ADAMAWA STATE UNIVERSITY, MUBI

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE
DEPARTMENT OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION
2023/2024 ACADEMIC SESSION LECTURE NOTES

COURSE TITLE: AGR 204 Introduction to food and nutrition (2Units)

BY. DR. A. MIDAU/MR. I.E MEDUGU

AGR 204 Introduction to food and nutrition (2Units)
Food function and food groups, food we eat, digest and absorption of food, effect of cooking
and processing, planning balanced diet, deficiency diseases, nutrition in pregnancy and
lactation, nutritional requirements in different age groups, nutrition and nutritional
development.
Human nutrition an integrated approach
Human nutrition is the processes where by cellular organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems and
the body as a whole obtain and use necessary substances obtained from foods (nutrients) to
maintain structural and functional integrity. For an understanding of how humans obtain and
utilize foods and nutrients from a molecular to a societal level, and of the factors determining
and influencing these processes, the study and practice of human nutrition involve a spectrum of
other basic and applied scientific disciplines. These include molecular biology, genetics,
biochemistry, chemistry, physics, food science, microbiology, physiology, pathology,
immunology, psychology, sociology, political science, anthropology, agriculture, pharmacology,
communications and economics. Nutrition departments are, therefore, often found in Medical
(Health) or Social Science, or Pharmacy, or Agriculture Faculties at tertiary training institutions.
The multidisciplinary nature of the science of nutrition, lying in both the natural (biological) and
social scientific fields, demands that students of nutrition should have a basic understanding of
many branches of science and that they should be able to integrate different concepts from these
different disciplines.
Nutrition and its interaction
In the journey of discovery into nutrition science it will often be necessary to put new
knowledge, or new applications of old knowledge, into the perspective of the holistic picture. For
this, a conceptual framework of the multidisciplinary nature of nutrition science and practice
may be of value. Such a conceptual framework, illustrating the complex interactions between
internal or constitutional factors and external environmental factors which determine nutritional
status and health, on a genetic level it is now accepted that nutrients dictate phenotypic
expression of an individual’s genotype by influencing the processes of transcription, translation,
or post-translational reactions. In other words, nutrients can directly influence genetic (DNA)
expression, determining the type of RNA formed (transcription) and also the proteins
synthesized (translation). For example, glucose, a carbohydrate macronutrient, increases
transcription for the synthesis of glucokinase, the micronutrient iron increases translation for the
synthesis of ferritin, while vitamin K increases post-translational carboxylation of glutamic acid
residues for the synthesis of prothrombin. Nutrients, therefore, influence the synthesis of
structural and functional proteins, by influencing gene expression within cells.
Nutrients also act as substrates and cofactors in all of the metabolic reactions in cells necessary
for the growth and maintenance of structure and function. Cells take up nutrients (through
complex mechanisms across cell membranes) from their immediate environment, also known as
the body’s internal environment. The composition of this environment is carefully regulated to
ensure optimal function and survival of cells, a process known as homeostasis, which gave birth
to a systems approach in the study of nutrition. Nutrients and oxygen are provided to the internal
environment by the circulating blood, which also removes metabolic end-products and harmful
substances from this environment for excretion through the skin, the kidneys, and the large
bowel.

The concerted function of different organs and systems of the body ensures that nutrients and
oxygen are extracted or taken up from the external environment and transferred to the blood for
transport and delivery to the internal environment and cells. The digestive system, for example,
is responsible for the ingestion of food and beverages, the breakdown (digestion and
fermentation) of these for extraction of nutrients, and the absorption of the nutrients into the
circulation, while the respiratory system extracts oxygen from the air. These functions are
coordinated and regulated by the endocrine and central nervous systems in response to the
chemical and physical composition of the blood and internal environment, and to cellular needs.
The health or disease state of the different organs and systems will determine the nutrient
requirements of the body as a whole. The central nervous system is also the site or
“headquarters” of the higher, mental functions related to conscious or cognitive, spiritual,
religious, and cultural behaviors, which will determine, in response to the internal and external
environments, what and how much will be eaten. What and how much is eaten will further
depend on what is available, influenced by a host of factors determining food security. All of
these factors, on an individual, household, community, national, or international level, shape the
external environment.
During the first renaissance of nutrition, emphasis was placed on the study of nutrients and their
functions. A medical, natural science or biological model underpinned the study of the
relationships between nutrition and health or ill-health. During the second renaissance, these
aspects are not neglected, but expanded to include the study of all other external environmental
factors that determine what and how much food and nutrients are available on a global level.
These studies are underpinned by social, behavioral, economic, agricultural, and political
sciences. The study of human nutrition therefore seeks to understand the complexities of both
social and biological factors on how individuals and populations maintain optimal function and
health, how the quality, quantity and balance of the food supply are influenced, what happens to
food after it is eaten, and the way that diet affects health and well-being. This integrated
approach has led to a better understanding of the causes and consequences of malnutrition, and
of the relationship between nutrition and health.
Relationship between nutrition and health
This shows that individuals can be broadly categorized into having optimal nutritional status or
being undernourished, over nourished, or malnourished. The major causes and consequences of
these nutritional states are indicated. It is important to realize that many other lifestyle and
environmental factors, in addition to nutrition, influence health and well-being, but nutrition is a
major, modifiable, and powerful factor in promoting health, preventing and treating disease, and
improving quality of life.
Nutrients: the basics
People eat food, not nutrients; however, it is the combination and amounts of nutrients in
consumed foods that determine health. To read one must know the letters of the alphabet; to do
sums one must be able to count, add, subtract, multiply, and divide. To understand nutrition, one
must know about nutrients. The study of nutrients, the ABC and numeric calculations of
nutrition, will form a major part of the student’s nutrition journey, and should include:
● the chemical and physical structure and characteristics of the nutrient
● the food sources of the nutrient, including food composition, the way in which foods are
grown, harvested, stored, processed and prepared, and the effects of these on nutrient
composition and nutritional value
● the digestion, absorption, circulatory transport, and cellular uptake of the nutrient, as well as
regulation of all these processes
● the metabolism of the nutrient, its functions, storage, and excretion
● physiological needs (demands or requirements) for the nutrient in health and disease, and
during special circumstances (pregnancy, lactation, sport events), as well as individual variability
● interactions with other nutrients, non nutrients (phytochemicals), antinutrients, and drugs.
Nutritional situations

● the consequences of under consumption and overconsumption of nutrients

● the therapeutic uses of the nutrient
● factors influencing food and nutrition security and food safety.
There are more than 50 known nutrients (including amino acids and fatty acids) and many more
chemicals in food thought to influence human function and health. Nutrients do not exist in
isolation, except for water and others in some pharmaceutical preparations. In foods, in the gut
during digestion, fermentation and absorption, in the blood during transport, and in cells during
metabolism, nutrients interact with each other. Therefore, a particular nutrient should not be
studied in isolation, but integrated with other nutrients and seen in the context of total body
function. The study of nutrition also includes how to determine nutrient requirements to make
recommendations for intakes and how nutritional status is monitored by measuring intakes,
anthropometry, body composition, biochemical markers reflecting nutritional status, and the
clinical signs of malnutrition. This knowledge of nutrients and their functions will enable the
nutritionist to advice individuals on what and how much to eat. However, this knowledge is not
sufficient to understand and address the global problem of malnutrition facing mankind today.
This perception has resulted in the cultivation of social science disciplines to support knowledge
from the biological sciences to address global malnutrition.

Future challenges for nutrition research and practice Basic, molecular nutrition
The tremendous development in recent years of molecular biology and the availability of
sophisticated new techniques are opening up a field in which nutrient–gene interactions and
dietary manipulation of genetic expression will receive increasing attention. The effects of more
than 12000 different substances in plant foods, not yet classified as nutrients, will also be
examined. These substances are produced by plants for hormonal, attractant, and chemo
protective purposes, and there is evidence that many of them offer protection against a wide
range of human conditions. It is possible that new functions of known nutrients, and even new
nutrients, may be discovered, described, and applied in the future.
Clinical and community nutrition
Today, the focus has moved from simple experiments with clear-cut answers to studies in which
sophisticated statistics have to be used to dissect out the role of specific nutrients, foods, and
diets in multi-factorial diseases. Nutrition epidemiology is now established as the discipline in
which these questions can be addressed. A number of pressing problems will have to be
researched and the results applied, for example:
● the biological and sociological causes of childhood obesity, which is emerging as a global
public health problem
● the nutrient requirements of the elderly: in the year 2000, more than 800 million of the Earth’s
inhabitants were older than 60 years; to ensure a high quality life in the growing elderly
population, much more needs to be known about their nutrient requirements
● the relationships between nutrition and immune function and how improved nutrition can help
to defend against invading microorganisms; in the light of the increasing HIV/AIDS pandemic,
more information in this area is urgently needed
● dietary recommendations: despite sufficient, convincing evidence about the effects of nutrients
and foods on health, nutritionists have generally not been very successful in motivating the
public to change their diets to more healthy ones.
We need to know more about why people make certain food choices in order to design culturally
sensitive and practical dietary guidelines that will impact positively on dietary choices. The food-
based dietary guidelines that are now being developed in many countries are first step in this
direction.
Public health nutrition
The single most important challenge facing mankind in the future is probably to provide
adequate safe food and clean water for all in an environmentally safe way that will not
compromise the ability of future generations to meet their needs. In addition to the hundreds of
millions not eating enough food to meet their needs for a healthy, active life, an additional 80
million people have to be fed each year. The challenge to feed mankind in the future calls for
improved agriculture in drought-stricken areas such as sub-Saharan Africa, the application of
biotechnology in a responsible way, interdisciplinary and intersectorial cooperation of all
involved, and a better distribution of the food supply so that affordable food is accessible by all.
The need for sustained economic growth in poor countries is evident. Nutritionists have an
important part to play in ensuring food security for all, a basic human right, in the future. One of
their main functions would be to educate and inform populations not to rely too heavily on
animal products in their diet, the production of which places a much heavier burden on the
environment than plant foods. A major challenge would be to convince political leaders and
governments that addressing undernutrition (the major obstacle in national development) in
sustainable programs should be the top priority in developing and poor communities. Another
challenge is to develop models based on the dynamics within communities and, using a human
rights approach, to alleviate undernutrition without creating a problem of overnutrition. There are
examples where such models, incorporated into community development programs, have been
very successful (e.g., in Thailand).
Functional foods: New development functional foods are new or novel foods, developed to have
specific health benefits, in addition to their usual functions. Examples are spreads with added
phytosterols, to lower serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and the risk of coronary heart
disease, and the development of starchy products with resistant starch and lower glycemic
indices, to help control blood glucose levels. The development and testing of functional foods is
an exciting new area. These foods may help to improve or restore nutritional status in many
people. However, much more should be known about suitable biomarkers to test their efficiency,
variability in human response to specific food products, safety, consumer understanding, and
how their health messages must be formulated, labeled, and communicated.
Home and home management
Since the very beginning of civilization, it has been found that each and every human being has
been engaged in making a home of his own. As a social being, a man creates his family. Home is
the dwelling place of the family. Except shelter, all the basic requirements of life are being
fulfilled through the home. Every human being feels the need of creating home due to some
personal and social reasons. By dint of honest and sincere efforts and consideration of the head
of the family, the members of the family enjoy peace at home. At the day time most of the family
members are engaged in different types of activities outside their home and after a tedious day's
work they come back home for getting rest and peace. An ideal home gives shelter, meets
different needs and demands of the family, provides security, and ensures privacy and honor of
the family members. A home helps to fulfill all the desires and aspirations of human life. It
supports to develop all external and inner qualities of a human being. To make a positive homely
environment, adequate money, time and energy, etc. are highly required. These are the most
desirable family resources. These resources are needed to be properly utilized; otherwise it will
not be possible to fulfill the demands of the family. So, we can say that by utilizing the family
resources properly, a desired homely atmosphere can be attained. In this regard, a proper home
management is highly required. It makes a home attractive, peaceful and pleasant. In fine, we
can say that the ability to manage a home properly helps a home manager to take care of the
home with all the resources that the home possesses. Home management is the administrative
part of the family. Its success depends fully on energy, capability and experience of the home
manager. We can define the term home management in various ways. The well-known home
economist Nichel stated, ''Home management is the administrative aspect of a family. To attain
the desired family goals, home management helps in planning, assessing integrating and
evaluating human and material resources and ensure their best use for the betterment of the
family members.''
To use the family resources properly, a proper planning is essential. During planning, the
expected demands are needed to be anticipated. That is which one is mostly desirable, which one
is highly expected to keep hold the honour and desire of the family, are needed to be well
specified and at the same time the availability of adequate resources to meet all the demands are
required to be well calculated. In this regard, a proper decision making is highly desired. In fine,
we can say that home management is an intellectual process and this can be attained through
proper planning, organizing, controlling and assessing the family resources for their best use and
thereby fulfilling the expectations of the family.
The Qualities of a Home Manager
To make the home management effective, each of the members of the family has his/her specific
roles. The home manager is the person who bears the main responsibility of home management.
She is the key person of the family and the peace and success of the whole family fully depends
on her. To bear this huge responsibility, she has to possess some basic qualities after making
remarkable efforts with honesty and sincerity. The qualities are;
1. Intelligence
2. Enthusiasm
3. Understanding of human nature
4. Creativity
5. Judgment
6. Perseverance
7. Adaptability
8. Self-control
9. Personality
The qualities are analyzed below: -
Intelligence
A house wife or a home manager must be intelligent. The power of observing, thinking,
remembering and thirst for knowledge can make an individual great Intelligence is an
immeasurable quality. By dint of it an individual becomes able to simplify any situation, control
the situation and can make a proper judgment. That is the ability of understanding, analyzing,
referring and making judgment on various issues are related to intelligence. To tackle any day to
day situation, the quality like intelligence is highly required. If anyone fails to show appropriate
intelligence in appropriate time, crisis may occur. So, the desired family goals might not be
achieved. For example, to make the home more beautiful and attractive, the quality like
intelligence is highly desirable. To take decisions on various aspects like how and where to place
any object and how this is to be used, the quality like intelligence is very much needed. To keep
peace and discipline in home, that is deciding when some actions are needed to be undertaken
and how these will be done etc. and for finishing all these activities, intelligence is essential. To
make the family budget, to keep the account, to buy the necessary items etc. and finally to take
the decisions regarding all these aspects intelligence is highly desirable. To spend money as per
the income and to make some savings for the future, intelligence is a must. For example
intelligence plays a vital role in deciding how much money is needed for studies of the children,
how much will be saved, what will be the purpose of savings, how these will be spent and what
is the importance behind all these etc., considering the family income.
Enthusiasm
Enthusiasm is such a quality which is needed to be possessed by every successful home manager.
Success does not come in life if there is no enthusiasm. But utilization of this quality depends on
physical and mental fitness of the home manager. Enthusiasm relates giving importance to any
work, acting seriously and completing the work with due attention, etc. This quality can also
inspire the other members of the family. For example, if the home manager is interested to invite
others on any special occasion or in shopping and if she can do it with enthusiasm, this very
quality can inspire the children of the family as well. Parents can inspire their children in various
ways. If the parents place all the furniture and goods nicely and in due order, this habit also
inspires the children to work in the same way. Undoubtedly enthusiasm is an excellent quality
for making a home manager successful in her family life.
Understanding of human nature
To become a successful home manager, the ability of understanding human nature is highly
required. Every individual in many ways is different from others. In every family, different types
of people live. The attitudes, nature, dealings, liking-disliking, behaviours etc. of every
individual is quite different from those of others. To keep the family in peace, the home manager
should know the temperament of each individual. She will not be able to understand all these
aspects in a day. To acquire the knowledge of understanding human nature, the quality like keen
observation is highly needed. This ability will help the home manager to tackle any situation
which might take place at home. To keep the home in order, there is a need to instruct the
children to do their jobs accordingly and there is also a need to take the advice of the elders
while doing something difficult. Besides, there is a need to distribute suitable work to each of the
male and female members of the family according to his/her ability and interest. This will help to
keep the home in good order.
Creativity
Creativity is an essential quality of a home manager. By virtue of this quality, she will be able to
make her home more attractive and well arranged. If a home manager possesses this quality, she
will be able to draw the attention of others. In this regard, the power of imagination and the
power of creation run side by side. By dint of imagination and creative power, a home manager
will be able to make the future plan and imagine the outcomes. If she wants to make any change
of the preplanned action, she will use her imagination and creative power. For example, an
efficient home manager with creative power can provide an appropriate guidance to buy and set
new pieces of furniture, while entering a new house. Besides, if there is a possibility of budget
shortage, the home manager applying her creative power will take alternative measures
beforehand. Moreover, by virtue of creative and imaginative power, a home manager can predict
any problem earlier and prepare herself to solve the approaching crisis. In addition, to create a
wonderful and attractive homely atmosphere, a home manager should be creative and should
possess the power of imagination and creation.
Judgment
The power of judgment is a desirable quality. By this quality an individual is able to judge
properly right or wrong, good or bad, and evils or blessings. The ability of judgment helps an
individual to lead a peaceful life in home and in society. It is quite natural that in a family,
problems may arise in any time coming from any direction. These problems can easily be solved
if the home manager has the ability of critical judgment. To give proper importance on every
household activity and the way to perform that depends on the capability of perfect judgment and
the home manager should possess this ability. For example, deciding on the selection of school
for the young children, considering the standard of the school, the distance of the school etc. all
these are included in proper judgment. However, the ability of judgment increases with the
passing of time and experience.
Perseverance
Perseverance is also a special quality of the home manager. Without perseverance no one can be
successful in family life. The person who possesses it is willing to work continuously until she
succeeds. It is said that by virtue of perseverance any difficult work can be done. With this,
devotion, tolerance, concentration etc. are needed. Perseverance enriches these qualities. There
are some activities in domestic life which cannot be performed by the housewife easily. For
example, if a housewife is not able to cook a new item of food, she must try to make it again and
again. In order to finish every household activity successfully, a home manager must possess this
quality. It plays an important role in looking after the children and the members of the family.
Adaptability
We all are living in a changing environment. While performing various tasks of domestic life, we
have to face different challenges. The capacity to adapt oneself with the changing situation is
termed adaptability. A housewife should possess this quality. It is quite natural that in a family
life various incidents may occur. If the housewife is not able to adapt herself with all the
changing situations, there will be a possibility of confusion. For example, if any member of the
family gets sick, there will be a need of timely treatment. Sometimes, the doctor may advise to
hospitalize the patient. In this case, there is a need to change the whole time table of the family.
The members of the family should adapt themselves with the new situation. The home manager
should adjust herself and try to pursue the other members of the family to adjust themselves with
the new routine. If she does not do so, there will be the possibility of disorder. If the home
manager does not possess the quality like adaptability, a chaos will be created in the family.
Sometimes, the home manager does not get proper response from all the family members in
doing any work. In that case, she will manage others tactfully and tackle the whole situation. The
quality like adaptability is reflected here. In the family, it sometimes happens that the behaviour
of a family member does not please all. In this case, the home manager should adjust herself with
that member, otherwise there will be the possibility of disorder which may disturb the peace of
the whole family.
Self-control
Various problems may occur in a family. In this regard, the quality like controlling one's
sentiments is needed and if a person possesses this sort of quality, it is called the quality of self-
control. If a home manager is able to show this power, she will be appreciated as an efficient
house wife. By dint of this quality, a home manager will be able to tackle any adverse situation.
This quality will help her to maintain a cordial relationship with the family members. For
example, sometimes it may happen that the husband or other members of the family
misunderstand the housewife on any particular point. In this situation, the home manager can act
tactfully by dint of her self-controlling power, she can proceed pleasantly and can again bring
back the harmony in the family.
Personality
Personality can be termed as the sum total of various human qualities. By practicing different
human qualities, the personality of a person grows gradually in a harmonious way. To develop
this quality, a proper grooming is needed. If a home manager acquires this quality, she will be
able to behave well with others and convince all. A home manager having an attractive
personality is respected by all the members of the family. To make herself a woman of striking
personality, a home manager should possess some other qualities like impartiality, patience,
cheerfulness, righteousness and flexibility.
Duties and Responsibilities of a Home Manager
In the previous chapter, the qualities which are needed to be possessed by a home manager have
been discussed. In spite of having all these qualities, a home manager may not be able to run the
family smoothly and ensure its happiness. She must realize duties and responsibilities and she
should engage herself in performing those activities. A careless home manager can bring disaster
to the whole family. The duties and responsibilities of a home manager are of different kinds.
However, for the welfare of the family, a home manager should carry out her duties and
responsibilities properly. It can be said that most of the household activities of the family are
revolved round the home manager. The husband remains the only earning member of the family
and home is the only place of his inspirations. Now-a-days, due to some socioeconomic reasons,
the housewives are also engaged in various income generating activities outside her home. But in
the true sense, home is the most important working place of a housewife. So, one can easily
understand, the importance of a housewife in running the family. It does not mean that she will
perform all the responsibilities by herself. It is her duty to look after the tasks to be done. In
order to maintain the family well, the home manager should set some goals to fulfill the basic
demands of the family in a proper way.
For example, a balanced diet should be selected for the family members. The selection of dress
should be according to the needs and social customs. The environment of home should be
pleasant and there should be the scope of grooming the personality of all the family members. To
fulfill all these objectives, the housewife should take the right decision and try to bridge the gap
between the dreams of the family and means of fulfill them.
She should take steps to fulfill demands of family within scarce resources. Who will do some
specific works, how will these be done, when will be done, why are these to be done etc., all
these are related to her duties and responsibilities. The duties and responsibilities of a home
manager towards her family can be classified into two groups. One is the duties and
responsibilities towards the family and the other is the social responsibilities.
Responsibilities and duties of a home manager towards the family
1. To maintain good relationship among the members of the family
2. To create an attitude of equal sharing among the family members
3. To make a proper distribution of household work among the family members
4. To make a balance between income and expenditure
5. To ensure peace and security of the family
6. To follow the home management process for fulfilling the demands of the family
1. To maintain a good relationship among the members of the family
According to our social tradition, the housewife has the responsibility to look after her father-in-
law, mother-in-law, husband and children. At the early stage, it is difficult for a housewife to
perform all the duties properly. As a newcomer to the family, she has to adapt herself with the
new environment. She is needed to be accepted not only by her husband as a dear one but also by
the rest of the family members. Then she becomes a mother of her children. In this way,
gradually the duties and responsibilities of a housewife expand. She has to shoulder and manage
various responsibilities to run the family in proper order. She has to take proper steps to meet the
demands of her father and mother-in-law maintaining a good relationship with them at the same
time. Sometimes, the concepts of elders differ from that of the younger. Thus a strained
relationship may grow. In this case, it is her duty to tackle the whole situation keeping herself
cool and calm. Otherwise, disorder and indiscipline will grasp the whole family. A housewife is
also responsible to ensure good health and mental peace of the family members. Her
responsibilities also involve fulfill ing the psychological demands of the family.
A housewife must be careful in fulfilling the demands and needs of her brothers and sisters-in-
law in a judicious manner. She must be careful of her husband and children. It is her foremost
duty to make the home habitable. She has to take care of the physical and mental health of her
children according to their age. In addition to this, it is her prime responsibility to make her
children well educated and good natured as the future of the family and society depends on them.
2. To create an attitude of equal sharing among the family members
In this age of modern science and technology, the duties and responsibilities of a housewife have
increased. A housewife has to observe whether her children are growing up mentally as well so
that they can cope with the changing world. To meet the basic demands of the family, she will
have to take the right decision in choosing resources and making their best use. For example, for
the family, she will choose a balanced diet, select clothing according to the needs and urge the
family members to abide by the social customs and values. She will try her best to make the
home habitable and a place where the personalities of all the family members can grow. To
ensure all these, a housewife should take concrete decision to make a balance between the
demands and resources of the family. Moreover, she will make a proper planning for using the
limited resources for the betterment of the family.
3. To make a proper distribution of household work among the family members
It is also the duty of a housewife to distribute all the tasks of the family among the family
members properly. There are some activities, for example, cooking and serving food, furnishing
home, washing clothes, sewing, cleaning, helping the children in their studies, nursing the elderly
members of the family, providing recreation to the family members, etc. and these are needed to
be performed within the home. Besides, there are some activities which are needed to be
performed outside the house, such as, shopping, laundry work, gardening, visiting relatives, etc.
To perform all these activities, a good house-wife should choose the right person to do the right
job according to his/her ability and eagerness and distribute the jobs accordingly. Her
responsibility does not end only by distributing the work. She should supervise their work
accordingly as well.
In our society, we see that the household chores, like serving food, furnishing the house, washing
clothes, sewing, attending guests, etc. are done by the teenage girls of the family. They also help
their mothers in cooking and performing other domestic chores. The head of the family and the
male family members usually perform the outside activities. In this respect, it can be said that if
the tasks are distributed according to the capability of each member, it will encourage him/her to
perform the tasks to the best of his/her ability and skills helping him/her become self- reliant.
Such an active participation in household activities, will raise the sense of responsibility of the
children of the family. They could be able to understand the value of time and work. Intimacy
will grow among the members of the family. The housewife should also be able to create
diversity in normal routine work. So, she should create the scope of entertainment by arranging
picnic, site-seeing and some sort of family amusements. This will help to drive away monotony
and increase eagerness of the family members in performing new tasks.
Ethically, a home manager has enough duties towards the servants of the family. To get release
form hard work and save time, sometimes she has to purchase labour by spending money. So, the
servants are appointed. It is the duty of the home manager to take proper care of them. As one of
the members of the family, a servant has also some desires and demands. The housewife should
pay due attention in fulfilling the basic demands of the servants as because, they do a lot of
physical labour in carrying out the commands of the family members. The members should not
be given any scope to speak ill with them. If they are several in numbers, the housewife should
distribute the household work among them properly. It improves the quality of work. Sometimes,
jealousy may occur among the servants if they are several in numbers. The housewife should
tackle the situation with due patience. In fine, it is the duty of a housewife to express kindness
towards the servants by measuring their physical ability and psychological attitude. The mental
attitude and power of a housewife can be assessed by this. To develop a sense of humanity
among the children is also a responsibility of a housewife.
4. To make a balance between income and expenditure
Keeping a peaceful homely environment is one of the most important responsibilities of a
housewife. In this regard, at first, she would select a proper residence for keeping the members
of the family in a healthy condition. Based on the requirements and capacity of the family, she
will take decision regarding proper accommodation for each of the family members. Again,
when she thinks about the basic requirements of the family such as food, clothing and shelter
etc., she must think about the family income and resources. Then she needs to think about the
requirements of each of the family members according to his/her age and demands and should
try to fulfill all the needs accordingly. The housewife should also be concerned about the family
income and budget. She should make a proper purchasing policy in accordance with the limited
resources for fulfilling the basic requirements such as food, clothing and lodging etc. of the
family members. After spending money for fulfilling all these demands, she has to make some
savings for future and for all these she has to make a proper planning. For example, it is the main
responsibility of a housewife to ensure proper education of the children, arrange their marriages
in due time and help them to get established in society. In doing all these, a home manager
should make a balance between the income and the expenditure of the family.
5. To ensure peace and security of the family
The responsibilities of a home manager are manifold. To ensure the security and safety of the
family members, she should make an arrangement of first-aid at home. She should be in touch
with the physician and should keep all the instrument and medicines in right place. She should
ensure a proper security system in placing and preserving all the instrument. Besides, the security
system should be made in such a way that every member could be able to find all medicines and
equipment in due time and in proper place. For the safety of the home, she should make a proper
arrangement of fire extinguishing and drainage system and dumping of the refuse.
6. To follow the home management process for fulfilling the demands of the family
A housewife is responsible for executing, controlling, implementing and evaluating all the
household activities and for performing all these tasks appropriately, a proper planning is
required at first. To finalize the planning, implementation stages occur. The impact should be
judged after that and then decision is needed to be undertaken. The decision making is a very
important area divided into various stages. All the stages are needed to be well clarified to the
family members and then the final decision can be made.
So, it is the duty of a home manager to start and finish a work accordingly. Here, she has to
consider the demands, willingness and unwillingness of the family members. She has to take
active steps in implementing the activities according to the plan and monitor the implementation
process taking proper steps. In this stage, she has to observe whether the work is being done
accordingly and if it is not, she should take decision about further measures. She has to take
appropriate and timely decisions in this regard. After completing the work, she has to evaluate
the quality of work. Based on all these, she has to take the next step of future planning and
thereby fulfill her responsibilities towards her family. The job cycle of a home manager can be
explained in this way. For example, in preparing the list of food for the family, planning is
required at first. At this stage, she has to make planning in keeping with the demands and choice
of the family members and afterward she will take decision. At the stage of implementation, she
has to take decision on how, by whom and where these jobs will be done. Then the activities like
shopping and cooking are started. The home manager at this stage controls, supervises and
observes the progress of the job so that she could complete the tasks as per the planning. Here,
she has to finish the tasks with great efforts. Then she has to assess the activities as per the
planning and based on this she decides the next step. Besides these daily activities, a home
manager has to arrange a variety of functions related to various occasions and seasons and in
performing all these activities, she has to make herself responsible from the beginning to the end.
These are the responsibilities and duties of a home manager towards her family.
Monthly Budget of the Family
Money is the most important of all the material resources. Each family, for its survival, keeps
some money or properties. But this resource is very much limited and within this limited
resources, a family maintains all its expenses. However, to spend the limited resources properly,
a proper planning is required. If we spend the money in a planned way, the wastage will be
checked. To make an appropriate planning, the source of income and its quantity as well as the
areas of expenditure are needed to be well specified. So, we can say that a monthly budget is a
plan of spending money for the family based on the monthly income and expenditure of the
family. Plainly, we can say that a budget is a written plan for using the monthly income of the
family which reflects the family needs, time and areas of expenditure.
Importance of Budgeting
1. Budget helps to increase awareness regarding income and expenditure of a family After
preparing a budget, if the expenditure is made, it will make an individual aware of the source and
quantity of income as well as the areas of expenditure.
2. A balance can be made regarding income and expenditure If there is a budget, it will help to
reduce or extend expenditure depending on the family income.
3. It helps to make savings
As savings is an integral part of a budget, a budget encourages savings whether the income is
more or less.
4. It helps to save time and energy
A budget helps the members of the family to spend money within the time and thus it helps to
save time and energy.
5. It helps to meet the important demands; in a budget, the important areas of expenditure are
specified and so there remains nothing to be unfulfilled. For this reason, the family does not
suffer in paying house rent, income tax, electricity bill, etc. in due time.
6. The satisfaction and solvency of the family grows; by calculating the demands of the family
members, the budget is usually made and so everybody remains satisfied. If the budget is made
in this way, the satisfaction and peace of the family is maintained.
Rules of preparing a budget for the family
There are some rules which are needed to be considered while preparing a budget for the family.
These are:
1. Knowing the probable monthly income of the family.
2. Knowing the number of family members and their special needs.
3. Identifying the main sectors of the family expenditure e.g. food, clothing, housing, medical,
education, recreation and savings etc.
4. Deciding how much money should be spent on each of the sectors of expenditure.
5. Deciding the expenditure based on the sectors and their sub-sector.
6. The budget is to be flexible by allowing the scope of changes and readjustment from one
sector to another
KITCHEN
A well-planned kitchen is one that functions efficiently, and yet is attractive and easy to
maintain. To design an efficient kitchen, the designer must consider the room's function,
location, decor, size, and shape just as with other rooms. However, because a kitchen requires so
much equipment, the design of a kitchen entails additional considerations and decisions.
Functions
Food preparation is, of course, the primary function of the kitchen. However, the kitchen may
also be used as a dining area. The proper placement of appliances is important in a well-planned
kitchen. Locating appliances in an efficient pattern eliminates wasted. An efficient kitchen has
three basic areas or centers: The storage center the cooking center, and the cleanup center. A
fourth area, mixing, is combined into one or more of the others, usually storage.
Storage and mixing center
The refrigerator is the major appliance in the storage and mixing center. The refrigerator may be
freestanding, built-in, or even suspended from a wall. Cabinets for the storage of utensils and
food ingredients, as well as a countertop work area, are also included at this center.
Cooking center
The major appliances in the cooking center are the range and oven. The range and oven may be
combined into one appliance or be separated into two appliances, with the burners installed in the
countertop (cook top) as one appliance and an oven built into a cabinet. The cooking center
should have countertop work space, as well as storage space for minor appliances and cooking
utensils. An adequate supply of electrical or gas outlets for using appliances is necessary.
Cleanup center
At the cleanup center, the sink is the major appliance, Sinks are available in one-, two-, or three-
bowl models with a variety of cabinet arrangements, countertops, and drain board areas. The
cleanup center may also include a waste-disposal unit, an automatic dishwasher, a waste
compactor, and cabinets for storing cleaning supplies.
THE WORK TRIANGLE
If you draw a line connecting the three centers of the kitchen, a triangle is formed. This is called
the work triangle. Although the size of the work triangle is an indication of kitchen efficiency,
the triangle is primarily useful as a starting point in kitchen design. The triangle should not be
rigidly maintained at the expense of flexibility and creativity. The arrangements of the three
areas of the work triangle may vary greatly. However, efficient arrangements can be designed in
each of the seven basic types of kitchens described here.
Types of Kitchens
U-shaped kitchen
The U-shaped kitchen is very efficient and popular. The sink is located at the bottom of the U,
and the range and the refrigerator are at the opposite ends. In this arrangement, traffic passing
through the kitchen is completely separated from the work triangle. The open space in the U
between the sides should be 4' (1219 mm) or 5' (1524 mm). This arrangement produces a very
efficient small kitchen. When designing U-shaped kitchens, special attention must be given to
door hinges and drawer positions. Design cabinet doors and drawers to open without interfering
with each other, especially at cabinet corners.
Peninsula kitchen
The peninsula kitchen is similar to the U-shaped kitchen, but one end of the U is not adjacent to a
wall. It projects into the room like a piece of land (peninsula) into a body of water. This
peninsula is often used for the cooking center. However, it may serve several other functions as
well. The peninsula is often used for an eating area as well as for food preparation. Ii may join
the kitchen to the dining room or family room. Most peninsula kitchens contain large countertops
for work space, Peninsulas contain only lower or base cabinets, but some may include upper
cabinets suspended iron ceilings.
L-shaped kitchen
The L-shaped kitchen has continuous counters, appliances, and equipment located on two
adjoining, perpendicular walls. Two work centers are usually located on one wall and the third
center is on the other wall. If the walls of an L-shaped kitchen are too long, the compact
efficiency of the kitchen is destroyed. An L-shaped kitchen requires less space than the U-shaped
kitchen. The remaining open space often created by an L-shaped arrangement can serve as an
eating area, without taking space from the work areas. If the center area is used for eating, a
minimum of 36' to l4 mm) must be allowed as an aisle between cabinets and chairs.
Corridor kitchen
Two-wall corridor kitchens are very efficient arrangements for long, narrow rooms. They are
very popular for small apartments, but are used extensively anywhere space is limited. A corridor
kitchen produces a very efficient work triangle, as long as traffic does not need to pass through
that work triangle. The corridor space between cabinets (not walls) should be no smaller than 4'
(1219 mm), preferably 6' (1829 mm). One of the best work arrangements locates the refrigerator
and sink on one wall and the rest on the opposite side.
One-wall kitchen
A one-wall kitchen is an excellent plan for small apartments, cabins, or houses in which little
space is available. The work centers are located along one line rather than in a triangular shape,
but this design still produces an efficient arrangement. When planning a one-wall kitchen, the
designer must be careful to avoid creating walls that are too long. Adequate storage facilities
need to be well planned also, since space is often limited in a one-wall kitchen.
Island kitchen
The island kitchen, another geographically-named arrangement, has a separate, freestanding
structure in the kitchen that is usually located in the central part of the room. An island in the
kitchen is accessible on all sides. It usually has a range top or sink, or both. Other facilities are
sometimes located in the island, such as a mixing center, work table, serving counter, extra sink,
and/or snack center. The island design is especially convenient when two or more persons work
in the kitchen at the same time. When an island contains a range or grill, allow at least 16" (406
mm) on the sides for utensil space. Also consider the use of a downdraft exhaust system which
pulls vapors down and out rather than up to eliminate the need for overhead hooded vents. Allow
at least 42" (1067 mm) on all sides of an island. If used for eating, also add the depth of the chair
or stool.
Family kitchen
The family kitchen is an open kitchen using any kitchen shape. The function of an open kitchen,
however, is to provide a meeting place for the entire family-in addition to the usual Kitchen
services. A family kitchen often appears to have two parts in one room. The three food
preparation work centers comprise one section. The dining area and family-room facilities
comprise another section. Family kitchens must be rather large to accommodate more facilities.
An average size for a family kitchen is 225 sq. fi.(20sq. m). Eating areas can be designed with
either tables or chairs or with chairs and/or stools at a counter. When counters are used for
eating, allow at least 12'(305 mm) for knee space between the end of the counter and the face of
the base cabinet. Regardless of its shape, the kitchen is the core of the service area and should be
located near the service entrance as well as near the waste-disposal area. The kitchen must be
adjacent to eating areas, both indoors and outdoors. The children's play area should also be
visible or easily accessible from the kitchen.
FOOD SAFETY
The continued provision of safe food, free from microorganisms, toxins, and other hazardous
substances that cause disease, remains a huge challenge. Recent experiences with animals
suffering from bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE or mad cow disease) or from foot-and-
mouth disease, or birds infected with the influenza A virus (bird flu), have shown how quickly a
national problem can become an international one because of global marketing of products. The
list of possible hazardous substances in foods emphasizes the need for continuous monitoring of
the food supply by health officials.
The safe food handling
Only food server who are healthy and practice good personal hygiene should be allowed to work
in your restaurant. Workers can contaminate food by: working while they are sick; touching
pimples or sores; touching their hair; not wearing a band-aid and single-use gloves over sores
and wounds; and not washing their hands properly before, during, and after handling food. One
of the best ways that a foodservice manager can keep food safe is to implement food safety
policies that promote good personal hygiene. The policies should address:
• personal cleanliness – workers properly bathed;
• proper work attire – workers wearing clean hat or hair restraint, clean clothing, appropriate
shoes, and removing jewelry; and
• good hygiene practices – workers frequently and properly washing their hands, having short
fingernails, and properly using gloves.
Hand washing Basics
Hands are probably the most common way that harmful microorganisms get into foods in a
restaurant. Hands can become soiled with a variety of contaminants while a worker is performing
routine tasks. All restaurants must have an accessible handwashing sink that is well stocked with
hand soap and a way to dry hands. The soap can be either liquid or bar soap; it does not have to
be antibacterial. Instant hand sanitizer can be available but it is not required.
It is important that hand washing be done only at a properly maintained hand washing sink.
Warm water is more effective than cold water in removing dirt and microorganisms from hands.
An adequate flow of warm water will cause soap to lather and help remove soil quickly from the
hands. The water should be at least 100oF (40°C). Some workers will not wash their hands
unless properly equipped hand washing sinks are accessible to their work area. Sinks that are
improperly located, blocked by portable equipment, or stacked full of soiled utensils and other
items, are difficult to use. Nothing must block the approach to a hand washing sink.
Hands must never be washed in a food preparation sink because this may contaminate the sink
and the food prepared in it. Service sinks also cannot be used for hand washing because this
practice may introduce additional hand contaminants, such as mop water, toxic chemicals, and a
variety of other liquid wastes.
Proper Hand washing
Workers must wash their hands after any task that might contaminate their hands. Always wash
hands:
• after using the bathroom
• after coughing, sneezing, smoking, eating, or drinking
• after bussing a table
• before putting on gloves
• after handling animals
• when switching between raw and ready-to-eat food
• after handling garbage or trash
• after handling dirty equipment or utensils;
• during food preparation.
Instant Hand Sanitizers
Instant hand sanitizers should only be used on properly washed hands. Therefore, food workers
must always wash their hands before the hand sanitizer is applied. Hand sanitizers can never
replace hand washing.
Fingernails
Fingernails (real or artificial) and nail polish can become a physical hazard. Therefore, workers
must keep their nails trimmed and filed. Long nails can easily break and end up in food. Also if
nails are long, dirt and microorganisms can collect beneath them. If workers want to wear
fingernail polish or artificial fingernails, they must wear single-use gloves.
Cover cuts, wounds and sores
Lesions containing pus that might be on a worker's hands or forearms, can introduce bacteria into
food. If a worker has an infected cut and bandages it, plus puts on a glove, they donot have to
report the infected cut to the manager. However, if the worker does not bandage it, they must let
their manager know about the infected cut.
Single-use Gloves
Hands must be properly washed before a worker puts on single-use gloves. Gloves must be
thrown out when they become dirty. Provide workers with non-latex gloves because latex gloves
might cause allergic reactions in some workers. Always change gloves when they tear; before
beginning a new task; every four hours when doing the same task; and after handling raw meat,
fish, or poultry.
Hair Restraint
Consumers are particularly sensitive to food contaminated by hair. Food workers might
contaminate their hands when they touch their hair. A hair restraint keeps hair from ending up in
the food and it also may deter employees from touching their hair.
Clothing
Dirty clothing could also be a source of microorganisms. Food workers who inadvertently touch
their dirty clothing may contaminate their hands. This could result in contamination of the food
being prepared. Food may also be contaminated through direct contact with dirty clothing. In
addition, workers wearing dirty clothes send a negative message to customers about the level of
sanitation in the restaurant.
Jewelry
Jewelry, such as rings, bracelets, and watches, might get dirty. As a result, the jewelry may be a
source of harmful microorganisms. Medical information bracelets also cannot be worn. They can
only be worn if they are high on the arm or secured in a manner that does not pose a risk to the
food but still provides emergency medical information if it is needed. An additional hazard
associated with jewelry is the possibility that pieces of the item or the whole item itself may fall
into the food being prepared. Hard foreign objects in food may cause medical problems for
consumers, such as chipped and/or broken teeth, internal cuts, or lesions.
Bare-hand Contact
Minimize bare-hand contact of ready-to-eat food. Ready-to-eat food (RTE) includes cooked
food, raw fruits and vegetables, baked goods, dried sausages, canned food, snack foods, and
beverages. It is best to handle these foods with hands that are properly covered with single use
gloves, cleaned and sanitized utensils, and/or deli papers. Reporting Foodborne Illness to the
Local Health Department Diseases, such as AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome),
hepatitis B and C, and tuberculosis, are not spread through food. However, other diseases can be
spread through food. If a worker is diagnosed with one of the following food borne illnesses, the
manager must report it to the local health department: Hepatitis A virus, E. coli 0157:H7,
Salmonella Typhi, Shigella spp.
Excluding or Restricting Workers
Excluding is when a worker is not allowed in the establishment except for those areas open to the
general public. A restricted worker may work in an area of the restaurant where there is wrapped
food, wrapped single-service or single-use articles, or soiled food equipment or utensils.
Examples of activities that a restricted person might do include working at the cash register,
seating patrons, bussing tables, stocking canned or other packaged foods, or working in a non-
food cleaning or maintenance capacity. A worker who is restricted from working in one
restaurant may not work in an unrestricted capacity in another restaurant. A worker with an
unprotected, uninfected cut, or a food worker with a covered, protected infected cut/lesion/boil
because it requires no bare hand contact with ready-to-eat food does not need to be restricted
from handling food.
Other Policies
Smoking or eating by workers in food preparation areas is prohibited because hands, food, and
food-contact surfaces might become contaminated. Poor hygiene practices, such as scratching
the head, placing the fingers in or about the mouth or nose, and indiscriminate and uncovered
sneezing or coughing could cause food contamination. Food preparation areas such as hot grills
are often very warm. The excessive heat in these areas may present a medical risk to the workers
as a result of dehydration. Therefore, in these areas food workers can drink beverages from a
covered container with a straw.

Nutritional science is the investigation of how an organism is nourished, and incorporates the
study of how nourishment affects personal health, population health, and planetary health.
Nutritional science covers a wide spectrum of disciplines. As a result, nutritional scientists can
specialize in particular aspects of nutrition such as biology, physiology, immunology,
biochemistry, education, psychology, sustainability, and sociology. Without adequate nutrition
the human body does not function optimally, and severe nutritional inadequacy can lead to
disease and even death. The typical American diet is lacking in many ways, from not containing
the proper amounts of essential nutrients, to being too speedily consumed, to being only
meagrely satisfying. Dietitians are nutrition professionals who integrate their knowledge of
nutritional science into helping people achieve a healthy diet and develop good dietary habits.
The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND) is the largest organization of nutrition
professionals worldwide and dietitians registered with the AND are committed to helping
Americans eat well and live healthier lives. To learn more from the AND’s nutritional advice.
Your ability to wake up, to think clearly, to communicate, to hope, to dream, to go to school, to
gain knowledge, to go to work, to earn a living, and to do all of the things that you like to do are
dependent upon one factor—your health. Good health means you are able to function normally
and work hard to achieve your goals in life. For the next few minutes, take some time to view
snapshots of the insides of the refrigerators of American mechanics, doctors, school teachers,
hunters, short order cooks, college students, vegans, and more.

“You Are What You Eat”. Menjivar hopes these images will invoke new thoughts about, “How
we care for our bodies. How we care for others. And how we care for the land.” As you look at
these images think about your personal health, the health of your family and friends, and the
health of this planet. These hopes encompass the inspirations for this book.

The word nutrition first appeared in 1551 and comes from the Latin word nutrire, meaning “to
nourish.” Today, we define nutrition as the sum of all processes involved in how organisms
obtain nutrients, metabolize them, and use them to support all of life’s processes. Nutritional
science is the investigation of how an organism is nourished, and incorporates the study of how
nourishment affects personal health, population health, and planetary health. Nutritional science
covers a wide spectrum of disciplines. As a result, nutritional scientists can specialize in
particular aspects of nutrition such as biology, physiology, immunology, biochemistry,
education, psychology, sustainability, and sociology. Without adequate nutrition the human body
does not function optimally, and severe nutritional inadequacy can lead to disease and even
death. The typical American diet is lacking in many ways, from not containing the proper
amounts of essential nutrients, to being too speedily consumed, to being only meagerly
satisfying. Dietitians are nutrition professionals who integrate their knowledge of nutritional
science into helping people achieve a healthy diet and develop good dietary habits. The
Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics (AND) is the largest organization of nutrition professionals
worldwide and dietitians registered with the AND are committed to helping Americans eat well
and live healthier lives. To learn more from the AND’s nutritional advice, visit
http://www.eatright.org/default.aspx.Your ability to wake up, to think clearly, to communicate,
to hope, to dream, to go to school, to gain knowledge, to go to work, to earn a living, and to do
all of the things that you like to do are dependent upon one factor—your health. Good health
means you are able to function normally and work hard to achieve your goals in life. For the next
few minutes, take some time to view snapshots of the insides of the refrigerators of American
mechanics, doctors, school teachers, hunters, college students, vegans, and more. Visit Mark
Menjivar’s portrait exhibition, “You Are What You Eat”. Menjivar hopes these images will
invoke new thoughts about, “How we care for our bodies. How we care for others. And how we
care for the land.” As you look at these images think about your personal health, the health of
your family and friends, and the health of this planet. These hopes encompass the inspirations for
this book.

The foods we eat affect all three aspects of our health. For example, a teen with Type 2 diabetes
(a disease brought on by poor diet) is first diagnosed by physical signs and symptoms such as
increased urination, thirstiness, and unexplained weight loss. But research has also found that
teens with Type 2 diabetes have impaired thinking and do not interact well with others in school,
thereby affecting mental and social wellbeing. Type 2 diabetes is just one example of a
physiological disease that affects all aspects of health—physical, mental, and social.

Public Health and Disease Prevention

In 1894, the first congressional funds were appropriated to the US Department of Agriculture
(USDA) for the study of the relationship between nutrition and human health. Dr. Wilbur Olin
Atwater was appointed as the Chief of Nutrition
Investigations and is accoladed as the “Father of Nutrition Science” in America. Under his
guidance the USDA released the first bulletin to the American public that contained information
on the amounts of fat, carbohydrates, proteins, and food energy in various foods. Nutritional
science advanced considerably in these early years, but it took until 1980 for the USDA and the
US Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to jointly release the first edition of
Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary Guidelines for Americans. Although wide distribution of
dietary guidelines did not come about until the 1980s, many historical events that demonstrated
the importance of diet to health preceded their release. Assessments of the American diet in the
1930s led President Franklin D. Roosevelt to declare in his inaugural address on January 20,
1937, “I see one-third of our nation is ill-housed, ill-clad, and ill-nourished.” From the time of
Atwater until the onset of the Great Depression nutritional scientists had discovered many of the
vitamins and minerals essential for the functioning of the human body. Their work and the
acknowledgement by President FDR of the nutritional inadequacy of the American diet evoked a
united response between scientists and government leading to the enrichment of flour, the
development of school lunch programs, and advancements of nutritional education in this
country.
In the latter part of the twentieth century nutritional scientists, public health organizations, and
the American public increasingly recognized that eating too much of certain foods is linked to
chronic diseases. We now know that diet-related conditions and diseases include hypertension
(high blood pressure), obesity, Type 2diabetes, cardiovascular disease, some cancers, and
osteoporosis. These diet-related conditions and diseases are some of the biggest killers of
Americans. The HHS reports that unhealthy diets and inactivity cause between 310,000 and
580,000deaths every single year. Center for Science in the Public Interest. According to the
USDA, eating healthier could save Americans over $70 billion per year and this does not include
the cost of obesity, which is estimated to cost a further $117 billion per year. Unfortunately,
despite the fact that the prevalence of these diseases can be decreased by healthier diets and
increased physical activity, the CDC reports that the federal government spends one thousand
times more to treat disease than to prevent it. Nutrition at USDA.” In 2010, the new edition of
the dietary guidelines identified obesity as the number one nutritional-related health problem in
the United States and established strategies to combat its incidence and health consequences in
the American population. A 2008 study in the journal Obesity reported that if current trends are
not changed, 100 percent of Americans will be overweight or obese in 2048. Will All Americans
Become Overweight or Obese? The US federal government released a new multimedia tool that
aims to help Americans choose healthier foods from the five food groups (grains, vegetables,
fruits, dairy, and proteins). The tool, called “Choose MyPlate.

What Are Nutrients?

The foods we eat contain nutrients. Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its
basic functions. Nutrients must be obtained from diet, since the human body does not synthesize
them. Nutrients are used to produce energy,
detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire(breathe), grow,
and reproduce. There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and maintain
overall health. These are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals. Foods
also contain no nutrients that maybe harmful (such as cholesterol, dyes, and preservatives) or
beneficial (such as antioxidants).

Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called macronutrients. There are three classes of
macronutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. These can be metabolically processed into
cellular energy. The energy from macronutrients comes from their chemical bonds. This
chemical energy is converted into cellular energy that is then utilized to perform work, allowing
our bodies to conduct their basic functions. A unit of measurement of food energy is the calorie.
On nutrition food labels the amount given for “calories” is actually equivalent to each calorie
multiplied by one thousand. A kilocalorie (one thousand calories, denoted with a small “c”) is
synonymous with the “Calorie” (with a capital “C”) on nutrition food labels. Water is also a
macronutrient in the sense that you require a large amount of it, but unlike the other
macronutrients it does not yield calories.

Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. The
major food sources of carbohydrates are grains, milk, fruits, and starchy vegetables like potatoes.
No starchy vegetables also contain carbohydrates, but in lesser quantities. Carbohydrates are
broadly classified into two forms based on their chemical structure: fast-releasing carbohydrates,
often called simple sugars, and slow-releasing carbohydrates. Fast-releasing carbohydrates
consist of one or two basic units. Examples of simple sugars include sucrose, the type of sugar
you would have in a bowl on the breakfast table, and glucose, the type of sugar that circulates in
your blood. Slow-releasing carbohydrates are long chains of simple sugars that can be branched
or unbranched. During digestion, the body breaks down all slow-releasing carbohydrates to
simple sugars, mostly glucose. Glucose is then transported to all our cells where it is stored, used
to make energy, or used to build macromolecules. Fibre is also a slow-releasing carbohydrate,
but it cannot be broken down in the human body and passes through the digestive tract
undigested unless the bacteria that inhabit the gut break it down.

One gram of carbohydrates yields four kilocalories of energy for the cells in the
body to perform work. In addition to providing energy and serving as building blocks for bigger
macromolecules, carbohydrates are essential for proper
functioning of the nervous system, heart, and kidneys. As mentioned, glucose can be stored in
the body for future use. In humans, the storage molecule of carbohydrates is called glycogen and
in plants it is known as starches. Glycogen and starches are slow-releasing carbohydrates.

Lipids
Lipids are also a family of molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, but unlike
carbohydrates, they are insoluble in water. Lipids are found predominately in butter, oils, meats,
dairy products, nuts, and seeds, and in many processed foods. The three main types of lipids are
triglycerides (triacylglycerols), phospholipids, and sterols. The main job of lipids is to store
energy. Lipids provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates (nine kilocalories per gram of
lipids versus four kilocalories per gram of carbohydrates). In addition to energy storage, lipids
serve as cell membranes, surround and protect organs, aid in temperature regulation, and regulate
many other functions in the body.
Proteins
Proteins are macromolecules composed of chains of subunits called amino acids. Amino acids
are simple subunits composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. The food sources of
proteins are meats, dairy products, seafood, and a variety of different plant-based foods, most
notably soy. The word protein comes from a Greek word meaning “of primary importance,”
which is an apt description of these macronutrients; they are also known colloquially as the
“workhorses” of life. Proteins provide four kilocalories of energy per gram; however, providing
energy is not protein’s most important function. Proteins provide structure to bones, muscles and
skin, and play a role in conducting most of the chemical reactions that take place in the body.
Scientists estimate that greater than one-hundred thousand different proteins exist within the
human body.
Water
There is one other nutrient that we must have in large quantities: water. Water does not contain
carbon, but is composed of two hydrogens and one oxygen per molecule of water. More than 60
percent of your total body weight is water. Without it, nothing could be transported in or out of
the body, chemical reactions would not occur, organs would not be cushioned, and body
temperature would fluctuate widely. On average, an adult consumes just over two litters of water
per day from food and drink. According to the “rule of threes,” a generalization supported by
survival experts, a person can survive three minutes without oxygen, three days without water,
and three weeks without food. Since water is so critical for life’s basic processes, the amount of
water input and output is supremely important, a topic we will explore in detail in Chapter 7
"Nutrients Important to Fluid and Electrolyte Balance".

Micronutrients
Micronutrients are nutrients required by the body in lesser amounts, but are still essential for
carrying out bodily functions. Micronutrients include all the essential minerals and vitamins.
There are sixteen essential minerals and thirteen vitamins. In contrast to carbohydrates, lipids,
and proteins, micronutrients are not directly used for making energy, but they assist in the
process as being part of enzymes (i.e., coenzymes). Enzymes are proteins that catalyse chemical
reactions in the body and are involved in all aspects of body functions from producing energy, to
digesting nutrients, to building macromolecules. Micronutrients play many roles in the body.

Minerals
Minerals are solid inorganic substances that form crystals and are classified depending on how
much of them we need. Trace minerals, such as molybdenum, selenium, zinc, iron, and iodine,
are only required in a few milligrams or less and macro minerals, such as calcium, magnesium,
potassium, sodium, and phosphorus, are required in hundreds of milligrams. Many minerals are
critical for enzyme function, others are used to maintain fluid balance, build bone tissue,
synthesize hormones, transmit nerve impulses, contract and relax muscles, and protect against
harmful free radicals.

Vitamins
The thirteen vitamins are categorized as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. The water-soluble
vitamins are vitamin C and all the B vitamins, which include thiamine, riboflavin, niacin,
pantothenic acid, pyroxidine, biotin, folate and cobalamin. The fat-soluble vitamins are A, D, E,
and K. Vitamins are required to perform many functions in the body such as making red blood
cells, synthesizing bone tissue, and playing a role in normal vision, nervous system function, and
immune system function. Vitamin deficiencies can cause severe health problems. For example, a
deficiency in niacin causes a disease called pellagra, which was common in the early twentieth
century in some parts of America. The common signs and symptoms of pellagra are known as
the “4D’s—diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death.” Until scientists found out that better diets
relieved the signs and symptoms of pellagra, many people with the disease ended up in insane
asylums awaiting death (see Note 1.19"Video 1.1"). Other vitamins were also found to prevent
certain disorders and diseases such as scurvy (vitamin C), night blindness (vitamin A), and
rickets

Food Quality
One measurement of food quality is the amount of nutrients it contains relative to the amount of
energy it provides. High-quality foods are nutrient dense, meaning they contain lots of the
nutrients relative to the amount of calories they provide. Nutrient-dense foods are the opposite of
“empty-calorie” foods such as carbonated sugary soft drinks, which provide many calories and
very little, if any, other nutrients. Food quality is additionally associated with its taste, texture,
appearance, microbial content, and how much consumers like it.

Food: A Better Source of Nutrients

It is better to get all your micronutrients from the foods you eat as opposed to from supplements.
Supplements contain only what is listed on the label, but foods contain many more
macronutrients, micronutrients, and other chemicals, like antioxidants that benefit health. While
vitamins, multivitamins, and supplements are a $20 billion industry in this country and more than
50 percent of Americans purchase and use them daily, there is no consistent evidence that they
are better than food in promoting health and preventing disease. Dr. Marian Neuhouser, associate
of the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle, says that“…scientific data are lacking
on the long-term health benefits of supplements. Toour surprise, we found that multivitamins did
not lower the risk of the most common cancers and also had no impact on heart disease.”
Woodward, K. “Multivitamins Each Day Will Not Keep Common Cancers Away; Largest Study
of Its Kind Provides Definitive Evidence that Multivitamins Will Not Reduce Risk of Cancer or
heart disease in Postmenopausal Women
How to Determine the Health Effects of Food and Nutrients
Similar to the method by which a police detective finally charges a criminal with a crime,
nutritional scientists discover the health effects of food and its nutrients by first making an
observation. Once observations are made, they come up with a hypothesis, test their hypothesis,
and then interpret the results. After this, they gather additional evidence from multiple sources
and finally come up with a conclusion on whether the food suspect fits the claim. This organized
process of inquiry used in forensic science, nutritional science, and every other science is called
the scientific method.

Observation. Eating seaweed is a cure for goitre, a gross enlargement of the thyroid gland in the
neck.

Hypothesis. In 1813, Swiss physician Jean-Francois Coindet hypothesized that the seaweed
contained iodine and he could use just iodine instead of seaweed to treat his patients.

Experimental test. Coindet administered iodine tincture orally to his patients with goiter.

Interpret results. Coindet’s iodine treatment was successful.

Gathering more evidence. Many other physicians contributed to the research on iodine
deficiency and goiter.
Results. The iodized salt was beneficial in treating goiter in this remote population.

Conclusions. Seven other studies similar to Marine’s were conducted in Italy and
Switzerland that also demonstrated the effectiveness of iodized salt in treating goiter. In 1924,
US public health officials initiated the program of iodizing salt and started eliminating the
scourge of goiterism. Today more than 70 percent of American households use iodized salt and
many other countries have followed the same public health strategy to reduce the health
consequences of iodine deficiency.
Factors that Drive Food Choices
Along with these influences, a number of other factors affect the dietary choices
individuals make, including:

• Taste, texture, and appearance. Individuals have a wide range of tastes which influence their
food choices, leading some to dislike milk and others to hate raw vegetables. Some foods that are
very healthy, such as tofu, may be unappealing at first to many people. However, creative cooks
can adapt healthy foods to meet most peoples’ taste.

• Economics. Access to fresh fruits and vegetables may be scant, particularly for those who live
in economically disadvantaged or remote areas, where cheaper food options are limited to
convenience stores and fast food.

• Early food experiences. People who were not exposed to different foods as children, or who
were forced to swallow every last bite of over cooked vegetables, may make limited food choices
as adults.

• Habits. It’s common to establish eating routines, which can work both for and against optimal
health. Habitually grabbing a fast-food sandwich for breakfast can seem convenient, but might
not offer substantial nutrition. Yet getting in the habit of drinking an ample amount of water each
day can yield multiple benefits.

• Culture. The culture in which one grows up affects how one sees food
in daily life and on special occasions.

• Geography. Where a person lives influences food choices. For instance, people who live in
Midwestern US states have less access to seafood than those living along the coasts.

• Advertising. The media greatly influences food choice by persuading consumers to eat certain
foods.

• Social factors. Any school lunchroom observer can testify to the impact of peer pressure on
eating habits, and this influence lasts through adulthood. People make food choices based on
how they see others and want others to see them. For example, individuals can purchase cheap
and fast pizzas or opt for high-end versions at fancy restaurants.

• Health concerns. Some people have significant food allergies, to lactose or peanuts for
example, and need to avoid those foods. Others may have developed health issues, which require
them to follow a low salt diet. In addition, people who have never worried about their weight
have a very different approach to eating than those who have long struggled with excess pounds.
• Emotions. There is a wide range in how emotional issues affect eating habits. When faced with
a great deal of stress, some people tend to overeat, while others find it hard to eat at all.

• Green food/Sustainability choices. Based on a growing understanding of diet as a public and

personal issue, more and more people are starting to make food choices based on their
environmental impact. Realizing that their food choices help shape the world, many individuals
are opting for a vegetarian diet, or, if they do eat animal products, striving to find the most
“cruelty-free” options possible. Purchasing local and organic food products and items grown
through sustainable products also help shrink the size of one’s dietary footprint.
Assessing Personal Health
Personal Health Assessment
One of the easiest places to begin a personal health assessment is by examining the results from
your last physical. Often a person will leave the doctor’s office without these results. Remember
that the results belong to you and having this information on hand provides you with much of
what you need to keep track of your health. During a physical, after obtaining weight and height
measurements, a nurse will typically examine blood pressure. Blood pressure is a measurement
of the forces in the arteries that occur during each heartbeat. It is a principle vital sign and an
indicator of cardiovascular health. A desirable blood pressure is 120 over 80 mmHg. In most
circumstances a physical includes blood tests, which measure many health indicators, and you
have to request the results. Once you have the results in hand, itis good practice to file them in a
binder so you can compare them from year to year. This way you can track your blood-
cholesterol levels and other blood-lipid levels and blood-glucose levels. These are some of the
more general measurements taken, but in many instances blood tests also examine liver and
kidney function, vitamin and mineral levels, hormone levels, and disease markers. Your doctor
uses all of these numbers to assess your health and you can use them to play a more active role in
keeping track of your health. Hearing and vision are additionally part of a general health
assessment. If you wear glasses, contacts, or a hearing aid you already are aware of how
important it is to know the results of these exams. If you have not experienced vision or hearing
problems yet your likelihood of experiencing them markedly increases over the age of forty.
Another component of overall health is oral health. The health of your teeth, gums, and
everything else in your mouth are an integral component of your overall health. This becomes
apparent when a person experiences a tooth infection, which if left untreated significantly
impairs physical, mental, and social well-being.

Other indicators of health that you can measure yourself are body mass index (BMI) and fitness.
Briefers to an individual’s body weight (in kilograms, or kg) divided by the square of their height
(in meters) and the unit of measurement is kg/m2. You can calculate this yourself or use one of
the many BMI calculators on the web BMI is a standardized measurement that indicates if a
person is underweight, of normal weight, overweight, or obese and is based on data from the
average population. It has some limitations. One limitation is that it does not take into account
how much of your weight is made up of muscle mass, which weighs more than fat tissue. BMI
and other measurements of body composition and fitness are more fully discussed in Chapter 11
"Energy Balance and Body Weight”. This personal health assessment has focused primarily on
physical health, but remember that mental and social well-being also affect health. During a
physical, a doctor will ask how you are feeling, if you are depressed, and if you are experiencing
behavioural problems. Be prepared to answer these questions truthfully, so that your doctor can
develop a proper treatment plan to manage these aspects of health. Note 1.50 "Interactive 1.8"
provides some tools to assess your mental and social well-being. Taking charge of your health
will pay off and equip you with the knowledge to better take advantage of your doctor’s advice
during your next physical. Health calculators, such as those that calculate BMI, ideal weight,
target heart rate among many others, and personal health assessments will help you to take
charge of your health, but they should not take the place of visiting your doctor.

Dietary Assessment
The first step in assessing your diet is to find out if the foods you eat are good for your health
and provide you with all the nutrients you need. Begin by recording in a journal what you eat
every day, including snacks and beverages. You can track calories over time, diet quality, and
find many other tools to evaluate your daily food consumption. The questions these tools can
help answer include: How much food do you have to eat to match your level of activity? How
many calories should you eat? What are the best types of food to get the most nutrients? What
nutrients are contained in different foods? How do you plan a menu that contains all the nutrients
you need? Make the first step and assess your diet. This book will provide you with interactive
resources, videos, and audio files to empower you to create a diet that improves your health.
Family Medical History
Because genetics play a large role in defining your health it is a good idea to take the time to
learn some of the diseases and conditions that may affect you. To do this, you need to record
your family’s medical history. Start by simply drawing a chart that details your immediate family
and relatives. Many families have this and you may have a good start already. The next time you
attend a family event start filling in the blanks. What did people die from? What country did
Grandpa come from? While this may be a more interesting project historically, it can also
provide you with a practical tool to determine what diseases you might be more susceptible to.
This will allow you to make better dietary and lifestyle changes early on to help prevent a
disease from being handed down from your family to you. It is good to compile your information
from multiple relatives.

A Fresh Perspective: Sustainable Food Systems

The science of nutrition includes the study of how organisms obtain food from their
environment. An ecosystem is defined as the biological and physical environments and their
interactions with the community of organisms that inhabit those environments as well as the
interactions among the organisms. Human nutrition and the health of the world’s ecosystem are
interdependent, meaning that what we eat and where we get it from affects the world. In turn the
health of the earth influences our health.

The term sustainability is used to indicate the variety of approaches aimed at improving our way
of life. Sustainability promotes the development of conditions under which people and nature can
interact harmoniously. It is based upon the principle that everything needed for human survival
depends upon the natural environment. A major theme of sustainability is to ensure that the
resources needed for human and environmental health will continue to exist. A healthy
ecosystem, one that is maintained over time, is harmonious and allows for social and economic
fulfillment for present and future generations. Nutritious foods come from our ecosystem and to
ensure its availability for generations to come, it must be produced and distributed in a
sustainable way. The American Public Health Association (APHA) defines a sustainable food
system as “one that provides healthy food to meet current food needs while maintaining healthy
ecosystems that can also provide food for generations to come with minimal negative impact to
the environment. “American
Public Health Association. “Towards a Healthy, Sustainable Food System.” Policy, Statement
Database. It also states that the attributes of a sustainable food system are:
• availability
• accessibility
• affordability to all
• humane
• just
A sustainable food system does not just include the food and those who consume the food, but
also those that produce the food, like farmers and fishermen, and those who process, package,
distribute, and regulate food. Unfortunately, we have along way to go to build a sustainable food
system.

The Challenges
The most prominent challenge to building a sustainable food system is to make food available
and accessible to all. The Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) states
the right to food is a fundamental human right and its mission is to assist in building a food-
secure world. Food security in America is defined as the “access by all people at all times to
enough food for an active, healthy life
Food security is defined by the FAO as existing “when all people, at all times, have physical,
social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food which meets their dietary
needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.” food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations. “How Does International Price Volatility Affect Domestic Economies and
Food Security? FAO estimates that 925 million worldwide were undernourished in 2010.
Although there was a recent decline in overall food insecurity (attributable mostly to a decline in
undernourished people in Asia), the number of undernourished people world-wide is still higher
than it was in 1970, despite many national and international goals to reduce it. Another challenge
to building a sustainable food system is to supply high-quality nutritious food. The typical
American diet does not adhere to dietary guidelines and recommendations, is unhealthy, and thus
costs this country billions of dollars in healthcare. The average American diet contains too many
processed foods with added sugars and saturated fats and not enough fruits, vegetables, and
wholegrains. Moreover, the average American takes in more kilocalories each day than ever
before. This shift of the population toward unhealthy, high-calorie diets has fuelled the obesity
and diet-related disease crisis in this nation. Overall, the cost of food for the average American
household has declined since the 1970s; however, there has been a growth of “food deserts.” A
food desert is a location that does not provide access to affordable, high-quality, nutritious food.
One of the best examples of a “food desert” is in Detroit, Michigan. The lower socioeconomic
status of the people who live in this city does not foster the building of grocery stores in the
community. Therefore, the most accessible foods are the cheap, high-caloric ones sold in
convenience stores. As a result, people who live in Detroit have some of the highest incidences
of obesity, Type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease in the country.

A fourth challenge to building a sustainable food system is to change how we produce, process,
and distribute food. Large agribusiness, complex industrial processing, and massive retail
conglomerations distort the connection we have between the food on our plate and where it came
from. More food is being produced in this nation than ever before, which might sound good at
first. However, some factors that have contributed to higher food production include using
genetically engineered plants, excessive use of herbicides and pesticides, and the selective
promotion of only a few crops by the policy of crop-specific subsidies (money given to farmers
by the federal government). The subsidies are given toward the support of only about eight
crops, most notably corn and soybeans. This policy diminishes the variety of crops, decreases
biodiversity among crops, and supports large agribusiness while disadvantaging small- and
medium-sized farms. Additionally, the whole system of food production, processing, and
distribution is lengthy, requiring a great deal of energy and fossil fuels, and promotes excessive
use of chemicals to preserve foods during transportation and distribution. In fact, the current US
food system uses approximately 22 percent of the energy in this country and is responsible for at
least 20 percent of greenhouse gas emissions.

Solutions to the Challenges

While these challenges are daunting there are many potential solutions that are gaining
momentum in the United States. The APHA advocates expanding the infrastructure for locally
grown food, improving access to healthy and local food for low-income Americans, providing
education on food origin and production, building up the livelihoods of local farmers, and using
sustainable farming methods. Detroit is currently a “food desert,” but there is a fantastic example
of how to positively impact the growth of a sustainable food system within the city. It is called
the Eastern Market and it is a six-block inner city market with over 250 vendors marketing local
produce, meat, seafood, plants, fresh-cut flowers and much, much more. Unlike many urban
farmers’ markets, it sells foods that are of better quality and lower prices than grocery stores. Its
forty-thousand visitors every Saturday demonstrate its success as a community-based way to
foster good nutrition, good health, and social interaction.

Ten Steps You Can Take to Help Build a Sustainable Food System in Your Community
1. Eat a “low-carbon diet.” This is one where the foods that you eat require less energy and fuel
to produce, process, and distribute than other foods.
2. Join a community-based farmers’ market and help to enlighten them on necessties.
3. Have a garden at home and join a network of home gardeners.
4. Compost your food and garden waste. Learn some of the essentials of composting by visiting
“Composting at home,”
5. Buy local food—make at least 10 percent of your food purchases local and share what you
know about local food with friends and family.
6. Pool your resources with family and friends to purchase locally.
7. Drink tap water instead of bottled water.
8. When purchasing foods, choose the ones with less packaging.
9. Support state initiatives that support local farmers and build infrastructure to sell more healthy
food.
10. When dining out, ask what nutrients are in the food and where the food labels are on the
menu (to encourage the restaurants to label). Also, visit the restaurant’s website as the
information maybe posted there with a space for comments. These are some great steps to build a
more sustainable food system for you and your family, friends, neighbourhood, community, city,
state, nation, and world.

Achieving a Healthy Diet

Let’s talk about a toolkit for a healthy diet. The first thing in it would be the Recommended
Daily Allowances (RDAs). Then we could add the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), the
Estimated Average Requirements (EARs), and the Tolerable Upper Limits (ULs). All of these
tools are values for important nutrients, calculated to meet the health needs of different age
groups. But long before the dietary toolkit full of acronyms such as DRI, RDA, EAR, and UL,
daily standards were created with the single goal of keeping workers alive and toiling in the
factories and workhouses of the early Industrial Revolution. In the late nineteenth century
powerhouse tycoons operated without fear of legal consequences and paid their workers as little
as possible in order to maximize their own profits. Workers could barely afford housing, and
depended on what their bosses fed them at the workhouses to fend off starvation.
Living conditions in those days show that the term “starvation wages” was not just a figure of
speech.

Here’s a typical day’s menu:

• Breakfast. 1 pint porridge, one 6-ounce piece of bread.
• Lunch. Beef broth one day, boiled pork and potatoes the next.
• Dinner. 1 pint porridge, one 6-ounce piece of bread.
As public awareness about these working conditions grew, so did public indignation. Experts
were eventually called in to create the first dietary guidelines, which were designed only to
provide a typical individual with what they needed to survive each day, and no more. It wasn’t
until World War I that the British Royal Society first made recommendations about the nutrients
people needed to be healthy, as opposed to merely surviving. They included ideas we now take
for granted, such as making fruit and vegetables part of the diet and giving milk to children.
Since then, most governments have established their own dietary standards. Food is a precious
commodity, like energy, and controlling the way it is distributed confers power. Sometimes this
power is used to influence other countries, as when the United States withholds food aid from
countries with regimes of which it disapproves. Governments can also use their power over food
to support their most fragile citizens with food relief programs, such as the Supplemental
Nutrition Assistance.

Program (SNAP) and the Women, Infants, and Children Supplemental Food Program (WIC).
The US government has also established dietary standards to help citizens follow a healthy diet.
The first of these were the Recommended Daily Allowances (RDAs), published in 1943 because
of the widespread food shortages caused by World War II.

During the war, the government rationed sugar, butter, milk, cheese, eggs, coffee, and canned
goods. Limited transportation made it hard to distribute fruits and vegetables. To solve this
problem, the government encouraged citizens to plant “victory gardens” to produce their own
fruits and vegetables. More than twenty million people began planting gardens in backyards,
empty lots, and on rooftops. Neighbours pooled their resources and formed cooperatives,
planting in the name of patriotism.

Today in the United States, there are various measures used to maintain access to nutritious, safe,
and sufficient food to the citizenry. Many of these dietary guidelines are provided by the
government, and are found at the Food and Drug Administration’s (FDA) new website,
ChooseMyPlate.gov. We call this collection of guidelines the “dietary toolkit.”

A Healthy Philosophy toward Food

“Tell me what you eat, and I will tell you what you are” wrote the French lawyer and politician,
Antheime Brillat-Savarin in his book, Physiologie du Gout, ou Meditations de Gastronomie
Transcendante, in 1826. Almost one hundred years later, nutritionist Victor Lindlahr wrote in an
ad in 1923, “Ninety percent of the diseases known to man are caused by cheap foodstuffs. You
are what you eat.” Today, we know this phrase simply as, “You are what you eat.” Good
nutrition equates to receiving enough (but not too much) of the macronutrients (proteins,
carbohydrates, fats, and water) and micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) so that the body can
stay healthy, grow properly, and work effectively. The phrase “you are what you eat” refers to
the fact that your body will respond to the food it receives, either good or bad. Processed, sugary,
high-fat, and excessively salted foods leave the body tired and unable to perform effectively. By
contrast, eating fresh, natural whole foods fuels the body by providing what it needs to produce
energy, promote metabolic activity, prevent micronutrient deficiencies, ward off chronic disease,
and to promote a sense of overall health and well-being.
Undernutrition, Overnutrition, and Malnutrition
For many, the word “malnutrition” produces an image of a child in a third-world country with a
bloated belly, and skinny arms and legs. However, this image alone is not an accurate
representation of the state of malnutrition. For example, someone who is 150 pounds overweight
can also be malnourished.
Malnutrition refers to one not receiving proper nutrition and does not distinguish between the
consequences of too many nutrients or the lack of nutrients, both of which impair overall health.
Undernutrition is characterized by a lack of nutrients and insufficient energy supply, whereas
overnutrition is characterized by excessive nutrient and energy intake. Overnutrition can result
in obesity, a growing global health threat. Obesity is defined as a metabolic disorder that leads to
an overaccumulation of fat tissue.
Although not as prevalent in America as it is in developing countries, undernutrition is not
uncommon and affects many subpopulations, including the elderly, those with certain diseases,
and those in poverty. Many people who live with diseases either have no appetite or may not be
able to digest food properly. Some medical causes of malnutrition include cancer, inflammatory
bowel syndrome, AIDS, Alzheimer’s disease, illnesses or conditions that cause chronic pain,
psychiatric illnesses, such as anorexia nervosa, or as a result of side effects from medications.
Overnutrition is an epidemic in the United States and is known to be a risk factor for many
diseases, including Type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, inflammatory disorders (such as
rheumatoid arthritis), and cancer.
Growth and Development
From birth to adulthood, nutrients fuel proper growth and function of all body cells, tissue, and
systems. Without proper amounts of nutrients, growth and development are stunted. Some
nutrient deficiencies manifest right away, but sometimes the effects of undernutrition aren’t seen
until later in life. For example, if children do not consume proper amounts of calcium and
vitamin D, peak bone mass will be reduced compared to what it would be had adequate amounts
of these nutrients been consumed. When adults enter old age without adequate bone mass, they
are more susceptible to osteoporosis, putting them at risk for bone fractures. Therefore, it is vital
to build bone strength through proper nutrition during youth because it cannot be done in later
life.
The Healing Process
With all wounds, from a paper cut to major surgery, the body must heal itself.
Healing is facilitated through proper nutrition. “Nutritional Support for Wound Healing.” while
malnutrition inhibits and complicates this vital process. The following nutrients are important for
proper healing:
• Vitamin A. Helps to enable the epithelial tissue (the thin outer layer of the body and the lining
that protects your organs) and bone cells form.
• Vitamin C. Helps form collagen, an important protein in many body tissues.
• Protein. Facilitates tissue formation.
• Fats. Play a key role in the formation and function of cell membranes.
• Carbohydrates. Fuel cellular activity, supplying needed energy to support the inflammatory
response that promotes healing.
Now that we have discussed the importance of proper nutrition for your body to
perform normal tissue growth, repair, and maintenance, we will discuss ways of
achieving a healthy diet.

What Is Nutritional Balance and Moderation?

Achieving a Healthy Diet
Achieving a healthy diet is a matter of balancing the quality and quantity of food that is eaten.
There are five key factors that make up a healthful diet:
• A diet must be adequate, by providing sufficient amounts of each essential nutrient, as well as
fiber and calories.
• A balanced diet results when you do not consume one nutrient at the expense of another, but
rather get appropriate amounts of all nutrients.
• Calorie control is necessary so that the amount of energy you get from the nutrients you
consume equals the amount of energy you expend during your day’s activities.
• Moderation means not eating to the extremes, neither too much nor
too little.
• Variety refers to consuming different foods from within each of the food groups on a regular
basis. A healthy diet is one that favors whole foods. As an alternative to modern processed foods,
a healthy diet focuses on “real” fresh whole foods that have been sustaining people throughout
the millenniums. Whole foods supply the needed vitamins, minerals, protein, carbohydrates, fats,
and fiber that are essential to good health. Commercially prepared and fast foods are often
lacking nutrients and often contain inordinate amounts of sugar, salt, saturated and trans fats, all
of which are associated with the development of diseases such as atherosclerosis, heart disease,
stroke, cancer, obesity, high cholesterol, diabetes, and other illnesses. A balanced diet is a mix of
food from the different food groups (vegetables, legumes, fruits, grains, protein foods, and
dairy).
Adequacy; An adequate diet is one that favors nutrient-dense foods.
Nutrient-dense foods are defined as foods that contain many essential nutrients per calorie.
Nutrient-dense foods are the opposite of “empty-calorie” foods, such as sugary carbonated
beverages, which are also called “nutrient-poor.” Nutrient-dense foods include fruits and
vegetables, lean meats, poultry, fish, low-fat dairy products, and whole grains. Choosing more
nutrient-dense foods will facilitate weight loss, while simultaneously providing all necessary
nutrients.
Balance
Balance the foods in your diet. Achieving balance in your diet entails not consuming one nutrient
at the expense of another. For example, calcium is essential for healthy teeth and bones, but too
much calcium will interfere with iron absorption. Most foods that are good sources of iron are
poor sources of calcium, so in order to get the necessary amounts of calcium and iron from your
diet, a proper balance between food choices is critical. Another example is that while sodium is a
vital nutrient, an overabundance of it can contribute to congestive heart failure and chronic
kidney disease. Remember, everything must be consumed in the proper amounts.

Moderation
Eat in moderation. Moderation is crucial for optimal health and survival. Burgers, French fries,
cake, and ice cream each night for dinner will lead to health complications. But as part of an
otherwise healthful diet and consumed only on a weekly basis, this should not have too much of
an impact on overall health. If this is done once per month, it will have even less of an impact
upon overall health. It’s important to remember that eating is, in part, about enjoyment and
indulging with a spirit of moderation. This fits within a healthy diet.
Monitor food portions. For optimum weight maintenance, it is important to ensure that energy
consumed from foods meets the energy expenditures required for body functions and activity. If
not, the excess energy contributes to gradual, steady weight gain. In order to lose weight, you
need to ensure that more calories are burned than consumed. Likewise, in order to gain weight,
calories must be eaten in excess of what is expended daily.
Building a Healthy Plate: Choose Nutrient-Rich Foods
Planning a healthy diet using the MyPlate approach is not difficult. According to the icon, half of
your plate should have fruits and vegetables, one-quarter should have whole grains, and one-
quarter should have protein. Dairy products should be low-fat or non-fat. The ideal diet gives
you the most nutrients within the fewest calories. This means choosing nutrient-rich foods. Fill
half of your plate with red, orange, and dark green vegetables and fruits, such as kale, collard
greens, tomatoes, sweet potatoes, broccoli, apples, oranges, grapes, bananas, blueberries, and
strawberries in main and side dishes. Vary your choices to get the benefit of as many different
vegetables and fruits as you can. You may choose to drink fruit juice as a replacement for eating
fruit. (As long as the juice is 100 percent fruit juice and only half your fruit intake is replaced
with juice, this is an acceptable exchange.) For snacks, eat fruits, vegetables, or unsalted nuts.
Fill a quarter of your plate with whole grains such as 100 percent whole-grain cereals, breads,
crackers, rice, and pasta. Half of your daily grain intake should be whole grains. Read the
ingredients list on food labels carefully to determine if a food is comprised of whole grains.

Select a variety of protein foods to improve nutrient intake and promote health benefits. Each
week, be sure to include a nice array of protein sources in your diet, such as nuts, seeds, beans,
legumes, poultry, soy, and seafood. The recommended consumption amount for seafood for
adults is two 4-ounce servings per week. When choosing meat, select lean cuts. Be conscious to
prepare meats using little or no added saturated fat, such as butter.

If you enjoy drinking milk or eating milk products, such as cheese and yogurt, choose low-fat or
non-fat products. Low-fat and non-fat products contain the same amount of calcium and other
essential nutrients as whole-milk products, but with much less fat and calories. Calcium, an
important mineral for your body, is also available in lactose-free and fortified soy beverage and
rice beverage products. You can also get calcium in vegetables and other fortified foods and
beverages. Oils are essential for your diet as they contain valuable essential fatty acids, but the
type you choose and the amount you consume is important. Be sure the oil is plant-based rather
than based on animal fat. You can also get oils from many types of fish, as well as avocados, and
unsalted nuts and seeds. Although oils are essential for health, they do contain about 120 calories
per tablespoon. It is vital to balance oil consumption with total caloric intake. The Nutrition
Facts label provides the information to help you make healthful decisions.
In short, substituting vegetables and fruit in place of unhealthy foods is a good way to make a
nutrient-poor diet healthy again. Vegetables are full of nutrients and antioxidants that help
promote good health and reduce the risk for developing chronic diseases such as stroke, heart
disease, high blood pressure, Type 2 diabetes, and certain types of cancer. Regularly eating fresh
fruits and vegetables will boost your overall health profile.
Discretionary Calories
When following a balanced, healthful diet with many nutrient-dense foods, you may consume
enough of your daily nutrients before you reach your daily calorie limit. The remaining calories
are discretionary (to be used according to your best judgment). To find out your discretionary
calorie allowance, add up all the calories you consumed to achieve the recommended nutrient
intakes and then subtract this number from your recommended daily caloric allowance. For
example, someone who has a recommended 2,000-calorie per day diet may eat enough nutrient-
dense foods to meet requirements after consuming only 1,814 calories. The remaining 186
calories are discretionary. These calories may be obtained from eating an additional piece of
fruit, adding another teaspoon of olive oil on a salad or butter on a piece of bread, adding sugar
or honey to cereal, or consuming an alcoholic beverage.
The number of discretionary calories increases with physical activity level and decreases with
age. For most physically active adults, the discretionary calorie allowance is, at most, 15 percent
of the recommended caloric intake. By consuming nutrient-dense foods, you afford yourself a
discretionary calorie allowance.
When Enough Is Enough?
Estimating Portion Size: Have you ever heard the expression, “Your eyes were bigger than
your stomach?” This means that you thought you wanted a lot more food than you could actually
eat. Amounts of food can be deceiving to the eye, especially if you have nothing to compare
them to. It is very easy to heap a pile of mashed potatoes on your plate, particularly if it is a big
plate, and not realize that you have just helped yourself to three portions instead of one. The food
industry makes following the 2010 Dietary Guidelines a challenge. In many restaurants and
eating establishments, portion sizes have increased, use of SoFAS has increased, and
consequently the typical meal contains more calories than it used to. In addition, our sedentary
lives make it difficult to expend enough calories during normal daily activities. In fact, more than
one-third of adults are not physically active at all.
Dietitians have come up with some good hints to help people tell how large a portion of food
they really have. Some suggest using common items such as a deck of cards while others
advocate using your hand as a measuring rule. "Determining Food Portions" for some examples;
American Cancer Society. “Controlling Portion Sizes.”

Nutrition and the Media

A motivational speaker once said, “A smart person believes half of what they read. An
intelligent person knows which half to believe.” In this age of information where instant Internet
access is just a click away, it is easy to be misled if you do not know where to go for reliable
nutrition information. There are a few websites that can be consistently relied upon for accurate
material that is updated regularly.
Using Eyes of Discernment
“New study shows that margarine contributes to arterial plaque.” “Asian study reveals that two
cups of coffee per day can have detrimental effects on the nervous system.” How do you react
when you read news of this nature? Do you
boycott margarine and coffee? When reading nutrition-related claims, articles, websites, or
advertisements always remember that one study does not substantiate a fact. One study neither
proves nor disproves anything. Readers who may be looking for complex answers to nutritional
dilemmas can quickly misconstrue such statements and be led down a path of misinformation.
Listed below are ways that you can develop discerning eyes when reading nutritional news.
1. The scientific study under discussion should be published in a peer reviewed
journal, such as the Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. Question studies that
come from less trustworthy sources (such as non-peer-reviewed journals or websites) or that are
not published.
2. The report should disclose the methods used by the researcher(s). Did the study last for three
or thirty weeks? Were there ten or one hundred participants? What did the participants actually
do? Did the researcher(s) observe the results themselves or did they rely on self-reports from
program participants?
3. Who were the subjects of this study? Humans or animals? If human, are any
traits/characteristics noted? You may realize you have more in common with certain program
participants and can use that as a basis to gauge if the study applies to you.
4. Credible reports often disseminate new findings in the context of previous research. A single
study on its own gives you very limited information, but if a body of literature supports a
finding, it gives you more confidence in it.
5. Peer-reviewed articles deliver a broad perspective and are inclusive of findings of many
studies on the exact same subject.
6. When reading such news, ask yourself, “Is this making sense?” Even if coffee does adversely
affect the nervous system, do you drink enough of it to see any negative effects? Remember, if a
headline professes a new remedy for a nutrition-related topic, it may well be a research supported
piece of news, but more often than not it is a sensational story designed to catch the attention of
an unsuspecting consumer.
Track down the original journal article to see if it really supports the
conclusions being drawn in the news report.
Digestion and Absorption
Digestion begins even before you put food into your mouth. When you feel hungry, your body
sends a message to your brain that it is time to eat. Sights and smells influence your body’s
preparedness for food. Smelling food sends a message to your brain. Your brain then tells the
mouth to get ready, and you start to salivate in preparation for a delicious meal. Once you have
eaten, your digestive system breaks down the food into smaller components. To do this, it
functions on two levels, mechanical and chemical. Once the smaller particles have been broken
down, they will be absorbed and processed by cells throughout the body for energy or used as
building blocks for new cells. The digestive system is one of the eleven organ systems of the
human body and it is composed of several hollow tube-shaped organs including the mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (or colon), rectum, and anus. It is
lined with mucosal tissue that secretes digestive juices (which aid in the breakdown of food) and
mucus (which facilitates the propulsion of food through the tract). Smooth muscle tissue
surrounds the digestive tract and its contraction produces waves, known as peristalsis, that
propel food down the tract. Nutrients as well as some non-nutrients are absorbed. Substances
such as fiber get left behind and are appropriately excreted.
From the Mouth to the Stomach
There are four steps in the digestion process. The first step is ingestion, which is the collection
of food into the digestive tract. It may seem a simple process, but ingestion involves smelling
food, thinking about food, and the involuntary release of saliva in the mouth to prepare for food
entry. In the mouth, where the second step of digestion occurs, the mechanical and chemical
breakdown of food begins.
The chemical breakdown of food involves enzymes, which break apart the components in food.
Theses enzymes are secreted by the salivary glands, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine.
Mechanical breakdown starts with mastication (chewing) in the mouth. Teeth crush and grind
large food particles, while saliva initiates the chemical breakdown of food and enables its
movement downward. The slippery mass of partially broken-down food is called bolus, which
moves down the digestive tract as you swallow. Swallowing may seem voluntary at first because
it requires conscious effort to push the food with the tongue back toward the throat, but after this,
swallowing proceeds involuntarily, meaning it cannot be stopped once it begins. As you
swallow, the bolus is pushed from the mouth through the pharynx and into a muscular tube
called the esophagus. As it travels through the pharynx, a small flap called the epiglottis closes,
to prevent choking by keeping food from going into the trachea. Peristaltic contractions in the
esophagus propel the food down to the stomach. At the junction between the esophagus and
stomach there is a sphincter muscle that remains closed until the food bolus approaches. The
pressure of the food bolus stimulates the lower esophageal sphincter to relax and open and food
then moves from the esophagus into the stomach. The mechanical breakdown of food is
accentuated by the muscular contractions of the stomach and small intestine that mash, mix,
slosh, and propel food down the alimentary canal. Solid food takes between four and eight
seconds to travel down the esophagus, and liquids take about one second.
From the Stomach to the Small Intestine
When food enters the stomach, a highly muscular organ, powerful peristaltic contractions help
mash, pulverize, and churn food into chyme. Chyme is a semiliquid mass of partially digested
food that also contains gastric juices secreted by cells in the stomach. Cells in the stomach also
secrete hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin, that chemically breaks down food into smaller
molecules.
The stomach has three basic tasks:
1. To store food
2. To mechanically and chemically break down food
3. To empty partially broken-down food into the small intestine
The length of time food spends in the stomach varies by the macronutrient composition of the
meal. A high-fat or high-protein meal takes longer to break down than one rich in carbohydrates.
It usually takes a few hours after a meal to
empty the stomach contents completely. The small intestine is divided into three structural parts:
the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. Once the chyme enters the duodenum (the first
segment of the small intestine), the pancreas and gallbladder are stimulated and release juices
that aid in digestion. The pancreas secretes up to 1.5 liters of pancreatic juice through a duct into
the duodenum per day. This fluid consists mostly of water, but it also contains bicarbonate ions
that neutralize the acidity of the stomach-derived chyme and enzymes that further breakdown
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids.
The gallbladder secretes a much smaller amount of bile to help digest fats, also through a duct
that leads to the duodenum. Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Bile’s
components act like detergents by surrounding fats similar to the way dish soap removes grease
from a frying pan. This allows for the movement of fats in the watery environment of the small
intestine. Two different types of muscular contractions, called peristalsis and segmentation,
move and mix the food in various stages of digestion through the small intestine. Similar to what
occurs in the esophagus and stomach, peristalsis is circular waves of smooth muscle contraction
that propel food forward. Segmentation sloshes food back and forth in both directions promoting
further mixing of the chyme. Almost all the components of food are completely broken down to
their simplest unit within the first 25 centimeters of the small intestine. Instead of proteins,
carbohydrates, and lipids, the chyme now consists of amino acids, monosaccharides, and
emulsified fatty acids.

The next step of digestion (nutrient absorption) takes place in the remaining length of the small
intestine, or ileum (> 5 meters). The small intestine is perfectly structured for maximizing
nutrient absorption. Its surface area is greater than 200 square meters, which is about the size of a
tennis court. The surface area of the small intestine increases by multiple levels of folding. The
internal tissue of the small intestine is covered in villi, which are tiny finger like
projections that are covered with even smaller projections, called microvilli. The digested
nutrients pass through the absorptive cells of the intestine via diffusion or special transport
proteins. Amino acids and monosaccharides (sugars) are transported from the intestinal cells into
capillaries, but the much larger emulsified fatty acids, fat-soluble vitamins, and other lipids are
transported first through lymphatic vessels, which soon meet up with blood vessels.
From the Small Intestine to the Large Intestine
The process of digestion is fairly efficient. Any food that is still incompletely broken down
(usually less than ten percent of food consumed) and the food’s indigestible fiber content moves
from the small intestine to the large intestine (colon) through a connecting valve. The main task
of the large intestine is to reabsorb water. Remember, water is present not only in solid foods, but
also the stomach releases a few hundred millilters of gastric juice and the pancreas adds
approximately another 500 milliliters during the digestion of the meal.
For the body to conserve water, it is important that the water be reabsorbed. In the large intestine,
no further chemical or mechanical breakdown of food takes place, unless it is accomplished by
the bacteria that inhabit this portion of the digestive tract. The number of bacteria residing in the
large intestine is estimated to be greater than 10(14), which is more than the total number of cells
in the human body (10(13)). This may seem rather unpleasant, but the great majority of bacteria
in the large intestine are harmless and some are even beneficial.
From the Large Intestine to the Anus
After a few hours in the stomach, plus three to six hours in the small intestine, and about sixteen
hours in the large intestine, the digestion process enters step four, which is the elimination of
indigestible food as feces. Feces contain indigestible food and gut bacteria (almost 50 percent of
content). It is stored in the rectum until it is expelled through the anus via defecation.
Energy and Calories
Energy is essential to life. You must eat to have energy. You must go to bed at a decent time, so
that when you wake up in the morning, you will not be too tired and you will have sufficient
energy for the next day’s activities. Energy is also everywhere in our environment: sunlight,
wind, water, plants, and animals. All living things use energy every day. Energy can be defined
as the quantity of work a particular system can perform, whether it be a growing child’s body or
a train transporting passengers from one place to another. Energy also helps us perform daily
functions and tasks such as breathing, walking up a flight of steps, and studying for a test.
Energy is classified as either potential or kinetic.
Potential energy is stored energy, or energy waiting to happen.
Kinetic energy is energy in motion. To illustrate this, think of an Olympic swimmer standing at
the pool’s edge awaiting the sound of the whistle to begin the race. While he waits for the signal,
he has potential energy. When the whistle sounds and he dives into the pool and begins to swim,
his energy is kinetic (in motion).
Some basic forms of energy are:
1. Thermal (heat) energy. We can say that a cup of hot tea has thermal energy. Thermal energy
is defined as the collective, microscopic, kinetic, and potential energy of the molecules within
matter. In a cup of tea, the molecules have kinetic energy because they are moving and
oscillating, but they also possess potential energy due to their shared attraction to each other.
2. Chemical energy. In your body, blood sugar (glucose) possesses chemical energy. When
glucose reacts chemically with oxygen, energy is released from the glucose. Once the energy is
released, your muscles will utilize it to produce mechanical force and heat.
3. Electrochemical energy. In the body, electrical impulses travel to and from the brain encoded
as nerve impulses. Once the brain receives an electrical impulse it causes the release of a
messenger chemical (glutamate, for example). This in turn facilitates electrical impulses as they
move from one neuron to another.

Definition and conceptualization of energy balance

The average adult human consumes close to 1,000,000 calories (4000 MJ) per year. Despite this
huge energy intake, most healthy individuals are able to strike a remarkable balance between
how much energy is consumed and how much energy is expended, thus resulting in a state of
energy balance in the body. This accurate balance between energy intake and energy expenditure
is an example of homeostatic control and results in maintenance of body weight and body energy
stores. If energy intake chronically exceeds energy expenditure by as little as 105 kJ/day, then,
over time, a person will become substantially obese. The achievement of energy balance is
driven by the first law of thermo-dynamics, which states that energy can be neither destroyed nor
created. This principle necessitates that when energy intake equals energy expenditure, body
energy stores must remain constant.
Components of energy balance:
Energy intake: Energy intake is defined as the caloric or energy content of food as provided by
the major sources of dietary energy: carbohydrate (16.8 kJ/g), protein (16.8 kJ/g), fat (37.8 kJ/g),
and alcohol (29.4 kJ/g).

Energy storage: The energy that is consumed in the form of food or drinks can either be stored
in the body in the form of fat (the major energy store), glycogen (short-term energy/carbohydrate
reserves), or protein (rarely used by the body for energy except in severe cases of starvation and
other wasting conditions, or be used by the body to fuel energy-requiring events.
Energy expenditure: The energy that is consumed in the form of food is required by the body
for metabolic, cellular, and mechanical work such as breathing, heartbeat, and muscular work, all
of which require energy and result in heat production. The body requires energy for a variety of
functions. The largest use of energy is needed to fuel the basal metabolic rate (BMR), which is
the energy expended by the body to maintain basic physiological functions (e.g., heartbeat,
muscle contraction and function, respiration). BMR is the minimum level of energy expended by
the body to sustain life in the awake state. It can be measured after a 12 hour fast while the
subject is resting physically and mentally, and maintained in a thermoneutral, quiet environment.
The BMR is slightly elevated above the metabolic rate during sleep, because energy expenditure
increases above basal levels owing to the energy cost of arousal. Because of the difficulty in
achieving BMR under most measurement situations, resting metabolic rate (RMR) is frequently
measured using the same measurement conditions stated for BMR. Thus, the major difference
between BMR and RMR is the slightly higher energy expended during RMR (~ 3%) owing to
less subject arousal and non-fasting conditions. Because of this small difference, the terms basal
and resting metabolic rate are often used interchangeably. RMR occurs in a continual process
throughout the 24 hours of a day and remains relatively constant within individuals over time. In
the average adult human, RMR is approximately 4.2 kJ/min. Thus, basal or resting metabolic rate
is the largest component of energy expenditure and makes up about two-thirds of total energy
expenditure. In addition to RMR, there is an increase in energy expenditure in response to food
intake. This increase in metabolic rate after food consumption is often referred to as the thermic
effect of a meal (or meal induced thermogenesis) and is mainly the energy that is expended to
digest, metabolize, convert, and store ingested macronutrients, named obligatory thermogenesis.
The energy cost associated with meal ingestion is primarily influenced by the composition of the
food that is consumed, and also is relatively stable within individuals over time. The thermic
effect of a meal usually constitutes approximately 10% of the caloric content of the meal that is
consumed. The third source of energy expenditure in the body is the increase in metabolic rate
that occurs during physical activity, which includes exercise as well as all forms of physical
activity. Thus, physical activity energy expenditure (or the thermic effect of exercise) is the term
frequently used to describe the increase in metabolic rate that is caused by use of skeletal
muscles for any type of physical movement. Physical activity energy expenditure is the most
variable component of daily energy expenditure and can vary greatly within and between
individuals owing to the volitional and variable nature of physical activity patterns. In addition to
the three major components of energy expenditure, there may be a requirement for energy for
three other minor needs.
● The energy cost of growth occurs in growing individuals, but is negligible except within the
first few months of life.
● Adaptive thermogenesis is the heat production during exposure to reduced temperatures, and
occurs in humans, e.g., during the initial months of life and during fever and other pathological
conditions, but also as a contributor to daily energy expenditure.
● Thermogenesis is increased by a number of agents in the environment, including in foods and
beverages. Nicotine in tobacco is the most important one, and heavy smokers may have a 10%
higher energy expenditure than nonsmokers of similar body size and composition and physical
activity. Caffeine and derivatives in coffee, tea, and chocolate, capsaicin in hot chilies, and other
substances in foods and drinks may possess minor thermogenic effects that affect energy
expenditure.
Regulation of food intake
Appetite, hunger, and satiety
The quality and quantity of food that is consumed are closely regulated by the body. Food intake
is regulated by a number of factors involving complex interactions among various hormones,
neuroendocrine factors, the central nervous system, and organ systems (e.g., brain and liver), and
environmental and external factors.
Appetite is usually defined as a psychological desire to eat and is related to the pleasant
sensations that are often associated with specific foods. Scientifically, appetite is used as a
general term of overall sensations related to food intake.
Hunger is usually defined as the subjective feeling that determines when food consumption is
initiated and can be described as a nagging, irritating feeling that signifies food deprivation to a
degree that the next eating episode should take place.
Satiety is considered as the state of inhibition over eating that leads to the termination of a meal,
and is related to the time interval until the next eating episode. Thus, hunger and satiety are more
intrinsic instincts, whereas appetite is often a learned response.
The internal factors that regulate the overall feeling of hunger and satiety include the central
nervous system (primarily the hypothalamus and the vagus nerve), the major digestive organs
such as the stomach and liver, and various hormones. In addition, environmental factors (e.g.,
meal pattern and composition, food availability, smell and sight of foods, climate), emotional
factors (e.g., stress), and some diseased states (e.g., anorexia, trauma, infection) may influence
the feelings of both hunger and appetite. The factors that influence appetite include factors
external to the individual (e.g., climate, weather), specific appetite cravings, specific learned
dislikes or avoidance (e.g., alcohol), intrinsic properties of food (e.g., taste, palatability, texture),
cultural practices or preferences, specific effects of some drugs and diseases, and metabolic
factors such as hormones and neurotransmitters. Some of these factors are described in further
detail below.
Factors influencing food intake
Digestive factors
Several factors in the digestive system exert a short-term influence over food intake. The
presence of food and drink in the stomach and intestine and the resultant pressure that they exert
may regulate food intake. This effect is known as gastrointestinal distension. In addition, the
stomach produces a hormone called cholecystokinin (CCK) in response to food intake, which
may, in turn, regulate food intake. Furthermore, when subjects have fat or carbohydrate infused
directly into the small intestine, they report feelings of satiety. This suggests that factors in the
intestine regulate food intake. Indeed, receptors in the intestine have been identified that
recognize the presence of specific macronutrients; these receptors are linked to the brain and
therefore can communicate directly with the central nervous system, resulting in regulation of
energy balance. In addition, other gastrointestinal hormones, such as glucagon-like peptide-1 and
-2 (GLPs), CCK, and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) are likely to play a
role in the mediation of gut events and brain perception of hunger and satiety.
Central nervous system factors
The main contributory factor regulating food intake in the central nervous system is the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is linked to specific parts of the brain that are known to modify
feeding behavior, specifically the paraventricular nuclei and the nigrostriatal tract. These areas of
the brain respond to various neurotransmitters as well as sympathetic nervous system activity. In
general, food intake will decrease as sympathetic nervous system activity increases, and vice
versa.
Circulating factors
After consumption of a meal, food is broken down into its basic components (i.e., carbohydrate
is broken down to glucose, protein to amino acids, and fats or triglycerides to glycerol and fatty
acids) and the circulating levels of some of these breakdown products increase in the blood.
Consequently, glucose, amino acids, glycerol, and fatty acids are further metabolized, primarily
in the liver, or used for immediate energy (e.g., in muscle or brain). There is evidence to suggest
that this resultant metabolism, especially in the liver, may in turn regulate food intake. After
meal consumption, the circulating levels of nutrients fall (within minutes for glucose, several
hours for triglycerides) and the feelings of hunger return. The link from nutrient metabolism to
central control of food intake occurs through signals from the liver to the brain via the vagus
nerve. Thus, circulating factors provide a link between the digestive system and the central
nervous system, which provides another system for regulating food intake. Signals from the
periphery Leptin is a hormone that is produced by fat cells and communicates with the central
nervous system through leptin receptors in the hypothalamus. Reduced production of leptin, or
lack of sensitivity of the hypothalamus to leptin, may regulate food intake and play a key role in
the etiology of rare forms of obesity in humans. Leptin and the other peripheral hormones with a
central effect on appetite are divided into two broad categories: (1) the so-called adiposity
signals, which are tonically active providing information on body fat stores to the CNS and (2)
the satiety signals which are released in response to food intake and are thought to be involved in
short-term regulation of energy intake. Currently known adiposity signals are insulin, leptin, and
adiponectin, which are considered as long-acting signals reducing energy intake. Among the
satiety signals are the hunger hormone ghrelin, which is secreted in the stomach, and the short-
acting gut and pancreas derived satiety signals CCK, peptide YY (PYY), GLP-1, oxyntomodulin
(OXM), and pancreatic polypeptide (PP). Many of the peripheral satiety signals have receptors in
the arcuate nucleus (ARC) of the hypothalamus, which plays an important role in appetite
regulation. The ARC contains neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP)-
expressing neurons acting to stimulate food intake along with the adjacent pro-opiomelanocortin
(POMC) and cocaine and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART)-expressing neurons which
inhibit feeding. Besides the ARC, the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS) and the area postrema
(AP) receive appetite-regulating inputs from vagal afferents and circulating factors and are
connected to the hypothalamic nuclei controlling food intake.
External factors
Various non physiological or external factors are also known to modify food intake, and these
effects may be mediated through the intrinsic factors described above. Psychological factors such
as depression may lead to either increased or decreased food intake, or changes in the
consumption of specific types of foods. Environmental factors are also important, the most
obvious being food availability. Even when food is available, some of the specific properties of
foods make them more or less appealing, thereby modifying food intake. Important physical
characteristics of food include taste, texture, color, temperature, and presentation. Other cultural
influences in the environment, such as time of day, social factors, peer influence, and cultural
preferences, can also play a role in influencing food intake.
Definition of obesity
Obesity has traditionally been defined as an excess accumulation of body energy, in the form of
fat or adipose tissue. Thus, obesity is a disease of positive energy balance, which arises as a
result of dysregulation in the energy balance system – a failure of the regulatory systems to make
appropriate adjustments between intake and expenditure. It is now becoming clear that the
increased health risks of obesity may be conferred by the distribution of body fat. In addition, the
influence of altered body fat and/or body fat distribution on health risk may vary across
individuals.
Thus, obesity is best defined by indices of body fat accumulation, body fat pattern, and
alterations in health risk profile. The body mass index (BMI) is now the most accepted and most
widely used crude index of obesity.
Nitrogen balance and definition of requirement
The starting point for estimating total protein needs has been, in most studies, the measurement
of the amount of dietary nitrogen needed for zero nitrogen balance, or equilibrium, in adults. In
the growing infant and child and in women during pregnancy and lactation, or when repletion is
necessary following trauma and infection, for example, there will be an additional requirement
associated with the net deposition of protein in new tissue and that due to secretion of milk.
Thus, a United Nations (UN) Expert Consultation in 1985 defined the dietary need for
protein as follows;
The protein requirement of an individual is defined as the lowest level of dietary protein intake
that will balance the losses from the body in persons maintaining energy balance at modest levels
of physical activity. In children and pregnant or lactating women, the protein requirement is
taken to also include the needs associated with the deposition of tissues or the secretion of milk
at rates consistent with good health. Most estimates of human protein requirements have been
obtained directly, or indirectly, from measurements of nitrogen excretion and balance (Nitrogen
balance = Nitrogen intake – Nitrogen excretion via urine, feces, skin, and other minor routes of
nitrogen loss). It must be recognized that the nitrogen balance technique has serious technical
and interpretative limitations and so it cannot serve as an entirely secure or sufficient basis for
establishing the protein and amino acid needs for human subjects.
Thus, there are:
● a number of inherent sources of error in nitrogen balance measurements that should be
considered
● a number of experimental requirements that must be met if reliable nitrogen balance data are to
be obtained.
These include
● the need to match closely energy intake with energy need, for the various reasons discussed
earlier
● an appropriate stabilization period to the experimental diet and periods long enough to
establish reliably the full response to a dietary change
● timing and completeness of urine collections
● absence of mild infections and of other sources of stress.
When direct nitrogen balance determinations of the protein requirement data are lacking, as is
the case for a number of age groups, an interpolation of requirements between two age groups is
usually made simply on the basis of body weight considerations. A factorial approach may also
be applied; here, the so called obligatory urine and fecal nitrogen losses are determined (after
about 4–6 days of adaptation to a protein-free diet in adults), summated together with other
obligatory losses, including those via sweat and the integument. For children, estimates of
nitrogen deposition or retention are also included. In the case of very young infants the
recommendations for meeting protein requirements are usually based on estimated protein
intakes by fully breast-fed infants.
Meeting protein and amino acid needs
Knowledge of the requirements for the specific indispensable amino acids and for total protein
provides the basis for evaluating the relative capacity (or quality) of individual protein foods or
mixtures of food protein sources to meet human amino acid requirements.
The two major determinants of the nutritional quality of food proteins are:
● the content of indispensable amino acids in the Protein
● the extent to which the indispensable amino acids are available to the host metabolism.
Major sources of food proteins in the diet
The relative proportions in the diet of food proteins of animal and plant origin differ according to
geographical region and other socioeconomic and cultural factors. Broadly, animal protein foods
account for 60– 70% of the total protein intake in the developed regions. In contrast, plant
proteins make up about 60–80% of the total protein intake in developing regions, with cereals
being the dominant source in this case.
Carbohydrates in foods
Carbohydrates are one of the four major classes of biomolecules and play several important roles
in all life forms, including:
● sources of metabolic fuels and energy stores
● structural components of cell walls in plants and of the exoskeleton of arthropods
● parts of RNA and DNA in which ribose and deoxyribose, respectively, are linked by N-
glycosidic bonds to purine and pyrimidine bases
● integral features of many proteins and lipids (glycoproteins and glycolipids), especially in cell
membranes where they are essential for cell–cell recognition and molecular targeting.
Carbohydrates are very diverse molecules that can be classified by their molecular size (degree
of polymerization or DP) into sugars (DP 1–2), oligosaccharides (DP 3–9), and polysaccharides
(DP > 9). The physicochemical properties of carbohydrates and their fates within the body are
also influenced by their monosaccharide composition and the type of linkage between sugar
residues. From birth, carbohydrate provides a large part of the energy in human diets, with
approximately 40% of the energy in mature breast milk being supplied as lactose. After weaning,
carbohydrates are the largest source (40–80%) of the energy in many human diets, with most of
this derived from plant material except when milk or milk products containing lactose are
consumed.
Diabetes and its consequences
Diabetes may be diagnosed as an exaggerated response in blood glucose concentration following
ingestion of a fixed amount of glucose (glucose tolerance test). The most common forms of
diabetes are type 1 diabetes (T1DM) and type 2 diabetes (T2DM). T1DM results from the
autoimmune destruction of the βcells of the endocrine pancreas (possibly following viral
exposure), the consequence of which is insulin insufficiency. Control of blood glucose
concentrations in T1DM requires the exogenous supply of insulin by injection. Implanted insulin
mini pumps or pancreatic β-cells may offer alternative forms of treatment in the future.
Symptoms of type 1 diabetes include the presence of glucose in urine, passage of large volumes
of urine, body weight loss, and, in extreme cases, ketosis (excess production of acetone,
acetoacetate, and β-hydroxybutyrate). Although there is good evidence of genetic predisposition
to T2DM, expression of the disease is due mainly to lifestyle (excess energy intakes and low
physical activity), resulting in obesity, especially when the extra fat is accumulated on the trunk.
The early stages of T2DM are characterized by insulin insensitivity/resistance, i.e., failure of the
tissues to produce a normal response to insulin release that can be seen as relatively wide swings
in blood glucose concentrations following a carbohydrate-containing meal. Raised blood glucose
concentration sustained for several years is believed to be fundamental to the spectrum of
complications, including macrovascular (atherosclerosis) and microvascular diseases and
problems with the kidneys (nephropathy), nerves (neuropathy), and eyes (retinopathy and
cataract) experienced by diabetics.
Carbohydrates and dental caries
The resident bacteria in the mouth ferment carbohydrates to yield acidic end-products (mainly
lactic acid but also some formic, acetic, and propionic acids), which result in a drop in dental
plaque pH. When the pH falls below 5.5, the dental enamel dissolves in the plaque fluid and
repeated exposure to periods of very low pH can lead to caries. Not all carbohydrates are equally
cariogenic. The sugars found commonly in human foods, e.g., sucrose, fructose, glucose, and
maltose, are all readily fermented by bacteria in the mouth. Lactose, galactose, and starches are
less cariogenic, while sugar alcohols such as xylitol (used as a sweetener in some confectionery
and chewing gums) are noncariogenic. Eating sugars with meals reduces the risk of caries, as
does the consumption of cheese, which provides phosphates to prevent demineralization and to
encourage demineralization of the enamel. Fluoride ingestion in foods and drinking water or
topical application via toothpastes and mouth rinses prevents dental caries.
Short- and medium-chain fatty acids
Short-chain fatty acids (less than eight carbons) are water soluble. Except in milk lipids, they are
not commonly esterified into body lipids. Shortchain fatty acids are found primarily in dietary
products containing ruminant milk fat. Hence, although they are produced in relatively large
quantities from the fermentation of undigested carbohydrate in the colon, as such, they do not
become part of the body lipid pools. Medium-chain fatty acids (8–14 carbons) arise as
intermediates in the synthesis of long-chain fatty acids or by the consumption of coconut oil or
medium-chain TAG derived from it. Like short-chain fatty acids, medium-chain fatty acids are
present in milk but they are also rarely esterified into body lipids, except when consumed in
large amounts in clinical situations requiring alternative energy sources. Medium-chain fatty
acids (8–14 carbons) are rare in the diet except for coconut and milk fat.
Long-chain saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids
Long-chain fatty acids (>14 carbons) are the main constituents of dietary fat. The most common
saturated fatty acids in the body are palmitate and stearate. They originate from three sources:
directly from the diet, by complete synthesis from acetyl-coenzyme A (CoA), or by lengthening
(chain elongation) of a pre-existing shorter-chain fatty acid. Hence, dietary or newly synthesized
palmitate can be elongated within the body to form stearate and on to arachidate (20:0), behenate
(22:0), and lignocerate (24:0). In practice, little stearate present in the human body appears to be
derived by chain elongation of preexisting palmitate. In humans, saturates longer than 24 carbons
do exist but usually arise only during genetic defects in fatty acid oxidation.
Palmitate and stearate are important membrane constituents, being found in most tissue
phospholipids at 20–40% of the total fatty acid profile. Brain membranes contain 20-24 carbon
saturates that, like palmitate and stearate, are synthesized within the brain and have little or no
access to the brain from the circulation. The normal membrane content of long-chain saturates
can probably be sustained without a dietary source of these fatty acids. Compared with all other
classes of dietary fatty acid, especially monounsaturated or polyunsaturated fatty acids, excess
intake or synthesis of long-chain saturates is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular
disease.
The most common long-chain cis-monounsaturated fatty acids in diet and in the body are oleate
(18:1n-9) and palmitoleate (16:1n-7), with the former predominating by far in both the body’s
storage and membrane lipids. As with stearate, most oleate in the human body appears to be of
dietary origin. Hence, although humans have the capacity to desaturate stearate to oleate, dietary
oleate is probably the dominant source of oleate in the body. Only plants can further desaturate
oleate to linoleate and again to αlinolenate. As with saturates of >18 carbons in length, 20-, 22-,
and 24-carbon monounsaturates derived from oleate are present in specialized membranes such
as myelin.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs)
Linoleate and α-linolenate are the primary dietary cis-polyunsaturated fatty acids in most diets.
Neither can be synthesized de novo (from acetate) in animals so are ‘essential’ fatty acids. They
can be made by chain elongation from the two respective 16carbon precursors, hexadecadienoate
(16:2n-6) and hexadecatrienoate (16:3n-3), which are found in common edible green plants at up
to 13% of total fatty acids. Hence, significant consumption of green vegetables will provide 16-
carbon polyunsaturates that contribute to the total available linoleate and α-linolenate.
Linoleate is the predominant polyunsaturated fatty acid in the body, commonly accounting for
12–15% of adipose tissue fatty acids. In the body’s lean tissues there are at least three
polyunsaturates present in amounts >5% of the fatty acid profile (linoleate, arachidonate,
docosahexaenoate). In addition, at least two other biologically active polyunsaturates are present
in body lipids [dihomo-γ-linolenate (20:3n6) and eicosapentaenoate (20:5n-3)], although usually
in amounts between 1% and 3% of total fatty acids. Marine fish are the richest source of 20- to
22-carbon polyunsaturates. α-Linolenate and its precursor, hexadecatrienoate (16:3n-3), are the
only n-3 polyunsaturates in common terrestrial plants.
Methods used to determine requirements
Deprivation studies
This is the most direct method and involves removing the nutrient from the diet, observing the
symptoms of deficiency, and then adding back the nutrient until the symptoms are cured or
prevented. Difficulties with this approach are as follows. First that the experiment may need to
continue for several years owing to the presence of body stores of the nutrient, and often requires
a very limited and therefore boring dietary regimen. Second, unpredicted long-term adverse
consequences may result. Third, such experiments are not ethical in vulnerable groups such as
children (often the most relevant for study). In some cases, epidemiological data may be
available; for example, the deficiency disease beriberi occurs in populations whose average
thiamin intake falls below 0.2 mg/4.2 MJ (1000 kcal).
Radioactive tracer studies
This approach makes use of a known amount of the radioactively labeled nutrient, which is
assumed to disperse evenly in the body pool, allowing the estimation of the total pool size by
dilution of the isotope in samples, for instance, plasma or urine (i.e. if the body pool is large,
then the dilution will be greater than if the body pool is small). Specific activity, that is
radioactivity per unit weight of the nutrient in the samples, can be used to calculate pool size as
long as the total dose administered is known. The rate of loss can then be monitored by taking
serial samples, allowing calculation of the depletion rate. In the case of vitamin C, the average
body pool size of a healthy male was found to be 1500 mg, which, on a vitamin C-free diet,
depleted at a rate of approximately 3% (of the body pool) per day. This fractional catabolic rate
was independent of body pool size, and symptoms of scurvy appeared when the body pool fell
below 300 mg. The estimated replacement intake needed to maintain the body pool above 300
mg was therefore 3% of 300 mg, i.e., 9 mg (similar to the 10 mg found to be needed to prevent
scurvy.
Balance studies
These rely on the assumption that, in healthy individuals of stable body weight, the body pool of
some nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, calcium, and sodium) remains constant. Compensation
mechanisms equalize the intake and output of the nutrient over a wide range of intakes, thereby
maintaining the body pool. Thus, day-to-day variations of intake are compensated for by changes
in either the rate of absorption in the gut (generally in the case of those nutrients of which the
uptake is regulated) or the rate of excretion in the urine (in the case of very soluble nutrients) or
feces, or both. However, there comes a point beyond which balance cannot be maintained;
therefore, it can be proposed that the minimum intake of a nutrient at which balance can be
maintained is the subject’s minimum required intake of that nutrient. However, this approach
would need to be extended over time to investigate possible adaptive responses to reduced
intakes, e.g., absorption could eventually be increased. In the case of calcium, the European
consensus is that average daily losses are assumed to be 160 mg/day in adults, and absorption is
assumed to be 30%; thus, around 530 mg would need to be consumed to balance the losses.
Adding or subtracting 30% to allow for individual variation gives (rounded) dietary reference
values of 400, 550 and 700 mg/day (LTI, AR, and PRI, respectively).
Factorial methods
These are predictions, rather than measurements, of the requirements of groups or individuals,
taking into account a number of measured variables (factors, hence “factorial”) and making
assumptions where measurements cannot be made. For example, the increased requirements
during growth, pregnancy, or lactation are calculated by this method; this approach is
necessitated by the lack of experimental data in these physiological situations owing to ethical
problems. The idea is that the rate of accumulation of nutrients can be calculated and hence the
amount required in the diet to allow that accumulation can be predicted. In the case of
pregnancy, the requirement is estimated to be the amount of the nutrient needed to achieve
balance when not pregnant plus the amount accumulated daily during the pregnancy, all
multiplied by a factor accounting for the efficiency of absorption and assimilation (e.g., 30% for
calcium). For lactation, the calculation for energy is based on the amount in the milk secreted
daily, which is increased by a factor accounting for the efficiency of conversion from dietary
energy to milk energy (reckoned to be 95%), from which total is subtracted an allowance for the
contribution from the extra fat stores laid down during pregnancy, which it is desirable to reduce
in this way. The difficulty with this approach is that the theoretical predictions do not necessarily
take account of physiological adaptations (e.g., increased efficiency of absorption in the gut) that
may reduce the predicted requirement. This would apply particularly in the case of pregnancy, as
shown by the ability of women to produce normal babies even in times of food shortage.
Measurement of nutrient levels in biological tissues
Some nutrient requirements can be defined according to the intakes needed to maintain a certain
level of the nutrient in blood or tissue. For many water soluble nutrients, such as vitamin C,
blood levels reflect recent dietary intake, and the vitamin is not generally measurable in plasma
at intakes less than about 40 mg/day. This level of intake has therefore been chosen as the basis
for the reference in some countries such as the UK. This approach is not, however, suitable for
those nutrients of which the plasma concentration is homeostatically regulated, such as calcium.
In the case of the fat-soluble vitamin retinol, the dietary intake required to maintain a liver
concentration of 20 µg/g has been used as the basis of the reference intake. To do this, the body
pool size needed to be estimated; assumptions were made as to the proportion of body weight
represented by the liver (3%) and the proportion of the body pool of retinol contained in the liver
(90%). The fractional catabolic rate has been measured as 0.5% of the body pool per day, so this
would be the amount needing to be replaced daily. The efficiency of conversion of dietary
vitamin A to stored retinol was taken to be 50% (measured range 40–90%), giving an EAR of
around 500 µg/day for a 74 kg man.
Biochemical markers
In many respects, biochemical markers represent the most satisfactory measure of nutrient
adequacy since they are specific to the nutrient in question, are sensitive enough to identify
subclinical deficiencies, and may be measured precisely and accurately. However, such markers
are available for only a few nutrients, mostly vitamins. One well-established example of a
biochemical marker is the erythrocyte glutathione reductase activation test for riboflavin status.
Erythrocytes are a useful cell to use for enzyme assays since they are easily obtainable and have
a known life-span in the circulation (average 120 days), aiding the interpretation of results.
Glutathione reductase depends on riboflavin and, when activity is measured in both the presence
and absence of excess riboflavin, the ratio of the two activities (the erythrocyte glutathione
reductase activation coefficient, EGRAC) reflects riboflavin status: if perfectly sufficient, the
ratio would be 1.0, whereas deficiency gives values greater than 1.0.
Biological markers
These are measures of some biological function that is directly dependent on the nutrient of
interest; again, not always easy to find, hence the recent suggestion that some functional indices
be considered that are not necessarily directly dependent on the nutrient. Iron status is assessed
according to a battery of biological markers, including plasma ferritin (which reflects body iron
stores), serum transferring saturation (the amount of plasma transferrin in relation to the amount
of iron transported by it is reduced in deficiency), plasma-soluble transferrin receptor (an index
of tissue iron status), and the more traditional tests such as blood hemoglobin (now considered to
be a rather insensitive and unreliable measure of iron status since it indicates only frank anemia,
and also changes as a normal response to altered physiological states such as pregnancy).
Vitamin K status is assessed by measuring prothrombin time (the length of time taken by plasma
to clot), which is increased when vitamin K levels fall since the synthesis of prothrombin in the
liver depends on vitamin K as a cofactor. This test is clinically useful in patients requiring
anticoagulant therapy (e.g. using warfarin, which blocks the effect of vitamin K), in whom the
drug dosage must be closely monitored.
Animal experiments
These are of limited use in defining human nutrient requirements because of species differences
(e.g., rats can synthesize vitamin C, so it is not a “vitamin” for them), differences in metabolic
body size (i.e., the proportions of metabolically active tissue, such as muscle, and less active
tissue, such as adipose tissue, gut contents), and differences in growth rates (young animals
generally grow far more rapidly than humans, e.g., cattle reach adult size in about 1 year).
However, animals have provided much of the information on the identification of the essential
nutrients, and their physiological and biochemical functions.
Minerals
Besides protein, fat and carbohydrates, the body needs for its structure and functions, certain
basic inorganic elements. These are the minerals. They regulate the body process in many ways.
Since they are excreted daily by faeces, urine and sweat, they need to be replenished daily. Some
minerals are required in small amounts; they are called trace elements. Their requirement must
be met daily, otherwise abnormality in body's metabolism is seen.
Minerals may be classified into two groups:
(a) Macro minerals: These are required in large amounts, e.g. calcium, phosphorus, sodium,
potassium, chlorine, magnesium and sulphur.
(b) Trace minerals: These are required in small quantities, e.g., iron bromine, zinc manganese,
copper, cobalt.
Calcium and phosphorus
The human body contains about 2.3-3.4 percent of calcium and phosphorus of its total body
weight. Among the different minerals, calcium and phosphorus are found in the highest amount
in the body.
Sources: Milk, meat, liver, fish, small fish, cheese, pulses, curds, eggs, nuts, cauliflower, dark
green leaves, cereals, dates, fruits, etc.
Functions
1. Calcium and phosphorus are necessary for the formation of bone and teeth.
2. Calcium helps in the function of blood clotting.
3. Calcium is necessary for contraction and expansion of cardiac muscles.
4. They maintain the normal activity of nervous system.
5. They regulate the muscular excitability and tone.
6. Carbohydrate and fat need phosphorus for their intermediate metabolism.
Requirements
Calcium and phosphorus are found in foods that are rich in protein. It is needed to form the body
structure of the growing child as well as for keeping a sound health of the grown up person. The
daily requirement of calcium is about 800mg. Additional calcium in the diet is required during
pregnancy and lactation. In this stage, the daily requirement of calcium phosphorus is about 1.2-
1.8gm.
Effects of deficiency are:
1. Poor teeth and bone formation.
2. Retarded growth.
3. Osteomalacia in women.
Iron
The quantity of iron in human body is much less than calcium and phosphorous. But, this small
quantity of iron is an essential nutrient. The total iron content of the normal adult is estimated to
be about 3-4 gm. Two third of the iron in the body is present in blood and the rest is present in
the cell, bone-marrow, liver and spleen.
Sources: Egg yolk, fish, meat, liver, dark green leaves, molasses, rice, wheat, legumes, dried
fruits, etc.
Functions
1. The body uses iron to make hemoglobin for red blood cells.
2. It is essential for carrying oxygen to different tissues. About 0.3 percent of iron in hemoglobin
is essential for respiration.
3. Iron plays an important role in metabolism.
Requirements
About 10mg. of iron is required daily by an adult person. Iron requirements are influenced by
some factors, such as-requirements of body, type of diet, rate of absorption, loss of iron, etc.
Deficiency
Iron deficiency or anemia is the most common cause of ill health in women. This anemia is
probably the result of many factors, such as-loss of iron during menstruation, repeated
pregnancies, etc. Iron deficiency also occurs in adult male and children. It is the result of many
factors, such as-poor intake and absorption, hook worm infection, excessive bleeding from
injury, piles or ulcer. This anemia is produced by prolonged deficiency of iron.
Iodine
Iodine is the most essential and important micro element for human body. Body stores iodine in
the thyroid gland. Iodine is the essential constituent of the hormone thyroxin produced by the
thyroid gland. About 65% of thyroxin is iodine. Small amount of iodine also occurs in various
cells and blood. Thyroxin hormone is essential for metabolism and regulation of the body
temperature.
Sources: Important sources of iodine include food from the sea, such as-sea fish and iodized salt.
Besides, it exists in plants grown in soil that contains enough iodine, such as the sea coast area.
Requirements
a. Iodine is necessary for the synthesis of thyroxin.
b. It is essential for metabolism.
c. It is essential for the development of hair, skin and bone.
d. It helps in the normal development of brain.
e. Iodine is necessary for the foetal development in pregnancy and essential for production of
breast milk.
Deficiency
1. The common effect of iodine deficiency is goitre. If sufficient iodine is not taken, the
enlargement of the thyroid gland takes place resulting to the disease called goiter.
2. Mental deficiency is caused by iodine deficiency.
3. The child's physical growth is retarded.
4. Abortions and congenital abnormalities are seen in iodine deficiency.
Sodium and potassium
Sodium and potassium are essential minerals for life. The adult body contains about 90gm. of
sodium and 200gm. of potassium. The bones contain about 30 gm. Of sodium. The cells of the
body contain potassium and body fluids contain sodium. Sodium and potassium are also found in
bones and teeth.
Sources: Salted fish, cheese, canned meat, butter, eggs, milk, fish, meat, legumes, wheat,
molasses, puffed rice, nuts, vegetables and fruits, e.g. Spinach, beets, potatoes, tomatoes, carrots,
bananas, oranges, grapes, and coffee etc. contain sodium and potassium.
Functions
1. It regulates acid-base balance of the body.
2. It regulates osmotic pressure of plasma and tissue fluid and thus protects the body against
excessive fluid loss.
3. Potassium maintains normal transmission of nerve impulses.
4. Sodium plays an important role in the absorption of carbohydrate and fats form the small
intestines.
5. It regulates water deficiency.
Requirements
The requirement of sodium is 2-4gm a day which can be easily supplied in a normal diet. A
normal adult requires only 2-4gm of potassium daily.
Deficiency
1. Muscle weakness, dizziness, difficulty in breathing.
2. Anorexia, nausea, cold extremities and low blood pressure.
3. Mental weakness and confusion.
4. Hazards in digestive system, etc.
VITAMINS
Vitamin is vital to life. A very small quantity of vitamin is needed for maintaining good health.
However, if vitamins are not present in sufficient quantities in the diet, vitamin deficiency
diseases occur. Only a hundred years ago, scientists found the vitamins in fresh food.
Plants synthesize various vitamins in their body. Green leaves of plants are the main sources of
vitamins. It is also found in trunks, flowers, fruits and roots of trees. Man and other animals are
directly dependent on plants. The herbivorous animals are also good source of vitamins for man.
Animals store vitamins in liver, muscles, and other parts of the body. Cows store vitamins in
milk and ducks store in eggs for meeting their need for future off springs.
Classification of vitamin
So far about fifteen different vitamins have been isolated in a pure state from natural foods.
Almost all of them are essential for human beings.
Vitamins may be classified broadly into two groups.
a. Fat soluble vitamins i.e., vitamins that are soluble in fats and fat solvents but insoluble in
water.
Fat soluble vitamins are
1. Vitamin-A and carotenes,
2. Vitamin-D
3. Vitamin-E
4. Vitamin-K
b. Water soluble vitamins i.e., vitamins that are soluble in water but insoluble in fats and fat
solvents.
Water soluble vitamins are
1. Thiamine (Vitamin-B1)
2. Riboflavin (Vitamin-B2)
3. Niacin and Niacin amide
4. Pyridoxine (Vitamin-B6)
5. Pantothenic acid
6. Folic acid
7. Vitamin-B12
8. Ascorbic acid or civitamic acid.
General functions of vitamin
Vitamins play very important role in animal body. Vitamins are associated with various
functions of the body. The functions vary widely but may be generalized as follows-
1. They are essential for growth.
2. They help to maintain good health and vigour during growing stage.
3. They help in keeping normal digestion.
4. They help in utilization of minerals in the body.
5. They help in metabolism of every produced nutrient
6. They are essential for strengthening the nervous system.
7. They protect the body against infections.
8. They are essential for normal and healthy productive system.
Vitamin-A
In 1913 Mccollum and Davis discovered Vitamin-A. Vitamin-A is insoluble in water but soluble
in fat. Ordinary cooking does not destroy Vitamin A but over cooking does, because it is easily
destroyed by air and light during cooking.
Sources: Vitamin A is found in both animal and plant sources. Animal sources such as-milk,
eggs, butter etc. contain Vitamin A, but plant sources contain pro-vitamin A which is converted
into vitamin A in the human body. Carotene, a precursor of vitamin A is found in all yellow,
orange and chlorophyll containing compounds. Carotene is converted into Vitamin A in the
body. Cod liver oil, liver, ghee, egg, cheese etc. contain large amounts of Vitamin A and carrots,
pumpkins, ripe mangoes, dark green leaves, maize, ripe tomatoes, ripe papayas etc. contain large
amounts of pro-vitamin-A.
Functions of vitamin-A
1. The retina of the eyes contain photosensitive cells of rhodesian and iodeosin, which help
vision in both dim and bright light, Vitamin A is an integral part of such cells and helps in
normal vision.
2. Vitamin A is essential for the health of the epithelial tissues of skin, and kidney.
3. It helps to prevent dental decay.
4. It helps to form strong bones and teeth.
5. It helps in normal reproduction.
6. Vitamin A also helps in the digestion of carbohydrates.
Requirements
750µg retinol of vitamin A and 4500µg of carotene are required for boys, adult males and
females and pregnant mothers. Requirement for lactating mother is 1200µg retinol of vitamin A
and 7200µg of carotene.
Vitamin-D
Fat soluble vitamin D is sometimes called the anti-rachitic vitamin. The term rachitic denotes the
condition of a person affected with vitamin D deficiency disease called rickets. It is also called
the disease of poor children. The scientists demonstrated that cod liver oil contains vitamin D.
The other name of this vitamin is cholecalciferol.
Sources: Liver oil of seafish such as, Cod, Halibut, Shark etc, animal fat, liver, milk butter, ghee,
egg yolk are good sources of this vitamin. Vitamin D is not present in foods of vegetable origin.
Ultra violet ray of sunlight converts the cholesterol in the skin into vitamin D.
Functions
(1) Vitamin D helps in the absorption and utilization of calcium and phosphorus in the body.
(2) It promotes strong bones and teeth formation by properly utilizing calcium and phosphorus.
Deficiency
(1) Delayed dentition and ability to walk is seen.
(2) Calcium and phosphorus of food are not properly utilized
(3) In vitamin D deficiency, calcification of bone does not take place.
This results in the disease called rickets in vitamin D deficient infants and children. In this
disease the head is usually enlarged, elongated and box like. Skeletal malformations occur
because of the inability of soft bones to withstand the stress of body weight.
Recommended allowance of vitamin D (Daily allowances in International Unit)
New born child and pre-school child = 10µg or 400 IU
Adolescents and adults = 5µg or 200 IU
Pregnancy and Lactation = 10µg or 400 IU
In tropical countries a lower quantity than the above recommended intake can be taken because
the skin is exposed to sunlight for a considerable period of the day.
Vitamin-E
Vitamin E is a fat soluble vitamin. The biochemical name of vitamin-E is Tocopherol.
Sources: Cod liver oil, ground nut, wheat, oat, sunflower seed oil, soyabean oil, palm oil,
germinated gram, wheat germ, eggs etc. are sources of vitamin E.
Functions
1. It is an active antioxidant, preventing oxidation of carotene, vitamin A and unsaturated fatty
acids.
2. It is required for normal reproductive function in animals and it prevents sterility in them.
Requirements
An average adult diet contains enough vitamin-E. The daily allowance is 5-10mg.
Deficiency
Vitamin E deficiency in animals causes reproductive failure.
Vitamin-K
The scientist Dam discovered this vitamin between the years 1910 and 1935. Vitamin K. is
another important vitamin which is soluble in fat. It is also known as anti bleeding or coagulation
substance.
More than half of the human requirement of vitamin K is met from the synthesis by bacteria in
the lower intestinal tract of the human body. So a deficiency of vitamin K is not normally seen.
Sources: Green leaves cauliflower, cabbage, lettuce, spinach, egg yolk, beef liver etc. are good
sources of vitamin K.
Functions
1. Promotes proper blood clotting after cuts or surgery and thus prevents bleeding.
2. It helps in energy producing reactions of the body.
Deficiency
1. Vitamin K deficiency leads to lowering of prothrombin (a protein that helps to form blood
clot) level and increased clotting time of blood. This helps the hemorrhagic condition.
2. Lack of bile secretion occurs due to deficiency of vitamin K.
Requirement
The requirement of vitamin K for adult is 40 micrograms per day and for pregnant woman is
1mg per day.
Vitamin-B
Vitamin B is not a single vitamin. Vitamin B complex comprises of 15 chemical substances. It
has been established that eight of these are required by human body. These are- Thiamine (B1),
Riboflavin (B2), Nicotinic acid, folic acid, pyridoxine (B6), Cyarocobalamine (B12), biotin and
pantothenic acid. These all B Vitamins are water soluble and can be destroyed by heat.
Thiamine or B1
Thiamine or B1 prevents beriberi; and so it is called antiberiberi vitamin.
Sources: Rice polishing (parboiled), wheat, oats, liver, egg, yeast, fish, milk, green pea, soybean,
peanut, pulses, wheat germ, germinated gram, etc. are good sources of thiamine.
Functions
1. It plays an important role in energy production from the metabolism of carbohydrate.
2. It is necessary for energy production from fat and protein metabolism.
3. It helps in normal growth of human body.
Requirement
The daily requirement of thiamine is 0.5 mg per 1000 calorie demand.
Deficiency
1. The symptoms of thiamine deficiency include weakness, loss of appetite, nausea and mental
instability. These defects happen because of diminished utilization of carbohydrate and
production of energy.
2. Severe deficiency of thiamine produce causes beriberi.
Riboflavin (B2)
This water soluble vitamin is stable to heat; so it is not destroyed by heat. However, it is sensitive
to light.
Sources: Good sources of riboflavin include dark green leafy vegetables, fruits, whole grains and
cereals, liver, dried yeast, egg yolk, milk, fish, meat, pulses, nuts etc.
Functions
1. It functions with other substances to metabolize carbohydrates, fats and proteins for the release
of energy from food.
2. It is necessary for growth and good health.
Requirements
Riboflavin requirement is 0.6mg per 1000 cal.
Deficiency
A deficiency of riboflavin does not cause any disease, but the symptoms include cracking at lip
corners, sore tongue, loss of hair, eye problems etc.
Folic Acid
The other name of this vitamin is Folacin.
Sources: Liver, yeast, peanuts, pulses, gram, rice, wheat, green leafy vegetables, kidney, etc. are
good sources of folic acid.
Functions
1. If helps in the metabolism of protein.
2. It is vital for the formation of red blood cells.
Requirements
Infant = 100mg Pregnant mother = 400mg
Adult (female) = 200mg Lactating mother = 300mg.
Deficiency
The most important deficiency symptom in girls and in pregnant women is the development of a
kind of anemia, which is called megaloblastic anemia.
Niacin
Niacin which includes two other substances called nicotinic acid and nicontinamide, is a water
soluble vitamin. Niacin is not destroyed by heat, acid, alkali, light and oxidation.
Sources
Niacin is found in meat, liver, wheat, pulses, nuts, oil seeds, gram and green leafy vegetables. It
is also formed by the conversion of amino acid tryptophan. Tryptophan present in the dietary
protein is converted into niacin in the human body. It has been estimated that 60mg of
tryptophan yield 1 mg niacin.
Functions
1. It helps in carbohydrate metabolism and in fat synthesis from carbohydrate and protein.
2. It prevents the disease pellagra.
Deficiency
Pellagra, is the deficiency disease caused by the lack of sufficient niacin in the diet. The
symptoms of this condition is generally known as the disease of three D's i.e. dermatitis,
diarrhoea, and dementia. Deficiency of niacin is weakness, headache, loss of weight, loss of
appetite, indigestion and eczema like skin disease on exposed surfaces.
Requirements
Adult male - 18.2 mg
Adult female - 13.2 mg
Pregnant woman - 15.1 mg and
Lactating woman - 18.1 mg
Vitamin-C
Vitamin C is a water soluble substance with a sour (acid) taste. It is easily destroyed by oxygen
and heat. Vitamin C is not stored in the human body. So it is essential to take Vitamin C daily. It
prevents scurvy. So it is also called antiscorbutic vitamin.
Sources
Citrus fruits and fresh vegetables contain large amounts of vitamin C. Amlakis, guavas, oranges,
lemons, starfruits, pineapples, black berries, tomatoes, green peppers, etc. contain large amount
of vitamin C. Germinated seeds, lettuce and other green leaves also contain Vitamin-C.
Functions
1. It helps in keeping normal and healthy gums and teeth.
2. It speeds up healing of wounds after surgery of injury.
3. It helps in the metabolism of carbohydrate, protein and fat.
4. It helps the body to build and maintain a protein-collagen necessary for strengthening
connective tissues.
5. It helps the body to maintain normal and healthy skin.
6. It helps in preventing many types of infectious diseases.
Requirements
Children - 20 mg
Adult - 30 mg
Pregnant and lactating mother - 50 mg
Deficiency
The disease scurvy is produced by prolonged deficiency of Vitamin-C.
Menu and menu planning
Men feel hungry when the stomach becomes empty. Hunger stops as soon as men take food.
When we feel hungry we eat at least some food. The main aim of taking food is not only to keep
off hunger. The main aim of taking food is that the types of food we take, should contain
appropriate nutrients by which the human body can be nourished. Before doing any work there
should be a proper planning on that particular work. So it is necessary to prepare an appropriate
food menu planning for proper management of food.
Menu
It is better to give preference on what types of food will be served and what food items should be
bought and prepared. Instead of preparing meals required three times a day, it is also necessary to
make a planning of preparing meals before any occasion such as marriage, birthday, inviting
guests and for patient's diet and balanced food for the children. Menu is a written list on food
plan that shows what types of food with required food value will be served at different times of
the day.
To prepare any balanced diet, it is necessary to select at least one food item from ''basic food
groups''. At least one kind of fruit and sufficient quantity of water must be taken every day. The
following three classes of food are called foods in basic food groups.
A. Food that provides heat and energy- these are cereals and oil seeds, for example, rice, wheat,
oats, corn, mustard, soyabean, etc.
B. Food that forms, develops and protects gradual loss of body- These are protein such as fish,
meat, eggs, milk, pulses, peas, etc.
C. Food that protect the body from diseases- These are vegetables, all types of fruits including
sour fruits.
Advantages for using menu
1. Balanced food is selected by preparing menu where the basic food groups are included. In
addition, menu gives assurance in serving food.
2. Food can be managed at reasonable cost.
3. Attractive and varieties of food can be served.
4. Menu can fulfil the requirements of food of different age group.
5. With the help of menu planning, it becomes very easy to prepare and serve food within a short
time.
6. Wastage of food is also less if a menu is followed.
Purpose of menu planning
1. The main purpose of preparing menu is that it can ensure balanced or nutritious diet for a
person who wants to take food in a proper way.
2. Decision can be taken easily at purchasing food.
3. During preparation or cooking proper measurement of food items can be taken and it saves
time.
4. While serving food, appropriate quantity can be determined which prevents wastage.
5. Available food stuffs can be used properly.
6. Leftover food is used properly.
Policy for menu planning according to age, labour, income, occasion and season
During planning for menu, an appropriate decision should be taken whether it will be for one
time, one day or for one week. Before preparing an appropriate menu, an assessment should be
done in respect of requirements of person or group of persons.
The menu to be followed for food management should be easy to understand. The characteristic
of well-planned menu is that it fulfills the nutrient demand of a person or a group of persons. It
also helps in many respects during food purchase, preparation and serving. The following points
should be kept in mind when a menu will be analyzed-
1. Menu has to be planned according to age. To what extent the menu can fulfil the need of
children or the adults should be considered.
2. Whether sufficient foods of required calorie are provided in menu.
3. Whether foodstuffs are easily accessible or attractive.
4. How much money will be spent to purchase or prepare the foods.
5. Whether menu is appropriate according to occasion.
6. Whether the food included in menu is seasonal.
7. Whether foods are well-balanced and carry sufficient nutrients.
Preparation and Serving of Food
Cooking Recipe-Definition, Necessity and Writing Process
Apparently, cooking seems to be easy but very often it is seen that there might remain some
shortcomings in cooking. The same food prepared at different times may give a different taste.
But if food is prepared according to proper guideline by maintaining required quantity of
ingredients and the same system of cooking, the taste will be the same at each time. For this
reason recipe is prepared. Recipe gives a correct guideline to the person who cooks. Recipe is a
written guideline for preparation of food or it can be said that recipe is a list for cooking
following which one can prepare tasty and nutritious food very easily.
Definition of recipe
Recipe is a written instruction or guideline where a list of necessary ingredients and a particular
or appropriate proportion of ingredients for cooking are mentioned. Recipe is a list that one can
follow during preparation of food. For example, recipe for potato chop, Chotpoti and Shami
Kabab. There are many things that are mentioned clearly in the recipe, such as the name of the
food, ingredients, quantity of different ingredients, types of vegetables, chopping system of fish
and meat, temperature of oven, cooking time, quantity and the number of persons for whom it
will be served. Even decoration of serving meals is also mentioned in the guideline.
Importance of recipe
1. Wastage can be prevented if ingredients of food are measured as per recipe.
2. In an ideal recipe, the numbers of servings are mentioned. It makes easier for a person to know
how many people can take the food.
3. Special method and temperature required for cooking are mentioned in recipe. So, during
cooking one does not need to change decisions frequently. So, it saves time.
4. A new dimension of cooking can be brought by following the recipe and one can learn many
new items for cooking from recipe.
Writing process of recipe
Every recipe has three main parts.
a. List of ingredients
b. Fixed quantity of each ingredient for cooking
c. Description of specific system of cooking specially of temperature and time.
In an ideal recipe number of servings or how many persons can be served is also mentioned.
Light and heavy equipment for kitchen
To accomplish any work, man use materials that are called equipment. It is never possible to do
any daily activity only by hand without the use of necessary equipment.
During food preparation we also depend on varieties of equipment. From purchasing food at
different stages, such as during food storage, preparation, cooking, serving up meals and
cleaning etc. we do need to use the equipment. Particularly we need to know about equipment
that is used for cooking. This is because different types of materials are made by different types
of metals. As quality of these pieces of equipment vary, use and care for these also have to be
done in different ways. It will be easier to work or buy equipment if it is listed properly as per
size and structure according to the necessity of its uses.
Cooking utensils used in kitchens may be light or heavy. It may be useful if a list is made
according to their weight or size. A list of heavy and light utensils is given below.
Heavy equipment:
Furnace, oven, cooking pot made of copper that have weighs about one mound (40 seers) or half
mound, heavy fry pan made of iron, big baking pan made of iron, pitchers made of brass,
pitchers made of aluminum, heavy cooking pot made of aluminum, pressure- cooker, stone slab
for grinding, weighing machines, ranger (2 burners) etc.
Light equipment:
A list is given below:
Electric equipment: Blender, mixing machine, beater, meat grinder, juicer, coffee maker, electric
pressure pan, fry pan, kettle, sandwich maker, toaster etc.
Cutting equipment:
Knives (of small and big size), knives used for cutting meat, chopper, doughnut cutter, grater,
rasher, slicer, puller, etc.
Measuring equipment:
Measuring spoon, cup, weight, weighing machine etc.
Equipments used during cooking:
Clock, measuring cup, spoon, meat grinding machine, weighing machine, cutting equipment, can
opener, roller and pin for making chapatti, bowls, beater, sieve, strainer, juice extractor, tray,
pices pan, vegetables basket, doughnut cutter, dice, salad tray, different types of dishes for
serving, pastry brush, piping pan etc.
Technical methods for Cooking:
The purpose of cooking is to prepare food as tasteful, easily digestible and free from bacteria, so
that it can maintain good health. It is observed that due to faulty system, food value and standard
of nutrition are sometimes lost after cooking. For example, there is a general tendency among
people to use more spices and boil more in order to make food tastier.
Fire and water are naturally used during cooking. Food values are lost when it is cut into small
pieces, washed in water and cooked for a long time. But if it is done carefully, the wastage of
nutrients value of food can be saved. On the other hand, people are now interested to eat local as
well as foreign food. For each item a particular system is followed during cooking. Only boiled
or fried food is not always liked by people. Naturally, men want varieties in food. In ancient
times, men used to eat fire burnt food, but at present time in this civilized world, men learnt
many techniques for cooking. Now men have learned many techniques or processes of cooking
and know how to make it simple, quick and attractive. The current methods of cooking are
discussed below.
Food boiled in high temperature: In this method foodstuff is boiled in 100 o centigrade or 212o
F with water. In this case if water is drained then food nutrients are lost. Rice, pulses, soup, meat
etc. are cooked in this method.
Food boiled in low temperature: In this method food is cooked in small quantity of water in
low temperature for a longer period, so that food can be well cooked. Fish, meat, milk, eggs,
green leaves, vegetables, custard etc are cooked following this method. To cook this type of food
the temperature ranging from 82o to 100o Celsius is needed. This method keeps food value and
nutrients as much as possible.
Food cooked in steam (Steaming): In this method food is boiled directly by steam instead of
water. Pudding, steamed cake, steamed fish, meat etc. are boiled in a pressure cooker. Smoked
fish etc. are cooked by following this method. In this method temperature ranging from 100 o-
112o Celsius is needed and it keeps food nutrients intact.
Blanch/parboil: To drop food into boiling water and cook very briefly (not quite all the way
through). Strainer or slotted spoon to drain. Advantages | Keeps the color of foods, particularly
vegetables, bright; partially cooks food so that it won’t get overcooked when added to simmering
sauces. Most often used for | Vegetables whose color you wish to retain; foods that will be
cooked further with other ingredients can be blanched to speed up cooking time.
Braise: definition | To cook food in hot oil first, such that the exterior has begun to brown,
before adding enough liquid to cover the food and cook it slowly over low heat (up to several
Simmer: definition | To cook liquid at a temperature just below the rapid boiling point (releasing
very small bubbles to the surface). Food simmering in liquid will absorb the flavors of the liquid;
simmering sauces most often used for | Sauces, soups, and stews – anything liquid where you
wish the flavors to develop further or the liquid to be reduced.
Frying using a lot amount of oil (Deep frying): Chips, dough nuts, fish etc are generally fried
with deep oil. These types of food are cooked at a temperature of 300 o Celsius. At this
temperature the foodstuff is cooked quickly. When smoke comes out from oil due to high
temperature, the oil becomes useless. Repeated use of burnt oil is harmful for health.
Fried with small amount of oil (Sauté): Vegetables, fish fry, eggs etc are fried with small
amount of oil, In this case, food stuff is covered on the fry-pan and fried slowly. Oil also is not
burnt in this process. Food value is also preserved to some extent. If food is cooked without
cover, the vitamins that are dissolvable in fats dissolved in oil and are blown away in the form of
vapour. Due to that food value is lost.
Burnt or scalded: Potatoes, corn etc are prepared by burning. In this process vitamins of
foodstuff are lost totally.
Roast or burnt in hot pan: Popcorn, puffed rice, ground nuts are fried by hot sand in this
process. Prawns and small dry fish are fried in dry pans and then are mashed. Cumin, coriander,
dry fish are fried in hot pans. Bread is baked in hot pans. No oil or water is used in this process.
Baking: Bread, biscuits, pies, cakes, etc. are baked in oven. In this process the foodstuff is
prepared under direct heat from all directions.
During cooking the following steps should be carefully made:
1. Vegetables should not be cut into small pieces.
2. Vegetables should be washed before cutting.
3. Foodstuff should be boiled in low heat and in small quantity of water under cover.
4. Boiled water or liquid portion of vegetables after boiling should not be drained.
5. Eggs should be boiled in low heat. It should not be boiled for long a time. If boiled for a long
time then the protein may harden like rubber.
6. It is better to boil milk for a longer period in low temperature.
7. Meat, fish are cooked well when they are boiled in low temperature for a longer period in a
covered pan.
8. Do not throw away rice starch. This results in wastage. Vitamin B and mineral salt contained
in rice are thrown with rice starch. Especially about 70% iron is lost.
9. It is better to cook vegetables in container that has small opening/mouth. Due to that oxygen
from air cannot destroy the vitamins of vegetables. Use slightly warm water to cook vegetables;
This will help to preserve vitamins of the vegetables.
10. For quick boiling of meat and pulses, if alkali likes soda is used, vitamin C and B are
damaged.
11. It is better to cook in earthen or aluminum pot instead of iron or copper utensils. This will
prevent the wastage of vitamin C and also acid reaction from sour taste of food when cooked.
12. It is harmful to heat oil or ghee in high temperature and use it repeatedly. It creates toxic
element that may cause stomach problem.
13. Potatoes should be washed with its skin and then cut into pieces. This protects nutrient of
potatoes. But if potatoes are cut into pieces and kept in water, vitamin B and C are spoiled.
14. If pulses are boiled for longer period in low temperature, its protein becomes easily
digestible.
15. If milk is kept in sun light, vitamin B is lost.
A. Food service in informal occasion
It is not necessary to arrange dining table for informal or ordinary occasion. It is not always
possible for all members in the family to eat together. On the other hand, in picnic, travel etc,
food is served informally.
B. Food service in formal occasion
Tray service
Packet service
Buffet service