antibody titers are much lower than the FP titer, and
nated ismuch greater than the risk of sarcoma devel- therefore the duration of interference (and passive
opment; routine vaccination continues to be strongly protection) is much shorter. This protection generally
recommended. does not last longer than five to six weeks for FHV-1,
and seven to eight weeks for FCV. By eight to ten
INFECTION. Improperly handled equipment and weeks of age, the vast majority of cats can be success-
vaccines can become contaminated with bacteria, re- fully vaccinated against FHV-1 and FCV.
sulting inabscess formation and/or generalized bacte-
rial infections.
NERVE INJURY. An improperly placed injection VACCINES
can cause injury to a peripheral nerve with resulting
lameness or paralysis. Feline Panleukopenia (FP) Vaccines
There are many excellent vaccines available for immu-
FAILURE OF VACCINE TO IMMUNIZE. The
use of vaccines that have lost their immunizing ability, infectiousnizatioenteritis).
n ofcats againstIf these
FP (feline "distemper,"
are used felineat
correctly and
the vaccination of kittens that still have maternally de- the proper age, cats should be completely protected
rived immunity, and the vaccination of immunocom- against this very severe viral infection.
promised cats are examples of the situation that may Several slightly different programs for the immuni-
result in vaccine failure. Exposure to virulent virus zation of cats against FP have been recommended
later will result in severe clinical disease. over the years. Most veterinarians recommend that
kittens should be vaccinated starting at eight, nine,
or ten weeks of age, and the vaccination should be
Age of the Cat repeated three to four weeks later when the kittens
The most frequent cause of vaccine failure with feline are at least twelve weeks old (see Table B.l ).
panleukopenia (FP) vaccines is interference caused by If there is any question about exposure to feline
maternally derived immunity. Nature has devised a panleukopenia virus prior to eight weeks of age, kit-
marvelous method of providing temporary protection tens can be vaccinated as early as four weeks of age.
to young animals by passing immunity in the form of Vaccination is then repeated at four-week intervals
specific antibodies from the mother to the newborn until the kitten is at least twelve weeks old.
APPENDIX B

first vaccination is usually given at eight to ten weeks

Feline Herpesvirus Type 1 (FHV-1) Vaccines of age, with a second vaccination three to four weeks
FHV-1 vaccines are prc^duced in combination witli FP later. Annual revaccinations are recommended (see
and feline calicivirus (FCV) vaccines, as a triple FP/ Table B.l).
FHV-1 /FCV vaccine, or as a four- way vaccine with fe-
line chlamy dial vaccine. The FHV-1 vaccines produce Rabies Vaccines
significant protection following vaccination and, as
such, should be pan of the routine vaccination pro- Cats should be routinely vaccinated for rabies in any
gram, asoutlined in Table B.l. As a result of local viral area where rabies in wildlife (skunks, raccoons, foxes,
replication, vaccinated cats develop a rapid anam- bats) is endemic. There is a high correlation between
nestic response (rapid reappearance of antibody) rabies in wildlife and cat rabies. Skunk rabies is en-
when exposed to virulent virus. Some of these ex- demic throughout the central United States, from Can-
posed vaccinated cats may sneeze, and an occasional ada to Mexico. Raccoon rabies is endemic along the
one may have watery eyes for one to two days, but East Coast, from Florida to Canada. Some states have
severe systemic disease does not occur in properly legislation requiring rabies vaccination and licensure
immunized cats as it does in unvaccinated, susceptible of cats.
cats. Only inactivated rabies vaccines specifically li-
censed for use in cats should be used. Cats vaccinated
with an MLV vaccine intended for dogs have actually
Feline Calicivirus (FCV) Vaccine developed rabies. Cats should be vaccinated after
The same parameters (i.e., route of vaccination, anam- twelve weeks of age, then revaccinated one year later.
nestic response when challenged, and good clinical Booster vaccinations are given every three years or
protection against virulent-virus exposure, but not according to state regulations.
protection against local viral replication) apply to FCV
vaccines as to FHV-1 vaccines. These vaccines are pro- Feline Leukemia Virus (FeLV)
duced incombination with FHV-1 vaccine and recom-
mendations are the same as for FHV-1 (see Table B. 1 ). Vaccines are now available to protect cats against fe-
line leukemia. Although these vaccines are not 100
percent effective, they do help reduce the incidence
Feline Chlamydial Vaccine of FeLV infection in cats. The vaccines are only effec-
Feline chlamydiosis (feline pneumonitis, FPn) is a tive in healthy, FeLV-negative cats. Immunization re-
mild to severe, chronic, respiratory, and ocular dis- quires aseries of two vaccinations, followed by a
ease caused by Chlamydia psittaci. Vaccines currently yearly booster.
available produce significant protection following a Although FeLV vaccines are safe for most cats, aller-
single vaccination. As with other respiratory vaccines, gic reactions can occur in a small percentage of cats
complete protection is not afforded, but clinical signs, shortly after vaccination. These reactions include local
if they do occur, are restricted to a very shon course pain or discomfort at the site of vaccination. A few
and are mild and local. Chronic disease (characteristic vaccinated cats have developed transient fever and
of natural infection in susceptible cats) usually does malaise anywhere from a few minutes to a few hours
not occur in vaccinated cats. after vaccination.
The chlamydial vaccines are available either singly
or in combination with other vaccines. The vaccines
now are produced from infected cell cultures instead Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FIP)
of eggs, thus eliminating some of the side effects occa- A vaccine designed to protect cats from FIP is cur-
sional y se n when egg-origin vaccines were used. rently available. Made from a modified-live tempera-
A chlamydial vaccine is an optional pan of the rou- ture-sensitive mutant virus, the vaccine is designed to
tine vaccination program for cats. The age at which to be given by the intranasal route, and it is administered
vaccinate is not critical, because there appears to be to healthy cats sixteen weeks of age and older. Labora-
little interference with maternally derived antibody by tory' studies of vaccine effectiveness have yielded
the time kittens are old enough to be vaccinated. The widely differing results, whereas field studies have
 APPENDIX B

TABLE B. 1 . FELINE VACCINE RECOMMENDATIONS

AGE AT RRST AGE AT SECOND
TYPE OF VACCINATION VACCINATION ROUTE OF
DISEASE VACCINE (weeks) (weeks) REVACCINATION ADMINISTRATION
Feline ( 1 ) Inactivated 8-10 12-14 Annual SC or IM
panleukopenia 8-10 Annual SC or IM
(FP) (2) MLV 8-10 12-14
12-14 Annual IN
(3)MLV-IN
Feline 8-10 12-14 Annual
( 1 ) Inactivated SC or IM
viral rhino- 8-10 12-14 Annual SC or IM
tracheitis (FVR) (2) MLV 8-10 12-14 Annual IN
(3) MLV-IN
Feline 8-10 12-14 Annual SC or IM
( 1 ) Inactivated
calicivirus(FCV) 8-10 12-14 Annual SC or IM
(2) MLV 8-10
12-14 Annual IN
(3)MLV-IN
8-10 12-14 Annual SC or IM
Chlamydiosis ( 1 ) Live attenuated
8-10 12-14 Annual
(2 ) Inactivated SC or IM
Rabies ( 1 ) Inactivated 12 64 Triennial SC or IM
Feline 9 1912 Annual SC or IM
leukemia vims ( 1 ) Inactivated
(FeLV)
Feline 16 Annual IN
infectious ( 1 ) MLV-IN
peritonitis
MLV, modified-live virus; IM, intramuscular; IN, intranasal; SC, subcutaneous.

suggested an effectiveness of 50 to 75 percent. As with able. The results of a limited number of studies in
other infectious agents, no protection is expected if multicat households with ringworm infections indi-
exposure to the causative virus has occurred prior to cate that the vaccine helps protect some cats from the
vaccination. development of skin disease, and it may aaually has-
ten the recovery of those that already have lesions.
Dermatophytosis However, there is currently no evidence that vacci-
nated cats are protected from infection, nor does the
An inactivated vaccine to protect cats from disease vaccine show ability to help a cat rid itself of M. canis
caused by Microsporum canis — ringworm — is avail- infection.
 APPENDIX C

Diagnostic Tests
by June KirvanTuttle, Jeffrey E. Bar lough,
and Julia T. Blue

ailment affecting a
Often, not anfying
cat is identi eas\' the
task. For the veterinar- Bacterial Cultures
ian, the cat's histon- and clinical signs Scrapings from skin, swabs from lesions or mucous
may suggest several diagnoses. Today's membranes, tracheal wash samples, and samples of
sophisticated diagnostic tests can help establish an ac- blood, urine, or tissue all may be used for the isola-
curate diagnosis. Accurate identification of the under- tion of bacteria in culture. A sample that has been
lying disease problem collected from any of
is crucial for selecting these sources and
an appropment. Theriate
initial treat-
cost kept rialeither
transponin medium
a bacte-
for diagnostic testing or sterile container is
may seem high; how- inoculated onto an
ever, it more than appropriate medium,
pays for itself in the such as agar tracted (afrom gel ex-
algae)
long run by reducing
the cost of treatment and allowed to incu-
and hospitalization. bate at appropriate
grov^h temperatures
in an incubator. If any
BACTERIOLOGY growth occurs, the
AND bacterium is identi-
MYCOLOGY fied by a variety of
tests, including (1 ) viewing stained organisms micro-
Many diseases are caused by bacteria (see Chapter 30: scopical y; (2)growtli in differential media; and (3)
Bacterial Diseases) or fungi (see Chapter 32: Fungal specific immunological reactions of organisms with
Diseases). Bacterial and fungal cultures and antimicro- reference antisera (sera that react only with specific
bial sensitivity tests are particularly useful in diagnosis organisms).
of an infection and in prescribing the appropriate ANTIMICROBIAL SENSITIVITY TESTS. Once a
treatment. bacterium has been identified, a sensitivity test is per-
404
 APPENDIX C

formed to determine which antimicrobial is most ef- that are capable of attaching to each specific microbe
fective against it. This is important because bacteria or toxin. The concentration or quantity of antibody
can become resistant to an antibiotic to which they present in a serum is commonly expressed as a titer,
were once susceptible. In the interim, a veterinarian which is determined by diluting the serum until the
may prescribe a broad-spectrum antibiotic to initiate specific antibody activity being tested for is undetect-
treatment. With the results of the sensitivity test, a able. Usually the highest dilution of serum showing
more specific drug may be prescribed, one that has a appreciable antibody activity is referred to as the titer.
more effective activity on the bacterium. A positive or high-serum-antibody titer against a .spe-
Sensitivity testing requires culturing the bacteria as cific virus indicates that the cat being tested has had pre-
described above. However, for this test, small filter- vious exposure to that virus, either by natural infection
paper disks impregnated with different antibiotics are or by vaccination. For example, a serum antibody titer
placed on the agar culture plate, which has been of 1:5000 against feline panleukopenia virus indicates
streaked with freshly isolated organisms. After the cul- either previous infection with the virus or previous vac-
ture has been incubated for eight to twenty-four cination with a panleukopenia virus vaccine.
hours, it is examined for bacterial growth. Control The eniyme-linked immunosorbent assay
areas of the culture plate, and areas around the paper (ELISA) is an enzyme immunoassay that can be used
disks containing antibiotics to which the organism is to detect either antibody or antigen, depending on
resistant, will show uniform bacterial growth. When how the test is set up. Enzyme immunoassays rely on
no growth is seen around a particular paper disk, the enzyme-induced color changes in small plastic test
antibiotic in that disk is considered to be effective wells for measurement of antigen or antibody levels.
against the cultured bacterium. The minimum in- Commercial test kits that provide either a positive or
hibitory concentration (MIC) method gives more negative result have been developed, which makes it
precise information on each antibiotic dosage used. possible to perform this type of test at the veterinar-
MIC is used in veterinary diagnostic laboratories.
ELISA ian'stestcliniccan ratherbe than
used atas aandiagnostic laboratory.feline
aid in diagnosing The
leukemia virus infection, feline immunodeficiency
Fungal Cultures virus infection, toxoplasmosis, hearrworm, and feline
The same general techniques are used to diagnose fun- coronavirus infection. The coronavirus antibody test
gal infections, except that special growth media and can identify coronavirus antibody, but it cannot distin-
temperature conditions must be provided. In addition, guish which coronavirus: feline infectious peritonitis,
the incubation period may require several weeks. Sen- feline enteric coronavirus; canine coronavirus; or
sitivity tests are not routinely performed, however. transmissible gastroenteritis virus. KELA is a kinetics-
based ELISA, in which the speed of the reaction (the
kinetics) of antibody with antigen is measured, and
VIROLOGY/IMMUNOLOGY from this a titer is calculated by computer.
The immunofluorescence assay (IFA) (fluo-
Unlike a bacterium or fungus, a virus is inert outside rescent antibody test) uses a fluorescent-labeled anti-
a living cell; only inside a cell can it reproduce itself body in a reaction that detects antigen present on or
Viru.ses can be recovered from affected animals, but within cells. The test may be set up to measure either
virus growth in culture is a much more complex pro- antigen or antibody, and an ultraviolet-light micro-
cedure than the growing of bacteria, requiring spe- scope isrequired to see the reaction. This is one of
cialized equipment not available at all veterinary the most widely used tests in diagnostic laboratories.
diagnostic laboratories. It is also time consuming and (The Hardy test, or slide test for feline leukemia virus,
relatively expensive. Other techniques, such as direct is an immunofluorescence assay. )
identification of viruses in tissue cells or blood cells, Virus neutralization (VN) measures the effect of
are used more often. serum antibody against live virus. The procedure con-
Serology is the laboratory study of antigens and sists of combining diluted serum and virus, allowing
antibodies in serum (the clear portion of the blood, them to interact, and then adding them to cell cul-
minus clotting factors). When bacteria, viruses, or tox- tures. After incubating for a period of time, the culture
ins invade the body, specific antibodies are produced is viewed microscopically for the presence or absence
APPENDIX C

of viral effects on the cells. If viral effects are greatly (complete blood count) is a panel of individual hema-
diminished or are absent, it indicates that specific anti- tology tests.
viral antibody is present in the test serum. A decrease in the total mass of red cells in blood is
called anemia and is detected most readily by mea-
suring the percentage of a sample of whole blood
PARASITOLOGY that is occupied by red cells; this test is called the
hematocrit or packed cell volume (PCV). Many
Diagnostic tests are often performed to determine the veterinary' practices can measure the PCV and quickly
presence of internal parasites. The easiest way to de- determine whether a cat is anemic. Additional tests
termine the presence of intestinal parasites is by a that pertain to red cells, but which usually are per-
fecal examination. A small sample of fresh feces is formed indiagnostic laboratories, are tlie concentra-
collected, liquefied with a saturated salt or sugar solu- tion ofhemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying pigment in
tion, and if necessarv', centrifiiged (spun to separate red cells) in a volume of blood and the red blood
the heavier paniculates). When a small amount of the cell count (RBC), which enumerates red cells. Diag-
sample is placed on a slide and viewed under a micro- nostic laboratories have hematology analyzers that si-
scope, the ova (eggs) or larvae (immature forms) of multaneously measure PCV, RBC, and hemoglobin
various parasites are visible and can be identified. concentration and, in addition, measure the size and
Heartworm microfilariae in the blood can be de- hemoglobin content of the average red cell. This addi-
tected byone of several specific enzyme immunoas- tional information can provide important clues to the
says, or by the Knott's test sample).
(a technique for staining cause of the anemia. For example, iron deficiency ane-
the microfilariae in a blood mia isindicated if the red cells are smaller and contain
External parasites can be identified by removing less hemoglobin than normal.
the parasite directly (in the case of those parasites The WBC (white blood cell count) is an enumer-
readily visible to tlie naked eye) or by scraping af- ation of the white cells in a volume of blood and the
fected skin areas. The scrapings are viewed micro- platelet count determines the number of platelets.
scopical y tocheck for the presence of parasites too The blood smear examination is performed by using
small to be seen with the unaided eye. a microscope to look at the cells in a thin smear of
blood that has been stained to give color to the differ-
ent cells. During the blood smear examination, the
HEMATOLOGY different kinds of white cells are enumerated (to ob-
tain a differential count), the appearance of the
Most of the tests that are referred to as hematology blood cells is assessed for significant abnormalities,
tests are designed to count and assess the characteris- and the number of platelets is estimated. Changes in
tics of blood cells. Tl)e cells that circulate in blood the number or appearance of the different kinds of
include red cells (erythrocytes), white cells (leuko- white cells can signal the presence of inflammation,
cytes), and platelets. Red cells carry oxygen from infection, or leukemia. Some causes of anemia pro-
lungs to tissues. The different kinds of white cells are duce characteristic changes in the shape of red cells.
carried in blood to tissues, where they perform differ- A significant drop in the platelet count can be detected
ent essential functions. Neutrophils and monocytes quickly by examinmg the blood smear.
ingest and kill bacteria that invade tissues. Eosino-
phils engage in allergic reactions, and in attacks on
parasites. Lymphocytes patrol for foreign antigens COAGULATION
and mount immune responses. Platelets are cell frag-
ments that assist in the formation of clots, to stop The coagulation tests assess the function of the clot-
bleeding. ting proteins in blood. These proteins, called clotting
Hematology tests are performed on a sample of factors, interact in a sequence of steps that turn blood
blood that has been collected into an anticoagulant, from a liquid to a firm gel. These tests are reported as
which keeps blood in a fluid state by preventing clot- the time in seconds that elapses from activation of the
ting. EDTA is the anticoagulant used most often for first step in the reaction to the endpoint, which is
the analysis of blood cells. The hemogram or CBC the formation of a clot. The activated clotting time
 APPENDIX C

(ACT) is a simple test that can be performed in the liver disease, and skin disease. The LE cell test,
veterinary practice to screen for severe defects in the which detects certain types of antinuclear antibodies,
overall coagulation system. Diagnostic laboratories is positive in some cats with SLE.
with special equipment perform tests that are more
sensitive and assess different parts of the coagulation
pathway. These tests include activated partial CLINICAL CHEMISTRY
thromboplastin time (APTT), prothrombin time
(PT), and thrombin clot time, which is often re- The clinical chemistry tests are performed on the fluid
poned as fibrinogen concentration. Because platelets portion of blood, which is called plasma if the blood
are an essential component of normal clotting, the sample is collected with anticoagulant, or serum if
platelet count is also a component of the panel of the blood is allowed to clot. Heparin is a satisfactory
coagulation tests. Many disorders of clotting cause anticoagulant for clinical chemistry tests. Some clini-
characteristic patterns of abnormal test results, which cal chemistry tests measure the amount of substances
help to identify the cause of uncontrolled bleeding. in blood, such as glucose, sodium, potassium, chlo-
In some cases, such as suspected hemophilia, mea- ride, calcium, phosphate, and cholesterol, while oth-
surement ofthe amount and function of individual ers measure the activity of enzymes, such as alanine
clotting factors is needed. Blood samples can be sent aminotransferase (ALT), creatine kinase, and li-
to one of several specialized coagulation laboratories
that are able to perform specific factor assays. One Because many different conditions or factors can
of these laboratories is the Comparative Hematology cause an abnormal result in any one test, the list of
pase.
Laboratory at Cornell College of Veterinary Medicine. possible causes can be narrowed considerably by per-
forming apanel of several different tests. The results
of multiple tests, like pieces of a puzzle, can fit to-
CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY gether to form a recognizable pattern or diagnosis.
Panels of clinical chemistry tests provide insight into
A few tests are available that are used in the diagnosis the status of multiple organs and metabolic functions.
of autoimmune diseases. Autoimmune diseases are
the result of a self-destructive immune response. (See
Chapter 28; Immune System and Disorders. ) Different CYTOLOGY AND HISTOPATHOLOGY
autoimmune diseases produce different clinical signs,
depending on which cells and tissues are the targets Microscopic examination of cells and tissue for visible
of the autoantibodies. The Coombs' test is used to evidence of disease processes can be performed by
detect the presence of antibodies attached to red cells. different methods. Diagnostic cytology consists of
Because antibody-coated red cells are rapidly re- examining a thin layer of cells spread on a slide. Cells
moved from circulation, an affected cat can become can be collected by scraping or brushing a surface, by
severely anemic. The autoimmune
Coombs' test hemolytic
is positive inanemia.
most, aspirating cells from a solid tissue using a needle and
but not all, cats with syringe, by aspirating fluids from body cavities, (e.g.,
Many cats with feline infeaious anemia (see Chapter cerebrospinal fluid), by pressing a glass slide against
30: Bacterial Diseases), which is caused by infection a surface (an impression smear), and by flushing a
of red cells by an organism called Hemobartonella cavity and retrieving tlie cells that are dislodged (e.g.,
felis, also have a positive Coombs' test, but in this a tracheal wash). In many cases, material for cyto-
condition the antibodies are directed against the para- logic examination can be collected with minimal
sites on the red cells rather than against intrinsic com- stress to the patient and without anesthesia. Some of
ponents ofthe red cell membrane. The antinuclear the collected material can be reserved for further
antibody test (ANA) looks for antibodies in serum tests, such as culture for bacteria if the cytologic find-
that react with the nucleus of cells. A high ANA titer ings indicate an infectious process.
supports a diagnosis of systemic lupus erythematosis Histopathologic examination is performed on
(SLE), which is an autoimmune disease that can dam- excised tissue that has been preserved in a fixative,
age multiple tissues and produce many different signs, usually a dilute solution of formaldehyde, and embed-
including those of anhritis, anemia, kidney disease. ded in paraffin. Very thin slices of the paraffin-embed-
408 ^
ded tissue are placed on a glass slide and stained. mone levels are indicative or even diagnostic of cer-
These tissue sections can be assessed for the presence tain metabolic diseases. Such tests may be required
of inflammator>' exudates, infectious agents, and dis- periodically to monitor the effectiveness of a given
ruptions inthe normal arrangement of cells in tissue treatment. Sophisticated equipment is needed to per-
that indicate various forms of injury. In many in- form some of these tests, although rapid in-office diag-
stances, collection of tissue for histopathologic exami- nostic kits are now available for a limited number of
nation requires surgical procedures and general ders.) (See Chapter 27: Endocrine System and Disor-
them.
anesthesia. The collection and preparation of material
for histopathologic examination requires more time
and is ccxstlitT tlian making smears for cytologic exam-
iii.iimii i li i , rx.iinm.iiiiin of tissue sections URINALYSIS
allows asscsMiicnt ot more ct'ils than are in smears
and, more important, allows the pathologist to view Urinalysis is a series of physical and chemical tests that
the organization of the cells in the tissue, which can aid in diagnosis of urinary tract disorders. A sample of
be a crucial factor in recognizing neoplastic pro- urine is examined for its physical properties (clarity,
cesses. The decision to use cytology or histopathol- color, and .specific gravity); tested biochemically for
og\', or both, in an individual case is based on such pH, protein, glucose, bilirubin, and ketones; and ex-
factors as the location of the lesion and its accessibility amined microscopically for the presence of blood
to different collection methods, the relative risks in- cells, crystals, casts (solid, tubular deposits), and bac-
volved incollecting samples, and the type of disease teria. Urinalysis is also helpfijl in detecting diseases
process suspected from the clinical signs, physical ex- affecting other systems, for instance, glucose in the
amination, and radiographic findings. Frequently, cy- urine can indicate diabetes mellitus.
tologic examination is performed first, followed by
biopsy and histopathologic examination if the cyto-
logic findings are not conclusive. ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY
This procedure records the electrical activity of the
ENDOCRINOLOGY heart muscle during contraction and relaxation. Ab-
normal tracings seen on the graph paper readout (or
Several tests are available for measuring hormone other visual display) aid the veterinarian in diagnosing
levels in the blood. Increases or decreases in hor- heart disease or other disturbances.
 APPENDIX D

Diagnostic Imaging
by Amy E. Yeager

Diagnointern stialc organ imagis ng makes pictur es of the vasive or minimally invasive technique. Routine im-
using x-rays, ultrasound, aging procedures are not painful and not risky to the
gamma-raysformed, on sick
or magne tic
cats forfields. per- cat patient.
all theIt issame
ns
reaso that it is perfo rmed on sick people.
Physical examination (for instance, listening to the RADIOGRAPHY
patient with a stethoscope and feeling the patient with (X-ray Imaging)
the hands) is of course the first step in the evaluation
of the sick cat. When a more extensive medical exami- Radiography is the routine diagnostic imaging
nation isrequired, diagnostic imaging is frequently method, and it is performed more frequently than any
indicated. other type of imaging. It is the initial imaging choice
Imaging reveals the size, shape, location, and to a for cats, because it is readily available, it has been
lesser extent the composition, internal architecture, used successfiilly for decades, it is easy and quick to
and function of the various organs (of the musculo- perform on awake cats, and it is the least expensive
skeletal, nervous, sensory, respiratory, cardiovascular, of the imaging methods. To make a radiograph, the
digestive, urinary, endocrine, lymphatic, and repro- cat patient lies down on a table and on the x-ray
duaive systems). These kinds of information have film cassette. The cat is held still with sandbags or
great importance regarding the diagnosis, treatment, hand-held by a veterinary staff member for the short
and prognosis of many diseases of cats. In general, (usually less than one-tenth of a second) x-ray expo-
diagnostic imaging is more valuable for depicting dis- sure.
eases that cause structural changes in the organ sys- Radiographs of the chest and abdomen are often
tems (e.g., fraaures, tumor masses, pneumonia) and made to obtain a broad overview of a sick cat's physi-
less valuable for depicting metabolic and infectious cal condition. This is most frequently done if the cat
diseases (e.g., diabetes and rabies). is severely ill, elderly, traumatized, or suspected of
Direa visualization of the internal organs through having cancer. Radiography is especially valuable for
surgery or endoscopy (examination of structures evaluation of the respiratory, skeletal, digestive, and
through an endoscope) can provide the same infor- urinary systems. For these organ systems, radiography
mation as diagnostic imaging, and sometimes better. or radiography in combination with a radiographic
However, imaging has the advantage of being a nonin- 409 special procedure (to be described) is often the only
APPENDIX D

imaging method required in the complete evaluation liquid, paste, or food mixture is fed. Radiographs of
of the cat patient. the throat and esophagus are made to determine the
abilit>' of the esophageal muscle to propel barium into
the stomach. Barium sulfate preparations are pleas-
SPECIAL RADIOGRAPHIC PROCEDURES antly flavored and they have a chalky consistency.
They are soothing to the digestive tract, but they can
There are a varieU' of special radiographic imaging be dangerous if accidentally inhaled into the lungs or
procedures that can be performed when it is medi- spilled into the chest or abdominal cavities through a
call\' necessar\' to evaluate a specific organ system in perforation in the digestive tract.
greater detail. The information gained by doing a spe-
cial procedure can be vitally important for making the
correct diagnosis. However, special procedures are Upper Gastrointestinal (UGI) Study
not routinely performed, because of their additional An upper gastrointestinal study is performed on cats
expense and because many of the procedures cause that have vomiting, diarrhea, a history of eating a for-
some discomfon to the cat patient. For these, tran- eign object, digestive tract bleeding, a suspected per-
quilization or anesthesia is required so that the cat foration ofthe digestive tract, or an abdominal mass
will lie still for the procedure. Furthermore, special or a hernia that might involve a portion of the diges-
procedures are minimally to mildly invasive. That is tive tract. The study is commonly performed to decide
to say, a body cavit\' is entered by a needle or a cathe- whether or not a vomiting cat requires surgery to
ter and a radiographic contrast agent (which can be remove an obstruction or a foreign object within the
visualized on tlie x-ray film) is injected. Infrequently, digestive tract. The UGI study is usually performed
the cat patient can be physically traumatized by the using ter.barium sulfate.tract(Seeperforation
"Esophagram," this chap-an
procedure, develop an infection afterward, or have an ) Ifa digestive is suspected,
adverse reaction to the contrast agent or anesthesia. iodine contrast agent is used. A large volume of bar-
Therefore, a special radiographic procedure is per- ium sulfate liquid is administered either by force-
formed only when it is judged that the medical infor- feeding with a dose syringe or via a nasogastric tube.
mation to be gained outweighs the small risk of the In normal cats, the barium sulfate travels through the
procedure. digestive tract and into the colon in about two to four
The following is a discussion of the more com- hours.
monly performed special radiographic procedures. In
some instances, these procedures are performed
more effectively if fluoroscopy is used. Fluoroscopy Cystogram and Urethrogram
is a moving x-ray image that is viewed on a television A cystogram and/or urethrogram are performed on
screen. It is generally available only at specialty veteri- cats that have difficult or painful urination, blood or
nary clinics. pus in the urine, incontinence, frequent urination
(often outside the litter box), or trauma to the blad-
der. Acatheter is placed into the urethra or bladder,
Myelogram and air or an iodine contrast agent is injected. This
A myelogram is performed on cats that are paralyzed will outline the wall, delineate abnormal bladder con-
or have pain involving the front or hind legs. A needle tents, and determine if there is any leakage from the
is placed into the small space surrounding the spinal lower urinary tract. Occasional complications that
cord and an iodine contrast agent is injected to outline arise from these procedures are trauma to the bladder
the spinal cord. Occasionally, the procedure causes or urethra and bacterial infection of the bladder.
temporary seizures or temporary worsening of the
paralysis. Excretory Urogram (Intravenous Pyelogram)
Esophagram (Barium Swallow) An excretory urogram is performed on cats with kid-
neys of abnormal shape or size, kidney stones, renal
An esophagram is performed on cats that gag, regurgi- failure, bloody urine, trauma, or incontinence. An io-
tate, or have difficulty swallowing. A barium sulfate dine contrast agent is injected into a vein and radio-
 APPENDIX D

graphs are made as the kidneys accumulate and then sonography over radiography. It has a greater ability
excrete the contrast agent. The excreted contrast to distinguish differences in the composition of the
agent outlines the ureters and demonstrates their con- soft tissues. Therefore, ultrasonography is better than
nection tothe urinary bladder. Very rarely, a cat may routine radiography for showing the internal anatomy
have an adverse reaction to the contrast agent, such as of most organs. It is especially good at distinguishing
an allergic response, a temporary renal failure, or a between fluid and solid tissue. An example of die
cardiovascular collapse and possible death. superiority of ultrasonography over radiography is its
ability to distinguish the wall of the urinary bladder
from the urine inside the bladder. A cancer mass of
Angiogram and Angiocardiogram the bladder wall is readily detected. This is not possi-
Angiograms and angiocardiograms are performed on ble with radiography unless a special procedure (cys-
cats with vascular or cardiac disease by placing cathe- togram) is performed, widi an iodine contrast agent
ters within the blood vessels or the heart and injecting injected to outline the cancer mass. A second advan-
an iodine contrast agent. These are the most invasive tage of ultrasonography is that it forms a moving (real-
of the radiographic special procedures, and there is time) image. This is extremely valuable for evaluation
risk of hemorrhage and cardiac trauma. Angiocardio- of the heart (called echocardiography) because car-
grams need to be performed at specialty practices diac contraction and valve motion are visualized. The
because fluoroscopy and rapid filming equipment are third advantage of ultrasonography is its ability to de-
required for the procedure. Echocardiography, a non- tect the direction and velocity of blood flow, which
invasive imaging method, has almost completely re- is also very valuable for cardiac evaluation. Blood
placed angiocardiography. flow measurements are made using Doppler tech-
Vascular diseases are rare in cats with the exception niques.
of portosystemic shunt, a congenital malformation There are two important disadvantages of ultraso-
of the ponal vein that causes the blood draining from nography compared to routine radiography. Ultraso-
tlie intestine to bypass the liver and flow directly to- nography cannot image air or bone. Therefore, it has
ward the heart. A portogram is the definitive imaging limited usefulness for examination of tlie respiratory
procedure to document abnormal portal blood flow. tract and skeleton. Furthermore, examination of the
Ultrasonography and nuclear scintigraphy are other abdomen is hampered by gas within the digestive
imaging methods that can be used to diagnose this tract. And, to examine the internal organs of the abdo-
disease. Although portography is invasive, it is simple men, itis best if the abdominal hair is clipped because
to perform. The abdomen is surgically opened and a air trapped in the hair causes poor image quality.
catheter is placed directly into a vein that drains to the
portal vein. An iodine contrast agent is injected. There
is minimal risk of an adverse reaction to the iodine con- COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY AND
trast agent. (See "Excretory Urogram," this chapter.) MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
Computerized tomography (CT) uses x-rays to
make two-dimensional
body. This informationslicecanimages of the cat patient's
be reconstructed into
ULTRASONOGRAPHY AND
ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY three-dimensional images of the patient. Magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) uses proton orientation
Ultrasonography is the second most common im- within strong magnetic fields to create similar two-
aging procedure performed on sick cats. In a manner dimensional slice images. Both are expensive tech-
similar to sonar or radar, reflected sound waves form niques that are available only at specialty practices.
a picture of the internal organs. It costs approximately Both require general anesthesia of the patient to pre-
twice as much as routine radiography, and its avail- vent patient motion. Physical restraint of the cat by a
ability issomewhat limited. Ultrasonography, like rou- human is not allowed. These very powerful computer-
tine radiography, is risk free and can be performed ized techniques have the best ability to determine the
on awake cats. tissue composition of the internal organs, and they
There are three important advantages of ultra- have the best anatomic precision of all of the imaging
APPENDIX D

methods. Although these imaging methods are not the body. Radioactive technetium or iodine is linked
widely used, they are clearly the best methods for to one of a large variety of pharmaceuticals specially
detection of brain and nasal cavity lesions. designed to pass through, accumulate in, or be ex-
creted bya specific organ or area of the body. Disease
is detected by abnormal accumulations or transit of
NUCLEAR SCINTIGRAPHY radioactivity. Some common studies performed on
cats are thyroid, bone, and portal blood flow scans.
Nuclear scintigraphy is different from the other im- Scintigraphy is available only at specialty practices.
aging procedures because it does not create images After a scintigraphic study, the cat patient is radioac-
of the cat'sceutical isadministered
actual body tissues. A radioactive tive and cannot go home until radiation levels are at
and a picture is madepharma-
of the an acceptably low level. This is usually after twenty-
subsequent distribution of radioactivity throughout four to forty-eight hours.
 Glossary

by John E. Saidla and

Jeffrey E. Barlough

ABDOMINAL PALPATION. Examination by hand and ADRENAL GLANDS. Endocrinc glands located adja-
fingers of the surface of the abdomen, to detect ab- cent to the kidneys.
normalities within the abdominal cavity. ADRENALINE. Epinephrine, a hormone secreted by
ABSCESS. Walled-off, pus-filled lesion. the adrenal glands.
ACARiASis. Mite infestation. ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE (ACTH). A
ACHOLIC FECES. Lightly colored feces resulting hormone produced by the pituitary gland, which con-
from the absence of bile in the intestine. trols the cortex of the adrenal gland.
ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME. AIDS ADSORB . To bind to a surface.
in human beings; infection with the human immuno- AEROBIC. Growing in the presence of oxygen.
deficiency virus can result in AIDS.
Actinomyces . Bacterium common in the mouth of AEROSOL EXPOSURE. Exposure to an infectious
cats, other animals, and humans. agent via moisture droplets drifting in the air.
ACUTE . Short term; of short duration; short and rela- AFLATOxiN. Poison (mold toxin) that can cause seri-
ous liver injury if ingested.
tively severe.
ACUTE HEPATIC NECROSIS. Liver cell death. AGAR. A gel extracted from algae.
AGENESIS. Congenital absence of a structure.
Addison'ssufficientdisease.
secretion by theHypoadrenocorticism
adrenal cortex). (i.e., in- ALANINE AMINOTRANSFERASE (ALT). An enzyme
found within liver cells.
adenocarcinoma. Malignant tumor of glandular
tissue. ALB u M I N . A major protein component of blood
ADENOMA. Benign tumor of glandular tissue.
plasma.
ALDOSTERONE. A hormone secreted by the adrenal
adipsia. Absence of thirst.
cortex, which
tassium regulates sodium, chloride, and po-
balance.
AD LIBITUM. Free-choice, at will. 413
GLOSSARY

ALKALI . Any one of a group of c"ompounds that form ANK> I osis The immobility and consolidation of a
soap when mixed with fat. joint scvdikLiia to injun\ infection, or nutritional dis-
ALKALOID . One of a group of substances found in order.
plants; usually bitter (e.g., atropine, caffeine, mor- ANORECTIC. Having no appetite.
phine, nicotine, quinine, strychnine). ANOREXIA. Loss of appetite.
ALLELE . One of the forms of a given gene. ANTEMORTEM. Before death.
ALLERGEN . Substance that can produce an allergic re- ANTERIOR CHAMBER. A large space filled with aque-
action.
ous fluid at the front of the eye, between the cornea
ALOPECIA. Ab.sence or loss of hair. and lens.
ALOPECIA AREATA. An inflammaton,' disease re- ANTHELMINTIC. Dewormer; medication for intesti-
sulting inpatchy loss of hair. nal parasites.
ALVEOLUS . One of many small air sacs that comprise ANTIBIOTICS. Chemical substances, such as penicil-
the innermost structure of the lungs. lin or streptomycin, produced by various microorgan-
AMEBOID ACTION. Movement resembling that of an isms, which are able to kill or inhibit growth of other
ameba: the cell extends its qtoplasm and then the microorganisms.
rest follows. ANTIBODY. Specialized protein produced by the im-
AMELIA. Congenital absence of a limb. mune system in reaction to the presence of a foreign
substance (bacterium, virus, toxin) in the body,
AMINO ACIDS. Nitrogen-containing molecules; the which is capable of binding to the specific antigen on
chief structural components of protein. that substance; immunoglobulin.
AMMONIA. A waste product of protein metabolism. ANTIFUNGAL. Chemical substance, such as griseoful-
ANABOLiSM. The bodys conversion of simple sub- vin, produced by microorganisms or by other means,
stances tocomplex compounds. used in the treatment of fungal infections.
ANAEROBIC. Growing in the absence of oxygen. ANTIGEN . A substance capable of inducing a specific
immune response in a body by binding to a specific
ANAMNESTIC RESPONSE. Rapid reappearance of anti- antibody; can be a property of bacteria, viruses, tissue
body. cells, or foreign proteins.
ANAPHYLACTIC REACTION. An acute, exaggerated al- ANTIMICROBIAL.
viral drug. An antibacterial, antifungal, or anti-
lergic reaction.
ANATOMY. The science of the structure of the body. ANTINEOPLASTIC. Anticancer.
ANDROGEN. Any male sex hormone. ANTiONCOGENES. Genes whose presence represses
ANEMIA. Low red blood cell count, reduced hemo- cancer, and in whose absence, by a hereditary abnor-
globin, orreduced volume of packed red cells. mality, certain specific kinds of tumors may develop.
ANENCEPHALY. Congenital absence of the brain. ANTISERUM. Clear blood liquid containing antibody,
ANESTRUS. The sexually inactive period in a season- taken from an animal that has been injected or in-
fected with the antigen.
terallymonths.
polyestrous cycle, usually during the fall or win-
AORTicsTENOSis. The constriction of the aortic ori-
ANGIOEDEMA. Recurrent wheals or welts on the fice or of the aorta.
skin, caused by capillary leakage. APLASIA. Imperfect development of a tissue or
ANGIOGRAPHY. Radiograph of blood vessels after organ.
being injected with a contrast medium. APNEA. Cessation of breatliing.
 GLOSSARY

APOCRINE GLAND. Special t\pe of gland, such as a AURICLE. External ear, pinna; the term auricle also
sweat gland attached to a hair follicle. refers to a small, blind sac or ear-shaped pouch
attached to an atrium of the hean.
AQUEOUS FLUID. Fluid produced by the ciliary pro-
cess and filling the anterior chamber of the e\'e. AUTOIMMUNE RESPONSE. Immune response di-
ARACHiDONic ACID. Essential fatt>- acid found in an- reaed against the body's own tissues.
imal fat. AUTONO.Mic NERVOUS SYSTEM. Subconscious ner-
ARMAMENTARIUM. In medicine: coUeaion of medi- vous s\-stem.
cal equipment, techniques, and medicines. AUTOSOMAL. Referring to the paired body chromo-
ARRHYTHMIA. Variation from normal heartbeau somes, not to a sex chromosome.
ARTERITIS. Inflammation of an anen.-. AUTOSO.ME. An ordinan- paired bod%- chromosome,
without any sexual charaaeristic.
ARTHROPOD . An invenebrate organism with a seg-
mented bod) ; examples include insects and crusta- AWN HAIRS. Intermediate-sized hairs forming pan of
ceans. the priman- coat.
ASCARiASis. Infection by roundworms. AXON. The single fingerlike extension from a nene
ASCARIDS. Roundworms, e.g., Toxocara cati. cell bod\-.
ASCENDING. Moving up. BACILLUS CALMETTE-GUERiN (BCG). A live baae-
rial preparation of the tuberculosis organism, useful
ASCITES . The accumulation of serous fluid within in nonspecifically stimulating the immune s\'Stem
the abdominal cavity. and in vaccination of humans against tuberculosis.
ASCORBIC ACID. Vitamin C. BACTERIAL ENDOCARDITIS. Inflammation of the lin-
ASPARTATE AMINOTRANSFERASE (AST). A liver Cell ing of the hean, caused by baaeria.
enzNTOe that is also found in muscle cells and red BACTERIAL FOLLICULITIS. Inflammation of hair foUi-
blood cells. cles. caused by baaeria
ASPIRATED. Inhaled into the lungs or withdrawn by BASAL. Base, lowest.
a svTinge.
BASOPHIL. A specialized white blood cell.
ASPIRATION s.MEAR. The procedure by which a
preparation is drawn through a needle and then BASOPHILIC. Dark-blue staining.
smeared onto a glass microscope slide for BENIGN. Noncancerous (i.e., such a tumor will not
examination.
ATAXIA. Incoordination. spread); harmless.
BETA-BLOCKER. A drug that inhibits certain ner\e
ATOPY. Inherited allergy. impulses.
ATRESIA. Congenital absence or blockage of an ori- BILATERALLY. On both sides.
fice or tubular organ.
ATRESIA AN I. Absence of anal opening. BILIARY CIRRHOSIS. A disease of the li\'er charaaer-
ized by destruCTion of the normal architecture, which
ATRIUMbers of the(plural, is replaced essentially by scar tissue.
hean. atri.a). One of the xwo upper cham-
B I L I R u B I N . A yellow breakdown produa of req cled
atrophy. Shrinking or wasting of a tissue or organ. hemoglobin from red blood cells.
ATROPINE. A drug that blocks ner%'e impulses (e.g., BINOCULAR VISION. Focusing both eyes on a single
to the iris), causing dilation of the pupil. object
GLOSSARY

BIOPSY. The procedure by which a small sample of BUPHTHALMOS. Enlargement of the eye.
tissue is obtained for microscopic examination or cul- CACHEXIA. Seriously poor health and malnutrition
ture. from any cause.
BLASTOCYST. An early stage of the developing CALCULOGENic. Stone-forming.
embryo.
CALCULUS (plural, calculi). Dental tartar; urinary
BLEOMYCIN . All antibiotic antineoplastic (antican- stone.
cer) agent.
CALiciviRus. See feline calicivirus.
BLEPHAROSPASM. Spasm of the eyelid muscle, caus- CALORIE . Unit defined as the amount of heat needed
ing closure.
to raise the temperature of one gram of water one de-
BLOOD . A fluid that circulates through the blood ves- gree Celsius (centigrade). However, the larger kilocal-
sels, carry ing oxygen and nutrients to body cells. orie is usually referred to as a calorie in the
BLOOD PLASMA. The liquid component of blood (as nonscientific community.
opposed to blood cells). Campylobacter JEJUNI . A bacterium found in the
BLOOD SMEAR . A thin layer of blood smeared on a intestines of animals.
slide, stained, and viewed under the microscope to CANCER. General term for a malignant tumor.
identify the maturity and type of blood cells present CANNULA. A tube used for insertion, often into a
and any abnormalities of the cells. vessel.
BLOOD iiREA NITROGEN (BUN). Nitrogenous waste CAPiTULUM. Head.
products in the blood.
BLOOD VESSELS. Arteries, arterioles, venules, veins, CARBONIC AN H YD RASE INHIBITOR. A drug that
capillaries; the conduits for the transport of blood blocks the enzyme that helps turn carbonic acid into
throughout the body. carbon dioxide and water.
CARBUNCLE. A deep skin infection containing many
BOIL. Hair-follicle infection that has spread to pockets of pus.
deeper tissues, producing a firm nodule contain-
ing pus. CARCINOGEN. A cancer-causing substance.
BONE MARROW. The soft tissue within bones; con- CARCINOMA. A cancer of epithelial cells.
red andtainswhite blood-forming
blood elements
cells. — precursor cells of the CARDIAC TAMPONADE. Acutc compression of the
heart due to filling of the pericardial sac with fluid.
BRACHY
head. CEPHALIC. Flat-faced; having a short, wide CARDIOMYOPATHY. Disease of the heart muscle,_
which may become weakened, tliickened, or thinned
BRADYCARDIA. Slow hean rate. and stretched.
BRONCHI . The larger air passages leading from the CARDIOPULMONARY RESUSCITATION (CPR). FirSt-
trachea and branching within the lungs. aid technique to revive a patient who has no heart-
beat or respiration.
BRONCHIOLES. Smaller branches of air passages CARTILAGE. A connective tissue important in bone
leading from the bronchi to the alveoli (small air sacs
in the lungs). growth and formation of joints.
BRONCHOPNEUMONIA. Lung inflammation that be- CASTRATION The surgical removal of the testes.
gins in bronchioles. CASTS. Solid, tubular deposits in urine.
BULBOURETHRAL GLAND. Gland located on the CATABOLisM. The body's breakdown of complex
male urethra that produces seminal fluid, which, molecules, such as protein and fat, to simpler com-
when mixed with sperm, forms the ejaculate.
pounds.
 GLOSSARY

CATARACT. Lcns Opacity in the eye. CHOROID . Layer in the back of the eye containing
CAUDAL. To the rear of; toward the tail. pigment and blood vessels.
CELLULAR D I FFE REMTi ATION . A process by which CHRONIC. Long term; of lengthy duration; persisting
over a long period.
cells "mature" into fully functioning units. CHRONIC CARRIER STATE. Situation in which an ani-
CELLULITIS. Diffuse inflammation resulting from in- mal or human maintains (carries) an infection by a
fection ofdeep connective tissue. disease agent for a prolonged period of time.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS). The brain and CHRONIC INTERSTITIAL NEPHRITIS. Destruction of
spinal cord. tissue within the kidney, marked by a reduction in
CENTRIFUGE. To Spin in order to separate out the size and by scarring of the kidneys.
heavier particulates in a fluid.
CHYLE. Intestinal lymph; milky-looking, fat-con-
CEREBELLAR HYPOPLASIA. Underdevelopment of taining fluid taken up from the intestine during diges-
the cerebellum, manifested by incoordination. tion of food, and passed by the thoracic duct into the
CEREBELLUM. Portion of the brain concerned with venous circulation.
balance and coordination. CHYLOTHORAX.
cavity. Accumulation of chyle in the chest
CEREBRUM. Portion of the brain concerned with con-
scious thought, perceptions, skills, and initiating CILIARYditionVASCULAR
movement. involving bloodCONGESTION . "Red within
vessel congestion eye," a con-
the eye.
CERUMiNous GLANDS. Glands that produce the
waxy coating of the ear canal. CIRRHOSIS. Liver disease characterized by replace-
CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS Degenerative and prolifer- ment of functioning tissue by scar tissue.
ative disease of the neck vertebrae. CO-FACTOR. A required constituent for enzymes in-
CERVIX. Entrance to the uterus. volved inprotein metabolism.
CESTODES. Tapeworms; a class of internal parasites COITUS. Sexual intercourse.
characterized by production of segments. COLITIS. Inflammation of the large bowel (colon).
CHEMICAL OXIDATION. Production of energy by the COLLAGEN. Protein constituent of connective tissue.
combination of a substance with oxygen.
COLOSTRUM. Milk produced during the first day or
CHEMOSis. Excessive swelling of the conjunctiva two after birth that is high in protein and antibodies;
(membrane covering the inner surface of the eyelids "first milk."
and white of the eyeball ).
COMATOSE. Unconscious and unable to be aroused.
CHEYLETiELLOSis. Infestation with the mite Cheyle-
tiella blakei, Cheyletiella parasitivorax, or Cheyle- COMPLETE BLOOD COUNT (CBC). Number of red
tiella yasguri. and white blood cells per unit of blood volume, the
CHLAMYDiosis. A bacterial infection caused in cats proportions of the different white cells, and the
amount of hemoglobin.
by the genus Chlamydia psittaci.
COMPOUND FRACTURE. Fracture that breaks
CHLORAMPHENICOL. An antibacterial toxicity can through the skin; open fracture.
cause depression, diarrhea, anorexia, severe weight
loss, or anemia. CONCEPT us. Embryo or fetus plus accompanying
membranes.
CHOLINE. B vitamin important in proper function of
the nervous system and in fat metabolism in the liver. CONCUSSION. Violent shock to the brain.
CHORIORETINITIS. Inflammation of the choroid. CONGENITAL MALFORMATIONS. Birth defeCtS.
GLOSSARY

CONGENITAL TESTICULAR HYPOPLASIA. Underde- CREPITUS. Sensation or sound of grating or scraping

velopment ofthe testicles. when fragments of fractured bone rub together.
CONJUNCTIVA. Membrane lining the eyelids and cov- CRYOGEN . The substance that produces extreme
ering the white surface of the eyeball (sclera). cold during cryosurgery.
CONJUNCTIVITIS. Inflammation of the conjunctiva. CRYOSURGERY. A procedure by which a local appli-
CONNECTIVE TISSUE. Tissue that binds together cation ofintense cold (freezing) is used to damage
and is the support of various struaures of the body. and destroy tissue.
CONTAGIOUS STREPTOCOCCAL LYMPHADENITIS. CRYPTORCHiD. Having a condition wherein one, or
both, of the testes is undescended or ectopic (under
"Strangles";
nodes infectedan with inflammatory disease involving lymph
streptococci. cavity).
the skin in the groin or in the abdominal
CONTINUOUS POLYESTRUS. Reproductive cycles
with no anestrous period noted in the fall and Cushing's SYNDROME. Hyperadrcnocorticism;
winter. overactivity of the adrenal glands.
CONTRALATERAL. Opposite side. CUTANEOUS HORNS. Projections of hardened skin.
CONTUSION. Bruise. CUTANEOUS HYPERESTHESIA. Increased sensitivity
of the skin.
Coombs'
detection oftest. An immunologic
antibody on red blood procedure
cells. for the cuTEREBRiASis. Penetration of Cuterehra fly larva
beneath the skin.
CORNEA. The thick transparent outer coat at the
front of the eyeball. CYANOCOBALAMiN. Vitamin B,2.
CORNIFIED. Hardened. CYANOSIS. Bluish discoloration of the skin from
lack of blood oxygen.
CORONAViRUS.A group of viruses, including one
that causes feline infectious peritonitis in cats. CYCLOSPORIN. An immunosuppressive drug im-
CORPUS LUTE UM. Ovarian follicle after discharge of portant inorgan transplantation.
the ovum or egg. CYST ADENOMA. A benign tumor of cystic and glan-
dular structures.
CORTEX. Outer region of the adrenal gland, brain,
or kidney. CYSTIC ENDOMETRIAL HYPERPLASIA. Exuberant
coRTicoiD. Corticosteroid. overgrowth of uterine lining with formation of cysts.
CORTICOSTEROIDS. Steroid hormones (e.g., Corti- CYSTIC RETE OVARII TUBULES. Meshwork of di-
sol and corticosterone, produced by the cortex of the lated ovarian tubules.
adrenal gland); corticosteroids elevate blood sugar, CYSTITIS. Inflammation of urinary bladder.
increase fat and protein breakdown, and have an
anti-inflammatory effea on conditions such as arthri- CYSTOLiTH . A bladder stone (as in the urinary blad-
tis and dermatitis. der or the gallbladder).
CORTICOSTERONE. A coHicostcroid hormone. CYTODiFFERENTiATiON. Formation of unique cell
CORTISOL. A corticosteroid hormone.
CORTISONE . A corticosteroid found in small CYTOKINES.
types. Messenger molecules by which cells of
amounts in the adrenal cortex. the immune system signal and instruct one
another; interleukin and gamma-interferon are
CRANIAL. Toward the head. examples.
CRANioscHisis. Failure of the roof of the skull to CYTOLOGY. The microscopic examination of cells
form. obtained by scraping, aspiration, or biopsy.
 GLOSSARY

CYTOPLASM . The fluid and substances within a cell tion of blood-clotting factors and resultant hemor-
that surround the nucleus. rhage from blood failing to clot.
CYTOTOXIC. Toxic to cells (e.g., cytotoxic drugs to DISTAL. Farther from the origin, more distant.
destroy tumor cells).
DIURETIC. Agent that promotes urine production.
DEFINITIVE HOST. Host in which the adult or sexu-
ally mature stage of a parasite is produced. DOMINANT GENE. One Capable of expressing its
trait even when carried by only one member of a
DEMENTIA. Mental deterioration. chromosome pair.
DENDRITES. Short branching extensions from a DORSAL. Pertaining to the back.
nerve cell body.
DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA). A nucleic acid; DUODENUM. First part of the small intestine.
genetic material. DYSPLASIA. Abnormal development.
DERMATOMYCOSis. Fungal skin infection. DYSPNEA. Difficulty breathing; labored breathing.
DERMATOPHYTOSis. Ringworm. DYSTOCIA. Difficult birth.
DERMATOSIS. Any skin disease, especially one of ECCRiNE GLAND. Sweat gland found in the foot
noninflammatory origin.
DERMIS. Support structure beneath the epidermis or ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY. Ultrasonic examination of
outer layer of skin. the
pads.heart.
DESCEMETOCELE. Herniation of membrane at the
back of the cornea. ECLAMPSIA. Milk fever; calcium deficiency in a lactat-
DEXTROSE. A type of sugar; glucose. ing queen.
ECTOPARASITE. External parasite; fleas, ticks, and
DIABETES MELLiTus. Discase causcd by insufficient mites are examples.
insulin production by the islets of Langerhans in the ECTOPIC. Not in normal position.
pancreas, or inappropriate tissue response to insulin.
DIAPHRAGM. The large thin muscle used for breath- ECTRODACTYLY. Congenital absence of all or part of
ing that separates the abdominal and chest cavities. a digit.
DiCEPHALUS. Congenital malformation involving de- EDEMA. Presence of abnormally large amounts of
velopment oftwo heads. fluid in the intercellular tissue spaces, usually under
the skin; pulmonary edema is fluid in the lungs.
DiESTRUS. Interestrus; the quiescent period be- EDEMATOUS. Swollen with fluid.
tween one estrous period and the next.
DIGESTS. Extracts. EFFUSION . Fluid escaping into tissues or a body
cavity.
DIGITALIS . A drug that increases the strength of the
heartbeat while decreasing the rate. Ei.ASTiN. Protein found in elastic connective tissue.
DILATED FIXED PUPIL. Pupil that does not contraa. ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY (ECG). The process by
DIM ELI A. Congenital duplication of a limb. which there is a graphic tracing of the electrical activ-
ity of the heart.
DiPROSOPUS. Congenital malformation involving du- ELECTROLYTE. A molecule that dissociates into ions
plication ofthe face. (atoms having a positive or negative charge due to
DISSEMINATED INTRAVASCULAR COAGULATION the addition or subtraction of an electron) in
(DIC). A bleeding disorder characterized by destruc- solution.
GLOSSARY

E L 1 S A . £nz\'me-/inked /mmunosorbent assay; a sions, ulcerations, and swellings on the lips, face, and
color-based test for the presence of either antibody in the mouth; microscopically, eosinophils and cellu-
or antigen in the blood. lar components of granulation tissue are seen.
EMBOLISM . Sudden blocking of an artery by a blood EPiCARDiUM. Layer of pericardium (serous mem-
clot, fat, or air. brane) on the outer surface of the hean.
EMPYEMA. Pyothorax; accumulation of pus in the EPIDERMIS. Outer layer of skin.
chest cavity. EPIDIDYMIS. Duct conneaing the testis to the vas
ENDOCARDIUM. A thin serous membrane that lines deferens.
the cavities of the hean.
EPILATION OF HAIRS. Removal of hairs by the roots.
ENDOCRINOPATHIES. Hormonal disturbances.
EPINEPHRINE. Hormone secreted by the adrenal me-
ENDOGENOUS. From a source within the body. dulla (the inner portion of the adrenal gland), which
ENDOMETRITIS. Inflammation of the lining of the elevates blood glucose and increases blood pressure
uterus. and cardiac output; also called adrenaline.
EPIPHORA. An overflow of tears.
ENDOSCOPY. A procedure in which a small tube is
inserted into an orifice in order to examine internal EPiSTAXis. Bleeding from the nose.
ponions of a hollow organ. EPiTHELiALiZED. Having had new covering or sur-
ENDOSPORE.A type of spore produced in the spher- face grow back.
ule stage of the fungus Coccidioides immitis. EPITHELIUM. Covering of the internal and external
ENDOTRACHEAL T u B E . A plastic tube for breathing, surfaces of the body.
inserted into the trachea during anesthesia. EPIZOOTIC An outbreak of a disease attacking many
ENTERIC. Of the small intestine. animals with many sick (high morbidity')-
ENTERITIS. Intestinal inflammation. ERYSIPELOID. A deep skin infeaion caused by a spe-
ENTROPION . Turning inward of an eyelid. cific bacterium.
ERYTHEMA. Redness.
ENUCLEATION. Removal of an eye.
ERYTHEMATOUS MACULE. A Small red spot.
ENZOOTIC. A constantly present disease that is wide-
ERYTHEMATOUS PAPULE. A red bump.
mals. spread but produces disease in relatively few ani-
ERYTHROCYTE. Red blood cell, the carrier of oxy-
ENZYMATiCALLY. By means of enzymes. gen in the blood.
ENZYME . One of a number of different protein sub- ERYTHROPOIETIN. Hormonc, produced by the kid-
stances produced in a cell; it is capable of accelerat- ney, that stimulates red blood cell produaion.
ing one of the cell's various catalytic actions. Escherichia coli . A bacterium normally found in
EOSiN. Rose-colored stain or dye. the digestive tract.
EOSINOPHIL. Granular white blood cell that can be ESOPHAGUS. The muscular tube extending from the
readily stained with eosin; funaions in the allergic re- pharynx to the stomach.
tions. action and in the body's response to parasitic infec- ESTRADIOL. Ovarian estrogen.
EOSINOPHILIC GRANULOMA COMPLEX. A disease of ESTRADIOL CYPioNATE (ECP). An estrogen com-
unknown (perhaps allergic) origin, characterized by
the formation of lesions ranging from well-demar- ESTROGEN. Female sex hormone that stimulates es-
pound.
cated, linear, raised plaques on the thighs to ero- trus.
 GLOSSARY

ESTROUS CRY. Sound given by the queen to indicate FELINE INFECTIOUS ANEMIA. Feline hacmobarto-
that she is in heat and sexually receptive. nellosis; a rickettsial disease of the red blood cells.
ESTROUS CYCLE. The reproductive pattern of the FELINE INFECTIOUS PERITONITIS (FIP). A COrO-
adult female cat, including proestrus, estrus, navirus infection; a relatively uncommon disease in
metestrus, and diestrus. cats but virtually always fatal.
ESTRUS. "Heat"; a recurrent period of varying FELINE ISCHEMIC SYNDROME. Constricted Or ob-
length, during which the female becomes sexually re- structed blood vessels in the brain.
ceptive tothe male, and ovulates (releases egg from
the ovary) if mated. FELINE LEUKEMIA VIRUS (FeLV) . The causative
agent of the most important fatal infectious disease
ETIOLOGY. Origin, cause. complex of American domestic cats today; directly or
EXCISING. Cutting out; surgical removal. indirectly the cause of a number of feline diseases,
EXCORIATION. Abrasion; scratch. among them lymphosarcoma (cancer of the lympho-
cytes, atype of white blood cell).
EXENCEPHALY. Congenital defect in which the brain FELINE LOWER URINARY TRACT DISEASE
bulges through the skull. (FLUTD). Formerly known as feline urologic syn-
EXOGENOUS. From a source outside the body. drome (FUS), a complex spectrum of disorders af-
fecting the lower urinary tract.
EXOSTOSIS. Bony outgrowth.
EXTRACORPOREAL iMMUNOSORPTiON . Plasma- FELINE PANLEUKOPENiA (FP). Feline infectious en-
pheresis; procedure in which plasma extracted from
blood is treated and then returned to the host. tion; ateritis;
highly feline "distemper"; felinedisease
contagious viral ataxia oforcatsincoordina-
characterized by sudden onset, fever, inappetence,
EXTRAOCULAR. Outside the eye. dehydration, depression, vomiting, decreased num-
bers of circulating white blood cells, and often a high
EXUDATE . Material (plasma, cells, cellular debris) de- mortality rate; caused by a parvovirus.
posited intissues or on tissue surfaces, usually as a re- FELINE SARCOMA VIRUS (FeSV). The causative
sult of inflammation.
FADING KITTENS. Kittens that fail to thrive. agent of multiple fibrosarcomas (cancers of connec-
tive tissues) in young cats.
FASCIA. Sheet of fibrous tissue that covers muscles FELINE VIRAL RH I N OTR AC H E I T I S (FVR). Feline
or organs. herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) infection; a respiratory
FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS. Vitamins A, D, E, and K. disease.
FEBRILE. Feverish. FETAL RESORPTION. Disintegration of the fetus
within the uterus.
FECAL CASTS. Black, comma-shaped, one- to two-
millimeter-long granules of waste from adult fleas; FIBRIN . A protein component of a blood clot.
"flea dirt." FIBRINOGEN. Clotting factor in the blood that is con-
Felidae. Taxonomic family name for cats. verted into fibrin.
FELINE CALiciviRUS (FCV). A virus that infects the FIBROSARCOMA. Malignant tumor of connective tis-
feline respiratory system and oral cavity. sue cells.
FELINE ENTERIC CORONAVIRUS (FECV). A grOUp FIBROUS. Thickened; fiberlike.
of viruses that infect the intestinal tract.
FILAMENTOUS. Threadlike.
FELINE IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS (FIV). Pre-
viously called feline T-lymphotropic lentivirus FLAGELLUM. Long, snakclikc projection from a cell,
(FTLV); a virus that attacks the cat's immune system. used for locomotion.
GLOSSARY

Flehmen response. Response (exposing the teeth GLUCOCORTICOIDS. CoHicosteroids that affect the
by retracting the upper lip) elicited by the odor of metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins.
urine. GLYCOGEN. Animal starch.
FLUORESCEIN. A dye used to stain and demonstrate GOITER. Enlarged thyroid gland.
ulcerations of the cornea.
FOLACiN. Folic acid; a water-soluble vitamin. GOITROUS . Pertaining to a goiter.
FOLLICLE-STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH). Hor- GONADAL HYPOPLASIA. Impaired development of
mone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates the sex glands.
growth and maturation of ovarian follicles in the fe- GONADOTROPINS. Hormones that stimulate the sex
male and sperm production in the male.
FOLLICULITIS. Inflammation of hair follicles. glands.
GONADS. Testes or ovaries; reproductive glands that
FRACTURE. Breaking of a bone. produce sperm and ova (eggs) and the steroid hor-
FULMINANT. Sudden and severe. mones testosterone (testes) and progesterone and es-
trogen (ovaries).
FURUNCULOSIS. Boils. GRANULE. Small particle or grain.
GAMETES. Reproduaive cells; sperm in the male GRANULOCYTE. Type of white blood cell, containing
and ova (eggs) in the female. stainable granules.
GANGRENE. Death and decay of tissue, usually re- GRANULOCYTIC LEUKEMIA. Cancer of granulocytes.
sulting from loss of blood supply.
GRANULOMA. Lesion with chronic inflammatory re-
GASTRULA. The early stage of a developing embryo sponse charaaerized by the accumulation of certain
that follows the blastula. types of white blood cells around some infectious
GENOME. The genetic information of an individual and noninfectious agents, for the purpose of walling
cell or virus. off the agent from the rest of the body; may be micro-
scopic insize or visible to the unaided eye as small
GENOTYPE . The genetic makeup of a given trait. nodular grains of tissue.
GERIATRICS. The Study of old age and aging. GRANULOSA
ian follicle. CELL. Cell type that surrounds the ovar-
GESTATION. The full period of pregnancy; period of
development from fenilization of the ovum until GRiSEOFULviN. Medication for ringworm.
birth; feline gestation lasts sixty-four to sixty-nine GROSS APPEARANCE. Appearance as seen by the -
days, with an average of sixty-six days. naked eye (as opposed to microscopic appearance).
GiARDiA LAMBLiA Protozoan parasite of the intesti- GROWTH HORMONE (GH). Hormone produced by
nal tract.
the piniitary gland; it influences growth.
GINGIVITIS. Inflammation of the gums. GUARD HAIRS. Coarse, thick, straight hairs that taper
GLANS PENIS. The cap-shaped end of the penis. to a fine tip.
GLOBE. The eyeball. Haemobartonella felis (or Hemobartonella
GLOMERULONEPHRITIS. A kidney disease that dam- FELis).tiousRickettsial
anemia. parasite that causes feline infec-
ages the glomerulus.
HAIRBALLS. Entwined accumulations of ingested fur,
GLOMERULUS . One of many tiny tufts of blood ves- resulting from self-washing behavior of cats.
sels in the kidney that separate fluid and cellular com- HALITOSIS. Bad breath.
ponents and through which the blood is filtered.
 GLOSSARY

HARD PALATE. Bone and tissue separating the nasal HETEROZYGOUS. Having two different alleles at a
cavity from the oral cavity. given locus on paired chromosomes.
HAW. Third eyelid in inner corner of the eye. HISTAMINE. Substance that affects blood vessels,
HELMINTHIC. Penaining to parasitic worms. muscles, and the heart; responsible for many of the
unpleasant effects of allergy.
HEMANGIOMA. Benign tumor of bloodvessels.
HISTOLOGY. Study of tissue, usually involving micro-
HEMANGiosARCOMA. Malignant tumor of blood ves- scopic examination.
sels. HOMOGENEOUS. Uniform.
HEMATOCRIT. Percentage of red cells in whole
blood. HOMOZYGOUS. Having the same two alleles at a
given locus on a chromosome.
HEMATOMA. Localized collection of blood, usually
resulting from blood vessel breakage. HORMONE . A chemical substance produced by an
organ or cells of an organ, which has a specific regu-
HEMATOPOIETIC. Blood-cell forming. latory effect on the activity of some other organ.
HEMiMELiA. Congenital absence of all or pan of the HUMAN CHORIONIC GON ADOTRO PH I N (HCG).
distal portion of a limb. Hormone produced by the placenta, which can stimu-
HEMOGLOBIN. The oxygen-carrying pigment in red late ovulation in estrous queens.
blood cells. HYDROCEPHALUS. Fluid accumulation within the
HEMOGRAM. Results of blood examination, includ- bram.
ing total and differential white blood cell counts and HYDROMETRA. CoUection of watery fluid within the
packed cell volume. uterus.
HEMOLYMPHATic SYSTEM. The Circulatory system HYDROPHiLic. Water-attracting.
and the lymphatic system together.
HEMORRHAGIC PUNCTUM. A Small blood-spot. HYDROXYUREA. Anticancer drug that interferes with
cellular DNA synthesis.
HEMOTHORAX. Blood in the chest cavity.
HYPER - . A prefix meaning above or beyond; exces-
sive.
HEPARIN. An anticoagulant; it indirealy inhibits the
conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin.
HEPATIC ENCEPHALOPATHY. Neurologic abnormali- HYPERADRENOCORTiciSM.
overactivity Cushing's syndromc;
of the adrenal glands.
ties secondary to liver failure.
HYPERAMMONEMIA. High levels of ammonia in the
HEPATIC LIPIDOSIS. Buildup of fat in the liver. blood.
HEPATOMEGALY. Enlargement of the liver. HYPERESTROGENiSM. Excessive secretion of estro-
HERITABILITY. Capability of being inherited.
HERMAPHRODITISM. Presence of male and female HYPERPIGMENTATION. Darkening of the skin.
sex organs. gen.
HYPERPLASIA. Overgrowth due to an increase in the
HERNIA. Protrusion of an organ or tissue through an number of cells in a given tissue; compare to hyper-
trophy.
abnormal opening; rupture.
HERPESVIRUS. Feline rhinotracheitis virus, a respira- HYPERTENSION. Abnormally elevated blood pres-
sure.
tory pathogen.
HETEROSIS. Hybrid vigor; breed strength gained by HYPERTHERMIA. Abnormally elevated body tempera-
crossbreeding. ture.
 GLOSSARY

HYPERTHYROIDISM. Overactivity of the thyroid IMMUNE-MEDIATED DESTRUCTION. Damage

gland. caused by the response of the host's immune system
HYPERTROPHY. Overgrowth due to an increase in to a disease agent, drug, or the body's own tissue.
the size of cells in a given tissue; compare to hyper- IMMUNIZATION. The process whereby the immune
plasia. system recognizes various foreign proteins or anti-
HYPERVISCOSITY. Thickening of the blood in cer- gens and produces antibodies and immune cells
tain disease states. against those antigens.
HYPO- . A prefix meaning below or under; deficient. IMMUNOASSAY. Determination of the quantity of spe-
cific antigen in the serum; tests such as ELISA and im-
HYPOADRENOCORTICISM. Addison's munofluorescence as ay.
ficient secretion from the adrenal cortex.disease; insuf-
IMMUNOFLUORESCENCE
body.cent antibody test for the presence ASSAY (IFA). A fluores-
HYPOGLYCEMIA. Low blood sugar. of antigen or anti-
HYPOKALEMIA. A low level of potassium in the
blood. IMMUNOGLOBULIN. An antibody.
HYPOLUTEOiDiSM. Sterility in queens caused by the iMMUNOPOTENTiATOR. Substance with immune-
insufficient secretion of progesterone. boosting capabilities.
HYPOPLASIA. Underdevelopment of a given tissue. IMMUNOSUPPRESSED INDIVIDUALS. Those On im-
HYPOPYON . Accumulation of white blood cells (pus) munosup res ive drugtherapy or with diseases of
in the anterior chamber of the eye. the immune system.
HYPOSENSITIZATION. "Allergy shots," intended to IMMUNOTHERAPY. Boosting the immune response
to assist in the treatment of a disease.
reduce an allergic individual's sensitivity to allergens.
HYPOSPADIAS. Congenital defect in males, in which IMPETIGO. Skin pustules caused by bacteria.
the urethral opening develops on the underside of INACTIVATED ("KILLED ") VACCINE. A vaccine in
the penis or on the perineum. which the infectious agent has been treated in some
HYPOTHALAMUS. Critical portion of the brain con- way (usually by chemicals) so that it no longer can in-
cerned with operation of much of the autonomic (un- fect and replicate within the host.
conscious) nervous system; production of certain INAPPETENCE. Lack of appetite.
hormones that are subsequently stored in the pitu-
itary gland; and regulation of body temperature, INCLUSIONS. Anything that is enclosed within, as
sleep cycles, and food and water intake. within a cell.
HYPOTHERMIA. Abnormally low body temperature. iNGESTA. Ingested food.
HYPOTHYROIDISM. Decreased thyroid function. INGUINAL. Between abdomen and thigh; in the
HYPOTRICHOSIS. Sparse hair coat.
HYPOVOLEMIA. Decreased blood volume; can lead groin.
INGUINAL RING. An Opening deep within the groin
to shock. for the passage of the spermatic cord.
HYPOXIA. Oxygen deprivation. INNERVATION.
tissue The distribution of nerves to a given
or body part.
IATROGENIC. Arising as a complication of medical w SITU At the site.
treatment.
IDIOPATHIC. Of unknown cause. INTEGUMENT. The skin.
IDIOPATHIC MEGACOLON. Massive enlargement or INTERESTRUS. Diestrus; the quiescent period be-
dilation of the colon; of unknown cause. tween one estrus and the next.
 GLOSSARY

INTERFERONS. Naoiral substances that can inhibit KERATIN . An insoluble protein synthesized by cells
virus rephcation and also the growth of tumor cells. within the skin; it is the principal component of skin,
hair, and nails.
INTERSEXUALITY. Having characteristics of both
sexes present in the same individual. KERATITIS. Inflammation of the cornea.
INTERTRIGO. Skin-fold dermatitis. KERATOCONJUNCTIVITIS SICCA (KCS). A lack of
tears; dry eyes; dry cornea.
INTERVERTEBRAL DISCS. The Cartilaginous struc- KERATOLYTic. Able to cause softening and peeling
tures between the vertebrae.
of the outer layer of the skin.
INTOXICATION. Poisoning. KETONES. By-products of fat metabolism. Ketone
INTRAMUSCULARLY (IM). A route of injection (into production is enhanced in some diabetic cats.
the muscle). KiLOCALORiE (KCAL). Unit defined as the amount
INTRANASAL. Within the nasal passage. of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilo-
gram of water one degree Celsius (centigrade); the
INTRANASAL (IN). Aroute of administration of a vac- "large" calorie; commonly called calorie, although
cine by instilling in the nasal passage. technically the calorie is the amount of heat needed
INTRAVENOUS (IV). Use of a vein to administer a to raise the temperature of one gram of water one de-
substance or draw blood. gree Celsius. The kilocalorie is 1000 of these small
calories. In this book, the terms calorie and kilocalo-
INTRAVENOUS PYELOGRAM (IVP). Radiograph of rie are used interchangeably to mean the large calo-
the urinary tract after injecting dye for visualization rie, as is the custom in the United States.
of structures. KILOGRAM One thousand grams (2.2 pounds).
INTROMISSION. Insertion, as of the penis. Knott's TEST. Technique for staining microfilariae
in a blood sample when testing for heartworm dis-
INTUSSUSCEPTION.
seaion of the bowel into Prolapse ("telescoping") of one
another. ease.
IN UTERO. In the uterus. LABILE. Chemically unstable.
LACRIMAL GLAND. Tear gland.
INVOLUTION. Return to normal size, as of the uterus
after birth. LACTASE. Enzyme that breaks down lactose.
IONIZE. To separate into ions (charged atoms). LACTATED Ringer's SOLUTION. A Sterile saltwater
solution for injection that includes calcium,
IONIZING RADIATION. Radiation capable of ioniz- potassium, and sodium chloride and sodium
ing matter; examples are x-rays and radioactive iso- lactate.
topes of the elements radon, strontium, and cesium. LACTOSE. Milk sugar.
iRi OOCYTES. Cells that produce iridescence (lus- LAPAROSCOPY. Visual inspection of the interior of
trous, changing colors). the abdomen with an instrument.
IXODID. Belonging to a family of hard-bodied ticks LARVAE . Immature forms or stages in the life of para-
(hard ticks). sites or insects.
JAUNDICE. Yellowing of the mucous membranes. LARYNX. Upper pan of the respiratory tract between
the pharynx and the trachea; having cartilage walls
JEJUNUM . Middle portion of the small intestine. and containing the vocal cords.
KELA. A kinetics-based ELISA (enzyme-linked immu- L-ASPARAGiNASE. An enzvme that kills cancer cells
nosorbent assay); a test for the presence of antigen by depleting their supply of the amino acid L-aspara-
or antibody.
gine.
GLOSSARY

LECITHIN . A fatty-acid-containing constituent of cell LYMPHADENOPATHY. Enlargement of the lymph

membranes. nodes.
LEUKOCYTES. White blood cells. LYMPH NODE ASPIRATE. Sample drawn through a
LEUKOPENIA. Decreased number of circulating needle from a lymph node.
white blood cells. LYMPHOCYTE . A t>pe of white blood cell capable of
LEUKOTRiCHiA. Whitening of the hair. responding immunologically to the presence of for-
eign material.
LiCHENiFiCATiON. Leathery thickening of the outer LYMPHOID CELL. Lymphocyte and plasma cell.
layer of the skin.
LIGAMENT. Strengthening band of fibrous tissue, for LYMPHOMA. Cancer of lymphoid tissue.
stabilizing joint structure. LYMPHOSARCOMA (LSA). Cancer of lymphocytes.
LIGATION . Binding or tying off. Term often used interchangeably with lymphoma.
LiNOLEiCACiD.An essential fatty acid. MACERATION . Softening of the skin from overexpo-
sure to water or topical medications.
LIPID FILM . A component of the eye's tear film. MACROPHAGE. A Specialized white blood cell that
LiPOSARCOMA. Malignant tumor of fat cells. engulfs and processes antigens such as bacteria,
LOCHIA. Vaginal discharge that continues after giv- fungi, viruses, parasites, or toxins.
ing birth. MALIGNANT. Capable of spreading; refers to tumors.
LOCUS (plural, loci). Position on the chromosome MANDIBLE. Lower jaw.
where a specific gene is located. MAST CELL. A conneaive tissue cell that is involved
LORDOSIS. Downward curvature of the lumbar in the development of allergy.
spine (swayback). MASTITIS. Inflammation of the mammary gland.
lumbosacral. Pertaining to the lower back, MATRIX. Intercellular substance of a tissue (as of
LUMEN . Interior or cavity in a tube or tubular organ. bone or canilage); in urinary stones and plugs, the
matrix is the mucoprotein base or ground substance.
LUTEAL PHASE. Pedod during which the ovarian fol-
licle converts to a corpus luteum and secretes proges- MAXILLOFACIAL COMPRESSION. Shortening of the
terone. lower and upper jaw.
LUTEiNiZATiON. Conversion of the ovarian follicle MEDIASTINUM.
lungs. Median partition separating the two
to a corpus luteum.
LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH). Hormone produced MEDULLA. Inner pan of the kidney or adrenal gland;
by the pituitary gland, which assists in causing ovula- pan of the brain stem.
tion and in production of estrogen by the cells of the MEGAKARYOCYTE. Giant Cell of bone marrow that
ovary. breaks into platelets.
LUTEINIZING HORMONE-RELEASING HORMONE
(LH-RH). Hormone released from the hypothala- MEGESTROL ACETATE (Ovaban). A Synthetic pro-
mus in the brain, which triggers the release of lutein-
izing hormone. MELANIN. Skin pigment.
gestin.
LUXATION. Dislocation. MELANOCYTES. Cells producing the skin pigment
LYMPH, clear fluid, derived from the tissues, which melanin.
contains proteins and large molecular particles. MELANOMA. Tumor of pigmented skin cells.
LYMPHADENITIS. Inflammation of lymph nodes. MELANOTRiCHiA. Darkening of the hair.
 GLOSSARY

MENINGES. Proteaive covering surrounding the MOTILE. Capable of movement.

brain and spinal cord. MOTILITY. Ability to move.
MENINGIOMA. Most common tumor of the feline MUCOID. Mucuslike.
central nervous system; arises from the meninges.
MUCOMETRA. Mucus in the uterus.
MESENTERIC. Of the mesentery, a membrane cov-
ering the abdominal organs and attaching them to MUCOSAL-ASSOCIATED LYMPHOID TISSUE
the body wall. (MALT) . Lymphoid tissue associated with the lining
of the digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts.
METABOLISM. All life-sustaining chemical processes
in the body; the conversion of nutrients into energy. MUCOUS MEMBRANES. Linings of the interior por-
METABOLITES. Products of metabolism. tions ofthe body that secrete mucus.
METASTASIS. Spread of a malignant tumor to other MUCUS. Substance produced by the mucous mem-
sites. branes, containing various secretions, salts, and cells.
MUTATION. A genetic change.
METESTRUS. The period of subsiding follicular func-
tion following estrus. MYCETOMA. General term for a fungus-induced, tu-
morlike skin lesion.
METHIONINE. A sulfur-containing amino acid.
METRITIS. Inflammation of the uterus. Mycobacterium A genus of bacteria, members of
which are responsible for tuberculosis and leprosy.
MICROBE . Any microscopic living organism, but es- MYCOLOGY. The study of fungi.
pecial y one capable of causing disease.
MICROFILAREMIA. Prescncc of microfilariae in the MYDRIATIC. A drug that dilates the pupil.
blood. MYELIN. Fatty substance forming the outer tunic or
sheath around many nerve cells.
MICROFILARIA. Minute larval stage of the hean-
worm. MYELOGENOUS. Produced in the bone marrow.
MICROPHTHALMIA (MICROPHTHALMOS). Congeni- MYELOPATHY.
nal cord. Any degenerative disorder of the spi-
tal smallness of one or both eyes.
MICROVASCULATURE. The Smallest blood vessels MYELOPROLIFERATIVE DISORDERS. Heterogeneous
(capillaries). group of tumors or tumorlike diseases involving cells
of the bone marrow.
MILIARY DERMATITIS. Miliary eczema; small, red,
crusty skin lesions. MYIASIS. Infestation of the body by fly maggots.
MiNERALOCORTicoiDS. Corticosteroids that affect MYOCARDIAL DISEASE. Any disease of the hean
the regulation of elearolyte and water balance. muscle.
MIOTIC. A drug that causes the pupil to contract. MYOCARDIUM. The muscle layer of the heart.
MODiFiED-LiVE VIRUS (MLV). Attenuated NANOGRAM. One billionth of a gram.
(altered) virus that no longer produces clinical dis- NASOPHARYNX. Back of the throat, above the soft
ease; used as a vaccine.
MONOCYTE. White blood cell capable of responding palate.
NECROPSY. Autopsy; examination of a dead animal.
to the presence of foreign material.
NECROSIS. Cell death.
MORPHOGENESIS. The development of form and
shape in an organism. NECROTIC. Composed of dead cells.
MORPHOLOGY. Form and structure. NECROTIZING. Causing cell death.
GLOSSARY

Negri bodies. Intracellular inclusion bodies found OMNivoRE. An organism that eats both plant and ani-
in brain cells of animals or humans with rabies mal matter
NEMATODE. General term for a roundworm. OMPHALOPHLEBITIS. Navel ill; infection of the veins
NEONATAL. Newborn. of the umbilical cord.
ONCOGENESIS. Tumor causation.
NEOPLASIA. Uncontrolled, progressive proliferation
of cells under conditions that normally should be re- OOCYST. An encapsulated ovum (egg) of a sporo-
strictive ofcell growth; cancer. zoan parasite, such as Toxoplasma gondii.
NEOPLASM. Tumor; new growth. OOCYTE . Developing egg cell in the female.
NEOVASCULARIZATION. New blood vessel in- OPACITY. An opaque area or spot.
growth. OPTIC CHIASM. Location where portions of the two
Nepeta c atari a. The camip plant. optic nerves cross over each other to the opposite
side of the brain.
NEPETALACTONE. The primary' constituent of camip.
NEPHRITIS. Inflammation of the kidney. OPTIC DISK. The ponion of the optic nerve visible
at the surface of the retina.
NEPHROLITH. Gravel or mineral deposit in the kid- ORGAN OF CoRTi. The Organ of hearing within the
ney; kidney stone. inner ear.
NEURON. An individual nerve cell. ORGANOGENESIS. The third stage of embryonic de-
NEURULA. An early stage of embryonic development. velopment, inwhich the organs begin to form.
NEUTROPHIL. A t\pe of white blood cell important ORGANOPHOSPHATE. Compounds containing car-
in destroying baaeria. bon and phosphorus, which are highly toxic to cats.
NEVUS (plural, nevi ) . A mole; pigment spot. OROPHARYNX. Back of the mouth; tonsillar area, be-
tween the soft palate and the epiglottis.
NIACIN . Nicotinic acid, a vitamin of the B complex. OSSICLES. The small bones within the ear.
NIT. Louse egg.
OSTEOBLAST. A bone-forming cell.
NocARDiA . Genus of baaeria commonly found in OSTEOMALACIA. Disease characterized by softening
soil. of bones.
NUCLEIC ACIDS. The genetic material: deoxyribonu- OSTEOMYELITIS. Infection of bone, with pus forma-
cleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
tion.
NULL I PA ROUS. Having never given birth. OSTEOPOROSIS. Thinning and weakening of bone.
NYSTAGMUS.
most often horizontal. Involuntarv', rapid eye movement, OTITIS EXTERNA. Inflammation of the outer ear.
OTITIS INTERNA. Inflammation of the inner ear.
OBSTIPATION. Obsu-uaion of the digestive tract; in- OTITIS MEDIA. Inflammation of the middle ear.
tractable constipation.
OCCLUDE. To close off or obstrua. OVARIAN FOLLICLE. The ovum (egg) and its sur-
OCCLUSION. A blockage; relation of the upper and rounding cel s.
lower teeth when in contaa. OVARIECTOMY. Removal of an ovary or ovaries.
OCULAR DISEASE. Any disease of the eye. OVARIOHYSTERECTOMY. Spay; surgical removal of
the uterus and ovaries.
OCULOCUTANEOUS ALBINISM. Absence of pigmen-
tation inthe iris, skin, and retina. OVULATE . To release an egg from the ovary.
 GLOSSARY

OVUM (plural, ova). Egg. PATENT DUCTUS ARTERIOSUS (PDA). Abnormal

OXYTOCIN . A pituitary hormone formed in the persistence of the embryonic blood vessel connea-
brain; it stimulates uterine contraaion and is of thera- ing the pulmonary artery to the aorta.
peutic value in certain cases of dystocia (difficult PATHOGEN. Organism capable of producing
birth). disease.
PACKED CELL VOLUME. Volume of red blood cells in PATHOGENESIS. Mechanism of development of a
relation to the volume of blood fluid; hematocrit. disease.
PALPATE . To examine with the hand and fingers. PATHOGENICITY. Relative abilit}' of an organism to
PANCYTOPENIA. Condition in which red cells, white produce disease.
cells, and platelets are all decreased in number; defi- PEDICLE. A small stalk or stem.
ciency ofall cell elements of the blood. PEDUNCULATED. On a Stalk.
PANLEUKOPENiA VIRUS. See feline panleukopenia.
p E p T I D E . A short chain of amino acids.
PAPULE. Tiny, solid elevation in the skin.
PERCUTANEOUS NEEDLE BIOPSY. Method by which
PAPULOCRUSTOUS. Charaaerized by crusty eleva- a sample of organ tissue is obtained by passing a bi-
tions inthe skin.
opsy needle through the skin.
PAPULOPUSTULAR DERMATITIS. Inflammatory skin PERICARDIUM. Membranous sac that surrounds the
disease
evations. charaaerized by the presence of pus-filled el- heart.
PARASITE . Organism that finds its food source by liv- PERINEAL URETHROSTOMY. Surgical removal of the
ing in or on a host animal, often to the detriment of penis and widening of the urethral opening, to re-
the host. lieve urinary blockage in male cats.
PARASITEMIA. Presence of a parasite in the blood- PERINEUM. Region around the anus and genitalia.
stream.
PERIOCULAR
wherein hair grows LEUKOTRiCHiA. "Goggles";
in lighter around condition
the eyes.
PARASITISM. Any parasite infestation or infection.
PARATHYROID GLANDS . Two Small pairs of endo- PERIODONTITIS. Inflammation of the tissue sur-
crine glands located adjacent to the thyroid glands; rounding tooth.
a
they are important in regulation of calcium and phos- PERiORBiT. Eye socket, including the surrounding
phorus balance. tissues.
PARATHYROID HORMONE (PTH). Hormone se- PERIOSTEUM. Membranelike tissue covering a bone.
creted bythe parathyroid glands that regulates the
metabolism of calcium and phosphorus in the body. PERITONITIS. Inflammation of the lining of the ab-
domen.
PARIETAL PLEURA. Membrane that forms the lining
of the chest cavity. p H . Measure of the acidity/alkalinity of a solution.
PARONYCHIA. Pus-forming infection of the nail bed. PHAGOCYTIC CELLS. Cells from blood and tissue
PARTURITION. The aa of labor; birth. that surround and ingest foreign material.
Pasteurella MULTOCiDA. Common baaerium PHAGOCYTiZE.To surround and ingest material
found in the feline mouth and upper respiratory (said of cells).
traa.
PHARYNX. Area extending from the back of the nasal
PATELLAR LUXATION. Displacement of the kneecap. passage to the larynx and the esophagus.
PATENT. Open. PHENOLS. Toxic compounds derived from coal tar.
GLOSSARY

PHENOTYPE. Visible, physical expression of a ge- PNEUMONITIS. Inflammation of flie lungs.

netic trait.
PNEUMOTHORAX. Accumulation of air in the pleural
PHEROMONE.An odorous secretion that elicits a spe- cavity, outside the lungs.
cific response in another individual of the same spe- POLYDACTYLY. Congenital abnormality charaaer-
cies. ized by the presence of extra digits (toes).
PHOCOMELiA. Developmental abnormality in which POLYDIPSIA. Excessive thirst.
the upper part of the limb is absent and the paws are
attached to the trunk by a small, abnormally formed POLYHEDRAL. Having many sides.
bone; "seal-limb." POLYMORPHONUCLEAR LEUKOCYTE. Type of white
PHOTO PERIOD. Period of daylight or anificial light. blood cell; neutrophil.
PHOTOPHOBIA. H>persensitivity to light. POLYP. Protruding growth on the surface of a mu-
cous membrane.
PHTHISIS B I) L B I . Shrinking or wasting of the eye-
ball. POLYPEPTIDE. Molecule containing many amino
PHYCOMYCOSis. Disease caused by a number of acids.
specific fungi, especially Rhizopus, Ahsidia, and POLYURIA. Excessive urination.
Mucor.
PORTOCAVAL SHUNT. Abnormal persistence or de-
PHYSIOLOGY. The study of body functions. velopment ofa blood vessel within or near the liver,
which allows blood from the intestine to bypass the
picoGRAM. One trilliontli of a gram. liver.
PILOCARPINE. A drug that stimulates constriction of POSTERIOR PARESIS. Partial paralysis of a hindlimb
the pupils and decreases intraocular pressure. or limbs.
PREAURICULAR ALOPECIA. Absence of hair on the
onPILOERECTION,
end. Reflex by which the hair "stands"
side of the head in front of the ear, normal in many
PINNA. External ear; auricle. breeds of cats.
PITUITARY GLAND. Endocrine gland at the base of PREGNANT MARE'S SERUM GONADOTROPHIN
the brain; secretes hormones that control other endo- (PMSG). Sexual stimulation hormone; a series of
crine glands. doses given intramuscularly can induce estrus in
PLAGUE. Severe, life-threatening illness caused by queens.
the bacterium Yersinia pestis. PREPUBERTAL.
ual maturity. Pertaining to die period before sex-
PLASMA. Fluid portion of the blood (as opposed to PREPUCE. Fold of skin covering die penis.
the cellular portion).
PLASMA CELLS. Cclls that make antibodies. PROESTRUS. The period before estrus.
PLASMAPHERESIS. Extracorporeal immunosorption PROGESTERONE. Hormone secreted by the corpus
procedure in which extracted plasma is treated and luteum, adrenal cortex, and placenta, to prepare the
then returned to the host. uterus for pregnancy.
PLATELET. Blood Cell fragment involved in blood PROGESTIN. Progesterone.
clotting. PROGESTOGEN. Any compound with progesterone-
like activity.
PLEURA. Membrane that surrounds the lungs and
lines the chest cavity. PROGNOSIS. Outlook as to outcome.
PLEURAL EFFUSION . The accumulation of fluid PROLACTIN. Hormone produced by the pituitary
within the pleural cavity in the chest. gland that stimulates and sustains lactation.
 GLOSSARY

PROLAPSE. To fall or slip out of place. PYRIDOXINE. Vitamin B^.

PROLAPSE OF THE THIRD EYELID. Condition QUATERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUND (QAC).
wherein the third eyelid partially occludes the eye. Chemical structure of a class of compounds used in
disinfectants.
PROPTOSis . Bulging or protrusion of the eyeball.
QUEEN. Breeding female cat.
PROTEOLYTIC. Protein-splitting.
PROTHROMBIN TIME. One measure of the clotting RADIOGRAPHY. The making of film records of inter-
ability of the blood. nal structures by use of x-rays.
RAPID EYE MOVEMENT (REM) . Type of eye move-
PROTOPLASM . The clear fluid within plant and ani- ment during dreaming.
mal cells.
RECESSIVE GENE. A gene that can be expressed
PROTOZOA. Simple organisms that are usually com- only when both members of a chromosome pair con-
posed ofa single cell; some are capable of producing tain the same allele.
disease in animals and humans.
RECOMBINATION. Gcnetic exchange.
PRURITUS. Itching.
REDUCTION. Setting of a fracture.
PSEUDOCOPROSTASis. False fecal impaaion.
PSEUDOPREGNANCY. A Condition wherein the REFLEX ovuLATOR. Animal species in which ova are
released only in response to mating; an example is
queen shows signs of pregnancy after a nonfertile the cat.
mating.
REGURGITATION. Involuntary return of ingested
PTYALISM. Excessive drooling. food to the mouth; differs from vomiting in that it is a
PULMONARY EDEMA. Buildup of excessive fluid in passive process (i.e., unaccompanied by reflex, pro-
the lungs. pulsive movements).
PULMONARY EMBOLISM. A detached clot from else- RENIN . Hormone produced by the kidneys that in-
where occluding a vessel within the lung. fluences blood pressure.
PuNNETT SQUARE. Checkerboard diagram for delin- RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN SYSTEM. Hormone-enzyme
eating possible outcomes of mating two individuals system that influences blood pressure by stimulating
with defined genetic characteristics. contraaion of blood vessels.
PURULENT. Puslike. RE SORB. Biochemical dissolution of substances or
cells; resorption; see fetal resorption.
PUSTULAR. Pimply. RETINOL. Vitamin A
PUTREFACTIVE. Refers to decomposition of organic
matter by microorganisms. RETROVIRUS. Virus of the family Retroviridae; exam-
ples are feline leukemia virus and feline immunode-
PYELONEPHRITIS. Infection of the kidney and the ficiency virus.
kidney pelvis.
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE. Enzyme important in rep-
PYLORUS. Terminal part of the stomach, connecting lication ofcertain viruses, such as the retroviruses.
with the duodenum. RHiNOTRACHEiTis. See feline viral rhinotracheitis.
PYOGENIC. Pus-forming. RIBOFLAVIN. Vitamin B,.
PYOMETRA. Accumulation of pus within the uterus.
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA). A nucleic acid oc-
PYOMETRiTis. Purulent inflammation of the uterus. cur ing inall cells and involved in protein synthesis.
PYOTHORAX. Empyema; accumulation of pus in the Rickettsia . A genus of microorganisms transmitted
chest cavity. to animals and man by lice, fleas, ticks, and mites; a
GLOSSARY

specialized bacterium; a species of this genus causes SERUM . Blood plasma minus the clotting factor fi-
Haemobanonellosis in cats. brinogen; the clear liquid that remains after the
SALINE. A salt solution; physiological sodium chlo- blood clots; adjectival form is "serous."
ride solution. SERUM ALKALINE PHOSPHATASE (SAP). An enzyme
Salmonella . Common genus of bacteria responsi- present in serum that is produced in many tissues
ble for a spectrum of maladies ranging from intesti- but is of greatest diagnostic significance in diseases
of the liver and bone.
nal disease to life-threatening systemic illness.
SARCOMA. General term for cancer of connective tis- s I G N . A characteristic of a disease; signs are seen by
sue cells (those cells within an organ or structure observation, and symptoms are charaaeristics re-
that bind it together and suppon it). poned by the patient.
SCABIES. A specific skin mite infe.station. SINOATRIAL (SA) NODE, Structure located at the
SCAPULA. Shoulder blade. junction of the right atrium of the heart and the vena
cava; it is the heart's natural pacemaker.
scHizoNT.A development stage of certain SINUS HAIRS. Specialized tactile hairs on the cat,
protozoa. found on the muzzle, above the eyes, and on the un-
SCLERA. White outer covering of the eyeball. derside ofthe forelegs.
SCLEROTIC. Hardened. SOFT PALATE. Soft, fleshy posterior part of the parti-
SCROTUM. Pouch of skin containing the testes. tion separating the nasal and oral cavities.
SEASONALLY POLYESTROUS. Experiencing estrous SOLAR DERMATITIS. Aainic dermatitis; inflamma-
cycles during one pan of the year (usually February tion of skin induced by sunlight.
through October for cats in the Northern Hemi- SPERMATOZOA. Sperm.
sphere).
SPHERULE. Parasitic stage of the fungus Coccidioides
SEBACEOUS GLAND. Small skin gland, attached to
the hair follicle, that secretes sebum. immitis,
in host tissue. formed during the organism's growth phase
SEBORRHEA SICCA. Dry, scalv dermatitis; dandruff. SPINA BIFIDA. Broad term that includes all failures
SEBUM. Thick, semi-fluid substance composed of fat of the vertebrae to close normally around the spinal
and cellular debris, secreted by the sebaceous glands cord.
in the skin.
SPLEEN. Abdominal organ that filters senescent
SEMINAL FLUID . A milk>' white sccrction from the (aging) red blood cells and foreign material from the
prostate and bulbourethral glands of the male. blood, and serves to store red blood cells.
SEMINIFEROUS TUBULES. Small channels in the tes- SPLENECTOMY. Surgical removal of the spleen.
tes wherein sperm develop.
SEPTIC ARTHRITIS. Inflammation of the joints SPONTANEOUS ovuLATOR. Animal species in which
caused by an infeaious agent. ova are released periodically, regardless of whether
sexual intercourse has occurred.
SEPTICEMIA. Bacterial blood poisoning; presence of SPORE. Thick-walled resting stage, formed by certain
baaeria in the bloodstream, accompanied by signs of
disease. baaeria during unfavorable environmental condi-
tions; itgerminates quickly when favorable condi-
SEROLOGY. The use of antigen-antibody reaaions to tions have been restored, to produce a new
detect antigens and antibodies in serum. generation.
SEROUS MEMBRANE. Alining tissue that produces a SPRAIN . Injury to a joint involving damage to one or
watery secretion. more ligaments without ligament rupture.
 GLOSSARY

SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMA. A type of skifi cancer SUPERFECUNDATION. Fenilization of ova by sepa-
arising from surface cells. rate matings during one ovulatory cycle; thus a litter
of kittens may have more than one father.
Staphylococcus . A baaerial genus important in
skin infections and other pus-producing processes. SUPERFETATION. Fertilization of an ovum occurring
during a different ovulatory cycle, when a fetus is al-
STEATiTis. Yellow fat disease; disease wherein a yel- ready present in the uterus.
low-pigmented substance is deposited in body fat; SUPPURATIVE. Producing pus.
the result of a vitamin E deficiency.
STENOSIS. A constriction or narrowing. SUPRACAUDAL ORGAN. Preen gland; large oil glands
along the top of the tail.
STEROID . A common term for conicosteroid; sex SUTURE . A surgical stitch.
hormones also belong to the steriod group; anabolic
steroids promote growth and tissue repair. SYNAPSE. The site at which one neuron connects
with another.
STOMATITIS. Inflammation of the lining of the oral
cavity. SYNDACTYLY. Congenital abnormality wherein adja-
cent toes are fused.
STRABISMUS. Affected individuals are referred to as
cross-eyed. SYSTEMIC LUPUS ERYTHEMATOSUS (SLE). Rare
multisystemic autoimmune disease.
STRANGLES. Contagious streptococcal lymphadeni- TACHYCARDIA. Rapid heart rate.
tis; arespiratory disease caused by streptococci.
TAIL HEAD . Place where the tail joins the body.
STRANGULATED. Congested because of a constric-
tion. TAPETUM LUCiDUM. Specialized reflective layer be-
Streptococcus . A baaerial genus, some species neath the retina; makes cats' eyes shine in the dark.
of which are of importance in abscesses and other TAURINE. An amino acid essential for cats; required
pus-producing processes. for proper development and functioning of the retina
and heart.
Strongyloides . A genus of threadworm; small par- TELOGEN HAIRS. Hairs in the resting stage of the
asitic worms.
hair growth cycle.
STRUVITE. Magnesium-ammonium-phosphate crys- TEMPORAL REGION. Area of the head in front of the
tals that form in the urinary tract, causing irritation ears.
and/or blockage; also called triple phosphate crystals.
TENDON. Fibrous tissue that connects muscle to
STUD TAIL. Excessive oil production by the supracau- bone.
dal organ of the cat.
SUBCUTANEOUS. Beneath the skin. TERATOGEN . Any infectious agent or chemical that
disrupts normal fetal development.
suBCUTANEOUSLY (SC). A route of injection TERATOLOGY. The Study of abnormal development
(under the skin). and congenital malformations.
SUB CUTIS. Layer beneath the dermis and epidermis TESTOSTERONE. Male sex hormone, produced in
of the skin, composed of fatty tissue and fibers. the testes.
SUBINVOLUTION. Partial involution (return to nor- TETANY. Rigid muscle spasms.
mal size), as of the uterus after birthing. THALAMUS . Portiou of the brain that serves as a con-
SUBMANDIBULAR. Under the lower jaw. duit for sensory information coming from the rest of
the body and for nerve impulses concerned with bal-
SUCROSE. Table sugar. ance and coordination, arising from the cerebellum.
GLOSSARY

THERiOGENOLOGY. The Study of reproduction. TRANSPORT MEDIUM. Material for preserving a spec-
THiAMiNASE.An enzyme that destroys thiamine. imen until it reaches the laboratory.
THIAMINE. Vitamin B, . TRANSTRACHEAL WASH. Flushing of material from
the trachea and bronchi for diagnostic purposes, by
THORACIC. Pertaining to the chest. needle puncture and aspiration through the tracheal
wall.
THORACOCENTESIS. Procedure wherein a needle is
inserted into the chest cavity to remove accumulated TREMATODES. FlukeS.
air or fluid. TRICHINOSIS. A parasitic disease contracted by
THROMBOPLASTIN. A protein essential to the forma- eating meat (especially pork) that has not been thor-
tion of blood clots. oughly cooked.
THROMBOSIS. Formation of a blood clot (throm- TRIIODOTHYRONINE (T,). One of two hormones
bus). secreted by the thyroid gland that help to regulate
THYMUS. Lymphoid organ located in the chest that the overall cellular metabolism of the body.
regulates the maturation of specialized lymphocytes TULAREMIA. A plaguelike disease mainly affecting ro-
known as T cells. dents; caused by Francisella tularensis.
THYROIDECTOMY. Removal of the thyroid gland. TURBINATES. Rolled bony structures within the
THYROID-STIMULATING HORMONE (TSH). Hor- nose that filter, warm, and humidify the inhaled air.
mone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates ULCERATIVE KERATITIS. Inflammation of the cornea
the thyroid gland to produce thyroxine (T4) and triio- accompanied by corneal ulceration.
dothyronine (Tj). ULTRASONOGRAPHY. Ultrasound; study of the
THYROXINE (T4). One of two hormones secreted body's interior by means of sonar echoes.
by the thyroid gland that help to regulate the overall ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION. Radiation beyond the vio-
cellular metabolism of the body. let region of the spearum; can induce sunburn.
TITER. A quantitative measure of the concentration UNICORNUAL UTERINE TORSION. Twisting of One
of an antibody or antigen in blood serum. uterine horn.
TOCOPHEROL. Vitamin E.
UNTHRIFTY. Unkempt in appearance and failing to
TOXEMIA. Presence of toxins in the blood, accompa- thrive.
nied bysigns of disease. URETER. A tube that carries urine from the kidney to
TOXIC EPIDERMAL NECROLYSIS. Skin Condition in the urinary bladder.
which redness and peeling occur over the entire URETEROLiTH. A stone in a ureter.
body surface.
ToxocARA CATi The cat roundworm, an internal URETHRA. A tube that carries urine from the bladder
to the exterior of the body.
parasite.
TOXOPLASMOSIS. A protozoal disease caused by URETHRAL PLUG. Soft, pastelike, compressible sub-
Toxoplasma gondii. stance blocking the urethra.
URETHROLITH. A stone in the urethra.
TRACHEA. The windpipe, which is a tube descending
from the larynx and branching at the lower end into URETHROSTOMY. See perineal urethrostomy.
two bronchi that enter the lungs. URINALYSIS. Series of physical and chemical tests
TRACHEOSTOMY. Surgically created opening in the that aid in the diagnosis of urinary tract disorders.
trachea through the skin of the neck. URINARY CALCULUS (plural, CALCULi). Stone in the
TRANSPLACENTALLY. Across the placenta. urinary tract.
 GLOSSARY

UROLITHIASIS. Formation of urinary stones; disease VESTIBULAR SYNDROME. Incoordination and imbal-
associated with presence of urinary stones. ance related to the inner ear.
URTICARIA. Hives. VILLI (singular, villus). Fingerlike projections lin-
UTERINE TUBES. Fallopian tubes. ing the interior of the small intestine.
viREMiA. Presence of virus in the bloodstream.
UTERINE INVERSION. Uterine prolapse; inside-out
uterus protruding through the cervix. virilizing. Producing male characteristics.
UTERUS UNICORNIS. Uterus having only one uter- VIRULENCE. Disease-producing capacity.
ine horn. VIRULENCE FACTOR. Any factor that enhances the
UVEA. Layer within the eye that contains the iris, ability of a pathogen to infect and damage tissue.
blood vessels, and choroid. VIRUS ISOLATION. Growth of a virus artificially in
VACCINATION. Process of giving a vaccine; see im- the laboratory.
munization. VISCERA. The large interior organs of the body.
VAGINITIS. Inflammation of the vagina. VISCERAL LARVA MIGRANS . Disease in human be-
VAGiNOSCOPic. By means of visual inspection of ings usually caused by the dog roundworm Toxocara
the vagina with a speculum. canis, caraand cal . very rarely by the cat roundworm Toxo-
VALERIC ACID. Substancc present in the vaginal se-
cretions ofestrous females; stimulates a reaction in VISCERAL PLEURA. Membrane that covers the sur-
the tomcat. face of the organs in the chest.
VASCULAR RING DEFECT. Abnormal retention of em- VITREOUS HUMOR. Fluid within the posterior por-
bryonic blood vessels in the region of the aorta. tion of the eyeball.
VASCULARIZATION. Formation of blood vessels. VULVA. Entrance to the vagina.
VASCULITIS. Inflammation of a blood vessel. WHEAL. Smooth elevated area in the skin, often itchy
VAS DEFERENS. A tube that carries sperm from the and associated with allergy.
testis to the urethra. WHOLE-BODY HYPERTHERMIA. Anticancer proce-
VASODILATION. Dilation of a blood vessel. dure in which the core body temperature of the pa-
tient israised.
VENTRAL. Toward the belly surface. Yersinia pestis The bacterium that causes plague.
VENTRICLE. One of the two lower chambers of the
hean. ZONA PELLUCIDA. The envelope or casing around
an ovum.
VENULE. Small vein.
ZOONOTIC . Of a disease having the capacity to
VESICLE. Blister. spread between animals and man.
VESICULAR. Fluid-filled. ZYGOTE. Fertilized ovum.
 Index

AAFCO Nutrient Profiles for Cat Foods, ACTH (adrenoconicotropic hormone), agar, 404, 413
78, 79, 80, 86, 95 265,413 agenesis, 413
abdomen: actinic keratoses, 176 aggression, 56-57, 69-70
69-70
muscles of, 152 Actinomyces, 296-97, 300, 413 toward humans,
organs of, 147-48, 152-53 aainomycosis, 296-97 irritable, 69-70
toward other cats, 70
palpation of, 413 aaivity 413patterns, 59-60
acute,
abnormal maternal behavior, 72-73 playful, 69in, 58
infanticide, 72 acute hepatic necrosis, 261, 413 postures
mismothering, 72-73 72 acute kidney disease, 228-29 predatory, 57, 69
abnormal sexual behavior, acute kidney failure, 228-29 restraining techniques for, 372
in males, 72 acute pancreatitis, 262-63 sexual, 5656-57
social,
abortions, 139-40 acute 423toxoplasmosis, 51
abscessation, 413 territorial,
scrotal, 120 Addison's disease
(hypoadrenocorticism), 268, 413, treatment of,56-57 70
abscesses, 160-61, 413 adenocarcinomas, 413 underlying disease as cause of, 70
cat-bite, 300 adenomas, 413 aging cats, 335-37
euthanasia for, 340
first aid for, 374-76 exercise for, 336
absolute glaucoma, 187 adenomyosis, 120
Abyssinians, 34 adipsia, 413 feeding of,of,335-36
body type of, 21, 23 ad libitum, 413 grooming 336
description administering medicines, 363-66 reducing environmental stress on,
needs of, 1 1of, 23-24 adoption agencies,264, 11-13
ACA (American
20 Cat Association), 7, 19- adrenal glands, 413 special care for, 335-36
adrenaline (epinephrine), 265, 276, special nutritional needs of, 89-90
acariasis (cat scabies), 184, 413
acetaminophen intoxication, 252
413, 420
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), of 337
aging brain, 339 of, 337-39
cats, diseases
AGFA Association),
(American Cat19, Fancier's 265, 413 ceruminous gland tumors, 337
41 adsorb, 413 ofdiabetes
circulatory system,
acholic feces, 261, 413 adult cats: mellitus, 339 338-39
acid-base balance, 79 caloric requirements of, 88 of digestive system, 338
acids, emergency procedures for osteomalacia in, 93, 94 feline leukemia, 337
ingestion of, 381 proteinacuity
required of hean, 338-39
Acinonyx, 17 visual in, 62by, 78-79 hyperthyroidism,337338
Aelurostrongylus kidney
of liver, failure,
acquired hean disorders, 209-13
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome aerobic, 413 abstrusus, 318 339
(AIDS), 286-87,413 aerosol exposure, 413 meningiomas, 337
acquired valvular hean disorders, 210 aflatoxins, 322, 413 of musculoskeletal system, 338
acromegaly (gigantism), 270 African wild cat (Felis libyca), 4, 55, 77 oral problems, 338
437
 INDEX

aging cats, diseases of {com. ) essential, 78 antibiotics,

antitumor,295,330414
skin problems, 338 methionine, 82, 427
tumors, 326, 337-38 nonessential, 78 antibodies, 273, 414
Agriculture Department, U.S., xix taurine, ^8-"'9, 94, 433 virus-neutralizing, 281
AIDS (acquired immunodeficienq' tryptophan, 82 414 antibody tests, 290
syndrome), 286-87, 309, 413 ammonia, 259-60, antifungals, 414
AIHA anemia),
(autoimmune ammonia tolerance testing, 260 antigens, 273, 414329
276 hemolytic Amphimerus pseudofelineus, 319 antimetabolites,
alanine413 aminotransferase (ALT), 259, amyloidosis, antimicrobials, 414
anabolism, 77,229-30 414 antimicrobial sensitivity tests, 404-5
albumin, 259, 413 anaerobic, 414 antineoplastic, 414
aldosterone, 264, 413 anamnestic response, 414 antinuclear antibody (ANA) test, 277
alimentary anti-oncogenes, 327, 414
alkalis, 414 lymphosarcomas, 254, 283 anaphylactic reaction, 275-76, 414
ANA (antinuclear antibody) test, 277 antiserum, 414
emergency procedures for ingestion anatomy, 143-54, 414 antithyroid drugs, 266
of, 381 abdominal organs, 147-48, 152-53 antitumor antibiotics, 330
alkaloids, 414 congenital defects in, see congenital anus, 14, 148, 153
vinca, 329 birth defects imperforate,from, 249 59
alky lating agents, 329 diaphragm, 148, 153, 239, 419 secretions
alleles, 123-26, 129-30,414 directional terms of, 143-44 Aonchotheca putorii, 320
lethal, 127-28 oflungs,
immune system, 273-74 aorta, 206
wild-type, 126-27 148, 153 arches of, 152-53, 209
allergens, 165, 275, 414 muscles, see muscles stenosisof, of,206 136, 209, 414
valve
allergies, 184, 274-76, 401 skeleton,146 153-54, 218
teeth,
aloofness, 14-15 aplasia, 414229 249
intestinal,
alopecia, 116, 414
feline symmetrical, 168 Ancylostoma,organs,
thoracic 313 152-53 renal,
paraneoplastic, 169 androgen, 414 segmental, 115, 117
preauricular, 168-69, 430 anemias, 14, 286, 414
psychogenic, 173 autoimmune hemolytic, 276 apocrine
apnea, 414glands, 159, 415
alopecia areata, 167, 414 blood-loss,
213 214 Apophalli4s, 317
ALT (alanine
413 aminotransferase), 259, cardiovascular diseases caused by, apoplexy, 236
alveolus, 239, 414 feline infeaious, 303, 421 appearance, gross, 422
Ambfyomma americanum, 394 nonregenerative, 259, 283 appendicular skeleton, 218
ameboid aaion, 239, 414 red-cell destruaion, 214 arachidonicfluid,acid,181,79,182,415 415
aqueous
amelia, 414 anencephaly, 134, 135, 414 area centralis, 183
American Association of Feline anesthesia, 354-55 Argasid ticks, 197
American
Praaitioners, xxii anestrus, 99, 414
anger, wails of, 58 Aristode, 97259
arginine,
20 Cat Association (ACA), 7, 19- angiocardiograms, 411 armamentarium, 415
American angioedema, 164-65, 414 arreaor pili muscles, 159
(AGFA),Cat 19,Fancier's
41 Association angiography, 411, 414 arrhythmias, 209-10, 415
American Curls, description of, 24 mesenteric,
animal bites, 393261 arterial thromboembolisms, 213
American Curl Shorthairs, description arteriovenous fistulas, 213
of, 24 animal-feeding bottles, 48 aneritis (vasculitis), 213-14, 415, 435
American Humane Society, 12 animal handlers, 1 1 arthritis:
infeaious, 222
American Kennel Club, 20 animal shelters, 11-13
American Quarter Horse, 18 ankylosis, 220, 414 rheumatoid, 221
American Shorthairs, 30, 34, 38 anogenital distance, 112-13 septic, 432222
arthrodesis,
body type of, 24-25 anoreaic, 414 arthropods, 415
coat type of, 21, 24-25 anorexia, 73, 414
description of, 24-25 ANS 232-33,
(autonomic415 nervous system), anicular canilage,139218
artificial mating,
American Society for the Prevention of Antaraica, cats in, 5
Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), 12, anilicial respiration, 372-73
389 antemortem, 414 anioventricular
ascariasis, 415 node, 206
American anterior chamber, 182, 414
amino acids,Wirehairs,
77, 414 description of, 25 disorders of, 187-88 ascarids (roundworms; Toxocara
arginine, 259 anterior piRiitary gland, 100, 105 cati), 307, 312-13, 397, 415, 428,
deficiencies in, 79 anterior uveitis, 188 434 415
ascending,
effects of food processing on, 79 anthelmintic, 414
 INDEX

ascites, 415 bacillary angiomatosis, 394 insightful, 65

ascorbic acid (vitamin C), 82, 415 bacillus415 Calmette-Guerin (BCG), 331, intelligence, see intelligence
aspanate
415 aminotransferase (AST), 259, mating, see mating
bacteremia, 296 misbehavior, see misbehavior
ASPCA (American Society for the bacterial cultures, 404 nursing, 60-6110
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals), bacterial in pet shops,
12, 389 bacterial cystitis,
dermatitis,227-29
49 play, see play
aspergillosis, 322 bacterial diseases, 293-304 predatory aggression, 57, 69
aspirated, 415 actinomycosis, 296-97 reproductive,
retrieval, 61 60-61
aspiration pneumonia, 48, 245 campylobacteriosis, 252, 298
aspiration smears, 328-29, 415 CSD,
feline 302-3
leprosy, 161, 301 in selecting cats, 14-15
aspirin toxicity, 252 sexual,
AST (aspartate
415 aminotransferase), 259, haemobanonellosis, 303 sexual and13, 72, 104-5 aggression,
territorial
asthenia, cutaneous, 172 Lyme disease, 303-4, 394-95 56-57
of sick cats, 344
asthma, bronchial, 244 mycobacterial, 300-302 sleep, 61
astroviruses, 251 nocardiosis, 296-97 social aggression, 56
pasteurellosis, 300
feline, xxi plague, 299, 395, 430 social and 60organizational, 56-57
treading,
ataxia (incoordination), 220, 279, 415 of respiratory system, 240
atopy, 165, 415 salmonellosis, 252, 297-98, 395 of unneutered male cats, 13
atresia, 192, 415 of skin, 160-62 of unspayed females in estrus, 13
ani, 415 staphylococcal, benign, 415
of cervix, 119 streptococcal, 296295-96 benign tumors, 325
coli, 249 tuberculosis, 161, 301 benzodiazepine tranquilizers, 63
atria, 205, 415 tularemia, 299-300, 434 in treating anorexia, 73
fibrillation of, 210 bereavement,
premature beats of, 210
zoonotic, 393-96
bacterial endocarditis, 210, 415 Beresford Cat 339-40 Club, 20
atrioventricular (AV) valve baaerial enteritis, 252 beta-adrenergic
beta blockers, 415blocking drugs, 212
malformations, 208 bacterial folliculitis, 415
atrophy, 415 bacteriology, 296 404-5 bewilderment cries, 58
atropine, 415 Bacteroides, bi-color coat pattern, 23
Balinese, 37 Bide-a-Wee
atypical mycobaaeriosis, 162
auditory ossicles, 191, 428 description of, 25 bilaterally, 415Home Association, 12
auditory system: Barlough, Jeffrey E., 218, 278, 321, 325, bile ducts,
acuity in, 59, 62 261 extrahepatic obstruction of,
congenital malformations of, 137 Barr, 335, 404 278
Margaret, bile ductule, 258
auricle, 191, 415 Bartholin's gland, 115302, 394 biliary
bilirubin,cirrhosis,
260,415261, 415
auricular cartilage, 191 Bartonella henselae,
Australia, cats in, 5 basal, 415 bilirubin glucuronide,
binocular vision, 59, 415260
autoantibodies, 277 basal cell tumors, 174
autoimmune diseases, 407 biopsies,
basophilic, 415
basophils, of liver, 260 415
406,
autoimmune hemolytic anemia
(AIHA), 276 Bast, 4 207, 415 percutaneous needle, 260, 429
autoimmune response, 415 bathing, 11 biotin, 82
autonomic nervous system (ANS), in pet273shops, 1 1
B cells, dermatoses
Birmans, 13 due to deficiency in, 93
232-33,415
autosomal, 415 BCG 415(bacillus Calmette-Guerin), 331,
autosomal dominance, 102, 136
autosomes, 123, 415 bears, 4 birthdescription of, 25-26
control, 138-40
avidin, 82 behavior, xx, 55-73, 233 abortions,mating,
anificial 139-40139
AV (atrioventricular) valve aaivity patterns, 59-60 estrus control, 139
malformations, 208 aggression,59 56-57, 69-70
bunting, for females, 139138-40
mismating,
awn hairs, 159, 415 neutering, 140
axial defects, 135 in catteries, 7-9
axial duplications, 135 communicating, see communicating
axial skeleton, 218 critical social development periods spaying,
for
tubaltomcats,138-39
ligations,140139
axons, 232, 415 in kittens, 61-63
destruaive, 70-72 vaseaomies, 140
Babesia felis, 215 domestication
eating, 63 of cats and, 55-56 bisacodyl, 257
Babesia microti, 318 bites,consequence
bacterial diseases
babesiosis, 318 estrous, 60 of 393as
INDEX

bite wound infections, 300 bronchial asthma, 244

Blake. William, 203 ofof purebreds,
Ragdolls, 3621 bronchioles, 239, 416
blastocysts, 132-33, 416 of Russian Blues, 21, 36 bronchopneumonia, 416
migration of, 108 of Scottish Folds, 37 bronchopulmonary disease, 244-45
Blastomyces dermatitidis, 322-23 of Selkirk Rex, 37 bruises, 224
blastomycosis, 322-23 ofof Singapuras,
Siamese, 21,37-38 bubonic plague, 299
bleeding: 38 bulbar conjunctiva, 181
first aid for, 374 of Snowshoes, 39 bulbourethral glands, 100, 416
postpanum, 111 of Somalis, 39 BUN (blood urea nitrogen) levels, 119,
bleomycin, 416 of Sphynxes, 39 bundle230,of416His, 206
blepharitis, 183-84 of Tonkinese, 40
blepharospasm, 416 of Turkish Angoras, 41 bunting behavior, 59
blisters (vesicles), 435 of Turkish Vans. 41 buphthalmos,
Burmese, 29, 40416
blood, 206-7, 416 boils (fiirunculosis). 161, 416, 421
disorders of, 214 Bombays, 20
parasites coat type of, 21 body type
coat type of,of,2126-27
tumors of,of,329214, 317-18 description of, 26 description of, 26-27
bloodlines, 10 bone injuries, first
blood-loss anemia, 214 bone marrow, 218, aid273,for,416376-77 genetics in breeding
reproductive life of, 101of, 124-26
blood plasma, 207, 416, 430 bone
bones: plates, 224 burns, 170-71387
chemical,
blood poisoning (septicemia), 120, deep, 385
215, 296, 432 offorelimbs,
blood smears, 406, 416 of hindlimbs, 148-49,149, 153 153 electrical, 386-87
blood types, 207-8 of skull, 144, 153-54, 180 emergency procedures for, 385-87
blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels, 119. see also musculoskeletal system; superficial, 385
230, 416 musculoskeletal system disorders thermal, 385-86
blood vessels, 207, 416 Bordetella, 240 Byron,333George Gordon Noel, Lord,
disorders of, 213-14 Bordetella bronchiseptica, 50
Blue, Julia T , 218, 404 Borrelia burgdorferi, 394
body language: "Boston Cats, The" (Macy), 367 cachexia, 416
gapes, 58-59, 101-2, 421 Bowman, Dwight D., 305 Caesar and Cleopatra (Shaw), 1
posture. 58 brachycephalic, 219, 416
body types: brachycephalic airway syndrome, 244 cages,
calcium, 8-979-80secondary
nutritional
of Abyssinians. 21. 23 bradycardia,
brain, 232 210, 416
of American Curls, 24 hyperparathyroidism
of American Curl Shorthairs, 24 stem of, 233
breathing, 148 deficiency in, 93-94 due to
of American Shorthairs, 24-25 calcium-channel blocking drugs, 21 1
of American Wirehairs, 25 difficulties in, first aid for, 372 calcium oxalate, 82
of Balinese, 25 stoppage, CPR for, 373 calculogenic, 416
of Birmans, 26 calculogenic
of Bombays, 26
breeding, seleaion of individuals for,
130-31 calculus, 178, diets.416 228
of British Shorthairs, '26 breeding programs: Calico coat pattern, 23, 127
crossbreeding in, 130 calls:mating, 58
ofof Chartreux,
Burmese, 26-2727 inbreeding
of Colorpoint Shorthairs, 28 linebreedingin,in,129-30130 two-syllable, 58
of Cornish Rexes, 28 line crossing in. 130 calories, 416
of Devon Rexes, 28 breeds, 17-41 calculation
in cat foods, of,8547
of Egyptian Maus, 28 incolors
catteries,
of European Burmese, 29 of. 1267-8 decreasing intake of, 92
of Exotic Shorthairs, 30 ofdescriptions
dogs, 55 of, 23-41 feeding guidelines for, 88
of Havana Browns, 30 required
of Himalayans, 30 established standards for, 8 Cameo coat bypattern,
kittens,2347
of Japanese Bobtails, 31 genotypes campaigners, 8
of Javanese, 31 longhair, 11,of, 13127 campylobaaer
of Korats, 32 meaning of term, potential of,enteritis,
393 zoonotic
of Maine Coon Cats, 32
of Manxes, 33 in pet shops, 10 17-18 campylobacteriosis, 252, 298
purebred, see purebreds Campylobacter jejuni, 298, 393, 416
of Norwegian Forest Cats, 33 shorthair, 21-22 Camuti. Louis J., xxi
of Ocicats, 34 standards for, 20-21 Canadian Cat Association (CCA), 40
ofof Persians,
Orientals, 3534-35 British Shorthairs, description of, 26 cancer,
see also325-32,
tumors416, 427
bronchi, 239, 416
Candida, 323 cerebrum, 233
dry, 84-85 calories in, 85 ceruminous
candidiasis, 163, 323
canine coronavirus (CCV), 288
estimating
guidelines for amounts of, 88 tumors of,glands, 193, 337417
canine teeth, 177 labels of,contents
86-87 of, 85 cervical
deforming, 219 81, 417
spondylosis,
canned cat foods, 85-86 nutrient
cannibalism, 72 protein vitamin A toxicity as cause of, 94
semi-moist, 8585
in, cervix,
cannula, 416
Canterbury Tales (Chaucer), 75 storage of, 89 atresia99,of,153,119417
Capitlaria hepatica, 320 cat fur mites, 196 prolapse(tapeworms),
of, 120
cat-litter scoops, 1 1 cestodes
capillarids, 319-20
capillaries, 239 catnip {Nepeta cataria), 11, 102, 428 4817, 397-98, 417 45, 307, 315-
capitulum, 416 mating behavior induced by, 60 CFA (Cat Fanciers' Association), 7, 19-
Capnocytophagia canimorsus (DF-2), cat owners:
393 leading health concerns of, 344 CFF (Cat Fanciers' Federation), 19, 39
capsules, administration of, 365-66 physical examinations by, 345-46 Chanreux:
carbohydrates, 79 cat plague, 240 body type type of,of,21,27 27
in dry cat foods, 85 cats: coat
carbonic anhydrase inhibitor, 416 ancestors of, 3-4 description of, 27
carbuncles, 416 history of human involvement with, Chaucer, Geoffrey, 75
carcinogens, 416 277
Chediak-Higashi syndrome, 172, 215,
carcinomas, 325, 416 5-6
member-of-the-family status of, 6
squamous cell, 174, 176, 179, 184, negative anitudes chemical bums, emergency
193, 432 nose-to-nose contacttoward,
of, 8 5-6 procedures
cardiac muscle, 219 origins of, 3-6 chemical oxidation,for, 417387
cardiac tamponade, 416 popularity chemical poisoning, 172
cardiomyopathies, 416 reasons for of,acquiring,
9-10 7 emergency procedures for, 379-81
diagnosis of, 211 cat scabies (acariasis), 184, 413
dilated, 78, 95,211 cat-scratch disease (CSD), 302-3 byby inhaling,
ingestion, 381380-81
drugs used in treatment of. 21 1-12 zoonotic potential of, 393-94 prevention of, 381
hypenrophic, cat selection guide, 13-16 signs of, 417 380
restrictive, 211 210-11 chemosis,
cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), cat health
shows,considerations
8 in, 13-16 chemotherapy:
373, 416 Cats Magazine, 9 alkylating agents in,in,329329
cardiovascular system, congenital cat sources: antimetabolites
malformations of, 135-37, 206-9 animal shelters, 11-13 antitumor antibiotics in, 330
carrier state, chronic, 417 catteries, 7-9 glucoconicoid hormones in, 330
cartilage, 218, 416 guide to, 6-13 tumorsalkaloids
vinca treated in, with,329329-30
castration
416 (neutering), 9, 13, 357-58, pet shops, hospitals,
9-11 13 245
veterinary cherry eye, 186
aggression treated with, 57 catteries,breeding
7-9 of, 18 chest (thorax), 147, 148, 152, 153, 224,
for binh control, 140 cattle,
Cat World 9
to modify abnormal sexual Cheyletiella blakei. 196
behavior, 72 caudal, 417 Cheyletiella parasitivorax, 196
casts, 416 caudal venae cavae, 206 Cheyletiella yasguri, 196
catabolism, 416 cavities, 180 cheyletiellosis (walking dandrufO,
cataracts, 137, 188-89,417 CBCs (complete blood counts), 328, 196-97, 417
cat bags, 363 406, 417 chiggers,
cat-bite abscesses, 300 CCA (Canadian Cat Association), 40 Chihuahuas,197 18
cat deities, 4 CCV (canine coronavirus), 288 China, cats in, 5
caterwauling, 58 cell bodies, 232 Chinchillas, 23
cell-mediated immune responses, Chlamydia, 50, 184
Cat Fanciers' Almanac, 9
Cat Fanciers' Association (CPA), 7, 19- cellular differentiation, 327, 416 275 chlamydia conjunctivitis, 185
48 cellulitis, 160-61,416 Chlamydia psittaci,
Cat Fanciers' Federation central417nervous system (CNS), 232-33, chlamydiosis, 417 430239-40
Cat Fancy, 18-20, 41 (CFF), 19, 39 feline, 240, 402,
zoonotic potential of, 394
Cat Fancy Magazine, 9 central retinal degeneration, 78, 94
cat foods, 84-89 taurine deficiency as cause of, 94 chloramphenicol,
chloride, 80 417
amino acids in, 79 centrifuge, 417
canned, 85-86 cerebellar hypoplasia, 279, 417 chlorinated
172 naphthalene poisoning,
carbohydrates in, 79 cerebellum, 233, 417
commercial foods, 87 cerebrospinal fluid, 233 choking, first aid for, 372
 INDEX

leukemia, 215, 283, 422

cholangiohepatitis
choleliths, 261 complex, 261 of leukocytes, 215 ofofof Javanese,
Japanese Bobtails,
Korats, 32 32
31
choline, 82, 417 lymphatic, 217
chondrosarcomas, 223 mucopolysaccharidoses, 134, 215 of Manxes,
Maine Coon33 Cats, 32-33
chordae tendineae, 205 myeloproliferative, 215
chorioretinitis, 191, 417 myocardial, see cardiomyopathies ofof Ocicats,
Norwegian34 Forest Cats, 33
choroid, 181, 189, 417 parasites as cause of, 213, 318-19 of Orientals, 35
chromosomes, 122-31 PDA, 136, 208-9, 429
chronic, 417 Pelger-Huet disorder, 215 of purebreds,3622-23
ofRagdolls,
chronic carrier state, 417 pericardial, 213 of Russian Blues, 36
chronic254 inflammatory' bowel disease persistent right aortic arch, 209 of Scottish Folds, 37
of platelets, 216 of Selkirk Rex, 37
chronic interstitial nephritis, 417 polycythemia, 214 136, 209 of Siamese, 38
chronic intestinal diseases, 253-55 pulmonic stenosis, of Singapuras, 38
chronic kidney failure, 230 red-cell destruaion anemia, 214
chronic pancreatitis, 262-63 secondary myocardial, 212 of Somalis,
Snowshoes,39 37-38
chronic progressive polyarthritis septal defects, 209
(CPP), 221 septicemia, 120, 215, 432 ofof Tonkinese,
Sphynxes, 4040
chronic240 upper respiratory infeaion, tachycardia, 210, 433
tetralog>' of fallot, 209 of Turkish Angoras, 41
chyle, 217, 417
chylothorax, 217, 245, 417
thrombocytopenia, 216
thrombocytosis, 216 coatof types: Turkish Vans, 41
ciliar\' trauma as cause of, 217 of Abyssinians, 23
ciliated yascular
epithelium, congestion,
238 417 tumors, 259,
cirrhosis, 217, 417223-24, 329 of American Curls, 24
circulaton,- system, 205-8 of American Shorthairs, 21, 25
circulaton' system disorders, 208-17 biliary,
civets, 4 261,415 ofof American
Balinese, 25Wirehairs, 25
acquired, 209-13 classical conditioning, 65 of Birmans, 26
acquired valvular, 210
Classic of Bombays, 21, 26
in aging seecats,anemias
anemia, 338-39 clawing,Tabby 71 coat pattern, 22 of British Shorthairs, 26
aortic stenosis, 136, 209, 414 claws, 149-50 of Burmese, 21
arrhythmias, 209-10, 415 climbing poles, 9 of Chartreux, 21, 27
arterial thromboembolisms, 213 clinical chemistry, 407
arteriovenous fistulas, 213 clitoral fossa, 106 ofof Cornish ColorpointRexes,
Shorthairs,
22, 28 27
arteritis, 213-14, 415, 434 clitoris, 99, 106 of Devon Rexes, 22
atrial
210 and/or ventricular fibrillation, Clydesdale horses, 55 of Egyptian Maus, 29
atrial
CNS (central nervous system), 232-33,
417 ofof Exotics,European30 Burmese, 29
beats,and 210ventricular premature coagulation: genetics
AV valve malformations, 208 disorders of, 216 hairless, of, 21 124-28
of blood, 214-17 of Havana Browns, 30
blood-loss anemia, 214 coatoftesting of, 406-7
patterns:
Abyssinians, 23
of Himalayans, 30
blood parasites, 214, 317-18 of Japanese Bobtails, 31
of blood vessels, 213-14
bradycardia, 210, 416
of American Curls, 24
of American Shorthairs, 25 ofof Javanese, Korats, 32 31
cardiomyopathies, see ofof American
Balinese, 25WIrehairs, 30 longhair, 22
cardiomyopathies ofof Manxes, Maine Coon 21, 33Cats, 22, 32-33
Chediak-Higashi syndrome, 172, of Birmans, 26 of Ocicats, 34
215, 277 of Bombays, 26
chylothorax, 217, 245, 417
of coagulation, 216
of British Shorthairs, 26
of Burmese, 27 ofof Orientals,Persians, 22,21,35
35
congenital, of Chartreux, 22, 27
EFE. 209 135-36, 206-9 of purebreds, Ragdolls, 36 21-22
of erythrocytes, 214 ofof Cornish
ColorpointRexes,
Shorthairs,
28 27-28 of Russian Blues, 21, 37
of Scottish Folds, 37
of heart, see heart disorders of Devon Rexes, 28-29 of Selkirk Rex, 22, 37
from heartworm, 213 of Egyptian Maus, 29
hyperkinetic, 212-13 of European Burmese, 29 ofshorthair, Siamese,21-22 21, 38
hyperthyroidism
213 as cause of, 212, of Exotic Shorthairs, 30
genetics of Singapuras, 38
infectious myocarditis, 212 of Havana of,Browns,123-26, 30129
ofof Somalis, Snowshoes,22, 38-39
39
kidney disease related to, 212 of Himalayans, 30-31
 INDEX

of Sphynxes, 40 genetics and, 128 publications of, xxii

of Tonkinese, 40 ofinduced,
hean, 206-9
135
of Turkish Angoras, 22, 41 purposes
staff of, xx-xxi
of,University,
xxi-xxii
of Turkish Vans, 41 of kidneys, 229 Cornell Small Animal Clinic
cobaiamin (vitamin B^), 82, 418 of limbs, 136
cobby body type, 21 neurologic disorders caused by, 234 Cornellat, 67Veterinary Medical Teaching
Coccidtoides immitis, 323 in reproduaive system, 115, 417 Hospital,
coccidioidomycosis, 322-23 seborrhea oleosa, 137 cornified,
Cornish Rexes, 418 xx-xxii
39
coccidiosis, 310-11 of urogenital system, 137
cochlea, 191 of visceral organs, 136-37 coat type of, 22, 28
co-faaors, 417
coitus, 417
of visual system, 137
congenital testicular hypoplasia, 115, corona radiata, 13228
description of,
cries during, 104 418 coronary
cojoined rwins, 135 conjunctiva, 181, 418 coronavirus,vessels,418 152-53
cold agglutinin disease, 167 conjunctival diseases, 184-86 feline enteric, 14, 251, 421
Colene, 141 conjunaivitis, 418 corpus luteum, 100, 418
colitis, 284, 417 chlamydia, 185 cysts 418of, 115
collagen, 417 mycoplasma, 185 conex,
colleaing dua, 226 viral, 184-85 417 conex, of hair, 158
conneaive corticoid, 418
Colorpoint Shorthairs, description of,
27-28 tumors of,tissue,
325 conicosteroids, 276, 418
color vision, 59, 65 constipation, conicosterone, 418
colostrum, 48, 417 causes of, 255255-57 Cortisol, 264, 418
comatose, 417 clinical signs of, 255-57 conisone, 265, 418
commercial feline formulas, 47 in digestive system disorders, 255- Corynebacterium panmrn, 331
common bile duct, 258 coughing, 14
communicating: endocrine causes Council Rock Farm Adam of Hi-Fi, 25
with421body language, 58-59, 101-2, medications
56 for, 256of, 256-57 cowpox,
cow's milk,in man,46 392
gapes, 58-59, 101-2, 421 obstruaions as causeof, of,
neurologic causes 255-57
256 Coxiella bumetti, 395-96
perception, 59 painful defecation in, 256 CPP (chronic progressive
with posture, 58 psychological
treatment for, causes
257 of, 256 polyarthritis), 221 resuscitation ),
purring, 57-58 CPR (cardiopulmonary
comparative teratology, 135 contact hypersensitivity, 165 cranial,373,418416
complaints, 58 contagious streptococcal cranial nerves, 232
complement system, 274 lymphadenitis (strangles), 418,
complete blood counts (CBCs), 328, 432 cranial venae cavae, 206
406, 417 continuous polyestrous, 418 cranioschisis, 418
compound fractures, 417 continuous variation, 129-30 creatinine, 226
computerized tomography, 411-12 contralateral, 418 crepitus, 418
conceptus, 417 contusions, 224, 234, 418 cries:
bewilderment, 58
c-onc convalescence, home care for, see
conchae,genes,238 327 home care coital, 104
concussions, 234, 417 Coombs' test, 407, 418 estrous, 420
conditioning: copper, 80 ofmating,
kittens,58 48
classical, 65 copulation,
operant, 65 influence 104-5
of estrous cycle on, 105 ofrefusal,
pain, 5858
conduction disturbances, 210 cornea, 181, 418 crossbreeding, 130
cones, 59, 182-83 ■ complicated
187 deep ulcerations of,
Confucius, 5 cross-eye (strabismus), 137, 191, 432
congenital birth defects, 50, 417, 419 disorders of, 186-87 cruciate ligament injuries, 222
of auditory system, 137 corneal dystrophy, 187 cryogens, 418
axial defects, 135 corneal necrosis, 187 cryosurgery,
axial duplications, 135 corneal nigrum, 187 cryptococcosis,330-31, 234, 322418
of cardiovascular system, 135-36, corneal sequestrum, 187 Cryptococcus, 191
206-9 Cornell Feline Health Center, 251, Cryptococciis neoformans, 234, 241,
causes of, 134-35
digestive system disorders caused description
366 felinesof,treated
xix-xx at, xxii Cryptocotyle lingua, 317
exotic 322 testes,
of by,
ears,249192 fund
cryptorchid 117, 137, 418
of face and mouth, 136 future of, xxiii xxii-xxiii
raising by, cryptosporidiosis, 309-10
Cryptosporidium, 309-11
 INDEX

CSD (cat-scratch disease), 302-3, 393- death: preimplantation in, 132-33

bereavement and, 339-40 Devonsocial,Rexes,
61-6339
94
Ctenocephalides felis, 198 by euthanasia,
culling levels, independent, 130 deciduous teeth, 340
177 coat type of, 22
curly coats, 22 declawing, 358-59 description of, 28-29
Gushing s syndrome deep keratitis, 187 see
dextrose, also 419Cornish Rexes
(hyperadrenocorticism), 167-68, deep punaure wounds, first aid for
267-68,418, 423 DF-2 393 {Capnocytophagia canimorsus),
cutaneous asthenia, 172 defecation, painful, 256
376 hosts,
cutaneous cysts, 176 definitive 419 diabetes insipidus, 271
cutaneous horns, 418 deforming cervical spondylosis, 219 diabetes mellitus, 148, 153, 168, 268-
cutaneous hyperesthesia, 220, 418 degenerative joint disease 70, 419
cutaneous larva migrans, zoonotic (osteoarthritis), 222 in aging cats, 339
potential of, 397 degenerative
236 neurologic disorders, insulin,269-70
diet, 269
cutaneous leishmaniasis, 320
cutaneous lymphosarcomas,
Cuterebra, 235 175 demands, 58 275
degranulation, oral hypoglycemic drugs, 270
diagnostic imaging, 409-12
cuterebriasis, 201, 418 dementia, 287, 419 diagnostic tests, 404-8
cuticle, 158 demodectic mange, 196 antimicrobial sensitivity tests, 404-5
cyanosis, 245, 418 demodicosis, 196 baaerial cultures, 404
Cyclops, 316 dendrites, 232, 419 biopsies, 260, 406, 415, 429
cyclosporin, 418 dental178-79
disease, gingivitis caused by, blood smears, 406, 416
Cymrics, description of, 33 coagulation
cystadenomas, 116, 117, 418 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 122, Coombs' test,tests, 407, 406-7
418
cystic endometrial hyperplasia, 115, 278, 294, 419 ECGs, 408, 419
119,418 proviral, 327andersoni, 395 echocardiography, 411, 419
cystic endometrial hyperplasia- Dermacentor
pyometra complex, 1 19-20 dermanyssiasis, 197 fungal cultures, 405
cystic follicular degeneration, 107 Dermanyssns gallinae, 197 IFAs,
ELISAs,284-85,
405, 420405,' 424
cystic rete ovarii tubules, 115, 418 dermatitis:
bacterial, 49 radiography,
431 109-10, 409-11,
cystitis, 119, 418 urinalyses, 408, 434
baaerial, 227-29 flea collar, 170
cystogram, 410 miliary, 172-73, 427 VNs, 405-6148, 153, 239, 419
cystoliths, 418 papulopustular, 428 170 diaphragm,
C>'StS: primary irritant contaa, diaphragmatic
diarrhea, 14 hernias, 137
ofof corpus
Bartholin's gland,115115
luteum, psychogenic,
skinfold, 171,424 173 dietary, 252
cutaneous, 176 solar, 171-72,xx 432 in overfeeding, 48
ofof Gartner's dermatology, diazepam, 70
iris, 189 duct, 115 dermatomycosis, 419 Die (disseminated intravascular
of liver, 317 dermatophytes, 321-22 coagulation), 384, 419
of salivary glands, 247 dermatophytosis (ringworm), 14, 162- dicephalus,
diestrus, 99, 419 135, 419
Cytauxzoon felis, 215, 317 63,321-22,396,419,
dermatoses, 419 403
cytauxzoonosis, 317-18 dietary diarrhea, 252
cytodififerentiation, 134, 418 from93 essential fatty acid deficiency, diet-induced diseases, 91-95
cytokines, 418 central retinal degeneration, 78,
cytology, 407-8, 418 from protein deficiency, 93 dermatoses, 93
vaginal, 106-7 dermis, 158,419
cytoplasm, 419 dermoid cysts, 176 dilated cardiomyopathy,
FLUTD, 95 95
cytotoxic, 419 dermoid growths, 137
cytotoxic drugs, 329 descemetocele, 419 nutritional secondary
cytotoxic T cells, 273 destruaive 94
clawing, 71behavior, 70-72 hyperparathyroidism, 93-94,
Daly, Virginia, 34 plant eating,7172 220-21
obesity, 73, 91-93
Darwin, Charles, 17 scratching, osteomalacia,
rickets, 81, 93 93, 428
Daugherty, Dorothy Hinds, 38 wool-chewing, 71 steatitis, 93
DCM 211(dilated cardiomyopathy), 78, 95, development, normal, 132-34 firom
DDS 257 (dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate),
critical periods in, 61-63, 134
embryogenesis in, 133 tumors,thiamine
326 deficiency, 93
fetal growth in, 133 vitamin A toxicity, 94
deafness, in white cats, 192 mechanisms in, 133-34 vitamin D toxicity, 94
 INDEX

diets: index of common signs of, 347-51 eating behavior,

calculogenic, 228 pain in, 344 defense of body63-64
weight, 63
physical meal patterns, 64
high-fat, 92 87
homemade, recognitionsignsof,of,343345 palatability,
starvation, 92 from vaccines, 400 eccrine glands,63-64159, 419
unbalanced, 90 disinfection, 366 ECG (electrocardiography), 408, 419
see also feeding; nutrition dislocations, 224 Echidnophaga gallinacea. 198
disseminated intravascular coagulation Echinococci4S multilocularis,
digestive system, 147-48,
aa of swallowing in, 247246-48 echocardiography, 411, 419 316-17
form and funaion of, 246-48 distal,(DIC),
419 216, 384,419 eclampsia (milk fever), 112, 419
large intestine, 148, 153, 248 distal tubule, 226 420
ECP (estradiol cypionate), 107, 139,
small intestine, 148, 153, 247-48 diuretics, 211-12, 419
upper gastrointestinal traa, 246-47 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 122, eaoparasites, see parasites, external
digestive system disorders, 248-57 278, 294, 419 ectopic, 419
in aging cats, 338 proviral, 327212 ectopic testes, 117
bacterial enteritis, 252 dobutamine, ectrodactyly,
ectromelia, 136134, 136, 419
chronic inflammatory bowel Dog Fancy, 18 edemas, 419
disease, 254 dogs, 4, 61
chronic intestinal diseases, 253-55 breeding
breeds of,of,55 18-19 pulmonary,419245, 430
edematous,
congenital, 249
constipation in, 255-57 house-training of, 69 EFE (endocardial
effusions, 419 fibroelastosis), 209
dietary diarrhea, 252 intelligence of, 65
first aid for, 249 protein required by, 78, 79 pleural, 245, 430
FIV as cause of, 254 domestication, 55-56 EGC (eosinophilic granuloma
important observations in, 248 domestic cat (Felts catus), 17, 77 complex), 173-74, 179, 420
intestinal, see intestinal diseases domestic longhairs, 10
kidney or liver failure in, 253-54 domestic shorthairs, 10 Egypt, cats
Egyptian
elastin, in, 4-5description of, 29
419Maus,
obstruaions of intestinal traa, 249- dominant genes, 124, 419
50, 256 dopamine,
dorsal, 419 212 elective surgery, 353, 357-60
parasites as cause of, 253 castration,
dorsal 416 9, 13, 57, 72, 140, 357-58,
poisoning, 252-53
strangulated hernias, 250-51 dorsum,episiotomies,
152 118
declawing, 358-59
of sudden onset, 249-53 double coats, 21 429
ovariohysterectomies, 116, 138-39,
tumors, 254 drowning, emergency procedures for,
viral enteritis, 251-52 358, 428
perineal urethrostomies, 359-60,
digests, 419 drug 388eruption, 165-66
digitalis, 212, 419 dryadvantages
cat foods, of,84-85 electrical burns, emergency
dilated211cardiomyopathy (DCM), 78, 85 procedures for, (ECG),386-87 408, 419
storage of, 89 elearocardiography
taurine deficiency as cause of, 95 duaus arteriosus, 136 electrolyte balance,
dilated fixed pupils, 419 duodenum, 147, 153, 247, 258, 419 elearolytes, 419 79-80
dilated pore of Winer, 176 dysgerminomas, 117 ELISAsimmunosorbent
(enzyme-linkedassays), 284-85,
diltiazem, 211 dysplasia, 419
dimelia, 136, 419 dyspnea, 208, 276, 300, 419
dimorphic, 321 dystocia, 120, 419 embolisms,420420
405,
Dinictis, 4 pulmonary, 430133
dioctyl257sodium sulfosuccinate (DDS), ear disorders: embryogenesis,
acquired, embryos, 100, 133
Diphylobothrium latum, 316 ceruminous192-93 gland tumors, 193, 337 emergencies, what to do in, 370
diprosopus, 134, 135, 419 congenital, 192 emergency procedures,381 378-89
dips, 200 deafness, in white cats, 192 for acid ingestion,
Dipylidium caninum, 315 ear mites, 14, 192 for alkali ingestion, 381
Dirofilaria, 213 feline ideopathic vestibular for
Dirofilaria immitis, 318 syndrome, 193 for burns,
chemical385-87burns, 387
discoid lupus erythematosus, 166-67 fold-ears, 192 for drowning,
chemical poisoning, 379-81
discrimination, 65 hematomas, 192 for 388
disease: otitis, 192-93, 428 for elearical burns, 386-87
behavior in, 344 polyps, 193cell carcinomas, 193 for frostbite, 385, 387
clinical signs of, 343-51
as deviation from normality, 343-44 earsquamous
mites, 14, 192 heatstroke,
for HRS, 389 381, 384-85
general signs of, 344-45 ears, 191 for ingested poisons, 380-81
446
emergenq- eosinophilic granuloma complex European wild cat {Felis sili'estris), 4,
for inhaledprocedures
poisons, 381(cont. ) (EGO. n3-74, 179, 420 77
for insect stings. 387-88 eosinophilic keratitis, 187 Eurytrema
eustachian procyonis,
tube, 191 320
for kerosene ingestion, 381 eosinophilic plaque, 173 euthanasia, 340
for thermal
plant poisoning, 3^8-79 eosinophilic ulcers, 173
for burns, 385-86 eosinophils, 206, 273, 420 excessive shedding, 168
see also first aid epicardium, 205, 420 excising, 421
emergency surgery, 353 epidermal necrolysis, toxic, 166, 167, excoriation, 421
empyema, 420 434 excretory urogram, 410-11
endocardial fibroelastosis (EFE), 209 epidermis, 157, 420 exencephaly,
exercise, 336 135, 219, 421
endocardial fibrosis (restrictive epidermolysis bullosa, 172
cardiomyopathy), 211 epididymis, 420 exocrine 262 pancreatic insufficiency, 248,
endocarditis, bacterial, 210, 415 epiglottis,
endocardium, 205, 420 epilation of177hairs, 420
endocrine system, 264-65 epilepsy, 236 exostoses, 219,421 421
exogenous,
endocrine multiple canilaginous, 223
71 system, diseases of, 265- epinephrine (adrenaline), 265, 276,
413, 420 exotic felines,
Exotics, 20 xxii
diabetes mellitus, 268-70 epiphora, 420 dorsal, 118 description of, 30
hyperadrenocorticism, 267-68 episiotomies,
hyperparathyroidism, 267 epistasis, 125-26 exploratoryear, surgery,
external 191 260
hyperthyroidism, 265-66 epistaxis, 420
hypoadrenocorticism, 268 epithelial cells, noncornified, 106 external medicines, administration of,
hypoparathyroidism, 267 epithelialized, 420
hypothyroidism, 266-67 epithelium,
ciliated, 238420 external parasites, see parasites,
pancreatic islet cell tumors, 270 tumors of, 325 external
364
endocrinology, 110, 408 extracorporeal immunosorption, 332
of panurition, 112 epizootic, 420 421
reproductive, 110 erysipeloid, 420 extrahepatic
extraocular, 421 duct obstruaion, 261
bile
endocrinopathies, 256-57, 420 erythema, 420
endogenous, 420 erythema multiforme, 167 exirauterine pregnancy, 120
endometrial erythematous macules, 420 exudate, 421
119,418 hyperplasia, cvstic, 115, erythematous papules, 420 eye disorders, 183-91, 428
endometrial polyps, 117, 120 420 (red
erythrocytes blood cells), 206 of anterior chamber, 187-88
endometritis, 116, 119, 284, 420 blepharitis, 183-84
endoparasites, see parasites, internal disorders of, 214
endophthalmitis, 191 erythropoietin, 212, 227, 420 cat scabies,137,184188-89, 416
cataraas,
endoscopy, 420 Escherichia coli, 120, 183, 295, 420 cherry eye, 186
endospores, 420 esophagram, 410 chlamydia conjunctivitis, 185
endotracheal tube, 420 esophagus, 147, 153, 239, 247, 420 complicated
enemas, 257 essential amino acids, 78 cornea, 187deep ulcerations of
enteric, 420 estradiol, 100, 420 congenital, 137
enteritis, 250, 420 estradiol benzoate, 107 conjunaival, 184-85
bacterial, 252 estradiol
420 cypionate (ECP), 107, 139 of cornea,sequestrum,
186-87 187
campylobaaer, 393 corneal
Salmonella, 297 estrogen, 265, 420
string, 250 estrogen toxicity, 116 entropion, 183, 187420
deep keratitis,
viral, 251-52 estrous behavior, 60 ofeyelid
eyelids, 183-84184
enterohepatic circulation, 260 copulation influenced by, 105
entropion, 183, 420 estrous cries, 421 fibrin intumors,
anterior chamber, 188
enucleation, 420 estrous cycle, 99, 421 glaucoma, 188
environmental mycobacteria, 302 estrus,
control99, of,421 139 of globes, 191
environmental
due to, 67 stress, house soiling duration of, 105 hypopyon, retinal 187-88,degenerations,
423
enzootic, 420 induction of, 107-8 ofinherited
iris, 189 190
enzymatically, 420 vaginal
107 cytology showing stages of, iris color difference, 189
enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays iris cysts, 189
(ELlSAs), 284-85, 405, 420 etiology, glycol
ethylene 421 intoxication, 252-53 KCS, 185-86, 425
enzymes, 420 keratitis, 186-87, 425, 434
of liver, 259 Etruria, cats in, 4 oflid lens, 188-89
Eocene Epoch, 3 Eucoleus aerophilus, 320 ankyloblepharon, 183
eosin, 420 European Burmese, description of, 29 mycoplasma conjunctivitis, 185
 I
INDEX /i/iT I

nuclear sclerosis, 188 overfeeding, 48, 90 treatment of, 290-91

nutritional retinal degeneration, 190 of pregnant queens, 45 vaccinations against, 402-3
of optic nerve, 190-91 problems in, 48 feline infeaious peritonitis virus
optic neuritis, 190-91 special in,nutritional
variety 88 needs, 89-90 Feline(FIPV), 288-91 Bulletin, xxii
Information
panleukopenia as cause of, 190 feline ischemic encephalopathy, 236
panophthalmitis, 191 vitamin supplements in, 88, 90
persistent pupillary membranes, 189 see also diets, nutrition feline ischemic syndrome, 421
of retina, 190 feeding dishes, 1 1 aggression
retinal detachment, 190 Felicola subrostratus, 198 feline leprosy, due161,to,30170
strabismus, 137, 191, 432 Felidae, 421 feline leukemia, in aging cats, 337
tearing, 185 feline acne, 169-70xxi feline leukemia virus (FeLV), 49, 164,
of third eyelid, 186, 430 feline astrovirus, 281-86. 421
traumatic retinal degeneration, 190 feline calicivirus (FCV), xx, 48, 49, 178, cat owner concern over, 344
tumors of third eyelid, 186 240, 421 cause of, 281-82
upper lid agenesis, 183 vaccinations against, 402 clinical signs of, 282-84
viral conjunaivitis, 184-85 feline central retinal degeneration diagnosis of, 284-85 in, 284
eyelids, 181 (nutritional
190 retinal degeneration), glomerulonephritis
disorders of, 183-84 intestinal
LSAs m, 236,diseases
283 caused by, 251
third, 181, 186, 422,430 feline240,chlamydiosis (pneumonitis),
tumors of, 184 430 lymphocytic leukemia in, 283
eyes,cross181-83 vaccinations against, 402 myeloproliferative
NRA in, 283 disorders in, 283
seaion of, 182 feline dysautonomia (Key-Gaskell
first aid for, 376 syndrome), 256 panleukopenialike syndrome in,
of kittens, 14 feline endocrine alopecia, 168 283-84 of, 282
see also vision feline enteric coronavirus (FECV), 14, pathogenesis
421 prevention
face: intestinal diseases caused by, 251 public healthof,significance
285-86 of, 286
congenital malformations of, 136 Feline Health Topics, xxii serologic
treatment testing
of, 285 for, 260
flat, 219, 416 feline herpesvirus, xx, 164 tumors caused by, 326
fading kitten syndrome, 46, 421 feline herpesvirus- 1 (feline
false pregnancies, 45, 108, 110, 430 herpesvirus Type vaccinations against, 286, 402
familial seborrhea oleosa, 137 vaccinations against,1; FHV-1),
402, 421 feline lower urinary tract disease
fasciae,79 218-19, 421
fats, feline herpesvirus-2, xxi
feline193hyperesthesia syndrome, 236 diet(FLUTD),
as cause 228, of, 95296, 359, 421
fat-soluble vitamins, 81, 421 feline ideopathic vestibular syndrome, house soiling due to, 67
fatty acids, dermatoses due to feline panleukopenia (FP), xx, 48, 421
deficiency in, 93 feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), vaccinations against,virus
400-401
FCV (feline calcivirus), xx, 48, 49, 240, feline panleukopenia (FPV), 14,
402, 421 cause164, of,286-88,
286 421
febrile, 421 as cause of intestinal diseases, 254 cause of,
49, 279-81 279
fecal casts, 421 clinical signs of, 287 clinical signs of, 280
feces: diagnosis of,and287-88 diagnosis of, 280 caused by, 251
acholic, 261,413 occurrence transmission, 286- intestinal diseases
examinations of, 406 87 occurrence and transmission of, 279
FECV (feline enteric coronavirus), 14, pathogenesis of, 287 pathogenesis of, 279
251,421 prevention of, 288 prevention of,of,280280-81
Federation Internationale Feline de public health significance of 288 treatment
I'Europe (FIFE), 41 treatment of, 291-93 vaccinations against, 251, 280-81
feline infectious anemia feline
feeding, 84-90
of aging cats, 335-36 (haemobanonellosis), 303, 421 feline poxvirus
reovirus, infection,
xx 164
basic guidelines feline infeaious peritonitis (FIP), xxi, feline rotavirus, xxi
cat foods, see cat for,
foods87-88 46, 235, 240, 245, 288-91, 421 feline sarcoma virus (FeSV), 326, 421
common problems in, 90 cause of, 288-89 feline symmetrical alopecia, 168
dog food to cats, 90 clinical signs of, 289-90 feline(ftLI),
trypsin-like
diagnosis 263 immunoreactivity
by force, 89, 363
homemade diets, 87 effusive, 289of, 290 feline urologic syndrome (FUS), 228,
of kittens, 47-48 intestinal diseases caused by, 251 421
mineral supplements in, 88, 90 noneffusive, 289 feline viral diseases, 279-93
of orphan kittens, 47-48 pathogenesis of, 289 FCV, 48, 49, 240, 402, 421
overdosing with vitamin and prevention of, 291 FeLV, see feline leukemia virus
mineral supplements, 90 serologic testing for, 260 FeSV, 326, 421
 INDEX

restraining of jaws, 225

feline viral diseases {cont. )
FHV- 1,402 for shock, 376injured cats in, 371 pelvis, 225
FIP, see feline infectious peritonitis for soft-tissue injuries, 374 ofvertebrae,
tail vertebrae,
225 225
FIV,virus
see feline immunodeficiency forheartbeat,
stopped breathing
373 and Francisella tularensis, 299-300
FPV, see feline panleukopenia virus see also
first aid kits: emergency procedures fright, postures
frontal lobe, 233in, 58
PVR,
rabies,48,see49,rabies
164, 239-40, 421 contents for, 371 frostbite, 171
feline viral rhinotracheitis (FVR), 48, creating, 370 emergency procedures for, 385, 387
fistulas, aneriovenous, 213 FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone),
Felts, 49,17 164, 239-40, 421 FIV, see feline immunodeficiency virus 422
Felis catus (domestic cat), xvii, 17, 77 flagellum, 421 FSH-P (follicle-stimulating hormone
Felis libyca (African wild cat), 4, 55, 77
Felis 77silvestris (European wild cat), 4,
flatworms (flukes; trematodes), 307-8,
317, 434200 fulminant, pituitary
from 422 extracts), 107
flea collars, fungal cultures, 405
FeLV, see feline leukemia virus dermatitis under, 170 fijngal diseases, 321-24
FeLV-test-and-removal, 285-86
females: fleas, 14, 198-201 aspergillosis, 322
behavior of, 13 hypersensitivity to bites of, 166 blastomycosis,163,322-23
candidiasis, 323
indoor control of, 199-200
binh control for, 138-40 outdoor control of, 200-201 coccidioidomycosis, 322-23
reproductive system of, 99-100 treatment of, 200-201 cryptococcosis, 234, 322
see also queens Flehmen 422 response (gape), 58-59, 101, histoplasmosis, 163322-23
malasseziasis,
femoral aner\', 206 flies, 201
femur, fractures of, 224 mycetomas, 323, 427
fences, 8 Florida panther, xxii phaeohyphomycosis, 163-64, 323
fetuses:(feline sarcoma virus), 326
FeSV flukes (flatworms; trematodes), 307-8, phycomycosis,
protothecosis, 323, 429
effect of vaccinations on, 400-401
317, 434422
fluorescein, rhinitis, 241 324
normal growth of, 133-34 FLUID,disease see feline lower urinary tract ringworm, 14, 162-63, 321-22, 396
reabsorption of, 45, 421 of skin, 162-64 163, 323
sporotrichosis,
FHV-1 (felineatrialherpesvirus
fibrillation, Type 1),210402
and ventricular, folate, 82 acid), 82, 422
folacin (folic
systemic mycoses,
zoonotic, 396 322-23
fibrin, 188, 421 fold-ears, 192
fibrinogen, 405, 421 folic acid (folacin), 82, 422 fungal rhinitis, 241
fibromas, 175, 184 follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), fungi, 321
fibrosarcomas, 175, 421 422 furunculosis (boils), 161, 416, 422
multiple, 326 follicle-stimulating hormone from PUS (feline urologic syndrome), 228,
fibrous, 421 pituitary
Fieldhook of Natural History, The, 5-6 follicular cysts,extracts
176 (FSH-P), 107 421
Fusobacterium, 296
FIFE (Federation Internationale Feline follicular mange, 196 cystic, 107
follicular degeneration, FVR (feline viral rhinotracheitis), 48,
de I'Europe),
filamentous, 421 41 folliculitis, 161, 295, 422 49, 164, 239-40, 421
fine-needle aspirations, 328 bacterial, 415 gaits, 233
FIP, see feline infectious peritonitis Following the Equator (Twain), 53 gallbladder,
259 153
FIPV (feline infectious peritonitis food: gametes, 123, 132, 422
virus),369 288-91 availability of, 77 gamma glutamyl transferase (GGT),
first aid, see also cat foods
for abscesses, 374-76 food hypersensitivity, 165 gangliosidosis, 134, 234
artificial respiration, 372-73 food processing, 79 gangrene, 422 response), 58-59,
for bone injuries, 376-77 food storage, 89 gape (Flehmen
for breathing difficulties, 372 force-feeding, 89, 363 101-2, 422
checking
369 for normal vital signs in, forelimbs:body type, 21
foreign Gartner's duct, cysts of, 115
gastric reflux, 247
for choking, 372 bones of,of,148-49,
for control of bleeding, 374 muscles 148, 152153 gastrointestinal tract:
parasites of, 308-17
CPR, 373,416 FP (feline panleukopenia), xx, 48,
for deep puncture wounds, 376 400-401, 421 gastroschisis,
upper, 246-47 136
for eyes, 376 FPV, see feline panleukopenia virus gastrula, 422 133
hean contractions, 373 fractures, 224, 422 gastrulation,
objectives of, 369 compound, 417 GCCF Fancy), (governing
41 Council of the Cat
picking up or carrying cats in, 371 of femur, 224
genes, goiters, 81, 422 hearing, see auditory system
c-onc,123-24
327 goitrous, 422 heart, 152, 205-6208-13
dominant, 124, 419 gonadal hypoplasia, 116, 422 heart disorders,
gonadotropins, 107, 422
modifier, 129of, 125-26
interaaion
gonads, 137, 265, 422 acquired, 209-13 210
acquired valvular,
recessive, 124, 431 Good Cat, The, 6 inanemia
aging ascats,cause338-39
undesired, 127-29 gourmet canned foods, 86 of 213
genetically altered vaccines, 400 Governing Council of the Cat Fancy aonic stenosis, 136, 209, 414
genetics, arrhythmias, 209-10, 415fibrillation,
breedingxx, out8, 10,undesired
122-31 genes in, grading(GCCF),
up, 13041 atrial and/or ventricular
210
128-29 grand mals, 236
breeding programs atrial and/or ventricular premature
charaaeristics showingand, continuous
129-30 granules, 422
granulocytes, 422 beats, 210
variation in, 129-30 granulocytic leukemia, 422 AV valve malformations, 208
of coat patterns, 123-26, 129 granulomas, 173, 422 bradycardia, 210, 416
of coat types, 124-28 granulosa cells,115,422117 cardiomyopathies, see
colors of specific breeds and, 126 tumors of, cardiomyopathies
deciding which sex to test in, 129 great conduaion disturbances, 210
gene interaaions in, 125-26 Great Danes,4 55
cats,
congenital,
EFE, 209 135-36, 208-9
genotype deduaion in, 127 Great Ice Age, 3
inin KMC, 50-51 of tumor induaion, Greece, cats in, 5 from213 heartworms, 213, 318-19
mechanism griseofulvin, 234, 422 hyperkinetic,
327 grooming, 61 hyperthyroidism212 as cause of, 212,
Mendelian, 123-29 of aging cats, 336
seleaion of individuals for breeding in pet shops, 1 1 infeaious myocarditis, 211
and, 130-31 gross appearance, 422 kidney disease related to, 211
of simple traits, 123-24 growls, 58 parasites as cause of 213, 318-19
undesired genes and, 127-29 growth hormone (GH), 265, 270, 422 PDA, 136, 208-9, 429
genital traa, 150-51 guard hairs, 159, 422 pericardial, 213
infeaions of, 118-19 gums, 14, 177 persistent right aortic arch, 209
miscellaneous disorders of, 120-21 primary
pathology of, 117-18 disorders Haemaphysalis leportspalustris, 395 pulmonic myocardial,
stenosis, 136,210-11 209
see also reproduaive Haemobartonella felts, 215, 303, secondary myocardial, 211
genome, 422 422 septal defects, 209
genotypes, haemobanonellosis (feline infeaious tachycardia, 210, 433
deducing, 124-28,
127 422 anemia), 303, 421 tetralogy of fallot, 209
geriatrics, 333, 422 hairballs, 336, 422 heart cardiomyopathy),
failure (acute congestive
see also aging cats hair bulbs, 158 46
gestation, 422 hair coat,cats,159-60 hean stoppage, CPR for, 373
GGT 259 (gamma glutamyl transferase), hairless 21 heartworm disease, 213, 318-19
hairs,mats,
hair 158 171 heatstroke:
GH (growth hormone), 265, 270, 422 emergency procedures for, 381, 384
Giardia lamblia, 311-12, 422 awn, 159,415 prevention423of, 381, 384-85
helminthic,
giardiasis, 253,311-12 epilation of, 420 helminthic diseases, 194
gigantism (acromegaly), 270 guard,
secondary, 159, 159422
gingivitis, 287, 422 sinus, 159, 432 helper T cells, 273
causes of, 178-79 hemangiomas, 176, 423
telogen, 433 hemangiosarcomas,
diagnosis and prevention of, 179-81
plasma cell, 179 halitosis, 422 hematocrits, 423 176, 423
glands, salivary, 146 hantavirus, 392-93 hematology, 406
glans penis, 106, 422 hard palate, 177, 423 of liver diseases, 259
glaucoma, 188 harvest mites, 197 hematomas, 423
globes, 422 Havana Browns, 37 in ears, 192
disorders of 191 description of 30 hematopoietic, 423
glomerulonephritis, 229, 284, 422 Havolac, 47 hematoporphvrin derivative (HpD),
glomerulus, 226, 422 haw (third eyelid), 181, 186, 423, 430 hemimelia, 134, 423
glucoconicoids, 264, 330, 422 HCG (human chorionic
glucoconicosteroids, 117 gonadotrophin), 105, 107, 423 hemoglobin, 206, 275, 406, 423
glucuronic acid conjugation, 259 HCM (hypertrophic cardiomyopathy), 331 406, 423
hemograms,
glucuronyl transferase, 258-59 hemolymphatic system, 423
glycogen, 79, 258, 422 head, 211muscles of, 151-52 hemolymphatic tumors, 329
INDEX
423
licmc)l\nc disease of newborn, 50 pastes administered in, 364
heniorrliagic piinctum, 423 tablets administered in. 365-66 hyperadrenocorticism
svndrome), 167-68,(Cushing's
267-68, 418,
hemorrhaging.24S,Ill,423i^-i
hemothorax, temperature-taking in, see
temperature-taking
homeless animals, 1 1 hyperammonemia, 423
Henr>- Bergh Memorial Hospital, 389 homemade diets, 87 hypercalcemia, 267
heparin, 20"^, 423258 homogeneous, 133, 423 hyperesthesia, 236 418
cutaneous, 220,
hepatic
hepatic anen-, homozygous,
encephalopathy,
hepatic lipidosis, 260-61, 423
423 hookworms, 313128, 198, 423 hyperestrogenism, 116, 423
starvation diets resulting in, 92 Hoplophoneus, 4 hyperglycemia,
hvperkinetic 268
hepatic necrosis, acute, 261, 413 hormonal disturbances, 115-17 212-13 circulatorx^ disorders,
hepatic vein, 258 hormonal 21
hepatomegaly, 259, 423 hormones, skin 423 disorders, 167-69 hyperparathyroidism,
nutritional secondary,26793-94, 220-
heritabilit\', 129, 423 sex, 92
Hermanson, John W., 143 Homer, Nikki, 26 primary. 221 221
renal secondary,
hermaphroditism, 137, 423 Homer's syndrome,of, 237
hernias, 423 horses, breeding 18 hyperpigmentation, 423
diaphragmatic, 137 Horzinek, Marian, xxii hyperplasia, 423
inguinal, 115, 250 hospitalization, 356-57 cystic endometrial, 115, 119, 418
strangulated, hosts, definitive, 419 juvenile fibroadenomatous, 118
traumatic, 250250-51 Houpt, Katherine A.. 55, 66 nodular,
of mammary263 glands, 115, 117-18
umbilical, 250 * Household Pet Competitions, 19
herpesvirus, 423 house of tail gland, 169
heterosis, 130, 423 clausessoiling.
of. 676^-69 contaa, 165
heterozygous, 124, 128, 423 retraining in treatment of, 68-69 hypersensitivity:
high-fat diets, 92 treatments for, 68-69 food, 165
High-rise S\-ndrome (HRS), for, 389 HpD (hematoporphvTin derivative), hypenension, 212, 423
emergence procedures hyperthermia,
tumors treated135,with.
423 331
Himalayans, 37 HRS 331
(High-rise Syndrome), whole-body, 331, 435
description c^f, 30-31 emergency procedures for,
reproductive
also Persianslife of, 101 hvperth\Toidism, 168, 210, 265-66,
see human389baby formula, 47 424
hindlimbs: human chorionic gonadotrophin in aging cats, 338
bones of, 149, 153 (HCG), 105, 107, 423 cardiovascular
212,213 diseases caused by,
muscles of, 149, 152 humane-educational
hip dysplasia, humane societies, 12 specialists, 11 medication for, 266
hissing, 58 222 Humane Society of New^5 York, 12 radioaaive iodine therapy for, 266
histamine, 207, 275. 423 Humane Society of the United States, surgery for, 266
histology, 423 12 hypertrophic
histopathology,capsulatum,
293, 407-8322 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), 211 cardiomyopathy (HCM),
Histoplasma humans: hypertrophic osteopathy (HO), 222
histoplasmosis. 322-23 287 hypertrophy,
History of Animals (Aristode), 97 aggression toward, 69 of mammary 424glands. 118
HIV (human
287 immunodeficiency virus), history of involvement with cats of, hyperviscosity, 424
hives (unicaria), 164-65, 434 protein
5-6 required by, 78 hypervitaminosis, 4, 219-20
HO (hypertrophic osteopathy), 222 humoral immune response, 273- hypo-, 424 268, 413,(Addison's
hypoadrenocorticism
disease), 424
Holmes, Dorothy F., 391
home care, 361-66 hunting instincts, 3-4 hypocalcemia, 266
administering medicines in. 363-66 hybrid vigor, 130 hypoglycemia, 210, 236, 424269-70, 424
capsules hydrocephalus, 134, 135, 234, 423
disinfeaionadministered
in, 366 in. 365-66 hydrometra, 115, 119, 423 hypokalemia.
hypokalemic polymyopathy, 221
external medicines administered in, hydronephrosis, 229 hypoluteoidism, 116-17, 424
364 hydrophilic, 423 hypoparathyroidism, 267
force-feeding in, 363 hydroxyurea, 423
general of cerebellum,
hypoplasia. 424 279,417
injectionsprinciples of. 361-62
administered in, 364 hyenas, 4 congenital testicular, 115, 418
liquid medications administered in, hygiene:
in catteries, 7-8 gonadal,
renal. 229 422
116,
365 for litter boxes, 68-69
oral medications administered in, in pet shops, 1 1
364-65 hypopy on. 187-88, 424424
hyposensitization,
hyper-, 423
 UVDEX

hvpospadias, 228, 424 inaaivated (killed) vaccines, 400, 424 intersexuality, 115, 425
h\pothalamus, 100, 233, 424 inappetence, 424 interstitial nephritis, 230
h\potherniia, 424 inbreeding, chronic,
425 417
h\poth\Toidism, 116, 266-67, 424 incisors, 177 129-30 intertrigo (skin fold dermatitis), 171,
h\potrichosis, 172, 196, 424 inclusions, 424
incomplete inten'ertebral discs, 236, 425
h\povolemia, 424
h\poxia, 261, 424 incontinence,penetrance,
137 135
intestinal aplasia, 249
incoordination (ataxia), 220, 279, 415 intestinal diseases, 249
iatrogenic, 424 independent baaerial enteritis, 252
iatrogenic pyometritis, 119 India, cats in, culling
5 levels, 130 chronic, 253-55
ideopathic, 424 indolent ulcers, 173 chronic inflammatory bowel
ideopathic megacolon, 256, 424 induced ovulation, 105 disease, 254-55
IFAs (immunofluorescence assays), induaion of estrus, 107 constipation in, see constipation
284-85, 405, 424 infanticide, 72 dietan'
first aid diarrhea,
for, 249 252
ILofeCats, 9 infeaious arthriUs, 222 FIV as cause of, 254
IM (intramuscularly). 400, 424 infeaious diseases, neonatal mortalit\'
imitation, 65 kidney or liverin,failure
immune-mediated destruction, 424 infeaiousand, 49-51
myocarditis, 211 obstructions 249-50,in,256253-54
immune-mediated parasites as cause of, 166, 253
disease, 276 hematologic infeaious respiratory diseases, 239-41
infertilitv': poisoning in, 252-53
immune75 response, mechanics of, 274- inin queens, strangulated hernias, 250-51
tomcats, 106-8,
105-6, 114-15
115 of sudden254onset,
tumors, 249-53
immune system, 272-74 inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), viral enteritis, 251
anatomy and physiology of, 273-74 chronic, 254-55
immune system disorders, 275-77 ingesta, 424 intestinal
166 parasite hypersensitivirv,
AIHA, 276 ingestive behavior, abnormalities in:
allergies, 184, 275-76 anorexia, 73, 414 intestinal stenosis, 249
anaphylaxis, 275-76,syndromes,
414 obesity, 73, 91-93 intoxications, see poisoning
immunodeficiency 277 intramedullar\'
LSAs, 175, 236, 254. 277, 326
inguinal, 424
inguinal hernias, 115, 250 intramuscularly pins, (IM), 224400, 425
multiple myelomas, 277 inguinal ring, 424 intranasal (IN), 400, 425
myeloproliferative, 277 inhaled poisons, emergency intravenous
11, 425 pyelograms (IVPs), 410-
pemphigus, 276 procedures for, 381 intromission, 100, 425
polvaneritis nodosa, 277 inheritance,retinalphysical basis of 122-23
SLE, 277 inherited degenerations, 190 intussusceptions, 249, 425
immunization, 424 inherited skin disorders, 173 in utero. 287, 303, 425
against tumors, 332 injeaions, administration of 364 involution, 425
vaccination vs., 399 inner ear, 191 iodine, 425
ionize, 80-81
see also vaccinations innervation, 424
immunoassays, 424 insea stings, emergenq^ procedures ionizing radiation, 425
immunodeficieno' iridocytes, 182, 425
immunofluorescencesyndromes, 277
assavs (IFAs), for, 387-88
insightful behavior, 65 iris:
284-85, 405, 424 in situ, 424 color differences in, 189
immunofluorescence microscopy, 293 insulin, 264 cysts of, 189of, 189
immunoglobulins, 274, 424 integument, 424 disorders
immunologic skin disorders, 164-67 intelligence, 64-6565 iron, 80
immunology, 405-6 discrimination, irritable aggression, 69-70
immunopotentiators, 331-32. 424 imitation, 65 islets of Langerhans, 262
immunopotentiators, extracorporeal, learning, 65
331-32, 421 objeaive tests of, 64 Isospora, felis,
Isospora 310-11310
immunosuppression, 282 problem
rewards, 65solving, 55 Isospora rii olta, 310
agents of, 295 itching425(pruritis), 194, 430
of biological products, 331 intercostal muscles, 239 IVPs (intravenous pyelograms),
of chemical products, 331 interestrus, 99, 424
of individuals, 424 interferons, 332, 425 Ixodes pacificus, 394
of synthetic products, 331 interleukin-2, 332 Ixodes scapularis, 393
immunotherapy, 331-32, 424 internal medicine, xx Ixodid ticks, 197, 425
imperforate anus, 249 internalinternal
parasites, see parasites,
impetigo, 161, 424 Japanese Bobtails, description of, 31
implantation, 1(X) International Cat Association, The jaundice, 259, 425
IN (intranasal), 400, 424 _ (TICA), 19, 39, 41 Javanese, description of, 31-32
INDEX

larvae, 197, 425

jaws:fractures of, 225 ofparasitic,
skin, 4951 laryngitis, 244
muscles of, 144-46 toxic milk syndrome, 49 larynx, 239, 425
jejunum, 248, 425 kitten mortality complex (KMC), xxi L-asparaginase, 425
joints, 218 kinens, 45-51maternal behavior latent infections, 282
Jurassic Period, 5 abnormal Law, James, D.xixH., 97
juvenile fibroadenomatous toward, 72-73 Uwrence,
hyperplasia, 118 acceptance of, 61 Lear, Edward,
learning, 65 155
Kashmirs, see Himalayans caring
coats of,for,14 46-48 maze-, 65
KCALs (kilocalories), 425 commercial feline formulas for, 47 learning sets, 65
KCS 86, (keratoconjunaivitis sicca), 185- cow's milk for, 46 LE cell test, 277
425 critical social development periods lecithin, 82, 426
KELAs, 405, 425 in, 61-63 sex of, 112-13 Lein, Donald, 99, 103, 109, 114, 138,
keratin, 158, 322,425 determining 164 320
Leishmania,
keratinization, 169 fading, 46, 421
keratitis, 186-87, 425 feeding of, 47-48 leishmaniasis, cutaneous and visceral,
ulcerative, 434 guide
keratoconjunaivitis sicca (KCS), 185- hearingforacuity
selection
in, 62of, 13-16 lens, disorders286of, 188-89
lentiviruses,
86, 425 human baby formula for, 47
keratolviic, 425 intelligence of, 65 lethal 320
leukemia,alleles,215 127-28
keratoses, 176 milk substitutesin, 66for, 46-47
kerosene, emergena- misbehavior granulocytic, 422
ingestion of, 381 procedures for neurological lymphocytic,
426 (white283blood cells), 206-7,
ketones, 269, 425 newborn, 46, development
427 in, 61-62
leukocytes
Key-Gaskell syndrome (feline nursing behavior in, 60 disorders of 215
dysautonomia), 256 nutritional secondary
kidney diseases, 228-30 hyperparathyroidism in, 94 polymorphonuclear,
leukopenia, 279, 287, 426430
acquired,
acute, 229 228-30 orphan, see orphan kittens leukotrichia, 426
pet-quality, 9
amyloidosis,
chronic 229-30nephritis, 417
interstitial planning for, 45-46 periocular, 171
play in, 62-63 temperature-dependent,
leukotrienes, 275 171
congenital kidney defects, 229 predatory aggression in, 57 levamisole, 331
diagnosis of, 230 protein in,required
rickets 93 by, 78
glomerulonephritis, 229, 284, 422 LH (luteinizing hormone), 100, 105,
heart disorders related to, 212 sleep in, 61 108, 426
hydronephrosis, 229 special nutritional needs of, 89 LH-RHhormone),
(luteinizing100,hormone-releasing
interstitial nephritis, 230 stillborn. 111 lice, 198 105, 426
polycystic kidneys, 229 visual acuitv' in, 62 lichenification, 426
pyelonephritis, vitamin requirements of, 81, 82
stones, 230 229, 431 KMC 46(kinen mortality complex), xxi, lid ankyloblepharon, 183
treatment230of, 230-31 '
tumors, KMR, 47 ligaments, 218, 426
ligation, 426
limbs:
kidney failure: Knott's test, 406, 425
acute, 228 Korats, description of, 32 bones of, 148-49, 153
in aging cats, 337 Kiibler-Ross, Elisabeth, 339 congenital defects of, 136
chronic, 230 labile, 425 muscles of 148-49, 152
in intestinal diseases, 253-54 linear granuloma,
linebreeding, 130 173
kidneys, 150, 226 labor, 45, 111
killed (inaaivated) vaccines, 400, 424 labyrinth, 237 line crossing (outcrossing), 130
kilocalories (KCALs), 425 lacrimal glands, 181, 425 linoleic acid, 79, 426
kilograms, 425 lacrimation (tearing), 185 lipase, 262
Kirk, Robert W., 378 laaase, 79, 425 lipid film, 426
Kirvan-Tuttle, June, xxi, 77, 79, 91, 226, lactated
lactation,Ringer's
113 solution, 425 lipomas, 175
335, 404 liposarcomas, 175, 425
kitten diseases, 49-51
contagious streptococcal laaose, 425nutritional needs during, 89
special liquid365medications, administration of,
listlessness, 49
lymphadenitis, 47, 418, 432 laaose intolerance, 79
hemolytic disease of newborn, 50 lameness, 14 litter boxes:
KMC, xxi, 46 laparoscopy, 260, 425 additives for, 11
omphalophlebitis, 428 large intestine, 148, 153, 248 in caneries, 8
 in pet shops, 10 otodectic, 195
lymphadenitis, 426 sarcoptic, 195
in treating house soihng, 68-69 lymphadenopathy, 287, 426
liver, 147, 153, 258-59
liver diseases, 259-62
lymphatic cells, tumors of, 329
lymphatic Manxes, 20 purebreds, 20
man-made
acute hepatic necrosis, 261, 413 disorderssystem,
of, 217207 coat type of, 21, 33
description of, 33
in aging cats, 339 lymph-node aspirates, 426
albumin levels in, 259 lymph nodes, 207,
146-47, Massachusetts Society for the
ammonia levels in, 259-60 lymphocytes, 261, 273
273, 283, 426 Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
bilirubin in, 260 memory, 274
biopsies in, 260 lymphocytic leukemia, 283 mast (MSPCA),
cells, 426 12
cancer, 262 l\Tnphoc\'tic-plasmacytic enterocolitis, tumors of, 175
cholangiohepatitis complex, 261 254 mastitis, 46, 49, 426
clinical signs of, 259 lymphoid cells, 426 masturbation, 72
cysts, 317 lymphoid organs, 273 maternal care, 113
diagnosis of, 259-62 lymphokines, 332 abnormal behavior in, 72-73
enzyme levels in, 259 lymphomas, 426 (LSAs), 236, 277, 326, artificial, 139
mating,
extrahepatic bile duct obstruction,
261
lymphosarcomas
426 calls, 58103-8
cries, 58
hematology of, 259 alimentary form of, 254, 283
hepatic lipidosis,test 260-61 atypical
cutaneous,forms175 of, 283 difficulties
mismating, in,139105-8
liver funaion for, 260
parasites as cause of, 319 in FeLV, 236, 283 onset of pregnancy and, 108
portosystemic vascular anomalies, mediastinal form of, 283
262 multicentric form of, 283 planned,selection
proper 103-4
serologic testing in, 260 thymic form of, 283 sexual
mating behavior 8,in,for,
behavior,
103-4
59 104-5
liver failure, 253-54 lynxacariasis, 196
liver flukes, 319 Lynxacarus radovskyi, 196 acceptance of kittens, 61
liver function tests, 260 lysosomal
234 storage diseases, 187, 221, catnip-induced, 60
lobes, 258 grooming, 61
lochia, 118, 425 nursing,426 60-61
matrix,
locus, 124-26,425 McDonough, Patrick L., 294
Loew, Franklin M., xvii maceration, 160, 426 maxillofacial
maze-learning,compression,
65 219, 426
"Long Cat,cats,
The"10,(Colette), 141 Mackerel Tabby coat pattern, 22
longhair macrophages, 239, 273, 426 meal patterns, 64
needs of, 1 1 13, 22-28 macules, erythematous, 420 mediastinum, 426
loop of Henle, 226 Macy, Anhur, 367 medications:
lordosis, 426 Madagascar, cats in, 5 administration of, 363-66
Louis J. Camuti Diagnostic and magnesium, 79, 80 antithyroid, 266
Consultation Service, xxi-xxii magneticCoontomography,
Maine Cats: 411-12 capsules, 365-66
louse infestation, 198 for cardiomyopathies, 211-12
lower respiratory tract, 238 coat type of, 22 for constipation,
external, 364 256
lower urinary tract diseases, 227-28 description of, 32-33
LSAs, see lymphosarcomas Malassezia pachydermatis, 163 for hyperthyroidism, 266
lumbosacral, 426 males, see tomcats injeaions, 364
lumbosacral vertebrae, malformation malignant, 426 oral, 364-65
of, 234 malignant melanomas, 326 pastes, 364
lumen, 246, 426 malignant tumors, 325 tablets,
see also 365-66
chemotherapy
lung flukes, 319 MALT tissue),
(mucosal-associated lymphoid
lungs, 148 427 medulla, 426
lungworms, 318 mammary glands: medulla, of hair, 158
luteal phase, 426 hyperplasia of, 115, 117-18 megacolon, ideopathic, 256, 424
luteinization, 426 hypenrophy
luteinizing hormone (LH), 100, 105, mastitis of, 46,of,49,118426 megaesophagus, 247
megakaryocytes, 426
108, 426 postpartum, 426 acetate (Ovaban), 117, 139,
megestrol
luteinizing hormone-releasing tumors of, 115,112 117-18, 338
hormone (LH-RH), 100, 105, 426 mandible, 426 melanin, 80, 158, 426
luxations, 224, 426 manganese, 80 melanocytes, 158, 426
patellar, 429 mange, 14 196 melanomas, 175, 426
Lyme disease, 303-4 demodectic, malignant, 326
zoonotic potential of, 394-95 follicular, 196 melanotrichia, 426
lymph, 273, 426 notoedric, 195 temperature-dependent, 171
454
memor\' Gregor,
lymphoc>ies, milk fever (eclampsia), 112, 419 MSPCAPrevention
(Massachusetts Society for the
Mendel, 123 274 milk substitutes, 46-47 of Cruelty to Animals),
Mendelian genetics, 123-29 commercial
cow's milk, 46feline formulas, 47 12
mucoid, 427
meninges, 233, 427 mucometra, 119, 427
meningiomas, 236, 427 human baby formula, 47
aggression due to, 70 mineraloconicoids, 264, 427 mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS), 134
in aging cats, 337 minerals, 79-8188 215, 221 323
mucormycosis,
meningoencephalomyelitis, 235 in cat foods,
menses, 99 supplements, mucosal-associated lymphoid tissue
menstrual cycle, 99 trace, 81 88, 90
mental attitude, 233 minimal restraint, 362 mucous(MALT), glands,427238
miotic,73 427
mesenteric, 427
mesenteric angiography, 261 misbehavior, 66-73 mucus, 427membranes, 427
mucous
Mesocestoides, 316 abnormal maternal behavior, 72- multilocular hydatid cysts, 317
metabolic diseases, 265-71 multiple alleles at a locus, 124-26
acromegaly, 270-71 abnormal sexual behavior, 72 multiple canilaginous exostoses, 223
diabetes insipidus, 271 aggression,
clawing, 71 see aggression multiple fibrosarcomas, 326
diabetes
419 mellitus, 139, 168, 268-70, multiple myelomas,187 223-24, 277
mummification,
destructive,
forms of, 66 70-72 muscles:
h\peradrenocorticism, 167-68, of abdomen, 152
267-68, 418, 424 house soiling,71 67-69
scratching, arrector pili, 159
h\perparathvroidism,
21, 267 93-94, 220- withdrawal, 69 cardiac, 219
wool-chewing, dorsum, 152
h\perthyroidism, 168, 210, 212, 213,
265-66, 338, 424 mismating, 139 71 of forelimbs, 148, 152
hvpervitaminosis A, 219-20 mismothering, 72-73 ofofintercostal,
head, 151-52148, 152
hindlimbs,
hypoadrenocorticism, 268, 413, 424 mites, 194-97
cat fur, 196 239
hypoglycemia, 236, 269-70, 423
hypokalemic polymyopathy, 221 Demodex, 196196-97
Cheyletiella,
hypoparathyroidism, 267 ear, 14, 192 ofof jaw,
neck,144-46
151-52
hypothyroidism, 116, 266-67, 424 harvest, 197 skeletal,
papillary, 219205
mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS), 221
of musculoskeletal system, 219-21 sarcoptid,197195
poultry, of skull, 219
smooth, 144-45
nutritional secondary mitral valve, 206 of tail, 152
hyperparathyroidism, 93-94,
220-21 mixed-breeds, 10, 13 of thorax, 152
osteogenesis imperfecta, 221 definition of, 19 tumors of, 223-24
pancreatic islet cell tumors, 273 modified live-virus (MLV) vaccines, musculoskeletal system, 149, 218-19
primary hyperparathyroidism, 221 400, 427 musculoskeletal
219-25 system disorders,
renal secondary modifier genes, 129
hyperparathyroidism, 221 moggs, 19 in aging cats, 338
of skin, 167-69 molars, 177 bruises, 224
metabolism, 77, 427 monoclonal antibody therapy, 332 chondrosarcomas, 223
metabolites, 427 monocytes, 207, 427 CPP, 221 ligament injuries, 222
metastasis, 223, 325, 427 morphogenesis, 133, 134, 427 cruciate
metestrus, 99, 119, 427 morphology, 427 fractures, see fractures
methionine, 82, 427 Morris Animal Foundation, 344 hip dysplasia, 222
Metorchts albidus, 319 Morrison,
monaliry, 46Susan A., 258 HO, 222
Metorchis conjunctus, 319 hypervitaminosis A, 219-20 221
metritis, 119, 427 see also death hypokalemic polymyopathy,
Miacis,
microbes,3-4427 mosquitoes, hvpersensitivitv to bites infectious-inflammatory,
luxations, 224, 426, 429 221-24
microfilaremia, 427 motile,of, 427
166
maxillofacial compression, 219, 426
microfilariae, 319, 427 motility, 232, 427 metabolic, 219-21
microphthalmia (microphthalmos), motor nerve impulses, 232 mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS), 221
427 mouse inoculation, 293 multiple myelomas, 223-24
Microsporum cants. 162, 184 mouth,
Microsfjorum gypseum, 162 of aging177-81
cats, 338 neoplastic, 223-25 diseases, 222
noninflammatory
microvasculature, 331, 427 congenital malformations of, 136 nutritional secondary
middle ear, 191 disorders of, 178-81, 338 hyperparathyroidism, 93-94,
miliary dermatitis, 172-73, 427 tissue of, 14 220-21
 osteoarthritis, 222 navel ill, 49, 428 nocardiosis,
osteochondromas, 223 necessary surgery, 353 Noden, Drew 296-97 M., 132
osteogenesis imperfecta, 221 neck, muscles of, 151-52 nodular hyperplasia, 263
osteogenic sarcomas, 223 necrolysis, toxic epidermal, 166, 167, noncornified epithelial cells, 106
osteomas, 223 434 nonessential amino acids, 78
osteomyelitis, 178, 221-22, 296, 428 necropsy, 427 noninfectious respiratory system
patellar instability, 222 necrosis, 117, 427 disorders, 243-45
primary hyperparathyroidism, 221 acute hepatic, 261, 413 nonregenerative anemia (NRA), 214,
renal secondary corneal, 187 259, 283
hyperparathyroidism, 220 necrotic, 427 normal:
SLE, 221 necrotizing, 427 development, see development,
sprains, 224, 432 Negri bodies, 293, 428 normal
traumatic injuries, 224-25 nematodes,
neonatal, 46,307,312-15,428
428 deviations from, 343-44
mutations, 126-27, 134, 427 pulse, 369 369
respirations,
mycetomas, 323, 427 neonatal isoerythrolysis (Nl), 50-51,
mycobacterial diseases, 300-302 216-17 temperature, 369
mycobaaeriosis, atypical, 162 neonatal mortality, 49-51 normal vital signs, checking for, 369
Mycobacterium, 427 neoplasia, see cancer; tumors Nonh African wild cat {Felts libyca), 4,
Mycobacterium avium, 161 neoplasm, 428 428
Mycobacterium bovis, 161, 301 neovascularization, Norwegian Forest Cats, description of,
Mycobacterium fortuitum, 162 Nepeta428cataria (catnip), 11, 60, 102, 3355,77
Mycobacterium leprae, 302 nose, 181
Mycobacterium iepraemurium, 301 nepetalactone, 60, 102, 427 of kittens, 14
Mycobacterium smegmatis, 162 nephritis, trauma to, 244
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 161, 301 chronic 119, 428 417
interstitial, tumors of, 244
mycology, 404-5, 427 interstitial, 230 Notoedres
283 mange,cati, 184, 195
Mycoplasma, respiratory system nephroliths, 227, 428 notoedric 195
disorders caused by, 240 nephrons, 226 NRA (nonregenerative anemia), 259,
mycoplasma conjunaivitis, 185 nervous
nest boxes,system,
45 232-33
Mycoplasma felts, 185 NRC (National Research Council), 77,
mycoses, systemic, 322-23 neurologic development, 61-62 86
mydriatic, 427 neurologic disorders, 233-37 nuclear scintigraphy, 412
myelin, 80, 427 congenital, 234 nuclear sclerosis, 188
myelogenous, 427 constipation nucleic acids, 278, 428
myelogram, 410 degenerative, in,236255-56 nulliparous, 119, 428
myelomas, multiple, 223-24, 277 epilepsy, 236 nursing,
myelopathy, 236, 427 feline hyperesthesia syndrome, 236
feline ischemic encephalopathy, 236 stages 60-61
nutrition, of,xx,60xxviii, 8
myeloproliferative disorders, 215, 277,
326, 427 Horner's syndrome, 237 carbohydrates, see carbohydrates
in FeLV, 283 infeaious,
LSAs in, 236234-35 from cat foods, see cat foods
myiasis, 194, 201, 427 congenital
fats, 79 birth defects and, 128
myocardial diseases, 210-11, 427 meningiomas, 70, 236, 337, 426
secondary, 211 miscellaneous,235 236-37
nutritional, hormonal disturbances related to,
see also cardiomyopathies
myocarditis, infectious, 211 in 116
KMC, 49
parasitic,
PVD, 236 235
myocardium, 205, 427 minerals, see minerals
diseases of, 210-11 trauma
tumors, as236cause of, 233-34 neurologic disorders caused by, 235
myofibrils, 218 parturition
neurons, 232, 428
neurotransmitters, 232 in pet shops,and,1 1 89, 111-12
nanograms, 427 during pregnancy, 89, 111
nasopalatine duct, 101 neurula, 133, 428 protein, see protein
nasopharyngeal polyps, 243-44 neutering, see castration requirements for, 77-83
nasopharynx,
National Animal191,Poison
427 Information neutrophils, 119, 206, 261, 273, 428 special 83needs, 89-90
nevi, 176, 428 vitamins,
water, see vitamins
Network, 253 newborn kittens, 46
National Institutes of Health, Antiviral NI (neonatal isoerythrolysis), 50-51, see also diets; feeding
Substances Program of the nutritional retinal degeneration (feline
Infectious Disease Branch of, 366 niacin216-17
(nicotinamide; nicotinic acid), central retinal degeneration), 190
National Research Council (NRC), 77, nutritional secondary
86 nits, 82,
396,428428 hyperparathyroidism, 93-94,
natural purebreds, 20 Nocardia, 296-97, 428 220-21
INDEX

nymphomania, 116 osteoarthritis (degenerative joint panleukopenia virus, 234

nystagmus, 428 disease), 222 see also feline panleukopenia
osteoblasts, 428 panophthalmitis,
Pantera, 17 191
obesity, osteochondromas, 223
causes 73,of,91-93
92 osteogenesis imperfecta, 221 panthers, Florida, xxii
signs of,control
91-92 in treatment of, 92 osteogenic
osteomalacia, sarcomas, 223 pantothenic acid, 82
weight
obstipation, 428 causes of, 9394, 428 papillary muscles, 205
obstructions; osteomas, 223 papillomas, 174
of bile ducts, 261 osteomyelitis,
428 178, 221-22, 296, papules, 429 420
erythematous,
constipation caused by, 256 papulocrustous, 429
of intestinal tract, 249, 256 otitis, 192-93 papulopustular dermatitis,319429
of urethra, 228, 434 externa, 192, 428 Paragonimus kellicotti,
occipital lobe, 233 interna, 192, 428 Parametorchis complexus, 319
occlusions, 428 media, 192, 428 paraneoplastic alopecia, 169
ocelots, 34 Otodectes cynotis, 192, 195 parasitemia, 429
Ocicats, description of, 34 otodectic mange, 195 parasites, 11, 14, 429
ocular disease, see eye disorders outcrossing (line crossing), 130 parasites, external, 194-201, 419
oculocutaneous albinism, 172, 428 ova, 99, 153,429 cheyletiellosis caused by, 196-97,
Ollulanus Ovaban426 (megestrol acetate), 117, 139, 417
Olm. Dale tricuspis,
D., 66 253, 313-14 cuterebriasis caused by, 201, 418
Oltenacu, Elizabeth A., 122 ovarian follicles, 428 demodicosis caused by, 196
omnivores, 428 ovarieaomy, 428 dermanyssiasis caused by, 197
omphalophlebitis (navel ill), 428 ovaries, 100, 153 fleas, 20114, 166, 198-201
oncogenesis, 325, 428 tumors of, 117 flies,
oncogenic, 325 ovariohvstereaomies (spaying), 116, lice, 198
oncogenic retroviruses, 281 138-39, 358, 428 lynxacariasis caused by, 196
On Death and Dying (Kiibler-Ross), overfeeding, 48, 90 mites, see mites
339 oviducts, 132, 153 myiasis caused by, 194, 201, 427
one-person restraint, 362-63 ovulate, 428 notoedric mange caused by, 195
oocysts, 428 ovulation, 100 otodeaic mange caused by, 195
oocytes, 428 induced, 105 pediculosis caused by, 198
opacity, 428 reflex, 99, 105 sarcoptic mange caused by, 195
operant conditioning, 65 spontaneous,
155 99, 432 ticks, 197-98 caused by, 197
opportunistic mycobaaeriosis, 162 "Owl and the Pussy-Cat, The" (Lear), trombiculidiasis
optic chiasm, 428 parasites, internal, 194, 305-20
optic disc, 428 oxytocin, 111, 429 babesiosis caused bv, 318
optic nerve, 182 Apophallus,
disorders of, 190-91 packed cell volume, 406, 429 ofblood, 214,31"317-i8
optic neuritis, 190-91 capillarids,
oral medications, administration of, cries of, 58
in defecating, 256 cestodes, 307,319-20315-17, 397-98, 417
364-65
orbits, 181 pain:in sick cats, 344 coccidiosis caused by, 310-11
Cryptocotyle lingua, 317
organizational
organ of Corti, behavior,
191,428 56-57 palatability, 63-64 cryptosporidiosis
cutaneous larva migrans,caused 397by, 309-10
organogenesis, 133, 428 palpate, 413, 429
pancreas, 147-48, 153, 262, 265 cytauxzoonosis caused by, 317-18
organoid nevi, 176 pancreas diseases, 248 Diphylobothrium latum, 316
organophosphate, 428 acute pancreatitis, 262-63 Dipylidium caninum, 315
Orientals, 21, 27 chronic Echinococcus multilocularis, 316-17
coat t>pe of, 21, 35 nodular pancreatitis,
hyperplasia, 262-63
263 Eurytrema procyonis, 320
description of, 34-35 pancreatic neoplasia, 263 gastrointestinal,
Origin of Species, The (Darwin), 17
oropharynx, 428
pancreatic amylase, 263
pancreatic ducts, 258 giardiasis caused 308-17
by, 253, 311-12
orphan kittens, 73 of 253
hean, 213, 318-19
pancreatic islet cell tumors, 270 heartworms,
hookworms, 313 318-19
213,
caring for, 46-48 pancreatic neoplasia, 263
commercial feline formulas for, 47 pancreatitis: intestinal diseases caused by, 166,
cow's milk for, 46 acute, 262-63 ofof kittens,
feeding of, 47-48
human baby formula for, 47
chronic, 262-63 liver, 31951
milk substitutes for, 46-47 pancytopenia, 429 liver flukes, 319
ossicles, 191, 428 panleukopenia, eye disorders caused
lung flukes, 319
by, 190
 INDEX

lungworms, 318 pathogens, 248, 294, 429 phaeohyphomycosis, 163-64, 323

Mesocestoides, 316 patterning, 134 phagocytic cells, 429
miscellaneous, 319-20 PDA 208-9,
(patent 429
duaus arteriosus), 136, phagocytize, 206, 429
nematodes, 307, 312-15, 428 pharynx, 239, 247, 429
neurologic disorders caused by, 235 peace officers, 1 1 320 phenols, 429 by, 252
intoxication
Ollulanus tricuspis, 253, 313-14 Pearsonema plica,
Physaloptera, 314 peainate ligament, 182 phenotypes, 124, 127, 430
pediatrics, see kitten diseases; kittens pheromones, 100, 430
ofprotozoa, 305-12,
respiratory system,430 318 pedicles, 429 phocomelia, 136, 430
roundworms, 307, 312-15, 428 pediculosis, 198 phosphorus,
sarcocystosis caused by, 311 pedunculated, 429 photoperiod, 79-80430
Spirometra mansonoides, 316 pedunculated endometrial polyps, 117 photophobia,
phototherapy, 430 331
Taenia taeniaeformis, 315-16 Pelger-Huet disorder, 215
tapeworms,
417 307, 315-17, 397-98, pelvis, 226 of, 225
fraaures phthisis bulbi, 430
threadworms, 314, 432 phycomycosis, 323, 430
pemphigus, 166, 184,by,276179 Physaloptera, 314
toxoplasmosis caused by, 308-9, gingivitis caused physical signs of disease, 345
396-97 pemphigus erythematosus, 166 physiochemical skin disorders, 170-72
trematodes, 307-8, 317 pemphigus foliaceus, 166 physiology, 430 112
trichinosis caused by, 314-15 pemphigus vulgaris, 166 of parturition,
trichomoniasis caused by, 312 penis, 100 picograms, 430
Trypanosoma cruzi, 318leishmaniasis Pentatrichomonas felis, 312 Piebald (Van) coat pattern, 23
visceral and cutaneous Pentatrichomonas hominis, 312 pigmentation,
of skin, 158 134
caused by, 320 peptides, 429
visceral larva migrans caused by, perception: pilocarpine, 430
313, 397, 435 auditory, 59, 62, 65, 415 piloerection, 62, 430
zoonotic, 396-98 smell, 56-57, 59,59,67,
parasitism, 429 visual acuity, 62, 65,70, 415101-2 pinna, 191, 430
pins, intramedullary, 224
parasitology, 406 429
percutaneous needle biopsies, 260, pituitary
parasympathetic nervous system, 233 anterior,gland,
100, 265,
105 430
parathyroid glands, 220, 264, 429 pericardial disease, 213 placenta, 100, 133
parathyroid
429 hormone (PTH), 220, 264, pericardiocentesis, 213 zonary, 100
pericardium,
diseases of, 205,213 429 placental separation, 45
paresis, posterior, 235, 430 plague, 299, 430 173
eosinophilic,
parietal lobe, 233 perineal region, 137 zoonotic potential of, 395
parietal pleura, 429 perineal urethrostomy, 359-60, 429
Parker, John S., 272 perineum, 429 plant eating, 72
paronychia, 161, 429 periocular leukotrichia, 171, 429 plant poisoning;
paroviruses, 279 periodontitis, 287, 429 emergency
parti-color coat pattern, 23 periorbits, 429 prevention of,procedures
379 for, 378-79
parturition, 111-13, 429 periosteum, 218, 429 reference guide for, 382-84
endocrinology
112 and physiology of, peripheral nerves, 232 plant protector sprays, 1 1
peripheral nervous system (PNS), 232 plaque,
nutritional needs during, 89, 111-12 peripheral vestibular dysfunction plasma, 173,207, 430
416, 430
pastes, administration of, 364 (PVD), purulent,
236-37 120, 431 plasma cells, 261, 430
Pasteurella, 299 peritonitis,
as result of animal bites, 392 Persians, 13, 18, 20-21, 26, 30, 41 gingivitis,
pododermatitis179 of, 167
Pasteurella multocida, 296, 300, 429 body type
type of,of,22,21 35 tumors of, 223-24
pasteurellosis, 300 coat plasmapheresis,
patellar instability, 222 description of, 35 platelets, 207, 276,430282, 430
patellar luxation, 429 reproduaive life of, 101 decreased production of, 216
patent, 429 persistent pupillary membranes, 189 disorders of, 216
patent duaus arteriosus (PDA), 136, persistent right aortic arch, 209 immune-mediated destruction of,
208-9, 429 persi.stent viremia, 282 216
pathogenesis, 429 personalities, 3 nonimmunologic destruction of,
of FeLV, 282 Perspectives on Cats, xxii 216
of FIP, 289 Peterson, Mark E., 264 Platynosomum concinnum, 319
of FIV, 286 Pets, 9 kittens, 9
pet-quality
of FPV, 279 as behavior problem, 66
of rabies, 292 pet shops, 9-11 play,decline
14-15of, 63
pathogenicity, 429 in kittens, 62-63
pH, 429
 INDEX

pla\-periods
(com. of,) 62 posterior paresis, 235, 430 protothecosis, 324
postoperative care, 35^ 1 1 1 protozoa,DNA,
proviral 305-12,431
327
sexual, 63 62-63
predatoA', postpartum hemorrhage,
solitan'. 63 postpartum
postures, 233 problems, 111-12 proviruses, 281 226
proximal tubule,
play-fill in aggression, 58 pruritus (itching), 194, 431
pleura, aggression,
239, 430 69 of frightened cats, 58
stalking, pseudocoprostasis, 431
parietal, 430
visceral, ^35 tall, 58 58 pseudopregnancies, 45, 108, 110, 431
pleural effusions, 245, 430 pseudorabies, 164
potassium, 80 psychogenic
429 alopecia, 173
PMSGgonadotrophin),
(pregnant mare's107,serum poultry mites, 197 psychogenic dermatitis, 173
430 powders, PTH (parathyroid hormone), 220, 264
pneumonia; preauricular200 alopecia, 168-69, 430
aspiration, 48, 245 predatory aggression, 57, 69 ptyalism,cats,431image of, xxviii
progressive, 286 predaton- play, 62-63 public
pneumonic plague, 299 pregnancy,
care during,108-13111 pulmonary artery-, 152,245,206431
pneumonitis pulmonary edemas,
240, 402, (feline
430 chlamvdiosis), diagnosis of 45, 109-10 pulmonary embolisms, 431
pneumothorax, 245, 430 duration of, 108-10 pulmonic
stenosis valve,
of 136,206209
PNS (peripheral nervous system), 232 eclampsia during, 112
poisoning, 424 extrauterine, 120 pulse, normal, 369
blcKxl, 120, 215, 296, 452 false, 45, 108, 110, 430 punaure wounds, first aid for, 376
chemical, 172, 379-81 nutritional
onset of 108needs during, 89, 1 1 1 punishment:
chlorinated naphthalene, 172 for aggression,
for house soiling,69 69
by common household products, vitamin requirements in, 82
385 pregnant mare's107,serum for misbehavior, 66
emergency (PMSG), 430 gonadotrophin for plant eating, 72
by ingestion,procedures
380-81 for, 3"^8-85 preimplantation, 132-33 Punnett squares, 123-25, 431
by inhaling, 381 premolars, 177 pupillary membranes, persistent, 189
53 diseases caused b\-, 252-
intestinal prepubertal, 430 dilated182fixed, 419
prepuce, 100, 430 pupils,
plant, 378-79 primary' corneal edema, 187 purebreds, 13
pre\'ention of, 381 primary hyperparathyroidism, 221 associations for, 19-20
reference guide for, 382-84 primary irritant contaa dermatitis, 170 body types of 21
Pollock, Roy V. H., 246 primary lymphoid organs, 273 coat patterns of 22-23
polyaneritis nodosa, 277 primordia, 133 coat types of,
of, 17-19
21-22
polyarthritis, chronic progressive, 221 private cats, image of, xxviii definition
polyq-stic kidneys, problem solving, 65 descriptions of, 23-41
polycythemia, 2i4 229 proestrus, 99, 430 longhair, 10, 13, 22-28
Polydactyly, 134, 136, 430 progesterone, 63, 100, 108, 265, 430 in pet shops, 10
polydipsia, 120, 259, 430 in reproductive disorders, 119 shorthair, 21-22
polyestrous:
continuous, 418 progestins, 70, 430 Purkinje
progestogen, 430 types of,fibers,
20-23206
seasonally, 99, 431 prognosis, 430
polyhedral, 430
prolactin, 108,pneumonia,
progressive 430 286 purulent, 431 148
purring, 57-58,
polym.orphonuclear leukocytes, 430 purulent peritonitis, 120, 431
poKpepudes, 264, 430 prolapses, 431
of cervix, 120 Puss Puss " (Lawrence), 97
polyps,
in ears,430193 of third eyelid, 431 pustular, 431 431
putrefaaive,
endometrial. 117, 120 of uterus, 1 1 1 PVT) (peripheral vestibular
nasopharyngeal polyps, 243-44 propranolol, 212 dysfunction), 236-37
pedunculated endometrial, 117 proptosis, 431 pyelonephritis, 229, 431
polyuria,
Pomeranians, 119, 55259,430 propulsive movements, 248 pylorus, 247, 431
prostate gland, 100 pyometra, 115,116,119-20.
Poppensiek, George, xix protein, 78-79, 85264
in cat foods. pyometritis, 119, 139,431431
pore of Winer, dilated, 176 pyothorax, 245, 295, 300, 431
portal triads, 258 dermatoses due to deficiency in, 93 pyridoxine (vitamin B,,), 82, 431
portal veins, 136, 258 proteolytic, 431
portocaval shunts, 136, 430 prothrombin time, 431
portosystemic shunts, 234 protoplasm, 431 Q fever, 395-96
qualitative traits, 129
portosystemic vascular anomalies, 262 Prototheca, 324 quantitative traits, 129
 INDEX

quaternary ammonium compound renal aplasia, 229 noninfectious, 243-45

(QAC), 170, 431 renal arteries, 226 parasites as cause of, 318
queening, 8, 111-13 renal hypoplasia, 229 pleural effusions, 245, 430
queens, 45, 431 renal pelvis, 226 prevention of, 242-43245, 430
abnormal maternal behavior in, 72 renal 221secondary hyperparathyroidism, pulmonary edemas,
defects
115 in reproduaive system of, reovirus infection, xx, 240
renal vein, 226 reverse sneezing, 244
genital traa abnormalities in, 117 renin, 227, 431 sinusitis, 240-41
hormonal disturbances in, 115-17 renin-angiotensin
infertility in, 106-8, 114-15 reovirus infeaion, system,
xx, 240 264, 431 spread oftrauma,
thoracic 241 245
in KMC, 49-50 repellents, 11 treatment of, 242
lactation in, 89, 113 replication-defeaive, 326-27 restraint:
with cat bags, 363
maternal care given by, 113 reproduction, xx, 110
nursing behavior in, 60 reproduoive disorders, defects
114-21 and ofminimal,
injured 362animals, 371-72
pregnancy diagnosis in, 45, 109-10 anatomic congenital
reproductive life of, 101 intersexuality, 115 one-person, 362-63
sexual behavior in, 104-5 cystic endometrial hyperplasia, 1 15, principles of, 371
119,418 by roll-wrapping,
two-person, 362 362-63
rabies, 235, 291-92 developmental and acquired, 117
aggression due to, 70 endometritis, 116, 119, 284, 420 for unruly or aggressive cats, 372
cause of, 291-92 hormonal disturbances, 115-17 resting shelves, 9
choking as symptom of, 372 infections, 118-19 restrictive cardiomyopathy
clinical signs of, 292 infenility, (endocardial fibrosis), 211
diagnosis metritis, 119,114-15
426 retina, 182
occurrenceofand292-93
transmission of 292 miscellaneous, 120-21 degeneration of, 190
pathogenesis of 292 pyometra, detachment of, 190
prevention of, 293 pyometritis,115,116,119-20,
119, 139,431431 disorders of, 190
retinol (vitamin A), 81, 431
public health significance of 293 tumors, 117-18
treatment of 293 reproductive endocrinology, 110 retraining, 68-69 61
vaccinations against, 402 reproductive life, 101-2 retrieval behavior,
zoonotic potential of, 392 reproductive system, 99-102 retroviruses, 326, 431
raccoons, 4 of females, 99-100 oncogenic, 281 244
races, 18 of tomcats, 100-101 reverse sneezing,
radial hemimelia, 136 resolving
resorb, 431power, 59 reverse
rewards, 65transcriptase, 281, 286, 431
radiation therapy, tumors treated with, Rex coats, 22
330 respirations, normal, 369
radioactive iodine therapy, 266 respiratory system, 148, 238-39 Rex rabbits, 28
radiography, 409-11, 431 respiratory rhabdomyomas, 224
deteaing pregnancy aspiration system disorders,
pneumonia, 48, 245239-45
rhabdomyosarcomas, 224
radioresistant tumors, 330by, 109-10 baaerial, 240 rheumatoid arthritis, 221
radius, 136 brachycephalic airway syndrome, rhinotracheitis, see feline viral
Ragdolls, 13 244 rhinotracheitis
description of 35-36 bronchial asthma, 244 riboflavin (vitamin B^), 82, 431
Randolph, John F , 264 cat plague, 240 ribonucleic acid (RNA), 278, 294, 431
rapid eye movements (REMs), 61, 431 chronic
240 upper respiratory infection, Richards, James R., xxv, 77, 79, 91, 177,
receptors, 134, 274 226, 238, 258, 278
rickets,
recessive genes, 124, 431
recombination, 327, 431 clinical signs of, 241-42 causes81of, 93
rectum, 153 diagnosis
FCV, xx, 48,of,49,241-42
240, 402, 421 rickettsiae,rickettsii,
303, 431-32
red blood cells (erythrocytes), 206, feline chlamydiosis, 240, 402, 430 Rickettsia 395
214, 420 PIP, 240 Riis, Ronald C, 177
red-cell destruaion anemia, 214 fungal rhinitis, 241 ringworm (dermatophytosis), 14, 162-
reduction, 431 PVR, 48, 49, 164, 239-40, 421 63, 321-22, 403, of419396
reflexes, 233 infectious, 239-43 zoonotic potential
reflex ovulators, 99, 431 laboratory tests for, 242 RNA (ribonucleic acid), 278, 294, 431
refusal cries, 58 laryngitis, 244 RNA tumor viruses, 281
regenerative anemias, 214 method of production in, 241 Rocky
rodent Mountain
ulcers, 173Spotted Fever, 395
registered pedigrees, 10 mycoplasma infection, 240
regurgitation, 247, 431 nasal cavity tumors, 244 rods, 182-83 363
roll-wrapping,
relapsing polychondritis, 167 nasal trauma, 244
REMs (rapid eye movements), 61, 431 nasopharyngeal polyps, 243-44 Rome, cats in, 4-5
INDEX

Ross, MoUie, 36-37 sebum, 158, 432 body type type of,of,21,21, 3838
Ross, William, 36-37 secondary glaucoma, 187 coat
rotaviruses, xxi, 251 secondary hairs, 159 description of, 37-38
roundworms (ascarids; Toxocara secondary lymphoid organs, 273 genetics in breeding of, 124-27
cati),
434 307, 312-13, 397, 415, 428, secondary myocardial diseases, 211 hypotrichosis
of, 1 1 of,in,59172
needs acuity
secondary' skin tumors,
secretory immune system,176274 visual
Ruga, Grace, 24
Kuga. Joe, 24 segmental aplasia, 115, 117 Siegal, Mordecai, xxvii-xxviii, 3, 335,
runny nose, 14 segmental contractions, 248
Russian blues, 20-21, 30 selection: signs,
body type of, 21, 36 for breeding, 130-31 378432 413
behavior,
coat type of, 21, 36 index, 130-31
intensity, 130 of chemical poisoning, 380
description of, 34, 36 of disease, 343-51
sabertooth cats, 4 tandem, 130103-4
for mating, general,
index of,344-45 347-51
Saidla.John E., 177, 343 self coat pattern, 23
St. Bernards, 18 Selkirk Rex, 22, 37 pain, 344
saline, 432 semicircular canals, 191 physical,
simple traits,345123-24 of, 38
salivary glands, 146 semi-moist cat foods, 85 Singapuras, description
cysts seminal fluid, 100, 432
tumorsof, of,247247 seminiferous
senility, 339 tubules, 432
single
singlet oxygen,21 331
coats,
Salmon, Daniel E., xix sinoatrial (SA) node, 206, 432
Salmonella, 432 sensory nerves, 233 sinuses, 180, 238
Salmonella enteritis, 297 sensory sinus hairs, 159, 432
salmonellosis, 252, 297-98 see alsoorgans,
specific177-93
sensory organs sinusitis, 240-41 219
skeletal muscle,
zoonotic potential of, 395 separations, 224 skeleton, 153, 218
SA (sinoatrial) node, 206, 432 septal defects, 136
SAP (serum alkaline phosphatase), septic arthritis, 432 skin,arreaor
157-60pili muscles, 159
259, 432 septicemia (blood poisoning), 120,
Sarcocystis, 311 215, 296, 432 components
dermis, 158, 419 of, 157-60
sarcocystosis, 311 septicemic plague, 299
sarcolemma, 218 septum, nasal, 238 epidermis,
sarcomas, 325, 432 septum, of heart, 205 form and funaion of,420157
157-58,
osteogenic, 223 congenital defects in, 209 hair, see hairs
Sarcoptes scabiei, 195 serology,
sarcoptic mange, 195 serotonin, 260,
275 405, 432 ofhairkittens,
coat, 159-60
14
sarcoptid mites, 195 serous glands, 238
SC (subcutaneously), 400, 433 serous membranes, 432 pigment, 158,
sebaceous
subcutis, 158glands,
433 158, 174-75, 432
scabies, 432 serum, 432
scapula, 432 serum alkaline phosphatase (SAP), sweat glands, 159, 174-75
SCAs, see squamous cell carcinomas 259, 432 skin disorders, 160-76
schizont, 432 sex chromosomes, 123 abscesses, 160-61, 300, 374-76, 413
schwannomas, 175-76 sex hormones, 423 administering medicines for, 364
sclera, 181,432 body weight influenced by, 92 of aging cats, 338
sclerosis, nuclear, 188 sex-linked traits, 123 alopecia areata, 169, 414
sclerotic, 432 sexual behavior, 13 angioedema,
Scott, Danny W., 157, 178 abnormal, 72 atopy, 165 164-65, 414
Scott, Fred W., xix, 278, 399 aggression, 56-57 atypical mycobacteriosis, 162
Scottish Folds, 20, 23 copulation, 99-100,
104-5 105, 431, 432 baaerial, 160-62 174
description71 of, 36-37 ovulation,
sexual play, 63 basal cell tumors,
scratching, Shaded, 23 burns, see burns
candidiasis, 163, 323
scrotum, 100, 432
abscessation of, 120 Shaw, George Bernard, 1 cellulitis, 160-61,416
seasonally polyestrous, 99, 432 shedding, excessive, 168 Chediak-Higashi syndrome, 172,
sebaceous glands, 158, 432 Shetland ponies, 55 215, 277 naphthalene poisoning,
tumors of,169174-75 shock, first aid for, 376 chlorinated
seborrhea, shorthair cats,cats,
10, 821-22
seborrhea oleosa, 169 show quality 172 hypersensitivity, 165
contaa
familial, 137 Shulamith, 24 cutaneous asthenia, 172
seborrhea sicca, 169, 432 shvness, cutaneous lymphosarcomas, 175
seborrheic skin diseases, 169-70 Siamese, 14-15
18, 25, 27, 29, 31, 34, 40
cysts, 176
 INDKC

diabetes mellitus as cause of, 168 psychogenic sodium, 80

discoid lupus erythematosus, rare,419162 dermatitis, 173 soft palate, 177, 239, 432
166- 67 ringworm, 14, 162-63, 321-22, 396, soft-tissue injuries, first aid for, 374
drug eruption,granuloma
165-66 complex, solar dermatitis,
solitary play, 63 171-72, 432
eosinophilic schwannomas, 175-76
173-74, 420 sebaceous gland tumors, 174-75 Somalis:
erythema multiforme, 167 seborrhea, coat type of, 22
excessive shedding, 168 seborrheic, 137, 169 169-70, 432 description of, 39
feline acne, 169-70 secondary skin tumors, 176 sparganum, 316
feline endocrine alopecia, 168 skin spaying (ovariohvstereaomies), 116,
feline leprosy, 161, 301 SLE asfoldcausedermatitis,
of, 166 171-72 138-39, 358, 428
feline poxvirus infeaion, 164 solar dermatitis, 171-72, 432 SPCA (Society for the Prevention of
FeLV as cause of, 164 sporotrichosis, 163, 323 Cruelty to Animals), 12
fibromas, 175, 184 squamous cell tumors, 174, 176, special nutritional needs, 89-90
fibrosarcomas, 175, 326, 421 179, 193, 432 aging cats,89 89-90
of kittens,
FIV as cause of, 164 sweat glandhyperplasia,
tumors, 174-75
flea bite hypersensitivity, 166 tail gland 169 during lactation, 89
folliculitis, 161 telogen defluxion, 168 during parturition, 89
food hypersensitivitv, 165 temperature-dependent during pregnancy, 89
frostbite, 171,385,387 leukotrichia, 171 species, 17 100-101, 153, 432
fungal, 162-64161, 416, 421
fiirunculosis, temperatu re-dependent
melanotrichia, 171 sperm,
spherule,99,323, 432
FVR as cause of, 164 toxic epidermal necrolysis, 166, 167, Sphynxes, description of, 39-40
hair mats, 171 434 spiders, 198
hemangiomas as cause of, 176 tuberculosis, 161 spina bifida, 128, 134, 135. 234, 432
hemangiosarcomas as cause of, 176 tumors, 174-76, 179, 184, 193, 432 spinal cord, 134, 232
horm.onal, 167-69 of unknown or multiple origin, spinal nerves,mansonoides.
232-33 316
hyperadrenocorticism as cause of, 172-74 Spirometra
167- 68 urticaria, 164-65, 434 spitting, 58
hyperthyroidism as cause of, 168 viral, 164 spleen, 153, 207, 432
hypotrichosis, 172, 196, 424 skin fold dermatitis (intenrigo), 171, spleneaomy, 432
immunologic, 164-67 424 spondylosis, cervical, 81, 94, 219, 417
impetigo, 161 skin secretions, 59 spontaneous-mutation purebreds, 20
inherited, 172 skull: spontaneous ovulators, 99, 432
intestinal
and, 165parasite hypersensitivity bones of, 144, 153 -54, 180 spores, 432 schenckii, 163, 323
muscles andof, 144-45 Sporothrix
keratoses, 176 sinuses cavities of, 180, 238 sporotrichosis, 163, 323
of kittens, 49 SLE (systemic lupus erythematosus), Spotted Tabby coat pattern, 23
lipomas, 175 166, 221, 277, 433 sprains, 224, 432
liposarcomas as cause of, 175 sleep, 61 sprays,
malasseziasis, 163 in kittens, 61 176,11,433cell
squamous 200 carcinomas (SCAs), 174,
mast cell tumors, 175 small
melanomas, 175, 326, 426 smell: intestine, 148, 153, 247-48 of ears, 193
metabolic, 167-69 anal secretions in, 59 of eyelids, 184
miliary dermatitis, 172-73, 427 skin secretions in, 59 gingivitis caused by, 179
mosquito-bite urine marking in, 56-57, 59, 67, 69, stalking posture, 58
nevi, 176, 428 hypersensitivity, 166 staphylococcal infections, 295-96
papillomas, 174 Smilodon,
101-2234 Staptytococcus, 183, 299, 433
paraneoplastic alopecia, 169 Smokes, Staphylococcus aureus, 162, 295
parasitic, see parasites, external smooth muscle, 219 Staphylococcus intermedius, 295
paronychia, 161, 429 snarls, 58 Staphylococcus
pemphigus as cause of, 166 sneezing, 14 starvation diets, simulans,
92 295
periocular leukotrichia, 171, 429 reverse, 244 steatitis (yellow fat disease), 80, 433
phaeohyphomycosis, 163-64, 323 Snowshoes, description of, 38-39 vitamin 433E deficiency as cause of, 93
stenosis,
physiochemical, 170-72 "So, we'll
plasma cell pododermatitis, 167 (Byron),go no333more a-roving" aonic,
intestinal,136,249209, 414
preauricular alopecia, 168-69, 430 social aggression, 56
primary
170 irritant contact dermatitis, social behavior, 56-57 of pulmonic valve, 136, 209
social development, 61-63 sternum,
steroids, 264,bones433of, 154
pseudorabies, 164 Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
psychogenic alopecia, 173 to Animals (SPCA), 12 stillborn kittens, 1 1 1
462
stomach, 147, 153 429
perineal urethrostomies, 359-60. temperature-dependent
171 melanotrichia,
bulging of, 14
postoperative care and, 357 temperature-taking, 362
stomatitis, 287,feeding,
stomach-tube 433 48 preparation cat bags for, 363
strabismus18 (cross-eye), 13"', 191,433 recovery from,for,356356 one-person restraint in, 362-63
strains, steps in, 354 restraint techniques for, 362-63
strangles (contagious streptococcal on tumors, 328-29 roll-wTapping for, 362-63
lymphadenitis), 418, 433
strangulated, 433 Susie, 36-37
sutures, 433 temporal lobe, restraint
two-person 233 in, 362
strangulated hernias, 250-51 swallowing, 247 temporal region, 433
stratum basale, 158 sweat glands, 159, 415, 419 tendons, 218, 433
stratum corneum. 158 tumors of, 174-75 teratogens, 135, 433
stratum granulosum, 158 sweat glands sylvatic plague, 299 teratology, 135, 433
stratum lucidum, 158 sympathetic nervous system, 233 teratomas, 117
stratum spinosum, 158 synapses, 232, 433 territoriality, 56-57, 59
streptococcal
433 infeaions, 49, 296, 418, syndactyly, 136, 433 aggression
house soilingand,due56-57
to, 67, 69
synovial fluid, 218
Streptococcus, 299, 433 synthetic 179 progestin, 69 in reproduaive life, 101
stress: systemic diseases, gingivitis caused by, testes, 100
on aging cats, 337 congenital hypoplasia of, 115, 417
house soiling due to, 67 systemic
withdrawal due to, 69 166, lupus
221,277,erythematosus
433 (SLE), cryptorchid, 117, 137, 418
eaopic,
striaures, 261 systemic mycoses, 322-23 tetany, 433 117107, 265, 433
testosterone,
string enteritis, 250
strobilocercus, 316 Tj (tri-iodothyronine),
434 264-65, tetralogy of fallot, 209
Strongyloides (threadworms), 314, 433 TGEV virus),
(transmissible
288 gastroenteritis
Strongyloides stercoralis, 314 T4table(thyroxine),
scraps, 88 264-65, 433 thalamus, 233, 433
Strongyloides
struvites, 227, tumefaciens,
433 314
The International Cat Association
stud 433
tail (tail gland hyperplasia), 169, tachycardia, 210, 433 365-66
tablets, administration of,
(TICA), 19-20,434 39. 41
theriogenology,
Taenia. 317
subcutaneously (SC), 400, 433 Taeniamuscles
433 taeniaeformis, thermal burns, emergency procedures
subcutis, 158, 433 tail, of, 152 315-16 thiaminase, 82, 93, 434
for, 385-86
subinvolution, 118, 433 tail gland hyperplasia (stud tail), 169,
submandibular, 433 tail head, 433 thiamine (vitamin B,), 81-82, 93, 434
subspecies, 17 third eyelid (haw), 181, 423
subunit \'accines, 400 tail venebrae, fractures and disorders of, 186, 430
sucrose, abnormalities
sucking, 433 in, 73
Tai
separations of, 224-25
Mau, 27 58
prolapse Joseph,
Thompson, of, 431 29
sulfur granules, 296 tall posture, thoracentesis,
thoracic, 434 245
superfecundation, 433 tandem selection, 130
superfetation, 108, 111, 433 tapetum, 59 thoracic organs, 147, 148, 152
superficial keratitis, 186 tapetum lucidum, 183, 433 thoracocentesis, 434
suppositories, 257 tapeworms (cestodes), 14, 307, 315- thorax (chest), 224
suppurative, 261, 433 muscles of, 147, 152, 153
supracaudal organ, 169, 433 taurine,17,417 78-79, 433 trauma to, 245
surgery, 352-57 central retinal degeneration due to threadworms {Strongyloides), 314, 433
anesthesia in, 354-55 deficiency in, 78, 94, 190 thrombocytopenia, 216, 277
dilated cardiomyopathy thrombocytosis, 216
castration, 9, 13, 357-58, 416
cryosurgery, 330-31, 418 deficiency in, 95 due to thromboembolisms, arterial, 213
declawing, 358-59 taxons, 17 thromboplastin, 434
eleaive, see eleaive surgery T cells, 273, 287 thrombosis, 434
emergency, 353 tearing (lacrimation), 185 thymosin, 331
exploratory-, 260 teat order, 60 thymus, 434
hospitalization after, 356-57 teeth, 14, 146, 177, 180 thvToideaomies, 266, 434
for hyperthyroidism,
kinds of, 353 266 telogen defluxion, 168 thyroid gland, 264
telogen hairs, 433 thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH),
monitoring in, 355-56 temperaments, 8 265, 434
necessary, 353 temperature, normal, 369 thyroxine (TJ, 264-65, 434
ovariohvstereaomies, 116, 138-39, temperature-dependent
171 leukotrichia, TICA (The International Cat
358, 428 Association), 19-20, 39, 41
Ticked Tabby coat pattern, 23 toneurologic
musculoskeletal ofof musculoskeletal
nasal cavity, 244 system, 223-24
ticks, 197-98 disorderssystem,
caused224-25
by, of nervous system, 236
tipped coat patterns, 23
titers, 405, 434 to 233-34
nose, 244 ovarian, 117
tocopherols to thorax, 245 of pancreas, 263
tomcats; (vitamin E), 81, 93, 434 traumatic retinal degeneration, 190 phototherapy for, 331
abnormal sexual behavior in, 72 travel carriers, 1 1 physical agents as cause of, 326
birth control for, 140 treading, 60 ofradiation
plasma therapy
cells, 223-24
genital traa abnormalities in, 117 treats, 11, 88 for, 330
infenility in, 105-6, 115 Tree House Adoption Center, 12 radioresistant, 330
reproduaive life of, 101-2 Tree House Animal Foundation, 12 ofof salivary
reproduaive
reproduaive system of, 100-101 trematodes (flukes; flarworms), 307-8, glands,system,
247 117-18
sexual behavior in, 13, 104-5 317, 434 ofof sebaceous
tongue, 177 Trichinella spiralis, 314-15 skin, 174-76, 179. 174-75
glands, 184, 193, 433
Tonkinese, 37 trichinosis, squamous
193, 433 cell, 174, 176, 179, 184,
description of, 40 Trichodectes 314-15,
cants, 198 434
genetics in breeding of, 124 trichomoniasis, 312 surgery on,glands,
328-29174-75
tortoiseshell coat pattern, 23 Trichophyton mentagrophytes, 162 ofof sweat
Toxacaris leonina, 312 tricuspid valve, 206 third eyelid, 186
toxemia, 434 treatment
toxic 434epidermal necrolysis, 166, 167,
tri-iodothyronine
trombiculidiasis, 197 (Tj), 264-65, 434 viruses as of, cause328-32
of, 326
trunk, 153-54 turbinates, 181, 238, 434
toxic milk syndrome, 49 Trypanosoma cruzi, 318 Turkish Angoras, 20
Toxocara cants, 313, 397 trypsin,263 263 coat type of, 22, 41
Toxocara cati (ascarids; trypsinogen activation peptide (TAP), description of, 40-41 of, 41
roundworms), 307, 312-13, 397, Turkish
Twain, Mark, Vans, 53,description
341
415, 428, 434 tryptophan, 82
Toxoplasma chorioretinitis, 191 TSH (Thyroid-stimulating hormone), twins, cojoined, 135
Toxoplasma gondii, 51, 121, 235, 307, 265, 434 two-person restraint, 362
308-9, 396 tubal ligation, 139 two-syllable calls, 58
toxoplasmosis, 164, 284, 434 tuberculosis, 161, 301 "Tyger, The" (Blake), 203
acute, 51 tularemia, 299-300, 434 tympanic membrane, 191
aggression due to, 70 tumors, 325-32, 428
neurologic disorders caused by, 235 in agingcell,cats,174 326, 337-38 UCF (United Cat Federation), 19
parasites as cause of, 308-9, 396-97 basal ulcerative keratitis, 434
zoonotic potential of, 396-97 benign, 325 ulcers:
toys, 1 1 of blood, 329 corneal, 187
trace minerals, 81 causes of, 326 eosinophilic,
indolent, 173 173
trachea (windpipe), 147, 239, 247, 434 of ceruminous glands, 193, 337
tracheostomy, 434 chemical agents as cause of, 326 ultrasonography, 261, 411, 434
traits: chemotherapy
chemotherapyfor, see deteaing radiation,
pregnancy434by, 1 10
autosomal dominant, 102 ultraviolet
qualitative, 129 umbilical hernias, 250
quantitative, 129 ofdiagnosis
digestiveof,system,
327-28 254 unbalanced
Uncinaria, 313 diets, 90
sex-linked, 1 23 ofin eyelids, 184
FeLV, 236, 283, 326 underfeeding, 48
simple, 123-24 of granulosa cells, 115, 117
tranquilizers, 63 undesired genes, 127-29
in treating aggression, 70 hemolymphatic, 329 breeding uterine out, 128-29
in treating anorexia, 73 hyperthermia for, 331 unicornual torsion, 120, 434
in treating house soiling, 69 of immune system, 175, 236, 254, United Cat Federation (UCF), 19
transfusion reaaions, 216-17 277, 326 unruly cats, restraining techniques for,
transient viremia, 282 immunization against, 332 unthrifty, 434
transmissible gastroenteritis virus of intestinal traa,for,254331-32, 424
immunotherapy
(TGEV), 288 upper410
transplacentally, 434 of kidneys, 230 372gastrointestinal traa, 246-47,
transpon medium, 434 ofmalignant,
lymphatic325system, 217, 329 upper lid agenesis, 183
transtracheal wash, 434 upper respiratory'
trauma: of mammary glands, 115, 117-18, chronic infeaiontraa, 238
of, 240
hernias caused by, 250 of 338
mast cells, 175 upper
urea, 226 urinary tract diseases, 228-31
lymphatic system disorders caused ureteroliths, 227, 434
by, 217 mechanisms in induaion of, 326-27
INDEX

ureters, 150, 226, 434 vagina, 99, 151, 153 visceral organs, congential
urethra, 100, 224, 226, 434 cytology118,of, 435
106-7 visceralmalformations
pleura, 435 of, 136-37
obstructions of, 228, 434 vaginitis,
urethral plugs, 434 vaginoscopic, 435 vision:
urethrogram, 410 valeric acid,
Valium, 63 101-2, 435 acuity of, 59, 62
urethroliths, 227, 434 binocular, 59, 415
urethrostomies, perineal, 359-60, 429 valve leaflets, 205 color, 59, 65
urinalyses, 408, 434 valvular disorders, acquired, 210 see also eye disorders; eyes
urinary bladder, 150, 226 Van (Piebald) coat pattern, 23 vitamin A (retinol), 81, 431
urinary calculus, 434 variation, continuous, vitamin A toxicity, 94
urinary system, 150-51, 226-27 vascularization, 435 129-30 vitamin B, (thiamine), 81-82, 434
urinary system421 disorders, xxi, 227-31 vascular
435 ring defects, 136, 435 neurologic
deficiencydisorders
in, 93 due to
FUS, 228, vasculitis (arteritis), 213-14, 415, vitamin (riboflavin), 82, 431
hypospadias, 228, 424 vas deferens, 100, 435
lower tract,of,227-28 vitamin B^ (pyridoxidine), 82, 431
treatment 228 vasectomies, 140 vitamin B,, (cobalamin), 82, 418
upper150tract, see kidney diseases vasodilation, 211, 435 vitamin C (ascorbic acid), 82, 415
urine, Vaughan,
vena cava, Corisse
136 N., 294 vitamindue D,torickets
deficiency and osteomalacia
in, 93
urine marking, see territoriality vitamin D toxicity, 94
urobilinogen, 260 ventilation,
ventral, 435 8-9
urogenital vitamin E (tocopherols), 81, 434
congenitalsystem, 226-27 of, 137
malformations ventricles, 205, 435 steatitis due to deficiency in, 93
vitamin K, 79, 81, 216
see also reproductive disorders; ventricular fibrillation, 209
urinar>' xxi,
system227,disorders ventricular
venules, 435premature beats, 210 vitamins:
urolithiasis, 435 in cat foods, 88
urticaria (hives), 164-65, 435 vertebrae, fractures of, 225 fat soluble, 81,421
uterine horns, 100 vertebral column, 134 during food storage, 89
unicornual torsion of, 120, 435 vesicles
vesicular,(blisters),
435 435 overdosing with supplements of, 90
uterine inversion, 435 supplements, 88, 90
uterine tubes, 99-100, 435 vestibular syndrome, 435 water 172soluble, 81-82
uterus, 99-100, 151, 153 vestibule, 106, 153 vitiligo,
prolapse of, 1 1 1115, 117, 435 Veta-Lac, 47 vitreous humor, 181, 182, 435
uterus unicornis, veterinarians, 11 VNAs (virus neutralizing antibodies),
Utrecht, University of, xxii veterinary hospitals, 13 281
uvea, 181, 189, 435 veterinary
villi, 248, 435technicians, 1 1 VNs (virus neutralizations), 405-6
uveitis, anterior, 189 vinca alkaloids, 329 volunteer rescue organizations, 1 1
vomeronasal
vulva, 14, 99, organ,435 101
vaccinations, 14, 399-403, 427, 435 Vinci, Leonardo da, 43
and age of cats, 401 viral conjunaivitis, 184-85
allergic reactions to, 401 viral diseases, 279-93 wails, 58
postpartum, 111-12
in catteries, 7 viral enteritis, 251
effect on fetus of, 401 ,
failure of, 401 viremia, 435disorders, 164
viral skin walking dandruff (cheyletiellosis),
against FCV, 402 persistent, water,196-97,
77 417
against feline chlamydiosis, 402 transient, 282282 nutritional importance of, 83
against FeLV, 286, 402 virilizing, 117, 435 water-soluble vitamins, 81-82
against FHV-1, 402 virology,
virulence, 405-6
300, 435 weight:
defense of, 63
against FIP, 402-3
against FP, 400-401 viruses, 278-79 ofgaining
kittens,of, 14,48 46
against FPV, 251,vs.,280-81
immunization 399 gingivitis
isolation of,caused
435 by, 178-79
IN, 400, 424 tumors caused by, 326 weight control:
inactivated, 400, 424 decreasing
increased aaivitycaloric in,intake
92 in, 92-93
zoonotic,
see 392-93viral diseases
also feline
infection from, 401 in treating
wheals, 435 obesity, 92-93
nature of, 400 virus neutralization (VNs), 405-6
for orphan kittens, 48 virus-neutralizing antibodies (VNAs), white 215,blood425 cells (leukocytes), 206-7,
precautions for, 400-401 281
produaion of disease from, 400 white cats, deafness in, 192
against rabies, 402 visceral larva migrans, 152-53,
viscera, 137, 147, 148, 313, 435 435 whole-body hyperthermia, 331, 435
recommendations for, 403 zoonotic potential of, 397 wild-type
route of, 400 visceral leishmaniasis, 320 windpipe alleles,
(trachea),126-27
247, 434
 465

wirehair coats, 22 zoonotic, 252, 300, 435

withdrawal, 69 zoonotic parasitic, 396-98
Pasteurella wound infeaions, 393
Wong Mau, 27 animal diseases,
bites, 393 391-98 plague, 395
wool-chewing, 71 baaerial, 393-96 Qrabies,
fever,392395-96
Wuori, Leo A., 335, 343, 352, 361 Campylobacter enteritis, 393
capnocytophagia canimorsus, ringworm, 163, 396
Yeager, Amy E., 409 393 Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever,
yellow433fat disease (steatitis), 81, 93, cat-scratch fever, 393-94 395
salmonellosis, 395
chlamydiosis, 394
Yersinia pestis, 299, 435 cowpox in man as, 392 tapeworms, 397-98
cutaneous
DF-2, 393 larva migrans, 397 toxoplasmosis, 396-97
zinc, 80 viral, 392-93
dermatoses due to deficiency in, 93 fungal, 396 visceral larva migrans, 397
zona pellucida, 132-33, 435 hantcwirus, 392-93 zygomycosis, 323
zonary placenta, 100 Lyme disease, 394-95 zygotes, 120, 435
2044 Columbus
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