MEASUREMENT OF DISPLACEMENT, PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE, HEAT-FLUX,

FLOW, MOTION, FORCE, TORQUE

Ref. Book: METROLOGY &MEASUREMENT By Anand K Bewoor & Vinay A Kulkarni
Needs of Measurement
Being a fundamental quantity, the basic sensing device is widely adapted with suitable linkage
for the measurement of many derived quantities such as force, stress, pressure, velocity and
acceleration etc.

Displacement Measurement: Displacement is a vector representing a change in position of a

body or a point with respect to a reference.

Selection criteria
For designing and selecting a displacement sensor we must know the following questions:
 What is type of the displacement ?
 What resolution and accuracy is required ?
 What is required detection range ?
 What are the environmental conditions ?
 What is the power dissipation ?
 What is the Cost of the conditioning circuit ?

Types of Displacement Measurement:

1. Mechanical measurements: Mechanical measurements are quite useful in practice, but
the range of use of instruments is often small to medium.
2. Pneumatic Measurements: The pneumatic type generally uses a flapper-nozzle
assembly. The accuracy of this method depends mainly on constancy of the supply
pressure.
3. Electrical Measurements: Electrical methods generally convert the displacement to a
convenient form of electrical quantity like voltage, current, resistance, etc.
4. Optical Measurements: Optical methods use photo-detectors, which yield the output
ultimately in an electrical quantity like current, voltage, etc.
Most common transducers can be configured to sense displacements. However, the
followings are basically displacement sensitive:
1 Resistance potentiometers
2 Resistance strain gauges
3 Variable-inductance devices
4 Differential transformers
5 Capacitive transducers
6 Piezoelectric transducers

 Variable-inductance, capacitance, piezoelectric, & strain-sensitive transducers are suitable for

small displacements.
 Differential transformer may be used over intermediate ranges, say a few micro-inches to
several inches.
 Resistance potentiometers are not as sensitive to small displacements but with no limit on the
maximum.
 With the exception of the piezoelectric type, all may be used for both static and dynamic
displacements.
POTENTIOMETERS (RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS):
Potentiometers are electrical devices which are a form of variable resistance.

Principle:

Where
R= Resistance, Ω
ρ= Resistivity of material , Ω-m
l=length, m
2
A= Area, m
A resistive transducer that works on the principle of voltage division. A passive transducer can
measure both translational as well as rotational motions.
Construction:
It consists of a sliding contact which moves over the length of a resistance element.
This sliding contact connects to a plunger, which links to the object whose displacement is to be
measured.

Mathematical expression for potentiometer

so there is a linear relationship between input

displacement and output voltage.
(0,0) 1

Advantages
1. Inexpensive
2. Simple to operate
3. High electrical efficiency
Disadvantages
1.Requires a large force to move the sliding contacts
2.Sliding contacts can be contaminated and can wear out.

Linear Variable Displacement Transducer (LVDT) (INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS):

An electro-mechanical device designed to produce an ac voltage output proportional to the
relative displacement of the transformer and the armature. Use the technique of
transforming the physical quantity i.e. displacement into an electrical quantity associated with
the Magnetic circuits. Linear and Angular, both types of displacements can be measured.

Principle of LVDT:
A very basic transducer which is always useful in the field of instrumentation LVDT works
under the principle of mutual induction, and the displacement which is a non- electrical energy is
converted into an electrical energy.

Construction of LVDT:

An LVDT consists of a stationary coil assembly and a movable core.

 The coil assembly houses one primary and two secondary windings.

 The core is a steel rod of high magnetic permeability, and is smaller in diameter than the
internal bore of the coil assembly, so the rod can be mounted and assure that no contact is
made with the coil assembly. Thus, the rod can move back and forth without friction or
wear.

 The number of turns in both the secondary windings are equal, but they are opposite to
each other.

 Hence the net output voltages will be the difference in voltages between the two
secondary coil.
Working of LVDT:
 When an ac excitation voltage is applied to the primary winding, a voltage is induced in
each secondary winding through the magnetic core.

 The position of the core determines how strongly the excitation signal couples to each
secondary winding.

 When the core is in the center, the voltage of each secondary coil is equal and 180
degrees out of phase, resulting in no signal.

 As the core travels to the left of the center, the primary coil is more tightly coupled to the
left secondary coil, creating an output signal in phase with the excitation signal.
 As the core travels to the right of the centre, the primary coil is more tightly coupled to
the right secondary coil, creating an output signal 180 degrees out-of-phase with the
excitation voltage.

Case 1:
On applying an external force if the core reminds in the null position itself without providing
any movement then the voltage induced in both the secondary windings are equal which
results in net output is equal to zero

Esec1-Esec2=0

Case 2:
if the steel iron core tends to move in the left hand side direction then the emf voltage induced
in the secondary coil 1 is greater when compared to the emf induced in the secondary coil 2.

Therefore the net output will

be
Esec1-Esec2

Case 3:
if the steel iron core moves in the right hand side direction then the emf induced in the
secondary coil 2 is greater when compared to the emf voltage induced in the secondary coil 1.

The net output voltage

will be
Esec2-Esec1
Advantages of LVDT:
1) Infinite resolution is present in LVDT
2) High output and relative low cost
3) LVDT gives High sensitivity
4) Very good linearity
5) High signal-to-noise ratio and low output impedance
6) LVDT Provides Less friction
7) Low hysteresis
8) LVDT gives Low power consumption.

Limitations:
The core must contact directly or indirectly with the measured surface which is not always
possible or desirable. However, a non-contact thickness gauge can be achieved by including a
pneumatic servo to maintain the air gap between the nozzle and the workpiece, and dynamic
measurements being limited to no more than 1/10 of the LVDT resonant frequency. In most
cases, this results in a 2-kHz frequency cap. ion sensing in hydraulic cylinders.

Applications of LVDT:
1) LVDT is used to measure displacement ranging from fraction millimeter to centimeter.
2) Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a device to measure force, weight and
pressure, etc.

PRESSURE MEASUREMENTS
U-tube Manometer:

 Manometer is the simplest device for measuring static

pressure.

 This manometer consist of U-shaped tube in this

manometric fluid such as is filled.

 Water and mercury or any other suitable fluid are used as a

manometric fluid.

 When a pressure line is connected to one column of

manometer, the fluid in the column will be forced down,
and the fluid in the other will rise.

 By measuring the difference in height of the fluid in the

two columns, the pressure of the inlet can be expressed in
inches of fluid.

 Advantage of using these fluid is that mass density of these fluid can be obtained easily
and they do not stick to the tube.

Since, P = ρgh
h = (P₁ - P₂)/ρg
P₁ - P₂ = ρgh
Where, ρ - mass density of fluid
g - gravity
 P₁ - unknown pressure
P₂ - atmospheric pressure

BOURDON TUBE:
Construction and Working principle

 A non-liquid pressure-measurement
device.
 It is widely used in applications where
inexpensive static pressure
measurements are needed.
 A typical Bourdon contains a curved
tube with an oval cross section that is
open to external pressure input on one
end and is coupled mechanically to an
indicating needle on the other end.

 The bourdon tube is in a bent form to look like a circular arc.

 All the various form of bourdon tube have the common feature that they are constructed
the tube of non circular cross-section

 The pressure of the media acts on the inside of this tube resulting in the oval cross section
becoming almost round.

 Because of the curvature of the tube ring, the Bourdon tube bends when tension occurs.
The end of the tube (which is not fixed) moves, thus being a measurement of the
pressure.

 In a Bourdon tube, internal linkages are simplified. The external pressure is guided into
the tube and causes it to flex, resulting in a change in curvature of the tube. These
curvature changes are linked to the dial indicator for a number readout.

 Alternatively, a strain-gauge circuit can be attached on the tube to convert the pressure-
induced deflections into electric voltage signals. These signals can then be output
electronically, rather than mechanically, with the dial indicator.
 A mercury barometer can be used to calibrate and check Bourdon tubes.
Advantages: Portable, convenient, no leveling required

Limitations: Limited to static or quasi-static measurements, accuracy may be insufficient for

many applications.

FORCE-MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Hydraulic & Pneumatic Load Cell: Load cells are force sensors that frequently incorporate
mechanical packaging for fit into testing and monitoring systems. They can be used for tension,
compression, and/or shear measurement, and can be configured to measure force or load along multiple
axes. Load cells are widely used in mechanical testing, ongoing system monitoring, and devices such as
industrial weigh modules and scales.

 The cell uses conventional piston and cylinder arrangement.

 The piston is placed in a thin elastic diaphragm.
 The piston doesn't actually come in contact with the load cell.
 Mechanical stops are placed to prevent over strain of the diaphragm when the loads
exceed certain limit. The load cell is completely filled with oil.

 When the load is applied on the piston, the movement of the piston and the diaphragm
arrangement in an increase of oil pressure which in turn produces a change in the
pressure on a Bourdon tube connected with the load cells.
 Because this sensor has no electrical components, it is ideal for use in hazardous areas.
 Typical hydraulic load cell applications include result tank, bin and hopper weighing.

PROVING RING:
 The proving ring is a device used to measure force. It consists of an elastic ring made of a
steel alloy of known diameter with a measuring device located in the center of the ring.
 Proving rings can be designed to measure either compression or tension forces.
It is used as a calibration standard for large tensile-testing machines.
 Capacity 1000 N to 1000 kN.
 Deflection is used as the measure of applied load.
 This deflection is measured by a precision micrometer.
  It works on the principle of LVDT which senses the displacement caused by the force
resulting in a proportional voltage.
 It is provided with the projection lugs for loading. An LVDT is attached with the integral
internal bosses C and D for sensing the displacement caused by application of force.
 In place of LVDT micrometer can also be provided for accurate measurement of force or
deflection
 When the forces are applied through the integral external bosses A and B, the diameter of
ring changes depending upon the application which is known as ring deflection.
TORQUE MEASUREMENT:

Torsion measurement

1. Mechanical torsion meter

2. Electrical torsion meter
3. Strain gauge torsion meter
Power measurement

1. Dynamometer
2. Fluid friction dynamometer
3. Mechanical brakes
4. Strain gauge transmission.
Flow measurement:
Some flow meters
 Turbine Flow-meter
 Variable Area Meter (Rotameter)

 Flow Obstruction (Differential Pressure) Meters : Types: (1) Venturi, (2) Flow-nozzle (3)
Orifice.
 Positive Displacement Flow-meter
 Vortex Flow Meter
 Ultrasonic Flow-meter
 Magnetic Flow-meter
 Pitot-Static Pressure Probe
 Hot-wire Anemometer
 Laser Doppler Anemometer (LDA)
 Thermal Mass-flow-meter
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

 Liquid-in-glass Thermometer
 Bimetallic Strip Thermometer
 Thermocouple
 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
 Thermistor
 Pyrometer

Liquid – in – Glass Thermometer

1. Bulb: The reservoir for containing most of the
thermometric liquid (mercury).
2. Stem: The glass tube having a capillary bore along which
the liquid moves with changes in temperature.
3. Scale: A narrow-temperature-range scale for reading a
reference temperature.
Advantages
 Simplicity in use & low cost.
 Portable device.
 Checking physical damage is easy.
 Power source not require.

Disadvantages
 Can not used for automatic recording.
 Time lag in measurement.
 Range is limited to about 300 °C .

Bimetallic Thermometer
 The bimetallic strip thermometer, because it is made of metal, is good at controlling things.

 Bimetallic thermometers use the differences in thermal expansion properties of metals to

provide temperature-measurement capability.

Two basic principles of operation is to be followed in the case of a bimetallic sensor.

1) A metal tends to undergo a volumetric dimensional change (expansion/contraction),
according to the change in temperature.

2) Different metals have different co-efficient of temperatures. The rate of volumetric change
depends on this co-efficient of temperature.

Construction & Working

 The device consists of a bimetallic strip of two different metals of different thermal
expansion coefficients.
 They are bonded together to form a spiral or a twisted helix.
  Both these metals are joined together at one end by either welding or riveting.
 It is bonded so strong that there will not be any relative motion between the two.
 When temperature increases, it causes the assembly to bend. When this happens, the
metal strip with the large temperature coefficient of expansion expands more than the
other strip.

 The angular position versus temperature relation is established by calibration so that the device
can be used as a thermometer.
 Bimetal thermometers are available for temperature upto +600 °C

 A change in temperature causes the free end of the strip to expand or contract due to the
different coefficients of expansion of the two metals.
 Any temperature variation causes the bimetal to rotate an attached spindle and it is indicated
by a pointer on a dial.
 This reading will indicate the value of temperature. Bimetallic strips are available in different
forms like helix type, cantilever, spiral, and also flat type.

Applications:
1. Common application of bimetallic strips is in household thermostats.
2. Its also used in circuit breakers.

Advantages
1) Power source not required
2) Robust, easy to use and cheap.
3) Can be used to 600 °C.
Disadvantages
 Not very accurate.
 Limited to applications where manual reading is acceptable.
 Not suitable for very low temperatures because the expansion of metals tend to be too
similar, so the device becomes a rather insensitive thermometer

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

RTD can also be called a resistance thermometer as the temperature measurement will be a
measure of the output resistance.

The main principle of operation of an RTD is that when the temperature of an object increases or
decreases, the resistance also increases or decreases proportionally. ie. positive temperature
coefficient. The object substance can be a metal, or non-metal like semiconductor.

 Hence, any change in the temperature of a metal can be measured in terms of a change in its
electrical resistance.
 The electrical conductivity of a metal depends on the movement of electrons through its
crystal lattice. Due to thermal excitation, the electrical resistance of a conductor varies
according to its temperature and this forms the basic principle of resistance thermometry.
 The effect is most commonly exhibited as an increase in resistance with increasing
temperature, a positive temperature coefficient of resistance.
 The relationship between the temperature and the electrical resistance is usually non-linear
and described by a higher order polynomial:

 Resistance temperature thermometers are slowly replacing thermocouples in many lower

temperature industrial applications (below 600°C).
 Resistance temperature thermometers come in a number of construction forms and offer
greater stability, accuracy and repeatability.
 A small power source is required. No special extension cables or cold-junction
compensations are required as the resistance of a conductor is related to its temperature.

Materials most commonly utilized for resistance thermometers are platinum, copper
and nickel. However, platinum is the most dominant material internationally.
Advantages
1. Very high accuracy.
2. Excellent stability and reproducibility.
3. Interchangeability.
4. Ability to be matched to close tolerances for temperature difference measurements.
5. Ability to measure narrow spans.
6. Suitability for remote measurement.
Disadvantages
1. Susceptibility to mechanical damage.
2. Need for lead wire resistance compensation.
3. Sometimes expensive.
4. Susceptibility to self-heating error.
5. Susceptibility to signal noise.
6. Unsuitability for bare use in electrically conducting substance.
7. Generally not repairable.
8. Need for power supply.