AQA Design & Technology 8552

Unit 1 - New and emerging technologies 3.1 Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS) :
1.1 Production Techniques and Systems involves an assembly of automated machines 5.1 Planned obsolescence - Planned
commonly used on short-run batch production lines obsolescence is when a product is deliberately
where the products frequently change. designed to have a specific life span. This is
usually a shortened life span.
Advantages of CAD Disadvantages of CAD 3.2 Lean Manufacturing: It aims to manufacture 5.2 Design for maintenance - Products are often
Designs can be created, CAD software is complex to designed to be thrown away when they fail...
products just before they are required to eliminate
saved and edited easily, learn
areas of waste including: This can be achieved by designing products that
saving time
Designs or parts of designs Software can be very can be repaired and maintained.
can be easily copied or expensive • Overproduction 5.3 Disposability – Some products are designed
repeated • Waiting to be disposable.
Designs can be worked on Compatibility issues with • Transportation 5.4 Product Lifecycle -
by remote teams software
• Inappropriate processing
simultaneously
Designs can be rendered to Security issues - Risk of data • Excessive inventory
look photo-realistic to being corrupted or hacked • Unnecessary motion
gather public opinion in a • Defects
range of finishes
CAD is very accurate 3.3 Just In Time (JIT) : Items are created as they are
CAD software can process demanded. No surplus stock of raw material,
complex stress testing CAD Software
component or finished parts are kept.

Advantages of CAM Disadvantages of CAM Advantages of JIT Disadvantages of JIT

Quick – Speed of Training is required to Reliant on a high quality
production can be operate CAM. No warehousing costs
supply chain
increased.
Ordered secured Stock is not available
Consistency – All parts High initial outlay for
manufactures are all the machines. before outlay on parts immediately off-the-
same. is required shelf
Accuracy – Accuracy can be Production stoppage – If the Stock does not
greatly improved using machines break down, the become obsolete, Fewer benefits from
CAM. production would stop. damaged or bulk purchasing
Less Mistakes – There is no Social issues . Areas can
deteriorated
human error unless pre decline as human jobs are
programmed. taken.
Cost Savings – Workforce
can be reduced. 7: Key Word Focus
You should be able to explain the meaning of
One off: when you make a unique item each of these words by the end of this rotation.
Batch: when you make a few/set amount CNC Computer Numerical Control
Mass: when you make thousands EPOS Electronic Point Of Sale (Barcodes)
Laser Cutter Robots Barcode Scanner AGV – Automated
Guided Vehicle
Continuous: open ended production
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 1 New and Emerging Technologies An idea that is developed
1.1 Industry and Enterprise into a business proposal for
As industry has grown new and emerging technologies have changed the way
designers, architects and engineers work. a product that has
commercial viability.
Intelligent machines and robotics have replace machine operators and
Products developed in this
engineers. way require a patent to
New technologies are those that are currently being developed or The development of work now almost always involves the use of Computer protect the idea so that
will be developed in the next 5 to 10 years, and which will alter the Aided Design (CAD). other companies cannot use
business and social environment. This software can carry out complex tasks such as virtual stress testing this is it without permission this is
Examples: called Computer Aided Testing (CAT). called a registered
Designs can be produced to look 3D so customers ca give opinions before trademark.
Fuel-cell vehicles prototyping begins.
Zero-emission cars that run on hydrogen

The development of the internet has changed how Funding a project or venture by raising money from
data is transferred. This has lead to people being a large number of people who each contribute a
able to work together remotely (from different relatively small amount, typically via the Internet.
buildings or countries).
Projects can be sent to machines using computer
aided manufacturing (CAD) techniques including
computer numerical control (CNC) machines such as Virtual marketing the use of search
Additive manufacturing
laser cutters and rapid prototyping (RPT) machines engines positioning and ranking,
The future of making things, from printable organs to intelligent
such as 3D printers. banner advertising, e-mail marketing
clothes
Physical layout of buildings for production should be and social media in order to reach a
logical to increase efficiency. This will reduce wider audience to promote a
unproductive time, movement and waste materials. product.

Trade between companies in

A farm, developed countries and
business, or producers in developing
other countries in which fair prices
organization are paid to the producers.
which is owned
and run jointly
by its members,
who share the
profits or
benefits.
Image from AQA
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 1 New and Emerging Technologies Companies putting the environment and people before profit.
1.3 People, Culture and Society
Examples:
• Carbon Neutral Products
• Use of renewable materials
Consumer Choice • Reduction of carbon emissions/greenhouse gasses
Growth of global manufacturing has lead to a wider variety of products being • Use of recycled materials
available, prices of products are kept low because of the wider competition. • Products designed to be 100% recyclable
Technology Push • Promotion of Fairtrade
Advances in technology and science lead to the development of new products. • Reduction of transportation
Research and Development (R&D) Departments are used within large • Non profit organisations that reinvest money to support good causes
companies to ensure they can create new and exciting products. • Consideration to designing products for the elderly or disabled
• Consideration to different religious groups

4 main ways to consider the population when designing

Type of Production Example

One size fits all Door Frames
Baths
A range of sizes to cover Shoes
Advances in touchscreen technology all Clothes
Adjustability to allow use Car Seats
Market Pull by all Shower head height
The demand for new products from the consumer market. Market Pull is the
pressure put on a company to improve their products by consumers. Adaptability to support Children’s booster seats
location or user Car roof bars
Changing Job Roles
The development of new technologies and automation has meant there is less
reliance on manual labour. Workers need to be ‘skilled up’ and be more flexible.
A combination of ideas, beliefs, customs and social behaviours of a society or
group of people.
Fashion and Trends
Designers developing products that are influenced by ‘the latest thing’.
Faiths and Beliefs
Designers being responsible for the impact their design choices may have on a
community.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552 Life cycle assessment (LCA) to assess the impact of a Continuous Improvement
Unit 1 New and Emerging Technologies Kaizen, also known as continuous
product during the different stages of its life. The 5 main
2.1 Sustainability and the environment improvement, is a long-term approach
stages are:
to work that seeks to achieve small,
incremental changes in processes in
Avoidance of the depletion of natural resources. order to improve efficiency and
quality. It is best known for being used
Finite Resources e.g. Ore and Oil
in lean manufacturing.
Materials which are in limited supply. Use of
Efficient Working
these should be avoided where possible or only
Just in time (JIT) and lean
used in small amounts.
manufacturing are examples of
Non Finite Resources e.g. Trees and Plants Image from AQA how businesses reduce costs.
Materials in abundant supply and are unlikely to
Other examples are members of
ever run out or ones that can be grown again.
staff doing ‘energy walks’ to turn
Consideration to waste disposal has an impact on the off lights etc. to reduce costs and
The impact of the use of resources can be environment and a product life cycle. CO2 emissions.
measured by the following: Businesses are charged for waste disposal, reducing Pollution
• CO2 emissions waste disposal will save money. Business’s should aim to reduce
• Transportation method and distance travelled The effects of careful consideration of waste disposal pollution by conducting an LCA.
• Impact on the environment through mining or within a business are: Global Warming
harvesting • Less raw materials required The release of CO2, methane (CH4)
• Availability or scarcity • Reusing waste materials/components within a and nitrous oxide (N2O) into the
• Maintenance or repair costs company environment resulting in the rise of
• Ethical and moral issues • Sale of recyclable waste average temperatures of the earth’s
• Energy to heat and power a business could be atmosphere and oceans.
generated Carbon Offsetting
Image from AQA

Technologies that have a positive impact: Technologies that have a negative impact:
• Renewable materials from managed resources • Use of finite/non-recycled materials
• Use of renewable energy • Use of components that are hard to repair
• Using recyclable materials • Use of fossil fuels for power
• Consideration to the 6r’s • Products with high power consumption
• Designing products with low power consumption • Products that have built in planned obsolescence
• Designing products with fewer components and reduced weight • Components that are shipped globally
• Designing products that are upgradable extending their life
• Creating products that are sourced, produced and sold locally
 AQA Design & Technology 8552 2. Renewable Energy 4. Energy Storage
Unit 2: Energy, Materials, Systems and Devices Energy that comes from the planets non-finite Most mechanical power is stored by using tension or
2.1 Energy Generation and Storage resources is renewable. It includes compression. Coiled springs used in clocks, watches
and wind up toys store physical energy from the
winding process which is then released slowly through
1. Energy Generation cogs, gears and other mechanisms.
Power can be generated from renewable and non-
renewable sources. Non-renewable power is generated 4.1 Pneumatics – A form of compression is used to
from fossil fuels. store gas or air under pressure. They are commonly
used to controlling production lines. They are accurate,
Most electricity is created by rotating a turbine which turns efficient and low maintenance.
a generator. Fossil fuels are burnt to create heat which 2.1 Wind Power
superheats the water. The steam rotates the turbine which • Low cost • Do not create power 4.2 Hydraulics – Very similar to Pneumatics but uses a
is linked to the generator to supply the electricity. • Produce More power in when not enough wind or liquid, most commonly Oil. Extremely powerful and
winter when demand is it is too windy. using in manufacturing industrial applications.
higher. • Harmful to wildlife
• Ugly Both systems will use a compressor which pump the air
2.2 Solar Energy
or liquid into a storage tank to hold it until it is needed.

• Low maintenance costs. • Only produce energy 4.3 Kinetic Energy – any object in motion has kinetic
1.1 Fossil Fuels – Most electricity in the UK comes from • Improvements in during daytime. energy. Objects not in motion store potential energy
technology mean the • Production is less in which is converted to kinetic energy when a force is
burning Fossil Fuels such as Coal, Gas and Oil. Fossil fuels
efficiency is always winter. applied to the object such as gravity.
are finite resources and cannot be replaced as they run improving.
out. Burning fossil fuels creates carbon dioxide and is not
environmentally friendly and contributes to global 2.3 Tidal Energy 4.4 Batteries – Electrical power can be stored in
warming. batteries. Battery technology has vastly improved
• Predictable and • Machinery has to be
alongside the power consumption of modern electronic
consistent. located some distance
1.2 Fracking – Shale gas is trapped within the earths crust. from land making repair
devices helping save valuable finite resources.
Fracking is the process which removes it so it can then be and maintenance
burnt to create electricity. It involves drilling the earths difficult. Alkaline batteries are more efficient than traditional
crust and sending high pressure water, sand and chemical acid based batteries and hold their charge well.
2.4 Hydro Electric Power
mixtures into the rock to release the gas.
• Very reliable • High set up costs both Rechargeable batteries are capable of being charge d
and discharged thousands of times reducing the
3. Nuclear Power financially and
environmentally. resources needed. The time it takes for rechargeable
Nuclear power is highly controversial. The process batteries to reach full charge has also improved in
harnesses a nuclear reaction to create to create heat to 2.5 Bio Fuel
recent years making their use much more convenient.
power the turbines. • Carbon Neutral – They • Vast amounts of land and
• Clean • High start up costs absorb the CO2 whilst water needed to produce 4.5 Disposal of Batteries – Batteries must be disposed
• Efficient • Radioactive waste which is very dangerous growing and produce the crops which of correctly as they contain toxic electro chemicals. If
to all living things. similar amounts when contribute to food placed in the normal bin and they end up in land fill
• Nuclear waste stays radioactive for millions burnt for energy. shortages in developing sites, it will degrade over time and release harmful
of years and is stored underground. countries. chemicals and metals into the soil and water.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 2: Energy, Materials, Systems and Devices 8.Batteries
3. Nuclear Energy – Renewable Alkaline batteries are the most
2.1 Energy Generation and Storage
energy common type of domestic
batteries, they are disposable but
contain chemicals that are bad for
The main nuclear fuels
the environment. Fortunately
1. Fossil Fuels – Non-renewable energy are uranium and plutonium. In a nuclear
more and more battery recycling
power station nuclear fuel undergoes a
banks are appearing now where
controlled chain reaction in the reactor to
most of the battery can be reused.
produce heat - nuclear to heat energy.
Rechargeable batteries are better
• heat is used to change water into
for the environment and more
steam in the boiler.
economical in the long run (High
• the steam drives the turbine (heat to
initial purchase price). Their
kinetic energy)
lifespan decreases with every
• this drives the generator to produce
charge.
electricity - kinetic to electrical energy.

6. Tidal Energy – Renewable Energy

4. Wind Energy – Renewable Energy
In a thermal power station fuel such as coal, oil or gas is burned in
a furnace to produce heat - chemical to heat energy.

• this heat is used to change water into steam in the boiler.

• the steam drives the turbine - heat to kinetic energy

• this drives the generator to produce electricity - kinetic to

electrical energy.

Some experts believe that fossil fuels will run out in our lifetime.

2. Biomass Energy –Renewable Energy 5. Solar Energy – Renewable Energy 7. Hydroelectricity – Renewable Energy
• In a hydroelectric power
station water is stored
behind a dam in a reservoir.
This water has gravitational
potential energy.
• The water runs down pipes
(potential to kinetic energy)
to turn the turbine
• The turbine is connected to
Biomass is an industry term for getting energy by burning wood, and a generator to produce
other organic matter. Burning biomass releases carbon emissions, but electricity (kinetic to
has been classed as a renewable energy source in the EU and UN legal electrical energy).
frameworks, because plant stocks can be replaced with new growth.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552 2. Smart Materials
Unit 2: Energy, Materials, Systems and Devices A material that reacts to an external stimulus or input to alter its functional or
2.2 Smart & Modern Materials aesthetic properties.. They can react to heat, light, pressure, moisture and electricity.
1. Modern materials Name Stimulus What is does? Uses
1.1 Corn Starch Polymers – plastics that are biodegradable and not toxic to
the environment. They are easy to recycle. 2.1 Heat Changes colour when • Flexible thermometers
Thermochromic heat is applied. • Temperature indicators
Name Uses Characteristics pigments • Novelty goods
Polylactic acid • Disposable • Smooth or textured finish. 2.2 UV Light Changes colour in • Transition Lens Sunglasses
(PLA) food and • Easy to Colour Photochromic (Natural sunlight/UV Light • Nail varnish
drink • Easy to mould pigments & Light) • Clothing
containers • Fully biodegradable particles • Novelty goods
• 3D Printed
Items 2.3 Shape Heat or Returns to original/pre • Glasses Frames
memory alloy Electricity set shape when • Fire Sprinklers
Polyhydroxybu • Bottles • Smooth or textured finish. heated to 70°C or • Dental Braces
tyrate • Pots • Easy to Colour Nitinol electricity is applied. • Surgical Stents
(PHB) • Disposable • Easy to mould
food • Fully (but slowly) biodegradable. 2.4 Polymorph Heat Becomes mouldable • Personalisation of products
Biopol™ containers by hand when heated • Repairs
to 62°C • Prototyping & Modelling
1.2 Flexible MDF – Is made from wood pulp fibres in the same
way as standard MDF, with the addition of grooves cut along 2.5 Quantum Pressure Varies the amount of • Touch sensitive pads
the length of the board leaving about 2mm of the MDF intact Tunnelling electrical current • Wearable technology
Composite depending on • Variable speed controls
which allows the MDF to become flexible.
pressure applied.

1.3 Titanium – Pure titanium does not react with the human 2.6 Piezoelectric Movement Stress or movement • Mobile phone speakers and microphones
body and is used by the medical profession for artificial joints Material , stress or produces electrical • Gas Lighters ignition spark
and dental implants. It has a high strength to weight ratio and electricity signal or vice versa.
has excellent corrosion resistance. 2.7 Litmus Levels of Changes colour • Scientific experiments
Paper PH in spending on chemical • Soil testing for gardener/farmers
1.4 Graphene – thinnest material ever discovered, a million substances. balance. • Testing swimming pools and fish tanks
times thinner than a human hair, 200 times stronger than
steel. It is transparent, impermeable and highly conductive.

1.5 Nanomaterials - Their use in electronics has helped

miniaturisation whilst improving conductivity. IN the textiles
industry, they have been used as protective coatings to
improve water resistance and give UV protection.

1.6 Metal Foams - Porous metal structures, often made from

Titanium and Aluminium use as little as 25% of the mass. This
makes them extremely lightweight but retaining most of the
properties of the base material.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 2: Energy Materials Systems and Devices
2.10: Composite Materials and Technical Textiles
From AQA

2 or more materials combined to create a new material with improved properties.

Name Appearance Image Characteristics Uses

Glass Reinforced Plastic Glass fibre matting covered in a smooth resin Lightweight, strong, resistant to heat, Car body parts, pipes, helmets, boat
(GRP) with a glossy finish. Can be coloured, chemicals and corrosion. Waterproof. hulls.
complex shapes can be formed. Labour intensive to produce.

Carbon Fibre Reinforced Carbon in the form of graphite is soft. But Lightweight, strong, good tensile Skateboards, boat hulls and high
Plastic very thin strands of carbon are very stiff. strength, rigid, very expensive resistant performance sports equipment.
(CRP) These carbon fibres are useful for reinforcing to heat, chemicals and corrosion.
other materials to make them tougher. They Waterproof. Labour intensive to
are embedded in strong plastics to make produce.
composite materials.

A technical textile is a textile developed with enhanced properties to withstand specific uses.

Name Appearance Image Characteristics Uses

Gore-Tex Thin membrane between an liner and Has the desirable properties of nylon, but is also 'breathable'. Lets water vapour Outdoor clothing and footwear
outer material. from sweat pass to the outside, but it stops rain drops from passing to the
inside.

Kevlar by DuPont Naturally a yellowish gold material which Very strong artificial fibre. It is woven to make a material that is used for light Body Armour, safety clothing
(Polyparaphenylene can be dyed. and flexible body armour. High thermal protection, non flammable, good
terephthalamide) chemical resistance.

Conductive Fabrics and A silvery fabric or thread. Electrical current passes through the thread linking electrical components. It Wearable inputs and processes such as
Thread allows flexible and wearable control of electronic products. switches, lights, clothing, toys etc.

Fire Resistant Fabrics Appearance varies. Most can be dyed to Protects the wearer from ignition from naked flame. Heat resistant. Fire blankets, safety clothing. Race car
change colour. driver protection.

Microfibers and A thin synthetic fibre woven into products. Polyester or nylon microfibres are 60 to 100 times finer than a human hair. They Clothing for outdoor pursuits, active
Microencapsulation Can be dyed to change colour. can be blended with synthetic or natural fibres. sports, underwear, knitwear and
Thermoplastic polyester or nylon microfibres can be heat-treated to give them carpets.
coils, crimps and loops, which makes these textured yarns stretchy and warm.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 2: Energy Materials Systems and Devices
2.11 Systems approach to designing

A system is parts or components working

together to control tasks or activities.

Systems Diagram
A simple flowchart that lays out input,
process, output – an automatic door

Open loop and closed loop

Has no feedback and is unable to make
a decision – a room heater- has to be
manually switched off

Closed loop
Able to make a decision using feedback
– central heating system –
automatically switch off when the
desired temperature is reached

Image from AQA

Images from AQA
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 2: Energy Materials Systems and Devices
2.12 Electronic systems processing
Micro controllers also called Peripheral interface controllers (PICs) can be programmed to
perform differently by a computer.

Components that process electronic signals Timers

and enable output devices to perform tasks. Devices used to perform specific tasks. 2 Astable – fluctuates between on and off –
This is controlled by an integrated circuit (IC) types monostable and astable. oscillating output e.g. Seatbelt alarm in a
Monostable – output turned on for a set car
e.g. A microcontroller
period of time e.g. Automatic doors

Analogue – Continuous signal

with an infinite range e.g.
thermistor

Image from AQA

Program for the microcontroller to

Microcontrollers – How a microcontroller make LED’s flash in sequence
Digital – Either on or off –
would control a bike light.
0 is off 1 is on

Image from AQA

Counters – Keep count of how many times

something occurs, output information to a seven
segment display.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 2: Energy, Materials, Systems and Devices
There are three classes of levers. Reverse The reverse motion linkage
2.5 Mechanical Devices changes the direction of the
motion
Class One input motion so that the output
linkage
travels in the opposite direction.
A class one lever
If the input is pulled the output
has its input on one
There are four types of motion: pushes and vice versa. It uses a
side of the fulcrum
central bar held in position with
Linear Motion is and its output on
a fixed pivot (fulcrum) that
the other.
movement in one direction forces the change in direction
along a straight line. and two moving pivots which are
Class Two connected to the input and
Oscillating Motion A class two lever output bars.
This motion is similar to has its input at one
reciprocating motion, but end of the lever, its Parallel The push/pull linkage maintains
the constant movement is output in the motion the direction of the input motion
from side to side along a middle and fulcrum so that the output travels in the
or
curved path. at the other end. same direction. If the input is
push/ pulled the output is pulled and
Rotary Motion pull so on. It uses three linking bars,
Examples of circular motion
Class Three linkage four moving pivots and two fixed
A class three lever pivots.
include a ball tied to a rope
has its output at
and being swung round in a The bell crank linkage changes
one end of the Bell
circle the direction of the input motion
lever, its fulcrum at crank
the other with its through 90 degrees. It can be
Reciprocating linkage
input in the middle. used to change horizontal
Motion, this is repetitive motion into vertical motion or
up-and-down or back-and- vice versa. It uses a fixed pivot
forth linear motion and two moving pivots.

Crank The crank and slider linkage

and changes rotary motion into
reciprocating motion or vice
slider
versa. It uses a crank which is
Input arm:
Output arm: held with a fixed pivot. A
400 mm Or use the following
100 mm connecting rod uses two moving
long
long formula: pivots to push and pull a slider
along a set path.
Input
Output MA = Load = 300N = 3
distance Treadle The treadle linkage changes
100 mm
distance Effort 100N 1 rotary motion into oscillating
25 mm linkage
motion or vice versa. It uses a
400 mm 100
This is written as 3:1 or crank which is held with a fixed
mm
just MA of 3 pivot. A connecting rod uses two
Output ÷ Input x Input distance = Output distance moving pivots and a further
fixed pivot to create a
100 ÷ 400 x 100 = 25 mm windscreen wiper motion.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 3: Materials and Working Properties
3.1 Paper and Board Type Description and uses
Type Weight Uses Relative
Corrugated • strong and lightweight
or cost
• used for packaging protection and point of sale
card stands thickness (10=
Type Description and uses high)
• available in different thicknesses
Layout paper • lightweight, thin white paper
• Duplex • large foam-based board Newsprint 50gsm Newspapers 1
used for initial ideas
• different finishes available including metallic
• takes colour media well board and hologrammatic
• low cost Layout 60gsm Sketches 3
• used for food packaging, e.g. take-away pizza Paper and tracing
Tracing paper • thin, translucent paper boxes
• making copies of drawings • Tracing 70 gsm Tracing 4
Foil lined quality cardboard with a aluminium foil lining
• high cost • ideal for ready made meals or take away meal Paper
board
cartons
Sugar Paper 90gsm Cheap 2
Cartridge paper • good quality white paper • The foil retains the heat and helps keep the food
mounting
• available in different weights warm
work
• general purpose work Foam core • very light, very stiff and very flat.
• can be used to make simple models • It has a white, rigid polystyrene foam centre, Inkjet/Photo 150- Photos/Pres 9
• medium cost
board with smooth white paper laminated onto both paper 230gsm entations
Bleedproof • smooth, hard paper faces.
• It is easy to cut with a knife, a mount cutter or Board (Card) 230-750 Model- 5
paper • used with water-based and spirit-based
on a wall cutter microns making
felt-tip pens
• medium cost • great for modelling
Mount 230-1000 Model- 9
Ink jet card • Has been treated so that it will give a high quality Board microns making,
Grid paper • printed square and isometric grids in
finish with inkjet ink High picture
different sizes
• available in matt and gloss quality
• a guide for quick sketches and working
drawings Solid white • top quality cardboard made from quality mounting
• bleached wood pulp.
low cost board •
Corrugated 3000-5000 Packaging 5
used for hard backed books and more expensive
Card microns protection
items
• excellent print finish
When selecting materials and components considering the
factors listed below:
• Functionality: application of use, ease of working
• Aesthetics: surface finish, texture and colour. Paper and board is available in sizes from A0 (biggest) to A7 (smallest).
• Environmental factors: recyclable or reused materials, The most common size is A4. 7: Key Word Focus
product mileage. Each size is half the one before, You should be able to explain the meaning of
• Availability: ease of sourcing and purchase. eg A4 is half the
each of these words by the end of this rotation.
• Cost: bulk buying. size of A3.
• Social factors: social responsibility. They are also GSM Grams per Square Metre
• Cultural factors: sensitive to cultural influences. sold by weight: Microns Thickness of paper or card.
• Ethical factors: purchased from ethical sources such as GSM –
grams per square
1000microns =1mm thickness
FSC.
What is the FSC? http://www.fsc-uk.org/en-uk/about- metre.
fsc/what-is-fsc/fsc-principles Card thickness or calliper is traditionally measured in Microns. 1000
Microns = 1mm, so the higher the value, the thicker the card or paper.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 3: Materials and Working Properties
3.2 Natural and Manufactured Boards

Carbon Fibre GRP Fibreglass

Expensive in comparison GRP is composed of
to other materials. strands of glass which
are woven to form a
Very good strength to flexible fabric. The
weight ratio. fabric is normally placed
in a mould and
Used in the manufacture polyester resin is added.
of high end sports cars
and sports equipment. Glass reinforced plastic
is lightweight and has
good thermal insulation
properties. It has a high
strength to weight ratio
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 3: Materials and Working Properties Blended and mixed Fabrics
These fabrics take on the positive characteristics of their combinations
3.3 Textiles Washing
Cotton/Polyester Easy care and crease Uses: Label-
resistant School shirts. will
Natural Fabrics usually
have a
Cotton Soft, good absorbency, Origins from the Cotton Uses: max.
prints well, machine Plant. Jeans, towels,
washable, strong Shirts, dresses,
temp
breathable underwear Woven number
Extremely strong and included
Wool High UV protection, Origins from Sheep. Uses: Jumpers, Plain Weave
flameproof, Coat, blankets hard wearing
breathable, durable Hand
insulating Wash
Silk Smooth, Soft, Strong Origins from the silk Uses: only
Twill Weave Extremely high
worm. Wedding dresses,
strength and abrasion
lingerie. Do not
resistant.
Linen Strong, cool in hot Origins from the flax Uses: wring
weather plant Trousers, tops. out
Leather/Suede Strong, hardwearing, Origins from the skin of Uses:
durable. animals, mainly cows. Jackets, Trousers, Knitted Tumble
Shoes.
Knitted fabrics Stretchy, soft and Dry
comfortable.
Synthetic fabrics Iron on
Polyester Durable, wrinkle resistant, stain Uses: low
resistant Shirts, jackets. Also used in safety
belts, conveyor belts and tyre heat.
reinforcement. Non-Woven The
more
Polyamide Durable, high abrasion resistance Uses: These are webs of
Bonded Fabrics dots the
(Nylon) Sportswear, carpets. fibres held together
by glue or stitches. higher
Elastane (Lycra) Stretchy, durable, high stain Uses: the
resistance Sportswear, Swimwear, tights.
Felted Fabrics Felt is made by heat
Viscose Soft, comfortable, absorbent, Uses: combining pressure, setting
easily dyed. Dresses, linings, shorts, shirts, moisture and hear to
coats, jackets and outerwear. interlock a mat of
wool fibres. Do not
Acrylic Absorbent, retains shape after Uses:
washing, easily dyed, resistance Jumpers, tracksuits, linings in bleach
to sunlight. boots.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 4: Specialist technical principles
4.1 Forces and Stresses
Process Description Result Example Visual
Force Description A fair test for each How a material / Examples Example
Plywood:
force/stress. object can be
Laminations at 90
adapted to Depending on the degrees to each
direction of
resist other - Rigid
Layering of thin lamination it can
Apply the same weight to Lamination materials make boards stiffer
Forces pulling in Concrete can have Flexi-ply:
each material and or actually more
Tension opposite
suspended in the same
steel bars inserted to
flexible laminations all the
directions. reinforce.
manner. same direction -
Insert materials into a Composite panels can Bendy
Forces that are Folding a 90
vice/clamp and apply the have a honeycomb
Compression trying to crush or
same amount of twists to structure sandwiched Bending / degree edge Makes the panel Body panels on
shorten.
the handle. in the middle to resist. Folding on sheet metal more rigid cars
/ plastic
Steel beams have an I
Apply the same weight to Modern
Bending Flexing force
the material.
profile to resist
bending. polymer Extremely strong
Webbing fabrics woven and durable fabric
Seat belts
Use clamps & stands to
The diagonals on a together
hold the materials and
tower crane help the A
Torsion Twisting force. turn in opposite
structure against
directions at the same strengthening
torsion. Fabric Adds strength /
angle. material added Shirt collars
interfacing to the unseen
shape
Shear A strain produced Place the material Bolts are hardened
when an object is between a tool that and have unthreaded face of a fabric
subjected to works in opposite shanks to help stop
opposing forces. directions. e.g. Shears shearing.

Timber being seasoned in a

Process Material Purpose
kiln
Seasoning Timber Removes the moisture content so that the timber will not shrink, warp and twist

Annealing Copper bowl being annealed

Copper Softens the copper to make it more malleable
(heating)
Metal compounds (stabilisers)
Addition of
PVC Stops plastic become brittle with exposure to the sun are added to PVC for UV
Stabilisers protection
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 4: Common specialist technical principals
4.20 Improving functionality
Laminating
Stiffening a material to improve strength, stability and flexibility.
Reinforcing Plywood
Strengthening a material so it withstands
force and stress
Car tyre

Concrete Paper

Denim - rivets

Fabric Interfacing
An additional layer of fabric to support certain areas of fabric. Baseball cap - peak

Webbing Shirt Collar

 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 4: Specialist technical principles
4.4 6Rs Reusing products multiple times for the same purpose is also known as primary recycling. Reusing a
product in a different way from the one it was designed for is known as secondary recycling.
The classic glass milk bottle is reused many times before it reaches the end of its useful life, as which point
The 6 Rs are an important checklist. They are used by designers to it is recycled. A plastic milk bottle, however, is intended to be used only one, although it can have many
reduce the environmental impact of products. They can also be used different subsequent uses.
to evaluate the environmental impact of other products. Donating to and buying from charity shops extends the life of products and in recent years there has been
The hierarchy of sustainability places the strategies that are best for a resurgence of in products having second lives, thanks to websites such as eBay, Freecycle or Gum tree.
the planet about those that have a greater negative impact on the
environment.
It is also becoming popular for furniture and other household items to be upcycled with a coat of paint
and some minor repairs or adaptations, extending their useful life by many years.
The first stage in the process is to ask whether the proposed product, part, purchase or even
journey is required at all. Asking the question ‘Is it really necessary?’ can play a major role in
reducing the demand on materials. Simply not using something saves 100% of what you have Being able to repair a product when it is broken or worn is a way of extending its life and delaying the
chosen not to use. Example include: purchase of a new one. Repairing is a positive option over replacement as it means that only some parts
• Using your own carrier bag rather than purchasing a new one. of the product are replaced. This creates jobs for skilled people who conduct repairs and stimulates a
• Walking or cycling to school instead of being driven. spare parts market.
• Not using products such as some pesticides that are known to be harmful to the Unfortunately, repairing products has become harder over years. Growing number of products are not
environment. design to be repaired. There are a number of reasons why items may be designed this way, but it is
• Not eating (or using) products that are over-farmed, over-fished or on the endangered list. usually because they are cheaper to replace than repair. Some products, especially modern electronic
products, are designed to last only a few years as technology dates quickly and older products will be
superseded by newer, faster, more efficient models. This is called planned obsolescence.
Consumers have a growing number of choices to make about where and on what they spend
their income. Greener and more sustainable options are not always the cheapest or the best,
but making informed decision and rethinking ones spending power can play a huge part in Tertiary recycling, although a very important stage, is lower down the hierarchy of preferred options
conserving resources. because most materials that are recycled this way tend to be of lower quality than the original material. It
Deciding on the design of a product, e.g. the materials being used in its production, will directly takes a lot of energy to recycle materials.
affect its sustainability. The types of questions designers need to ask are: This form of recycling requires the reprocessing of the material and in many cases involves chemicals
• Are the materials locally sourced? and/or heat to recover the recycled materials. In an ideal world, tertiary recycling would remove all
• Are they sustainably produced? recyclable materials from our household waste so that only biodegradable materials would be left. Only
• Is it essential to use this material, of which there is a finite supply? very few parts of the world are set up to cope with this level of processing.
By rethinking how the product is likely to be made, the product can often be redesigned in a
more responsible way.

Our planet has to provide all of our basic human needs, such as food, shelter and warmth.
Designers now have a much better understanding of which materials are sustainable and which are not.
Reduction is often the result of having re-thought a design or action. Materials and energy are The general principle is that resources fall into two categories:
saved due to efficient manufacturing practices and the use of clever design, incorporating Finite resources – are ones which are in limited supply or cannot be reproduced.
sustainable materials. Non-finite resources – are ones which are in abundant supply and are unlikely to be exhausted.
• Modern materials that are lighter and stronger than traditional ones have contributed to
the miniaturisation of products, saving material and energy in manufacture and use.
• Reducing the complexity or number of parts a product uses and reducing the number of
Once all useful and recyclable materials are removed, the majority of the remaining waste is organic
different materials in a product makes recycling easier.
matter and can be processed in one of two ways; ‘Recover’ or ‘Rot’. Food waste and garden waste can be
• In factories, schools and hotels, fitting motion sensitive lighting and smart heating systems
processed at a high temperature and turned into compost. The waste can also be buried in landfill sites
can significantly reduce energy usage.
where the resulting methane gas from the rotting matter is collected and burned and used to generate
• Many large companies employ staff to conduct ‘energy walks’ to turn off unused
heat or electricity in the same way.
appliances and lights and to ensure windows and doors are shut to conserve heat.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 5: Materials
Original source, commercial manufacturing and surface finish From AQA

Material Original Source Commercial Manufacturing Surface Finish

Hardwood - Deciduous Tree CNC Routing and turning Oil – Soaks into the timber, must be reapplied frequently.
Oak

Softwood - Coniferous Tree Wood preservative – Protects from fungal or insect attack and
Pine prevents rot. Reapplication may be required.

Manufactured Trees Paint – painted on with a roller or brush, can also be sprayed.
Board - MDF Needs a primer and undercoat.

Material Original Source Commercial Manufacturing Surface Finish Material Original Source Commercial Manufacturing Uses

Galvanising: Injection Moulding

Ferrous Iron ore (rocks Hydraulic Press Thermoplastic Toys (Lego), hard
involves dipping
metal – and minerals) - ABS hats, electronic
metal into a bath
Steel of molten zinc. castings
The zinc provides
a good corrosion
resistant finish.
Anodising: provides Crude Oil
Non- Bauxite ore Die Casting Thermosetting Press Moulding Electrical fittings,
ferrous (rocks and a hard-wearing plastic handles
corrosion-resistant
metal - minerals)
aluminium
finish. Anodising .
involves electrolysis
and uses acids and
electric currents.
Powder coating:
Alloy - Metal ore CNC Milling Biodegradable Vegetable starch 3D printing Rapid prototyping,
process used in
Duralumin (rocks and industry. The
Plastic – disposable items
minerals) powder is sprayed Polylactic acid
Alu 94% (PLA)
Copper 4% onto products
Magnesium 1% which run through
Manganese 1% an oven.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 5E: Textile based Materials
5E.1 Working with textile based Materials and Fixings
Applique

Hand Beads &

Embroidery Sequins
Open seam This is used as the main method
for constructing textile products.
It is normally finished with Heat Gathers
overlocking to neaten the edges Transfer
and prevent fraying. Buttons Tucks
Batik
French Seam This seam is used on delicate
fabrics that can not be
overlocked. It is generally used
within lingerie. Tie Dye Pin Tucks

Machine and Very strong double stitched seam Quick

Fell Seam for heavy fabrics. Commonly used unpick
on jeans. Sewing
Pins Fabric
Machine
Shears
Overlocking Used to neaten seams to prevent
Overlocker Ironing Tape
fraying. Generally hidden on the
inside of a product. Board Measure
Sewing threads
Binding Used to finish a curved edge on a Needle
product, where over-locking is not Iron
suitable.
Embroidery Pinking
Scissors Shears

Seam Allowance Right Side

This is usually a 1cm ‘boarder’ around your pattern to allow for This is the ‘correct’ side of the
Pattern Pressing
construction to be the correct size. fabric that you wish to see.
This is the term given to a paper template to aid This is the term given when
in the cutting out of fabric for accurate ironing your product; e.g. press
construction. your seams open, would refer to
Wrong Side when an open seam is sewn and
This is the side of the they need to pressed outwards
fabric that you do not to give a flat finish.
wish to see.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552 Uneven evaporation of the water content can cause Plywood and block board use the lamination
Unit 5B: Specialist Technical Principles – Timber method where layers of wood are bonded
some common faults such as twisting, cupping and
Based Materials together using an adhesive. Medium Density
bowing which can render the timber useless for
5.1 – Sources, origins and properties Pg. 1 Fibreboard (MDF), chipboard, oriented strand
many tasks. If the end grain dries too quickly, it can
cause the plank to split. board (OSB) and hardboard use the compression
1.1 Timber Conversion method where wood is shredded, chipped or
After a tree is felled (chopped down) and then cut into pulped, then heated and compressed under high
manageable lengths, it is then converted into planks. pressure, in most cases using adhesives to bond
At this point is in known as timber. Timber is supplied the particles together.
in two main types of finish. Rough Sawn or planed all
round (PAR). Rough sawn timber is not planed and is
rough all around to touch. It is often used for exterior There are two methods of seasoning; air-drying or
tasks or where the finish is not important. PAR has a kiln drying . Air dried timber is stacked so that air
much smother finish as it has been planed down on all can circulate around the planks and evaporation can
sides. It is used for furniture and internal features such take place. It takes approximately one year per
as windows or doors. Finishes such as varnish or paint 25mm of plank thickness to season and in the UK Ply Wood MDF OSB Chipboard
can be easily applied. Planed timber is less absorbent the moisture content typically reduces to around
than rough sawn timber. 18%.
1.4 Veneer
Some manufactured boards are covered in a thin
Kiln-dried timber (A kiln is basically a Giant Oven)
slice of natural timber called a veneer. These
can have a much lower moisture content and it is a
natural wood slices are taken from the trunk of a
much faster process, meaning the timber can be
tree and are bonded to the surface of cheaper
sold much sooner. It costs more then air drying, as
sheet materials. Veneers are commonly seen on
heat and pressure is used but no additional land is
Timber is available in many different shapes and sizes, medium density fiberboard (MDF) and plywood.
required to store the timber while seasoning takes
standardized to enable different varieties to be used There are two methods of veneer production;
place. Kiln dried timber is less prone to faults and
together. rotary and knife cut. Rotational veneer production
the heat also kills off bacteria and insects that may
produces the longest sheets and involves rotating
attack the timber.
1.2 Seasoning a whole trunk on an industrial machine similar to
Once timber is converted into a workable form, it is a wood turning lathe. It is a bit like a huge pencil
1.3 Manufactured Board sharpener creating one long ribbon of veneer.
seasoned in order to reduce the moisture content.
Natural timber is combined with the adhesive to
Typically a newly felled tree will have a moisture
make manufactured boards. They can be made
content of over 50% and is known as green timber.
from waste, low-grade and recycled timber and are
The moisture content needs to be reduced to below
usually produced in pale brown natural finish. Each
20% for most exterior applications, below 15% for
manufactured board is produced in a slightly
interior work and below 10% for interior areas that
different way, the two main process used are
are constantly heated.
lamination and compression.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552 1.6 Additional common manufactured boards
Unit 5B: Specialist Technical Principles – Timber Name Characteristics Uses
Based Materials
5.1 – Sources, origins and properties Pg. 2 Blockboard Stable, tough, relatively heavy, Furniture, doors, shelving, indoor
finishes well, indoor use owing to construction.
1.5 Advantages and disadvantages of manufactured board adhesives used.

Manufactured Board
Hardboard Flexible in large sheets, even Furniture and picture frame
• Available in large • Adhesives used to bond strength, easily damaged by water backings. Internal panelling.
sheets, very stable the boards can contain unless treated. Inexpensive.
which saves time and hazardous particles that
energy joining arrow can cause cancer.
Oriented Strand Board (OSB) Rigid and even strength in all Construction hoarding, interior and
planks together. directions, good water resistance. exterior house building.
• No defects such as • Machining and sanding
warping. Twisting, some boards especially
cupping and splitting MDF, causes very small 1.7 Additional softwoods
which occur in natural particles of dust to be
wood, meaning less released, easily Name Characteristics Uses
waste. breathed in, even Redwood Easy to work and machines well. Outdoor furniture, beams, posts,
through a mask. Some rot resistance. decking, veneers.
• They do not have knots • Tools can blunt easily
or resin pockets which owing to the adhesives Cedar Easy to work, can blunt tools, Outdoor furniture, fences cladding for
can be hard to work in the boards. finishes well, naturally resistant to buildings, roof shingles.
around, avoiding waste rot.
and protecting tools
1.8 Sustainable timber production
from damage.
• Smooth finish which • Many traditional wood Wood is considered to be a sustainable product, as new trees can be grown to
joints cannot be used replace those used for timber and fuel. The main issue facing timber production is
requires very little
effectively with that in many parts of the world, it is being used at a far greater rate than it is being
preparation.
replanted. The result is an unsustainable supply of timber, which is frequently
manufactured board.
illegally obtained. This is causing many problems to the land in the countries where
• Makes use of low • Edges can be hard to it is happening. Some countries where it is happening. Some countries are suffering
grade, recycled and finish. from desertification due to deforestation. This activity is also thought to be a
waste wood. contributing factor in global warming.
• Available in many • Most boards are prone
different finishes, to absorb moisture if
veneers and laminates. not treated.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552 2.3 Sustainability of plastics 2.4 Biodegradable plastics
Unit 5D: Specialist Technical Principles – End of life considerations are important for all Some of the newer plastics are made from
Polymers products, but as most plastics take so long to vegetable starches and are fully biodegradable
5D1 – Sources, origins and properties Pg. 2 biodegrade extra care should be taken to decide id composted. The natural bacteria in the soil
how it should be managed. break down the plastic very quickly, largely
2.1 Plastics additives owing to being exposed to moister and higher
Many different chemicals and compounds can be added to temperature.
enhance the functional and aesthetic properties of plastics.
Pigments are added to change the colour, plasticiers are
added to increase felicity and fragrances can be added, as
seen in some children's toys and air-freshening products.

Many responsible companies producing plastic

products conduct a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)
which informs them of the environmental impact of
manufacturing their products. The information
gathered helps them decide how to deal with their
product when it has reached the end of its working
life.

Almost all plastics are recyclable or biodegradable Modern biopolymer pellets are made from
in some form – however, the difference in the vegetable and corn starches.
UV light can make plastic brittle and faded.
quality of the recycled products varies dramatically. Bioplastics are non-toxic and are already
Stabilisers can be added to make plastic resistant to heat being widely used in a range of products.
and light. One of the main issues with plastic degradation is Thermosetting plastics are generally considered Since biopolymers readily decompose they
the effect that ultraviolet (UV) light has on it. Over time, non-recycled although they are frequently ground cannot be recycled. Small amounts mixed in
plastic becomes brittle and can lose its colour, starting to down and used as a filler material or they are used
yellow or fade. By adding UV stabilisers, this process can be
with other recyclable thermoplastics can
for energy recovery through incineration.
slowed down, enabling a product to last longer and perform produce low grade recycled plastic or render
its task more efficiently. Thermoplastics are much more easily recycled for a batch unusable.
use as a recycled plastic product. If the plastics are
2.2 Availability of plastics.
carefully separated into the different types, the
Plastics are abundant in our modern society and are
available in many forms. They help us to solve complex resulting material remains high quality and
design problems because they can be manufactured to commands a higher price than mixed plastics. It is
have a very high strength-to-weight ratio and have many important to recycle as much as possible, and
versatile properties. This means that we can use less poorly discarded plastics are becoming a major
materials to make a stronger product. Plastics last for a very environmental concern, especially in our
long time which means they are a value for money countryside, rivers and ocean.
material.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 5B: Specialist Technical Principles –
Polymers
5D1 – Sources, origins and properties Pg. 3

3.1 Common biodegradable plastics

Starch based biopolymers and common thermoplastics

Name Appearance Image Characteristics Uses Name Appearance Image Characteristics Uses
Polyactic acid Smooth or Widely used in Bottles, pots, ABS Very Smooth Tough, hard, Electronic
PLA textured finish, 3D printers, disposable Acrylonitrile finish, can be good chemical castings, 3D
easily coloured available on food and drink butadiene textured, easily resistance, printed
reels, non- containers, styrene coloured good impact products, hard
toxic, fully pens, phone resistance, can hats, Lego ™
biodegradable, cases and 3D be 3D printed,
easily moulded printing easily injection
products moulded and
Polycaprolacto An off-white Easily Repairs, hand- extruded.
ne mouldable mouldable and shaped Nylon Smooth, easily Self- Clothing,
PCL translucent re-mouldable artefacts, Polyamide coloured, lubricating, tights, rope,
Polymorph pellet which at low jewellery, available in very low cogs, gears,
62°c can be hand- temperature in modifications various friction, hard bushes, pipes,
Coolmorph ™ shaped. Can be hot water, and thicknesses of wearing, easily tents,
42°c coloured with non-toxic, personalisation sheet, bar, film machined, can parachutes
pigments reusable and of products. or thread be woven into
fully Excellent for fabrics
biodegradable prototyping
and modelling
Polyhydroxy- Smooth or Quite brittle Bottles, pots,
butyrate textured finish, with limited household
PHB easily coloured chemical items and
Biopol ™ resistance. disposable
Non-toxic, slow food
but fully containers
biodegradable,
easily
processed and
moulded.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552 4.5 Standard Components
Unit 5D: Specialist Technical Principles – 4.4 Plastics as powder granules, foam and films
Polymers The majority of the plastics that are used in the design and To temporarily attach plastic to itself or to other material a
technology workshop tend to be sheet, rod or tube, but they few different methods can be used. Machine screws have a
5D2 – Working with polymer based materials and finer thread than self-tapping screws and they have no point
are also available in a variety of other forms.
fixings Pg 4 on the end. Plastic can be internally tapper with a screw
4.1 Selecting appropriate plastics thread, allowing machine screws to be inserted, but the
Looking at the different types of plastics it is possible to work out internal thread can easily strip if too much torque is applied.
which varieties can be used for a given task. Considerations will
include: Self -tapping screws can be used without the need for a
screw thread to be cut first. This special screw cuts its own
• Aesthetics • Required finish
thread. The correct size pilot hole must be drilled first
• Size of product • Availability
Powders and granules are mainly used in plastic processing otherwise plastics can crack or shatter as pressure is applied
• Where it will be used • Weight
such as plastic dip coating, injection moulding and extrusion. when it is screwed into position.
• Stability • Desired properties
• Cost • Workability The granules are heated until they become soft and can then
be shaped as required. Powders tend to be bonded to the 4.6 Hinges
• Size of material available • How long it is to last
surface of hot materials such as metals. Both are available in a Hinges are used to attach doors, windows and other
4.2 Standard material stock forms, types and sizes wide range of colours. openings to frames and carcasses. They can be made from
Most plastics comes in arrange of standard shapes and sizes. This many different materials but most commonly they are made
enable materials to be more interchangeable, and the Rolls of plastic film are widely used for packaging, especially in from plastic and metal. Plastic hinges can be welded, glued,
manufactures of tools and equipment to be aware of the material the food industry. Films can easily be heat-sealed to make screwed or bolted to other plastics. Many varieties of hinge
they need to cope with. them airtight and tamper proof. come in brass or steel finish; the steel versions can be
galvanized to protect them from rusting when outside. Metal
4.3 Sheet, rod and tube sizes hinges will need to be bolted or screwed into position.
• Metric is the standard measurement system for plastic forms. Screws and bolts will need to be a countersunk variety in
Sheet material normally starts at around 1mm thick and order for them to lay flat or flush, so the hinge can
increases to over 20mm thick; lengths and widths vary completely close. Metal hinges are often sold in pairs, plastic
depending on the type of plastic and the thickness required. hinges are sold in pairs or by length. Both need to be
Rod is available from 2mm to well over 100mm diameter and carefully aligned to ensure accurate operation.
tubing is available from 5mm to around 1 meter in diameter.
Expanded plastics and foams are also used by the packaging
• Tubes are a little more complicated to measure, as you need industry, and one of the most common forms in expanded Common types of hinges for use with plastics.
to decide on the wall thickness you require. Too thin a wall polystyrene. It is incredibly lightweight and protects the
section can mean the product lacks strength and too thick can contents of a packet from impact damage. Expanded plastics
add unnecessary weight and cost to your product. are also used in cars to soften areas such as dashboards and
bumpers, which are prone to impact.
• Wall thickness is usually measured in millimeters; however,
traditionally it is known as the gauge and some tubular plastics Plastic foams are used by the furniture industry to soften
may still be sold by gauge. As the gauge number increases, the seating and beds and can even be used as floor coverings that
wall thickness decreases. are soft underfoot.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552 5.4 Cutting and sawing plastics
Unit 5D: Specialist Technical Principles – Saws are used to cut materials to size. The hacksaw and junior
Polymers hacksaw are common plastic cutting handsaws that are used to
5D2 – Working with polymer based materials and cut straight lines. The coping saw and Abrafile enable curved
lines to be followed in thin material. The hacksaw has a robust
fixings Pg 5 blade and be used for thicker material than the junior hacksaw,
5.1 Shaping, processing and machining polymers which is for light work.
A vast array of tools is available in the workshop in order to help
us make the products we require. Tools enable us to mark out The scroll saw and band saw are powered and can be used for
materials, cut to size, waste (remove material), add material, curves and straight cuts through different thicknesses of 5.7 Addition, Deforming and reforming
deform, reform, and apply a finish. material. With powered saws, you need to be aware that the Laminating with plastics
plastic can easily overheat and melt. This can clog the blade Laminating Involves bonding strips or sheets of materials
Before undertaking any activity in a workshop you need to be and you may find the plastic bonds itself back together after together in layers. It can be done with thick materials in
aware of the Health and Safety rules that apply to each of the being cut. order to create very strong structures or very thin
machines, tools, pieces of equipment and materials that you use. materials to create tough and flexible products. Plastics
Your teacher will guide you in tis area, but you must ensure that Extraction and appropriate PPE needs to be considered when are frequently laminated with other materials such as
the correct personal protective equipment (PPE) is worn when using powered equipment. glass or wood to improve aesthetics or functionality.
operating machinery and using tools and equipment. Laminated safety glass is now used in all car windscreens.
It contains a thin film of plastic, usually polyvinyl butyral
(PVB) or ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA) which holds the
5.2 Drilling inner and outer glass layers together when it is cracked or
Drilling a hole into plastic requires careful speed control. Large shattered. Without the laminated plastic layer, the glass
diameter drill bits require a slower speed than narrower ones to 5.5 Wasting by hand and abrading would fly out, potentially causing serious injury.
avoid overheating and the potential for the plastic to melt. The Using hand tools and power tools to accurately shape plastic
feed rate is another factor to consider – too much pressure can takes practice in order to achieve a high quality finish.
cause the plastic to crack.
Abrading plastic can be performed by machines but is best
A pillar drill is good for accuracy and is powerful enough to drill finished and polished by hand. Hand abrading using files and Plastic laminated boards are very popular for flooring
larger holes in thicker materials. A cordless drill is very adaptable wet-and-dry paper is best for hard-to-reach areas and it also products, kitchen worktops and much flat packed
and usually has variable speeds. allows you to apply force where it is needed most. furniture. With these products, the plastic laminate is
bonded to the surface of a manufactured board with
Wet and dry comes in different grades; the grit density adhesive – usually a contact adhesive that creates a
determines how rough or smooth it is. Similar to glass paper, it strong and instant bond.
is measured in grit per square inch – the lower the grit number,
the rougher it is. Wet and dry paper starts at 150 grit and is Plastic laminate comes in many colours and different
available up to 2000 grit, which is so fine it has a polishing effects. It can even be printed on with photographic
5.3 Common drill bits used with plastics effect. images and is most popularly used to resemble marble or
granite for kitchen worktops and wood grain effect for
A disc or belt sander is best used for easy to reach sections that flooring and furniture products. The quality can be so
can be held safely. Bobbin sanders can be used for internal good that it is sometimes difficult to tell if it is real or not.
curves.
The laminating process involves layering the materials
5.6 Wasting and abrading tools and materials with an adhesive and holding it in the chosen position
using a former or jig. Pressure is applied though a press, a
set of clamps or by using a vacuum. In industry melamine
formaldehyde is often used for lamination, as it provides
a very robust and hard-wearing surface and has a high
quality finish.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552 • Not have too deep a profile so that the plastic is drawn too 6.4 Resin casting
Unit 5D: Specialist Technical Principles – thin and could easily burst. Thermosetting polymers can be used to produce a variety of
Polymers • Have vent holes drilled to avoid vent pockets where there products by casting them into a mould where they set and
are dips in the profile. permanently take on the shape of the mould. The types of
5D2 – Working with polymer based materials and • Have corners and edges rounded with a small radius to aid thermosetting polymers used in casting are made up of two
fixings Pg 6 removal. parts; the resin itself and a hardener known as a catalyst.
6.1 Line bending • Have a smooth finish so as not to adhere to the hot plastic –
Banding most plastic involves heat unless they are very thin. Strip a release agent can be applied to the mould to assist To cast thermosetting resin, you begin by preparing the
heaters are used for line bending which is a good way to create a removal. mould. Then the resin is thoughly mixed with the correct
permanent fold in a piece of thermoplastic such as acrylic. about of the catalyst. The mixed liquid polymer is then
poured into the mould and left to set or cure. Once fully
cured the casting is removed from the mould and is ready for
use.

6.5 Welding plastics

6.3 3D printing There are two ways to weld plastic; with heat or with
3D printing enables physical objects to be formed from reels of chemicals.
thermoplastics. 3D printers use special CAD files, usually in STL or
VRML format, and converts them into a series of coordinates A chemical weld is more often used in schools and involves
that the printer will follow., building up the image in layers. using a solvent based liquid that dissolves the surface of the
pieces of plastic being joined. The two styles of chemical
There are different types of 3D printers available, including the weld are liquid solvent cement and a thicker variety called
following: dichloromethane methyl meth acrylate , known as Tensol 12.
• Stereolithography (SL) involves using lasers to part sure the both products are methane based and need to be treated
printed shape from a bath of liquid resin. This is an expensive with appropriate care and PPE. Tensol must be used in a
but very accurate method. ventilated room as it has high VOC levels.
• Digital light processing (DLP) is similar to stereolithography
but uses a powerful light source rather than a laser. Liquid solvent cement has a water–like consistency and is
• Laser sintering uses a powdered material instead of a resin applied with either a fine tipped paint brush or a syringe. The
6.2 Vacuum forming bath. The solid shape is created as the heat from the laser surfaces being joined need to be flush as the cement will not
Vacuum formed products include items such as plastic egg boxes fuses and solidifies the powder. fill any gaps. The cement is drawn along the joint by capillary
and bath tubs. A sheet of thermoplastic is heated and pressed into • An extrusion method also known as Fused Deposition action. Liquid solvent cement will join styrene, ABS, Acrylic
the former (mould) by atmospheric pressure, as the vacuum Modelling (FDM) is the most popular in schools and involves and butyrate in any combination. The join sets very quickly
reduces the pressure below the softened thermoplastic. The melting plastic filament with the heated extrusion head. but is not particularly strong in thin sections. The solvent
plastic takes on the shape of the mould, then cools and sets in cement can damage the surface of the plastic if not applied
position before the mould is removed. The most common in schools are single-head printers that use carefully.
reels of printable plastic filament. ABS and PLA are usually used
HIPS (High impact polystyrene) is the most commonly used plastic in FDM style printers and come in pre-coloured cartridges. New Tensol 12 is best used on acrylic but will work with HIPS,
to vacuum form within schools. In industry PETG, ABS and acrylic and interesting materials are frequently being developed which PETG and polycarbonate. It is a much thicker solvent and is
are also used. allow for printing in wood, steel and brass effect. Soft rubbery able to fill small gaps, but a flush accurate joint will always be
materials are also becoming available, making prototype much stronger. Tensol 12 is applied to the surface of the joint
products even more realistic. and can take around three hours to dry.
Very complex shapes can be 3D printed and some filament
To ensure a good product is made, the mould must: printers can print in more than one colour. Dry powder printers Heat welding plastic involves using a special hot air gun
• Have a positive draft angle >3°c to ensure easy removal of the can even print in full colour. which accurately heats the areas being welded together as
material from the mould. 3D printers can print other material besides plastics, including well as a plastic filler rod that is applied to the weld joint.
• Avoid under cuts that would make the removal of the mould metals, paper, ceramics and even food. 3D bio-printing is also Filler rods are available in HDPE, rigid PVC, LDPE, PP and ABS
impossible. being developed, meaning that in the future we may be able to making it a versatile way to join many plastics.
successfully print replacement body parts.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 5D: Specialist Technical Principles –
Polymers
5D3 – Commercial manufacturing and quality 7.6 Quality control
control Pg 7 When products are made, checking that they are being
7.1 Plastics for commercial products produced correctly is an essential stage. This is known as
Plastics are widely used in commercial products. They have quality control (QC) and is crucial to ensure dimensional
particular properties, such as electrical and thermal insulation, accuracy is consistent and that the product is reliable and
that are hard to find in other materials and most of them are safe to use.
waterproof and hygienic. Many plastics, such as polyethylene used
for plastic bags, possess a good strength to weight ratio. Plastics
offer value for money as a manufacturing material.
Laser cutters are one of the most accurate ways to cut a
7.4 Extrusion number of different plastics. (Note that use of some plastics,
Thermoplastics are a very popular materials for seating products, Extrusion is used to create a continuous flow of plastic that is for example PVC, should be avoided as they will give off
as they are easy to mould and have a good level of flexibility. They pushed through a die to create a specific profile. Extrusion is poisonous fumes when heated.) The laser itself can follow a
are also lightweight, tough, durable, waterproof, corrosion used for cables, pipes, mouldings and even plastic film used for design to a very fine tolerance, but they must be set up
resistant and chemical resistant making them easy to clean. Many bags and packaging. correctly considering the following.
plastics have a scratch resistant surface which helps to keep them • Kerf allowance –Every laser removes a little material and
looking good for longer. They are easily coloured and can be given The extrusion process starts off in a similar way to injection the thickness of the cut is know as the ‘kerf’ which can
a textured surface if required. moulding, using a die instead of a mould. The die sets the profile range from 0.1 mm to over 1 mm , depending on which
of the extruded plastic and must be made to a very precise material is used. Allowing for this variation is important
Thermosetting plastics are generally harder but more brittle than tolerance. to ensure the product fits correctly as it will affect the
thermoplastics; they do not melt if they get hot. This is the key tolerance of the component being manufactured.
property that makes them so useful in electrical fittings. A continuous flow of the softened plastic passes through the die • Power and speed settings - Lasers cut using a
Urea formaldehyde is the main thermosetting plastic used for at just the right temperature and flow rate to hold the shape. combination of speed and power. The deepest cut would
electrical fittings and is an excellent electrical insulator with good be on the slowest speed at the highest power and the
tensile strength. It can reach a very high temperature before heat lightest engraving would require the fastest speed and
distortion occurs, making the fitting stable even if there is an the least power. It is important to select the correct
electrical fault. settings for the type of thickness of material and the
The extruded plastic then passes onto a cooling table or cooling type of cut or engraving required.
through where it fully solidifies and is either wound onto a spool • Focusing the beam – The focual length of the laser will
7.2 Commercial production techniques or drum if thin and flexible, or cut into lengths if rigid. affect the quality of the cut or etch. Incorrect focus will
There are many different plastic processing methods used in mean the workpiece will not be cut through correctly
industry including blow moulding for bottles, rotational moulding and the keft usually becomes much wider. Many lasers
for hollow shapes and vacuum forming. Injection moulding and have an autofocus fitted, but it still needs to be set.
extrusion are two processes that offer great repetitive accuracy Manual focusing can be done with a simple measuring
and enable a high level of detail to be achieved. tool or pin.
7.5 Blow moulding • Clean mirrors and lenses – One of the most common
7.3 Injection moulding Blow moulding feeds an extruded plastic tube known as a issues with laser cutters is that the power seems to drop
This process is ideal for complex shapes. Firstly a mould needs to parison into a hollow mould such as a mould for a bottle. The off as the cutting head moves away from the laser source.
be made; these are generally constructed from steel in two parts. parison is pinched at the bottom as the mould closes and filled This can mean that the work furthest away may not be
They need to be very accurate as any blemishes with be with heated compressed air until the parison inflates to fill the cut through efficiently. If this happens it often means that
transferred to every moulding produced. mould. the laser’s lenses and mirrors need to be cleaned. This is
a specialist job that your teacher or workshop technician
should perform.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 5D: Specialist Technical Principles –
Polymers
5D3 – Commercial manufacturing and quality
control Pg 8
8.1 Plastic surface treatments and finishes
The reason for applying a finish to plastic's fall into two main
categories; protective and aesthetics. Most plastics are self-
finishing, but a number of more interesting finishes can be
applied.

Adding aesthetic appeal may mean colouring plastic by painting or

applying graphics, or electroplating with a desired metal like
chrome, nickel or even gold. Plastics can be enhanced to give it a
sheen r shine, or matt surface finish, by rubberising or lacquering.
It can even be coated in a fur effect. Protection can make it less
prone to UV corrosion and colour fade.

8.2 Common plastic based finishing techniques

Plastic finishes vary dramatically in method an application. A
number of specialist techniques are on offer, depending on the
desired finish. Many of the paint on and spray on products are 8.3 Polishing
solvent based and are not very environmentally friendly, as they Plastic can become rough or scratched when it is processed. It
contain high levels of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). This can also become weathered and faded if left outside. Polishing
means that they give off fumes that are considered hazardous to techniques can be used to restore a high quality finish. Brasso®
health and should be used according to the manufacturer’s Is often used to give a lustrous shine to certain polymers such as
instructions, normally in a well ventilation area with a mask being acrylic. Many other plastic polishes are available as are a number
worn. of products that restore faded and weathered plastics.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Designer Facts Logo Examples
Unit 6: Designing Principles
Name
6.2 The work of others (Textiles)
Marcel Marcel Lajos Breuer (22 May 1902 – 1
Name Facts Logo Examples July 1981) was a Hungarian-born
Breuer modernist, architect, and furniture
Coco Gabrielle Bonheur "Coco" designer. Breuer extended the
Chanel (19 August 1883 – 10 sculptural vocabulary he had developed
Chanel January 1971) was a French in the carpentry shop at the Bauhaus
fashion designer and into a personal architecture
businesswoman. She was the
founder and namesake of the Sir Alexander Arnold Constantine
Chanel brand.
Sir Alec
Issigonis; 18 November 1906 – 2
Issigonis October 1988) was a British-Greek
Alexander Lee Alexander McQueen, CBE
designer of cars, widely noted for the
(17 March 1969 – 11 February
McQueen 2010), known professionally as
ground-breaking and influential
development of the Mini, launched by
Alexander McQueen, was a
the British Motor Corporation (BMC) in
British fashion designer and
1959.
couturier. He is known for
having worked as chief designer William Morris (24 March 1834 – 3
at Givenchy from 1996 to 2001
William
October 1896) was an English textile
and for founding his own Morris designer, poet, novelist, translator, and
Alexander McQueen label. socialist activist. Associated with the
British Arts and Crafts Movement, he
Vivienne Dame Vivienne Isabel
was a major contributor to the revival of
Westwood DBE RDI (born 8
Westwood April 1941) is a British fashion
traditional British textile arts and
methods of production.
designer and businesswoman,
largely responsible for bringing Dame Barbara Mary Quant, Mrs
modern punk and new wave
Mary
Plunket Greene, (born 11 February
fashions into the mainstream. Quant 1934) is a Welsh fashion designer and
British fashion icon
Harry Beck Henry Charles Beck (4 June
She became an instrumental figure in
1902 – 18 September 1974),
the 1960s London-based Mod and
known as Harry Beck, was an
youth fashion movements.
English technical draughtsman
best known for creating the Louis Comfort Tiffany (February 18,
present London Underground
Louis
1848 – January 17, 1933) was an
Tube map in 1931. Comfort American artist and designer who
Norman Robert Foster, Baron
Tiffany worked in the decorative arts. He is best
Norman known for his work in stained glass.
Foster of Thames Bank, OM,
Foster HonFREng (born 1 June 1935) is
Philippe Philippe Starck (born January 18,. 1949)
a British architect whose is a French designer known since the
company, Foster + Partners, Starck start of his career in the 1980s for his
maintains an international interior, product, industrial and
design practice famous for high- architectural design including furniture
tech architecture.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552 Company Facts Logo Examples
Unit 6: Designing Principles Name
6.2 The work of others (Product & Industial Design)
Alessi Alessi is a housewares and kitchen
utensil company in Italy, producing
Name Facts Logo Examples everyday items from plastic and
metal, created by famous designers.
Raymond RAYMOND TEMPLIER (1891 -
1968) like many of his Apple Inc. is an American
Templier contemporaries in jewelry, was
Apple
multinational technology company
born to a family with a long headquartered in Cupertino,
tradition as jewelers. California that designs, develops, and
Gerrit Thomas Rietveld; 24 June sells consumer electronics, computer
Gerrit software, and online services.
1888 – 25 June 1964) was a Dutch
Rietveld furniture designer and architect.
Braun Braun GmbH formerly Braun AG, is a
One of the principal members of
German consumer products company
the Dutch artistic movement
based in Kronberg. From 1984 until
called De Stijl, Rietveld is famous
2007, Braun was a wholly owned
for his Red and Blue Chair.
subsidiary of The Gillette Company,
Charles Rennie Mackintosh (7 which had purchased a controlling
Charles interest in the company in 1967.
June 1868 – 10 December 1928)
Rennie was a Scottish architect, designer,
Dyson Dyson Ltd. is a British technology
Macintosh water colourist and artist. His
company established by James Dyson
artistic approach had much in
in 1987. It designs and manufactures
common with European
household appliances such as vacuum
Symbolism. His work was
cleaners, hand dryers, bladeless fans,
influential on European design
heaters and hair dryers.
movements such as Art Nouveau
and Secessionism. GAP The Gap, Inc. commonly known as
Gap Inc. or Gap, (stylized as GAP) is
Aldo Rossi Aldo Rossi (3 May 1931 – 4
an American worldwide clothing and
September 1997) was an Italian
accessories retailer.
architect and designer who
achieved international Primark Primark known as Penneys in the
recognition in four distinct areas: Republic of Ireland) is an Irish
theory, drawing, architecture and clothing and accessories company
product design. which is a subsidiary of AB Foods, and
He was the first Italian to receive is headquartered in Dublin.
the Pritzker Prize for architecture.
Under Under Armour, Inc. is an American
Ettore Ettore Sottsass (14 September company that manufactures
1917 – 31 December 2007) was an Armour footwear, sports and casual apparel.
Sottsass Italian architect and designer
during the 20th century. His work Zara is a Spanish clothing and
included furniture, jewellery, Zara
accessories retailer based in Arteixo,
glass, lighting, home objects and Galicia. It is the main brand of the
office machine design, as well as Inditex group, the world's largest
3

many buildings and interiors. apparel retailer.

 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Manufacturing Project 1 - Box 4.1 Woods:
Hardwoods: Softwoods: Try Bench
Beech Scots Pine square Vice
Hook
Oak Cedar
Wood joints can be either permanent of temporary Ash Spruce 5: Tools PVA
depending on the type and if glue is used. Glue
4.2 Engineered Boards
Permanent: Temporary: Engineered boards are manmade materials usually Mallet Chisel
When we do not want When we will, or might made by mixing wood chips and glues to make
to take the pieces apart need to take pieces wooden sheets.
again apart again Examples:
Medium Density Fibreboard (MDF) Router Table
Glues, welding, rivets Screws, bolts, nails
Chipboard, Plywood and Hardboard
Laser Cutter Tenon Saw
4.3 Plastics
Plastics are made of polymers, and are mostly
refined from oil. There are 2 main categories:
Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics
Finishing is usually one of the last stages of
Acrylic Urea Formaldehyde making a project. It will usually involve sanding
and applying a surface coating to protect your
Polypropylene (PP) Melamine Formaldehyde material and improve its visual appearance.
Some examples:
Lap Joint Mortise + Tennon Dovetail High Impact Epoxy Resin Paint, Stain, Varnish, Oil, Danish Oil, Wax, Polish &
Joint Joint Polystyrene (HIPS) Dip Coating.
4.4 Metals
Metals are hard and usually shiny, containing one
or more elements dug and refined from the ground
P.V.A. – Poly Vinyl Acetate –
One off: when you
Ferrous metals are any Non-Ferrous metals do 7: Key Word Focus
best for joining 2 pieces of metal that contains not contain iron and will
make a unique You should be able to explain the meaning of
wood together iron and will rust not rust
item each of these words by the end of this rotation.
Epoxy – a thermosetting
Batch: when you resin that can be used to CAD Computer Aided Design
make a few/set bond most types of material Alloys are metals made from a mix of 2 metals – CAM Computer Aided Manufacture
amount Contact Adhesive – a glue brass is made of copper and zinc. CNC Computer Numerical Control
Mass: when you type that creates a tacky Composite materials are a mix of 2 different types of
make thousands bond on both surfaces to be material to get the best qualities from each – eg: GRP
Continuous: open joined. It can be used with (Glass Reinforced Plastic)
ended production most materials.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 7: Making Principles The choice of material will depend upon the function that it needs to perform. The main areas to
7.46 Selection of Materials and Components consider are:

Strength
The choice of material will depend upon the functional properties Different types of strength must be tested to ensure materials and components meet the
needed by the product. For example, the enclosure for an outside alarm needs of a product. This includes; resilience to wear and tear, weather proofing and
will need to be waterproof. Advanced CAD packages will allow a chemical resistance.
designer to test the materials virtually to find out what material is most
suitable, these tests include; stress loading and weight distribution etc. Movement
Further consideration must be made to aesthetic properties of the Elasticity, flexibility and other forms of movement may need to be considered when
product/material. Some CAD software allow designers to render working out the interactions a product may go through.
products to test the aesthetic or appearance of a product.
Electrical and Thermal Conductivity
This should be taken into account for products that will use electrical components.

Deadlines and budgets are

common place in schools and
workshops. Steps must be taken to
ensure issues can be preempted:
Do we have the materials?
Component refers to a range of items used during Are the materials stock forms?
production but is often used as a term for a pre- Are there savings that can be
fabricated part of a product. made?
Some parts of a product may require specialist Are there any environmental
machinery, be time consuming or too expensive concerns?
to produce which is why it is necessary to buy in Compromise must be made when
components. balancing deadlines and cost.
Examples of components include: Zips, buckles, The ‘project management triangle’
handles, castors, hinges, battery compartments states the compromise that must
etc. be made.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 7: Making Principles
7.49 Specialist tools, equipment, techniques and Data sheets are usually provided by a material manufacturer that are considered to be hazardous. This could
processes be because they need to be handled in a particular way or because they give off harmful gasses. Some
equipment and machinery is also considered hazardous and may have a safety data sheet or safety
information in the instruction manual for example a laser cutter.
Specialist material areas often require tools that perform
only one function, others can be adaptable and perform
multiple tasks. E.g. A Tenon saw is used to cut straight or
angles in wood, a pillar drill can be used to drill into a
variety of materials.

Risk assessments must be produced as they are specific to individual workshops, the hazards in one
Once your equipment has been selected you must workshop are not necessarily the same as another. A risk assessment is carried out to identify whether or
consider health and safety. Some machinery has age not it is safe to carry out a particular task in that environment. A risk assessment looks for potential risks of
restrictions and/or training requirements see the a process, tool, material or piece of equipment.
equipment/machinery data sheets and risk There are 5 stages to a risk assessment:
assessments for information. Basic requirements for 1. Individual risk factors
all projects are PPE (Personal Protective Equipment). 2. Identify who is at risk
Other areas to think about are: 3. Decide the likelihood of the severity
Extraction (to remove dust/fumes) 4. Record findings and implement control measures
Cleaning up spillages immediately 5. Monitor and review the risk assessment
Carrying tools correctly
Visual checks for damage/maintenance

Golden rule – if in doubt check it out

Some companies may not have the skills for specialist

tasks such as cutting and finishing toughened glass.
Getting another company to do this them is called
outsourcing.
 AQA Design & Technology 8552
Unit 7: Making Principles
7.50 Surface Treatments and Finishes

Most materials will require an exterior finish to improve the look of the material and to protect it from the environment. Surface finishes can be applied by
numerous methods including brushing, spraying and dipping. The main surface finishes that are available include paints, varni shes and lacquers, oils, polishes,
stains, sanding sealer, plastic dip coating, powder coating, anodising, plating, galvanising, enamelling and polishing.
Finishes are usually applied for one or more of the following reasons :
1.) To protect the material from moisture, wear, abrasion, fungus, mould or insect attack.
2.) To change the materials appearance, its colour or texture.
3.) To enhance the materials durability, surface hardness or other properties .
Sometimes products have a finish that serves more than one purpose (functional and aesthetic).

Oxidisation/corrosion
Affects: Metals (rust) and plastics Preparation must be done before a
(weaken, become brittle) finish is applied. This includes; smooth
Occurs over a period of time, surface, no grease, dust, fingermarks or
oxygen atoms form an oxide pencil.
layer Occasionally a surface will need to be
Rot rougher in order for the finish to ‘grip’
Affects: Wood (wood decay to the surface this is known as providing
fungus) a key.
Usually caused by prolonged Application can happen in many
damp conditions affecting different ways. Data sheets and risk
strength and integrity assessments are used to give safety
Insect, creature, biological guidelines such as ventilation, extraction
attack instructions etc.
Affects: Wood, paper, board and Important information when applying a
textiles finish are it’s drying time, amount of
Wood can be attacked by coats, further surface preparation
woodworm, death watch beetle between coats, temperature for
or termites. Paper and textiles application.
become mouldy. Clearing away can be important as
UV degradation some cleaning/finishing products may
Affects: Textiles, papers, boards, have to be kept in COSHH (Care of
polymers substances hazardous to health)
UV light breaks down colour cabinets. Some solvent based cleaners
pigments causing fading. may require PPE and ventilated areas.
Materials can also weaken. Image from AQA